DEVELOPMENT OF A MICROCONTROLLER BASED SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC MPPT CHARGE CONTROL SYSTEM

Using
INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD
A Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirement for the degree of
MASTER OF ELECTRONICS & TELE-COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING (With Specialization in ELECTRON DEVICE)

By

TANUSREE DUTTA
Reg. No. 105231 of 2008-2009 Exam Roll No. M4ETC10-02 Class Roll No. 000810702003 of 1008-1009 MAY 2010 Under the supervision of

PROF. H. SAHA

Department of Electronics & Tele-communication Engineering

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY, KOLKATA- 700032, INDIA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The foregoing thesis is hereby approved as a creditable study of an engineering subject and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant acceptance as pre-requisite to the degree for which it has been submitted. It is understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn there in but approve the thesis only for which it is submitted.

Committee on final examination For the evaluation of the Thesis

. Examiners

* Only in case the thesis is approved

A CK N O W LE D G E M E N T
It gives m e im m ense pleasure to express m y deepest sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to m y highly respected and esteem ed supervisor Prof. H iranm ay Saha, Supervisor, IC D esign & fabrication Centre, J adavpur U niversity, niversity for his revered supervision throughout m y dissertation w ork, w hich m ade this task a pleasant job. It w as real pleasure to w ork under his supervision. I extend m y sincere thanks to Prof. G outam B hattacharya, R am krishna M ission V idyam andira, for his keen interest, continuous encouragem ent and support. I am also indebted to m y m other, brother, sisters and w ell w ishers w ho are taking lot of pains for progress in m y life and for their sacrifices, blessing and constant prayers for m y advancem ent. I express m y special thanks to Prof. B .G upta (H O D ,D ept.of E TCE ,JU ) and Prof. S.K .Sanyal, D ept. of E TCE ,JU , for their kindness and providing m e the facilities of the Laboratory to use for m y w ork. I w ould also like to thanks all the R esearch Scholars, staff m em bers and project students of IC D esign & Fabrication Center. Special thanks are due to M r.A .M ondal, M r.G .P.M ishra, M r.A .K indu. D r.S.R oy Choudhury, M rs.S.R oy, M s.T.M ajhi, M r.A .Sengupta. I am also thankful to Prof. R .N .G hosh, St. Thom as College of E ngg. & Tech., K ol. & M r.A rup Sarkar, A gni Pow er E lectronics, K ol., for their support. I also like to thank D r.S.M ukhopadhya, Secretary, St. Thom as College of E ngg. & Tech., K ol. Prof.M rs. S.Sen, Principal, St. Thom as College of E ngg. & Tech., kol, M r.G outam B anerjee, R egistrar, St. Thom as College of E ngg. & Tech., kol, for allow ing m e to pursuing m y M .E . in E lectronics & Tele-com m unication at Jadavpur U niversity.

TA N U SR E E D U TTA R eg. N o. o.105231 105231 of 20082008 - 09, D A TE : R oll N o.000810702003 of 20082008 - 09 Exam Roll No. M4ETC10M4ETC10-02

Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction to Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

Introduction. Need for Maximum Power Point Tracking

Page No.

2 5 7 7 8

How Maximum Power Point is Achieved Methods of Maximum Power Point Application of MPPT. .

2.0 Literature Review 3.0 Algorithms for MPPT

Perturb & Observe Incremental Conductance Parasitic Capacitance Voltage Based Maximum Power Point Tracking Current Based Maximum Power Point Tracking

11

16 17 18 18 18

4.0 Block Diagram of MPPT System.

Basic Block diagram of MPPT What is MPPT Solar Photovoltaic Cell DC-DC Converter. 20 20 22 30

Introduction to Microcontroller Characteristics of Battery

34 36

5.0 Hardware Description 6.0 Software Description... 7.0 Experimental Setup. 8.0 Result 9.0 Conclusions & Future Scope . . 10.0 References ... 11.0 Annexure...

