Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

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Highway Engineering 1 CIV 368
Lecture 3_ Vertical Alignment
Kwasi Agyeman Boakye ( kwasi.agyeman.boakye@gmail.com)

Vertical Gradients
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

In the same way that horizontal curves are used to connect intersecting straights in the horizontal plane, vertical curves are used to connect intersecting straights in the vertical plane. These straights are usually referred to as gradients and the combination of the gradients and vertical curve is known as vertical alignment. Maximum Gradients One of the most important considerations in designing a highway is the gradient. The cost of operation of vehicles and the capacity of a highway are profoundly affected by the grades provided. On mountainous and steep terrain, the grades are not only influenced by the ability of vehicles to negotiate them, but also by the altitude of a road above the sea level since rarefaction of air causes loss of engine power. Based on this maximum gradient of roads are recommended based on road class, design, terrain condition or vehicle performance. By most design standards, including Ghana, there are recommended standard gradients for each given design speed. However if the recommended standard gradient is not suitable one may go a few steps above it but should not exceed a certain critical length of road. Thus, application of gradient also depends on amount of stretch over which it is acceptable. In an example in the GHA design guide, for a design speed of 100km/hr, standard gradient is 3%. Where one wants to go a step above, thus 4%, it should not be applied over a length more than 700m.
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Maximum Gradients
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Where the gradient falls within a curved section, it is recommended that a check is done for the combined gradient that is the resultant gradient of the cross slope and the longitudinal gradient. This gradient (Gc) is given by; Gc =(e2 + g2) where e is superelevation and g is the longitudinal gradient By this the combined gradients for some selected roads in Ghana are ;

Design Speed 120 or 100 80 or 60 50 or 60

Maximum Combined Grad. (%) 10.0 10.5 11.5

Gentle longitudinal gradients are better, however for drainage purposes a minimum gradient of 0.4% is recommended. Here also the minimum combined gradient should not be less than 0.4%.
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Vertical Curves
Types
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

A crest curve which can also be referred to as a summit or hogging curve , is one for which +m% the algebraic difference of the gradients is positive.

+n%

+m%

-n% A=(+m)-(-n) positive

A=(+m)-(+n) positive

A sag curve which can also be referred to as a valley or sagging curve, is one for which the algebraic difference of the gradients is negative
The algebraic difference A is obtained as; A= (entry grad %) (exit grad%)

-m% -n%

-m% A=(-m)-(-n) negative A=(-m)-(+n) negative -m% +n% A=(-m)-(-n) positive

+n%

-n%

+m%

This gives 6 possible combinations of gradients

A=(+m)-(+n) negative

Purpose of Vertical Curves

KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Passenger comfort and safety As a motorist traverses a vertical curve a radial force acts on the vehicle and tries to force it away from the centre of curvature and this may give the driver a feeling of discomfort; in extreme cases, as at hump-backed bridges, vehicles travelling at high speed may leave the carriageway. Also in sag design the underside of the vehicle could come into contact with the road surface, particularly where the gradients are steep and opposed. Both scenarios result in discomfort and danger to passengers travelling in the vehicle and hence their possibility must be minimised. This is first achieved by restricting the gradients and secondly by choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is introduced as gradually and uniformly as possible.

Adequate Visibility In order that vehicles travelling at the design speed can stop or overtake safely, it is essential that oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road can be seen clearly and in good time.

Length of Vertical Curves

KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The minimum length of vertical curve for any given road is obtained from the equation L = KA (metres) 1

A is the algebraic difference of the gradients, the absolute value being used. K is a constant derived due to the curvature of the vertical curve for any particular road type and design speed. Since the cubic parabola is used and not circular curves in the design of vertical curves, radius is not used but rather the K value. The K value ensures that the length of vertical curve obtained from the equation above contains adequate visibility and provides sufficient comfort. The unit of K is in metres. It must be noted that the length obtained is the minimum required and it is perfectly acceptable to increase the value obtained. This may be necessary when trying to phase the vertical alignment with the horizontal. Also it has been established that changes in gradients must be connected by vertical curves. The vertical curves are deemed unnecessary where the changes in gradients are below 0.5%.
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Length of Vertical Curves

Crest Curves
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The length of vertical curves for crest curves are based on stopping sight distance (SSD), overtaking sight distance (OSD) and the drivers comfort criteria. Whilst OSD considerations give very long vertical curves, the driver comfort criteria gives short vertical lengths, especially for high speeds. Thus, the length of vertical crest curve is given by ;

