Question 1: What is questionnaire?

Discuss the main points that you will take into account while drafting a questionnaire? Answer: A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardi ed answers that ma!e it simple to compile data. "owever, such standardi ed answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that e#ist in other types of opinion polls. Questionnaires may be classified as$ Structured/ Standardi ed Questionnaire: Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and preordained questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate answers or to elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with e#actly the same wording and in the same order to all the respondents. !nstructured Questionnaire: %n unstructured questionnaires the respondent is given the opportunity to answer in his own terms and in his own frame of reference. "oints to take into account while drafting a questionnaire: &riting an effective questionnaire is not a tas! for novices. At the very least it requires an understanding of four basics. These are$ 'onsidering the differences that e#ist when writing a questionnaire that respondent(s will fill out themselves as opposed to when a professional interviewer administers the questionnaire to the respondent. )nowing what questions should be as!ed early on in the questionnaire, in the middle or toward the end. *nderstanding how to phrase questions. +eing sensitive to questionnaire length.

There are some basic differences in how the questionnaire should be constructed if it is to be filled out personally by the respondent or if an interviewer is going to administer it. These are$ Self,administered questionnaires should be simple, straightforward and logical. Question - should follow question .. Question / should follow question -, and so forth. Further, the going,in assumption with self,administered questionnaires should be that respondents will not complete a questionnaire when there are comple# s!ip patterns,

when pages are crowded or hard to read or when instructions for completion are overly comple#. %t has been estimated that as many as 012 of respondents who start a self, administered questionnaire will not complete it because they become irritated and annoyed at the way it is constructed. &hen writing a self,administered questionnaire, then, every care must be ta!en to ensure that it is easy to complete in that it almost answers itself. Self,administered questionnaires should be written with an eighth grade mentality in mind while interviewer,administered questionnaire can be quite comple#. +ecause interviewers are trained in the flow of the questionnaires they administer and will conduct a number of practice interviews prior to confronting a respondent, developing a comple# questionnaire that is interviewer,administered does not present a problem for the respondent. )eep the respondent in one mind,set at a time. %f at all possible, complete all your questions about one topic before moving on to the ne#t. For e#ample, don(t as! about a favorite place to shop, then about brands used and then go bac! to additional questioning on favorite place to shop. Save sensitive questions for the end. Again, this might not always be possible, but when it doesn(t matter, be aware that sensitive questions such as race or income can alienate respondents and turn them off to the entire interview process. %f as!ed at the end, respondents are more li!ely to answer as they are wholly invested in the questionnaire. +iased question$ &hat do you li!e about the last airline flight you too!3 Assumption here is that respondent li!ed something and the question tends to push for a positive response. *nbiased question. &hat, if anything, do you li!e the last airline flight you too!3 +y simply using if anything as part of the question phrasing, the respondent is not put on the spot to find something to li!e. &hen conducting telephone interviews, it(s relatively easy to !eep respondents on the phone and answering questions for .0, -1 or -0 minutes if the questionnaire has a good flow and is thoughtfully written. +ut try !eeping a respondent on the phone for / minutes with a questionnaire that is the least bit confusing, seems redundant or is insensitive to sensitive issues.

Question #: What do you mean $y primary data? What are the %arious methods of collecting primary data? Answer: 4rimary 5ate is data that has not been previously published, i.e. the data is derived from a new or original research study and collected at the source, e.g., in mar!eting, it is information that is obtained directly from first,hand sources by means of surveys, observation or e#perimentation.

5ata observed or collected directly from first,hand e#perience. 4ublished data and the data collected in the past or other parties are called secondary data. 4rimary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. %n this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. +ut the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. 6et, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources. %n such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include$ socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. 7ar!eting research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.8. viewing surveys, !nowledge,awareness practice 9)A4: studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc. 4rimary data are always collected from the source. %t is collected either by the investigator himself or through his agents. There are different methods of collecting primary data. ;ach method has its relative merits and demerits. The investigator has to choose a particular method to collect the information. The choice to a large e#tent depends on the preliminaries to data collection some of the commonly used methods are discussed below.

1) Direct "ersonal o$ser%ation:

This is a very general method of collecting primary data. "ere the investigator directly contacts the informants, solicits their cooperation and enumerates the data. The information are collected by direct personal interviews. The novelty of this method is its simplicity. %t is neither difficult for the enumerator nor the informants because both are present at the spot of data collection. This method provides most accurate information as the investigator collects them personally. +ut as the investigator alone is involved in the process, his personal bias may influence the accuracy of the data. So it is necessary that the investigator should be honest, unbiased and e#perienced. %n such cases the data collected may be fairly accurate. "owever, the method is quite costly and time, consuming. So the method should be used when the scope of enquiry is small.