39 62 75 82 85 87 88

ABSTRACT
Renewable energy sources play an important role in electricity generation. Various renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geothermal, ocean thermal and biomass can be used for generation of electricity and for meeting our daily energy needs. Energy from the sun is the best option for electricity generation as it is available everywhere and is free to harness. On an average the sunshine hour in India is about 6hrs annually also the sun shine shines in India for about 9 months in a year. Electricity from the sun can be generated through the solar photovoltaic modules (SPV). The SPV comes in various power output to meet the load requirement. Maximization of power from a solar photo voltaic module (SPV) is of special interest as the efficiency of the SPV module is very low. A maximum power tracker is used for extracting the maximum power from the SPV module .The present work describes the maximum power point tracker (MPPT) for the SPV module connected to a battery which is used as a load. A Microcontroller is used for control of the MPPT algorithm. The power tracker is developed and tested successfully in the laboratory. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is used in photovoltaic (PV) systems to maximize the photovoltaic array output power, irrespective of the temperature and irradiation conditions and of the load electrical characteristics. A new MPPT system has been developed, consisting of a Buck-type dc/dc converter, which is controlled by a microcontroller-based unit. The main difference between the method used in the proposed MPPT system and other techniques used in the past is that the PV array output power is used to directly control the dc/dc converter, thus reducing the complexity of the system. The resulting system has high-efficiency, lower-cost and can be easily modified to handle more energy sources (e.g., wind-generators).

CHAPTER 1. Introduction to Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

Introduction
Develop a Microcontroller based dedicated MPPT controller for solar PV module based on the incremental conductance method. As people are much concerned with the fossil fuel exhaustion and the environmental problems caused by the conventional power generation, renewable energy sources and among them photovoltaic panels and wind-generators are now widely used. So Solar Energy is a good choice for electric power generation. The solar energy is directly converted into electrical energy by solar photovoltaic module. Photovoltaic sources are used today in many applications such as battery charging, water pumping, home power supply, swimming-pool heating systems, satellite power systems etc. They have the advantage of being maintenance and pollution-free but their installation cost is high and inmost applications, they require a power conditioner (dc/dc or dc/ac converter) for load interface. Since PV modules still have relatively low conversion efficiency, the overall system cost can be reduced using high efficiency power conditioners which, in addition, are designed to extract the maximum possible power from the PV module. The photovoltaic modules are made up of silicon cells. The silicon solar cell which give output voltage of around 0.7V under open circuit condition. When many such cells are connected in series we get a solar PV module. Normally in a module there are 36 cells which amount for a open circuit voltage of about 20V. The current rating of the modules depends on the area of the individual cells. Higher the cell area high is the current output of the cell. For obtaining higher power output, the solar PV modules are connected in series and parallel combinations forming solar PV arrays. A typical characteristic curve of the called current (I) and voltage (V) curve and power (W) and voltage (V) curve of the module is shown is fig.1.

Fig.1 Characteristics of a typical Solar PV Module.

Need for maximum power point tracking

Power output of a Solar PV module changes with change in direction of sun, changes in solar insolation level and with varying temperature as shown in the fig.2 & 3.

Fig.2 Changes in the characteristics of the Solar PV module due to change in the insolation level. As seen in the PV (power vs. voltage) curve of the module there is a single maxima of power. That is there exists a maximum power corresponding to a particular voltage and current. We know that the efficiency of the solar PV module is low about 13%. Since the module efficiency is low it is desirable to operate the module at the maximum power point so that the maximum power can be delivered to the load under varying temperature and insolation conditions. Hence maximization of improves the utilization of the solar PV module. A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used for extracting the maximum power from the solar PV module and transferring that power to the load. A dc/dc converter (step up/step down) serves the purpose of transferring maximum power from the solar PV module to the load. A dc/dc converter acts as an interface between the load & module in fig.4. 5

Fig.3 Change in the module characteristics due to the change in temperature By changing the duty cycle the load impedance as seen by the source is varied and matched at the point of the maximum power with the source so as to transfer the maximum power.

Fig.4 Block diagram of a typical MPPT system

How maximum power point is obtained.