Where Lcrest = The minimum length of vertical crest curve S = Sight distance required (m) A = Algebraic difference in gradients H = Drivers eye height ( Ghana, 1.2m) h = Object height (Ghana, 0.1m) Putting equation 2 into equation 1 ; Kcrest = S2 .3 398 Where Kcrest= The K value for a crest curve
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Length of Vertical Curves

Crest Curves
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The Length of vertical crest curve due to driver comfort criteria is given by; Lcrest/com = AV2 = AV2 .4 1300C 360 Where Lcrest/com = The minimum length of vertical curve for comfort (m) A = Algebraic difference in gradients V = Design Speed C = Vertical acceleration (0.028g m/sec2, where g is 9.8 m/sec2) Putting equation 4 into equation 1; Kcrest/com = V2 .5 360 Where Kcrest/com = The K value for comfort on a crest curve V = Design speed of vehicle Example For a given road of design speed 80Km/hr having a crest curve with sight distance 110m, determine the suitable K value and hence the minimum length of curve for an A value of 2.5. Ans: Kcrest = 17.8m, Kcrest/com = 30.2m, Suitable K = 30m, Length of Curve = 30x2.5=75m
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Length of Vertical Curves

Sag Curves
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

It is assumed that adequate sight distance is available on sag curves during the day. Sag curve considerations are therefore based on headlight considerations and driver comfort. Thus the minimum sag length is given by; Lsag = AS2 = AS2 ..6 200(h + Stan) 120 + 3.49S Where Lsag = The minimum length of vertical sag curve S = Sight distance required (m) A = Algebraic difference in gradients h = Headlight height (0.6m) = Angle of upward divergence of light beam (1) Putting equation 6 into equation 1 ; Ksag = S2 .7 120+3.49S Where Ksag = The K value for a sag curve Note ! .The length required by the driver comfort condition are as for the crest curve. It is recommended that sag curves are designed using the driver comfort criteria since the headlight condition gives sight distances far in excess of the effective ranges of the headlamp beams.
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Length of Vertical Curves

Sag Curves
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Example An arterial road to be reconstructed has a design speed of 100km/hr. Determine the minimum sag length for a curve in a valley portion of the alignment where the sight distance is 160m and the absolute change in vertical gradient is 3. Assume Headlight height of (0.6m). Ans: Ksag = 37.7m, Ksag/com=Kcrest/com= 27.8m, Recommended K=28m, minimum length = 28x3=84m.

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Vertical Curve Elevations

Formulae assumptions
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

In practice, a parabolic curve is used in the design of vertical curves. This is because it is Q able to achieve a uniform rate of change of gradient and therefore a uniform introduction -n% of vertical radial force. Parabolic equation R +m% S is given by ; X = cy2 U W dx =2cy dy P d2x =2c=constant=rate of change of Q' S=mid-point of curve dy2 gradient W=mid-point of chord Main Assumption about parabola -Vertical curves are designed such that the two tangent lengths are equal, PQ=QR. Unequal tangent may occur but not often used. - Chord PWR=arc PSR=PQ+PR -Length along the tangents=horizontal length, PQ = PQ -QU=QW, thus there is no difference in dimension in either vertical plane or perpendicular plane to the entry tangent length
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Vertical Curve Elevations

Equations of the vertical curve
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Level of Q above P = (m) (Lv) = mLv 100 2 200 Level of R above P = (mLv) - (nLv) = (m-n)Lv 200 200 200 PW=WR therefore Level of W above P = (m-n)Lv 400 From properties of parabola QS=SW=QW/2 Since QW=Level of Q above P Level of W above P QS = 1 [ (mLv) - (m-n)Lv) = (m+n)Lv = ALv 2 200 400 800 800
Lv 2 mLv 200 +m% Y

Q -n% R S nLv 200

U P Q' x x

Datum S=mid-point of curve W=mid-point of chord

in either direction

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Vertical Curve Elevations

Equations of the vertical curve
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Since parabolic equation, x=cy2 At point QS=c(PQ)2 ALv = c ( Lv )2 800 2 c = ( ALv ) ( 4 ) 800 Lv 2 c= A 200Lv Hence substituting it into the parabolic Equation; x= 200Lv Ay2