2) &ndirect 'ral &nter%iews:

This is an indirect method of collecting primary data. "ere information is not collected directly from the source but by interviewing persons closely related with the problem. This method is applied to apprehend culprits in case of theft, murder etc. The information relating to one<s personal life or which the informant hesitates to reveal are better collected by this method. "ere the investigator prepares <a small list of questions relating to the enquiry. The answers 9information: are collected by interviewing persons well connected with the incident. The investigator should cross,e#amine the informants to get correct information. This method is time saving and involves relatively less cost. The accuracy of the information largely depends upon the integrity of the investigator. %t is desirable that the investigator should be e#perienced and capable enough to inspire and create confidence in the informant to collect accurate data.

3) (ailed Questionnaire method:

This is a very commonly used method of collecting primary data. "ere information is collected through a set of questionnaire. A questionnaire is a document prepared by the investigator containing a set of questions. These questions relate to the problem of enquiry directly or indirectly. "ere first the questionnaires are mailed to the informants with a formal request to answer the question and send them bac!. For better response the investigator should bear the postal charges. The questionnaire should carry a polite note e#plaining the aims and ob=ective of the enquiry, definition of various terms and concepts used there. +esides this the investigator should ensure the secrecy of the information as well as the name of the informants, if required. Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in which the questionnaire is drafted. So the investigator must be very careful while framing the questions. The questions should be$ a: Short and clear Few in number Simple and intelligible 'orroboratory in nature or there should be provision for cross chec! %mpersonal, non,aggressive type Simple alternative, multiple,choice or open,end type

%n the simple alternative question type, the respondent has to choose between alternatives such as >6es or ?o(, >right or wrong( etc. For e#ample$ %s Adam Smith called father of Statistics3 6es@?o %n the multiple choice type, the respondent has to answer from any of the given alternatives. ;#ample$ To which sector do you belong3 4rimary Sector Secondary Sector Tertiary or Service Sector %n the Apen,end or free answer questions the respondents are given complete freedom in answering the questions. The questions are li!e B

b:

c:

&hat are the defects of our educational system3 The questionnaire method is very economical in terms of time, energy and money. The method is widely used when the scope of enquiry is large. 5ata collected by this method are not affected by the personal bias of the investigator. "owever the accuracy of the information depends on the cooperation and honesty of the informants. This method can be used only if the informants are cooperative, conscious and educated. This limits the scope of the method.

4) Schedule (ethod:
%n case the informants are largely uneducated and non,responsive data cannot be collected by the mailed questionnaire method. %n such cases, schedule method is used to collect data. "ere the questionnaires are sent through the enumerators to collect information. ;numerators are persons appointed by the investigator for the purpose. They directly meet the informants with the questionnaire. They e#plain the scope and ob=ective of the enquiry to the informants and solicit their cooperation. The enumerators as! the questions to the informants and record their answers in the questionnaire and compile them. The success of this method depends on the

sincerity and efficiency of the enumerators. So the enumerator should be sweet,tempered, good,natured, trained and well,behaved. Schedule method is widely used in e#tensive studies. %t gives fairly correct result as the enumerators directly collect the information. The accuracy of the information depends upon the honesty of the enumerators. They should be unbiased. This method is relatively more costly and time,consuming than the mailed questionnaire method.

5) )rom *ocal Agents:

Sometimes primary data are collected from local agents or correspondents. These agents are appointed by the sponsoring authorities. They are well conversant with the local conditions li!e language, communication, food habits, traditions etc. +eing on the spot and well acquainted with the nature of the enquiry they are capable of furnishing reliable information. The accuracy of the data collected by this method depends on the honesty and sincerity of the agents because they actually collect the information from the spot. %nformation from a wide area at less cost and time can be collected by this method. The method is generally used by government agencies, newspapers, periodicals etc. to collect data. %nformation is li!e raw materials or inputs in an enquiry. The result of the enquiry basically depends on the type of information used. 4rimary data can be collected by employing any of the above methods. The investigator should ma!e a rational choice of the methods to be used for collecting data because collection of data forms the beginning of the statistical enquiry.