As discuss in this chapter the maximum power point is obtained by introducing dc/dc converter in between the load and the solar PV module. The duty cycle of the converter is changed till the maximum power point is obtained considering a down converter is used. Vo=D*Vi ( Vo is output voltage and Vi is input voltage) D is the duty cycle of the PWM. Io = D*Ii So the Output Power Pout = Vo * Io Input Power, Pin = Vi * Ii By varying the duty cycle of the PWM, maximum power point is extract from the Solar PV module by using a different algorithm.

Fig.5 DC/DC converter helps in tracking the maximum power point.

Methods of Maximum Power Point Tracking.

The maximum power is reached with the help of a dc/dc converter by adjusting its duty cycle.Now question arises how to vary the duty cycle and in which direction so that maximum power is reached. Whether manual tracking or automatic tracking? Manual tracking is not possible so automatic tracking is preferred to manual tracking. An automatic tracking can be performed by utilizing various algorithms. a. Perturb and observe b. Incremental Conductance c. Parasitic Capacitance d. Voltage Based Maximum Power Tracking e. Current Based Maximum power Tracking

The algorithms are implemented in a microcontroller to implement the maximum power point tracking. The algorithm changes the duty cycle of the dc/dc converter to maximize the power output of the module and make it operate at the maximum power point of the module.

Applications of Maximum Power Point Trackers.

MPPT systems are used mainly in systems where source of power is nonlinear. Such as the solar PV modules or the wind generator systems. MPPT systems are generally used in solar PV applications such as battery chargers and grid connected stand alone PV systems.

a) Battery charging: Charging of battery (lead acid/NiCad) which is used for the storage of electrical energy. This energy if it comes from the solar PV systems then fast charging of the battery can be done with the help of the MPPT charge controller.

Fig.6.Battery charging application of MPPT

b) Grid connected and standalone PV systems: In grid connected or stand alone PV systems.The solar arrays supply power to the grid or to the local load. A dc/dc converter is used as the array voltage is dc and as grid voltage is ac an dc/ac converter must be used.

Fig.7.Grid connected application using MPPT

Before a dc/ac converter a dc/dc converter (normally step up) is used which serves the purpose of the maximum power point tracking as explained earlier. Due to maximum power tracking always the maximum power is transferred to the grid or the local load. c) Water pumping applications: Solar PV arrays can be used to run dc motors which drive the pump for supplying the water in the fields. By using the maximum power point tracker the power to the motor can be increased and so the output flow rate of the pump will also increase.

Fig.8. Pumping application of the MPPT.

CHAPTER 2. Literature Review.

10

The following literature survey for the current report consists of various papers published in the IEEE conferences and the journals. 1)Development of a Microcontroller-Based Solar Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Control System. Eftichios Koutroulis, Kostas Kalaitzakis, Member, IEEE, and Nicholas C. Voulgaris The authors have developed a new MPPT algorithm based on the fact that the maximum power operating point of a PV generator can be tracked accurately by comparing the incremental and instantaneous conductances of the PV array. The work was carried out by experiment,with results showing that the developed incremental conductance(IntCond) algorithm has successfully tracked the MPOP using Microcontroller,even in cases of rapidly changing atmospheric conditions, and has higher efficiency than ordinary algorithms in terms of total PV energy transferred to the load. A very common MPPT technique is to compare the PV array voltage (or current) with a constant reference voltage (or current), which corresponds to the PV voltage (or current) at the maximum power point, under specific atmospheric conditions. The resulting difference signal (error signal) is used to drive a power conditioner which interfaces the PV array to the load. Although the implementation of this method is simple, the method itself is not very accurate, since it does not take into account the effects of temperature and irradiation variations. In the PV current-controlled MPPT system shown in Fig.9, the PV array output current is compared with a reference current calculated using a microcontroller, which compares the PV output power before and after a change in the duty cycle of the dc/dc converter control signal. The PI controller regulates the PV output current to match the reference current.The incremental conductance method is based on the principle that at the maximum power point. dP/dV = 0 and since P=VI ,it yields, dI/dV= -I/V where P,V,I are the PV array output power, voltage and current respectivly.This method is implemented as shown in Fig.10 .A PI controller is used to regulate the PWM control signal of the dc/dc converter until the condition: (dI/dV) + (I/V) = 0 is satisfied. This method has the disadvantage that the control circuit complexity results in a higher system cost.