Q Lv 2 mLv 200 +m% Y U P Q' x x W S -n% R nLv 200

Datum S=mid-point of curve W=mid-point of chord

in either direction

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Vertical Curve Elevations

Equations of the vertical curve
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The level of any point Z on the curve relative to P; H = [ my - Ay2 ] .1 100 200Lv In order that drainage gullies can be positioned effectively, it is necessary to know the through chainage and reduced level of the highest or lowest point on the vertical curve. For a maximum Or minimum value dH/dy=0. H dH = [ m - Ay ] =0 dy 100 100Lv m = Ay or y= mLv Lv A Substituting the m and y into the equation (1)

Q +m% -n% R y Z P my 100 Q' x Ay2 200Lv

Hmax/min = m2L 200A

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Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Question 1 A rural 2 lane dual carriageway has a design speed of 100km/h. A vertical curve with sight distance 160m is to be designed to connect 2 tangents of gradients +2% and -1.5% which intersect at a level of 100.00m. Determine
i) The minimum curve length ii)The position and height of the crest point for the minimum curve length.
I = 100 -1.5% +2% P Lv/2 Crest Point, Hmax R

Solution V= 100Km/hr A= (2)-(-1.5) = 3.5 (positive, crest curve) K=? To determine K; Kcrest = S2 = 1602 = 64.3m 398 398 Kcrest/com = V2 = 1002 = 27.8m 360 360 Recommended K= 64
i) Minimum Curve Length, L= 64x3.5=224m ii) Position of height of crest point Level of P = 100 mLv = 100 (+2x224) 200 200 = 97.76m

Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Distance of crest point from P; (same as turning point distance) y= mLv = 2x224 = 128m A 3.5 Hmax = m2L = 22x 224 = 1.28m 200A 200x3.5
Height of crest point = P + Hmax = 97.76 + 1.28 = 99.04m

Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Question 2 A rural motorway, which has a design speed of 120km/h, is to be designed to have a minimum curve linking two gradients -3% and +2.5%. Determine the height of the curve at 30m intervals if the vertical tangents intersect at a level of 96.20m and at a chainage of 13+85.00 (1385m). The sight distance for the curve is 210m.

Solution V= 120Km/hr A= (-3)-(2.5) = -5.5 (negative , sag curve) K=? To determine K; Ksag = S2 = 2102 = 51.71m 120+3.49S 120+(3.49x210) Ksag/com = 1202 = 1202 = 40m 360 360 Recommended K= 40m
Minimum Curve Length, L= 40x5.5=220m Level at beginning of vertical curve Level of P = 96.20 mLv = 96.20 (-3x220) 200 200 = 99.5m

Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Chainage at beginning of vertical curve; ChP = I Lv/2 = 1385 220/2=1275m Chainage at end of vertical curve; ChR = Chp + Lv = 1275 +220 =1495m To determine the height of curve at 30m intervals the ff equation is used; H = [ my - Ay2 ] 100 200Lv
Chainage y(m) my/100 (m) (1) Ay2/200L (m) (2) H (m) (1)-(2)

Reduced Level

1275
1280 1310 1340 1370 1400 1430 1460 1490 1495

0
5 35 65 95 125 155 185 215 220

0
-0.15 -1.05 -1.95 -2.85 -3.75 -4.65 -5.55 -6.45 -6.6

0
0.00 -0.15 -0.53 -1.13 -1.95 -3.00 -4.28 -5.78 -6.05

0
-0.15 -0.90 -1.42 -1.72 -1.80 -1.65 -1.27 -0.67 -0.55

99.5
99.35 98.60 98.08 97.78 97.70 97.85 98.23 98.83 98.95

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Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The distance of the sag point from the initial point of vertical curvature; y= mLv = -3x220 = 120m A -5.5 Sag Chainage = 1275+120=1395m Height of sag point relative to the initial point of vertical curvature; Hmax = m2L = (-3)2x 220 = -1.80m 200A 200x-5.5 Reduced Level of Sag point = 99.5 1.80 = 97.7m

Check for level at end of curve. = 96.20 + (2.5x220) =98.95m 200 There could be a small difference in the table calculated level (98.95m) at the end of the curve and that from the equation(98.95) in some scenarios. This is due to the several assumptions and rounding offs done in the table.

Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

.
P, Ch=1275m,Lev=99.5m

R, Ch=1495m, Lev=98.95m

Sag, Ch=1395m, Lev=97.7m

Vertical Curves
Example
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Trial Question A single carriageway , which has a design speed of 60km/h, is to be designed to have a minimum curve of length 50m linking two gradients +1% and -0.4%.
i) Determine the height of the curve at 5m intervals if the vertical tangents intersect at a level of 205m and at a chainage of 11+03.70 (1103.71m). Determine height of crest point and chainage and compare with highest point on curve.

ii)