Question + a, Analyse the case study and descripti%e approach to research, $, Distinguish $etween research methods - research (ethodology, Answer: a. /ase Study and descripti%e approach to research: 5escriptive research, also !nown as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. 5escriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how... Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, 5escriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. %n other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Aften the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow,up with e#aminations of why the observations e#ist and what the implications of the findings are. %n short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. +ut there are always restrictions to that. 6our research must have an impact to the lives of the people

around you e.g. finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will !now what to do to prevent that disease thusC more people will live a healthy life. 5escriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utili e elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. 5escriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect. A case study is a research method common in social science. %t is based on an in,depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. 'ase studies may be descriptive or e#planatory. The latter type is used to e#plore causation in order to find underlying principles. They may be prospective, in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or retrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study. Dather than using samples and following a rigid protocol 9strict set of rules: to e#amine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in,depth, longitudinal 9over a long period of time: e#amination of a single instance or event$ a case. They provide a systematic way of loo!ing at events, collecting data, analy ing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to loo! at more e#tensively in future research. 'ase studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses. Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real,life conte#t. 'ase study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. 'ase studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mi# of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single,sub=ect research provides the statistical framewor! for ma!ing inferences from quantitative case,study data $. Distinction $etween research methods and research (ethodology: 0esearch (ethods Desearch methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientiEc and value, neutral. They include theoretical procedures, e#perimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Desearch methods help us collect samples, data and End a solution to a problem. 4articularly, scientiEc research methods call for e#planations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They ac, cept only those e#planations 0esearch (ethodology Desearch methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. %t is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. ;ssentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their wor! of describing, e#plaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. %t is also deEned as the study of methods by which !nowledge is gained. %ts aim is to give the wor! plan of research.

which can be veriEed by e#periments.

Question 1: 23plain the important concepts in 0esearch design? Answer: The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. ;ven if he could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter,related. Therefore, he records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such a symbolic construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. %t specifies the ob=ectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the ob=ectives. %t constitutes the blue print for the plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting observations. %t provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow ellti , Fahoda and 5estsch and 'oo! describe, GA research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.H /omponents of 0esearch Design: %t is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are$ 1, Dependent and &ndependent %aria$les:

A magnitude that varies is !nown as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, li!e height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of ob=ectivity. "owever, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. 4henomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are !nown as Gcontinuous variables. +ut, all variables need not be continuous. 8alues that can be e#pressed only in integer values are calledH non,continuous variables. %n statistical term, they are also !nown as Idiscrete variable. For e#ample, age is a continuous variableC whereas the number of children is a non,continuous variable. &hen changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is !nown as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are !nown as the independent or e#planatory or e#ogenous variables. For e#ample, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, li!e income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables li!e own price, income and price of substitute. #, 23traneous %aria$le:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are !nown as e#traneous variables. For instance, assume that a

researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between children(s school performance and their self,concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. %n this conte#t, intelligence may also influence the school performance. "owever, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study underta!en by the researcher, it would be !nown as an e#traneous variable. The influence caused by the e#traneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an Ie#perimental errors Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other e#traneous variable or variables. +, /ontrol:

Ane of the most important features of a good research design is to minimi e the effect of e#traneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimi es the effects of e#traneous independent variables. The term control is used in e#perimental research to reflect the restrain in e#perimental conditions. 1, /onfounded relationship:

The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an e#traneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects. 0esearch hypothesis: &hen a prediction or a hypothesi ed relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is !nown as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. &hereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive statements that are not to be ob=ectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis. 23perimental and control groups: &hen a group is e#posed to usual conditions in an e#perimental hypothesis,testing research, it is !nown as Icontrol group. An the other hand, when the group is e#posed to certain new or special condition, it is !nown as an Ie#perimental group. %n the afore, mentioned e#ample, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group + an e#perimental one. %f both the groups A and + are e#posed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as Ie#perimental groups. A research design may include only the e#perimental group or the both e#perimental and control groups together. 4reatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the e#perimental and control groups are sub=ect to. %n the e#ample considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Ji!ewise, if a research study attempts to e#amine through an e#periment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of fertili ers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertili ers would be treated as the three treatments. 23periment:

An e#periment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, e#periment may be conducted to e#amine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, ;#periments may be categori ed into two types namely, absolute e#periment and comparative e#periment. %f a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertili er on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is !nown as absolute e#periment. 7eanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertili er as compared to the impact of bio,fertili er, then the e#periment is !nown as a comparative e#periment. 23periment unit: ;#perimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the bloc!s, to which the different treatments are applied. %t is worth mentioning here that such e#perimental units must be selected with great caution.