11

Fig.9 MPPT system with the incremental conductance control method.

Fig.10 Feed-forward maximum power tracking control system. In this method the power converter is controlled using the PV array output power. The MPPT control algorithm is based on the calculation of the PV output power and of the power change by sampling voltage and current values. The power change is detected by comparing the present and previous voltage levels, in order to calculate a reference voltage which is used to produce the PWM control signal.The dc/dc converter is driven by a DSP-based controller for fastresponse and the overall system stability is improved by including a PI controller which is so used to match the array and reference voltage levels. However, the DSP-based control unit increases the implementation cost of the system. 2). Control of DC/DC Converters for Solar Energy System with Maximum Power Tracking. Chihchiang Hua and Chihming Shen. The object of this paper is to analyze and design DC/DC converters of different types in a solar energy system to investigate the performance of the converters.A simple method which combines a discrete time control and a PI compensator is used to track the Maximum power points (MPP's) of the solar array. The system is kept to operate close to the MPPT's, thus the maximum possible power transfer from the solar array is achieved. The implementation of the proposed converter system was based on a digital signal processor (DSP). Experimental tests where carried out for buck, boost and buck-boost converters using a simple maximum power 12

point tracking (MPPT) algorithm. The efficiencies for the system with different converters are compared. The paper is use full in evaluating the response of step up, step down converter for the MPPT system. Paper proposes that the Step down converter is the best option for the use in the MPPT system as it give higher efficiency. 3) Maximum Power Tracking for Photovoltaic Power Systems. Joe-Air Jiang1, Tsong-Liang Huang2, Ying-Tung Hsiao2* and Chia-Hong Chen2. The authors have developed a new MPPT algorithm based on the fact that the MPOP(maximum peak operating point) of a PV generator can be tracked accurately by comparing the incremental and instantaneous conductances of the PV array. The work was carried out by both simulation and experiment, with results showing that the developed incremental conductance(IntCond) algorithm has successfully tracked the MPOP, even in cases of rapidly changing atmospheric conditions, and has higher efficiency than ordinary algorithms in terms of total PV energy transferred to the load. 4) A New Algorithm for Rapid Tracking of Approximate Maximum Power Point in Photovoltaic Systems. Sachin Jain, Student Member, IEEE, and Vivek Agarwal. A robust oscillation method is used for implementing the maximum power point tracking for the solar arrays. The method uses only one variable that is load current for detecting the maximum power.This method is suitable for the battery charging application where MPPT is to be implemented.The algorithm is implemented through a simple circuit.The paper gives detailed discussion about design of a step down converter used for the MPPT. 5). Microprocessor-Controlled New Class of Optimal Battery Chargers for Photovoltaic Applications. Mohamad A. S. Masoum, Seyed Mahdi Mousavi Badejani, and Ewald F. Fuchs. The authors discuss a control system of a residential photovoltaic system.The paper explains a perturb and observe algorithm and how can it be implemented using a microprocessor. This paper is one of the basic papers which explains the Incremental Conductance algorithm.Also controller design using PI scheme obtained.