Question 5: What are the differences $etween o$ser%ation and inter%iewing as methods of data collection? 6i%e two specific e3amples of situations where either o$ser%ation or inter%iewing would $e more appropriate, Answer: '$ser%ation %s, inter%iewing as (ethods of Data /ollection: 'ollection of data is the most crucial part of any research pro=ect as the success or failure of the pro=ect is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. *se of wrong methods of data collection or any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this continuum that has quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end. Though there are many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic purpose, there are differences that will be highlighted in this article. '$ser%ation: Abservation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a safe distance and their activities are recorded minutely. %t is a time consuming method of data collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your research and you may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in. 'lassic e#amples of observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birds to be in a natural habitat and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data collection, observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of being closely inspected and behave naturally. &nter%iewing: %nterviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves as!ing questions to get direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the more recent form of as!ing opinions through internet. "owever, there are limitations of

interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers depending upon privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element of lie in answers that can distort results of the pro=ect. Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their own strengths and wea!nesses. %t is important to !eep in mind which one of the two will produce desired results before finali ing. '$ser%ation %s, inter%iewing: '$ser%ation Abservation requires precise analysis by the researcher and often produces most accurate results although it is very time consuming. &nter%iewing %nterviewing is easier but suffers from the fact that participants may not come up with honest replies.

&nter%iew format: %nterviews ta!e many different forms. %t is a good idea to as! the organisation in advance what format the interview will ta!e. /ompetency/criteria $ased inter%iews: These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is see!ing for a particular =ob, which will usually have been detailed in the =ob specification or advert. The interviewer is loo!ing for evidence of your s!ills and may as! such things as$ KGive an e#ample of a time you wor!ed as part of a team to achieve a common goal. 4echnical inter%iews: %f you have applied for a =ob or course that requires technical !nowledge, it is li!ely that you will be as!ed technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your final year pro=ect or on real or hypothetical technical problems. 6ou should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to admit to what you do not !now and stress that you are !een to learn. 5o not worry if you do not !now the e#act answer , interviewers are interested in your thought process and logic. Academic inter%iews: These are used for further study or research positions. Questions are li!ely to centre on your academic history to date. Structured inter%iews: The interviewer has a set list of questions, and as!s all the candidates the same questions. )ormal/informal inter%iews:

Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel more li!e an informal chat about you and your interests. +e aware that you are still being assessed, however informal the discussion may seem. "ortfolio $ased inter%iews: %f the role is within the arts, media or communications industries, you may be as!ed to bring a portfolio of your wor! to the interview, and to have an in,depth discussion about the pieces you have chosen to include. Senior/case study inter%iews: These ranges from straightforward scenario questions 9e.g. K&hat would you do in a situation where to the detailed analysis of a hypothetical business problem. 6ou will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem, how you identify the !ey issues, how you pursue a particular line of thin!ing and whether you can develop and present an appropriate framewor! for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of inter%iew 4he Screening &nter%iew: 'ompanies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification requirements. 'omputer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates. 9This is why you need a digital resume that is screening,friendly. See our resume centre for help.: Sometimes human professionals are the gate!eepers. Screening interviewers often have honed s!ills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position. Demember they do not need to !now whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps in your employment history or pieces of information that loo! inconsistent. They also will want to !now from the outset whether you will be too e#pensive for the company. Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening inter%iews: "ighlight your accomplishments and qualifications. Get into the straightforward groove. 4ersonality is not as important to the screener as verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning personality for the person ma!ing hiring decisionsL +e tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving specifics by replying, M% would be willing to consider your best offer.M %f the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital information sitting ne#t to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to switch gears quic!ly

4he &nformational &nter%iew: An the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutili ed by =ob, see!ers who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networ!ing.

Fobsee!ers ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to see! the advice of someone in their current or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. ;mployers that li!e to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current =ob openings, are often open to informational interviews, especially if they li!e to share their !nowledge, feel flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. 5uring an informational interview, the =obsee!er and employer e#change information and get to !now one another better without reference to specific =ob opening. This ta!es off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless$ 'ome prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company. Gain references to other people and ma!e sure that the interviewer would be comfortable if you contact other people and use his or her name. Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.N &rite a than! you note to the interviewer.

4he Directi%e Style: %n this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly. Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviewsC when interviewers as! each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare the results. 5irective interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you what they wish to !now. 6ou might feel li!e you are being steam,rolled, or you might find the conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominance issues, although you should !eep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your supervisor. ;ither way, remember$N Fle# with the interviewer, following his or her lead.N 5o not relinquish complete control of the interview. %f the interviewer does not as! you for information that you thin! is important to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely inter=ect it. 4he (eandering Style: This interview type, usually used by ine#perienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the discussion. %t might begin with a statement li!e Mtell me about yourself,M which you can use to your advantage. The interviewer might as! you another broad, open,ended question before falling into silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that best serves you. The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly important when interviewers use a non,directive approach$ 'ome to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your s!ills, qualities and e#periences. 5o not rely on the interviewer to spar! your memory,=ot down some notes that you can reference throughout the interview. Demain alert to the interviewer. ;ven if you feel li!e you can ta!e the driver<s seat and go in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer<s role. %f he or she becomes more directive during the interview, ad=ust. As! well,placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that you run the ris! of missing important information about the company and its needs.

Question 7: Strictly speaking8 would case studies $e considered as scientific research? Why or why not? Answer: 'ase studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most frequently used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. 7any of the principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generali ed to other approaches to encouraging discussion about research ethics. 'ases are designed to confront readers with specific real,life problems that do not lend themselves to easy answers. 'ase discussion demands critical and analytical s!ills and, when implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration 94imple, -11-:. +y providing a focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate alternative approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop s!ills for analy ing and dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is comprised of many factors, including$ appropriate selection of case9s: 9topic, relevance, length, comple#ity: method of case presentation 9verbal, printed, before or during discussion: format for case discussion 9;mail or %nternet,based, small group, large group: leadership of case discussion 9choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for discussion leader: outcomes for case discussion 9answers to specific questions, answers to general questions, written or verbal summaries:

Desearch methods don<t seem so intimidating when you<re familiar with the terminology. This is important whether you<re conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used. 9aria$le: 'haracteristics by which people or things can be described. 7ust have more than one levelC in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person@ob=ect, or from person to person, or ob=ect to ob=ect. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be manipulated by the researcher 9e.g., socioeconomic status, %Q score, race, gender, etc.:. Some variables can be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when sub=ects self,select the level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally occurring 9as with e# post facto research:. (anipulation: Dandom assignment of sub=ects to levels of the independent variable 9treatment groups:. &ndependent %aria$le: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a change in the dependent variable. This is what the e#perimenter tries to manipulate. %t is denoted as MOM on the hori ontal a#is of a graph. Dependent %aria$le: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by M6M on the vertical a#is of a graph. The score of M6M depends on the score of MO.M

"opulation: The complete set of sub=ects that can be studied$ people, ob=ects, animals, plants, etc. Sample: A subset of sub=ects that can be studied to ma!e the research pro=ect more manageable. There are a variety of ways samples can be ta!en. %f a large enough random samples are ta!en, the results can be statistically similar to ta!ing a census of an entire population,,with reduced effort and cost.

/ase Study: A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller sample si e for more in,depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single sub=ects or single small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitative research. "urpose: 23plain or "redict 4ype of 0esearch to !se: 0elational Study %n a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you<re trying to Mprove.M ;#amples of research hypotheses for a relational study$ The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters. P," members attending P," summer camp stay enrolled in P," longer. The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount of annual savings achieved.

Types of relational studies include correlational studies and e# post facto studies. /orrelational Study: A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people and e#plains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted from !nowledge of the other. A concurrent correlational study draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point in time. For e#ample, a student<s grade point average is related to his or her class ran!. A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data from an earlier set. For e#ample, a student<s grade point average might predict the same student<s grade point average during senior year. A predictive correlational study could also use one characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at another time. For e#ample, a student<s SAT score is designed to predict college freshman grade point average. 23 "ost )acto :After the )act. Study: An e# post facto study is used when e#perimental research is not possible, such as when people have self,selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring and the researcher could not McontrolM the degree of its use. The researcher starts by specifying a dependent variable and then tries to identify possible reasons for its occurrence as

well as alternative 9rival: e#planations such confounding 9intervening, contaminating, or e#traneous: variables are McontrolledM using statistics. This type of study is very common and useful when using human sub=ects in real,world situations and the investigator comes in Mafter the fact.M For e#ample, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than students from a different town attending the same high school. &ould =ust Mbeing from a certain townM e#plain the differences3 %n an e# post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be e#plored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc. %t is important to recogni e that, in a relational study, Mcause and effectM cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that there is a relationship between the variables. For that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to nothing more than coincidence. That is why the researcher needs to establish a plausible reason 9research hypothesis: for why there might be a relationship between two variables before conducting a study. For instance, it might be found that all football teams with blue uniforms won last wee!. There is no li!ely reason why the uniform color had any relationship to the games< outcomes, and it certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must be careful about claiming that your ;#tension program was the McauseM of possible results.