13

6) Implementation of a DSP-controlled Photovoltaic Peak Power Tracking system. Chihchiang Hua, Member, IEEE, Jongrong Lin, and Chihming Shen The corresponding authors have proposed a new kind of maximum power point tracking algorithm based on Incremental Conductance algorithm.The algorithm is fast acting which eliminate the ripple in the module voltage. The module voltage and current that are taken for processing are not averaged but are instantaneous this speed ups the process of peak power tracking. Also the paper implements the new algorithm on the real time platform.The software used was DSP. 7). Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms Using an Experimental, Programmable, Maximum Power Point Tracking Test Bed. D. P. Hohm, M. E. Ropp. The authors have compares all the different kinds of algorithm that are used for the maximum power point tracking.This helps in proper selection of the algorithm.Preliminary results indicate that perturb and observe compares favorably with incremental conductance and constant voltage. Although incremental conductance is able to provide marginally better performance in case of rapidly varying atmospheric conditions, the increased complexity of the algorithm will require more expensive hardware and therefore may have an advantage over perturb and observe only in large PV arrays. 8) Theoretical and Experimental Analyses of Photovoltaic Systems With Voltage and Current-Based Maximum Power-Point Tracking. Mohammad A. S. Masoum, Hooman Dehbonei, and Ewald F. Fuchs Detailed theoretical and experimental analyses of two simple, fast and reliable maximum power-point tracking (MPPT) techniques for photovoltaic (PV) systems are presented. Voltagebased (VMPPT) and the Current-based (CMPPT) approaches.A microprocessor-controlled tracker capable of online voltage and current measurements and programmed with VMPPT and CMPPT algorithms is constructed.The load of the solar system is either a water pump or resistance. The paper has given a simulink model of the Dc/Dc converter and a solar PV module. The literature review consists of vast survey of papers from the various conferences. The literatures give sufficient idea about the basics of the MPPT algorithm and how the MPP tracking is takes place.

14

CHAPTER 3. Algorithms to track the Maximum Power Point.

15

Different algorithms help to track the maximum power point of the solar pv module automatically. The various algorithms used are: a) Perturb and Observe. b) Incremental Conductance. c) Parasitic Capacitance. d) Voltage Based Peak Power Tracking. e) Current Based peak power Tracking a) Perturb and Observe method - In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduced in the system. Due to this perturbation the power of the module changes. If the power increases due to the perturbation then the perturbation is continued in that direction. After the peak power is reached the power at the next instant decreases and hence after that the perturbation reverses.

Fig.11 Perturb and observe algorithm

When the steady state is reached the algorithm oscillates around the maximum point. In order to keep the power variation small the perturbation size is kept very small.The algorithm is developed in such a manner that it sets a reference voltage of the module corresponding to the maximum voltage of the module. A Microcontroller then acts moving the operating point of the module to that particular voltage level. It is observed that there some power loss due to this perturbation also the fails to track the power under fast varying atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very popular and simple.

16

Implemented Method
b) Incremental conductance method:- The disadvantage of the perturb and observe method to track the maximum power under fast varying atmospheric condition is overcome by Incremental conductance method. The algorithm makes use of the equation: P=V*I (where P= module power,V=module voltage, I=module current); Diff. with respect to dV dP/dV=I+V*dI/dV Depending on this equation the algorithm work at maximum power point dP/dV=0 dI/dV=-I/V

Fig.12.Incremental conductance method. If operating point is to the left of the power curve then we have dP/dV>0 dI/dV>I/V By using this equation, algorithm works. The incremental conductance can determine that the MPPT has reached the MPP and stop perturbing the operating point.If this condition is not met, the direction in which the MPPT 17

operating point must be perturbed can be calculated using the relationship between dl/dV and I/V. This relationship is derived from the fact that dP/dV is negative when the MPPT is to the right of the MPP and positive when it is to the left of the MPP. This algorithm has disvantages over perturb and observe in that it can determine when the MPPT has reached the MPP, where perturb and observe oscillates around the MPP. Also, incremental conductance can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher accuracy than perturb and observe.One disadvantage of this algorithm is the increased complexity when compared to perturb and observe method.

Others Method c) Parasitic capacitances :- The parasitic capacitance method is a refinement of

incremental conductance method that takes into account the parasitic capacitances of the solar cells in the PV array . Parasitic capacitance uses the switching ripple of the MPPT to perturb the array. To account for the parasitic capacitance, the average ripple in the array power and voltage,generated by the switching frequency, are measured using a series of filters and multipliers and then used to calculate the array conductance.The incremental conductance algorithm is then used to determine the direction to move the operating point of the MPPT. One disadvantage of this algorithm is that the parasitic capacitance in each module is very small, and will only come into play in large PV arrays where several module strings are connected in parallel. Also, the DC-DC converter has a sizable input capacitor used filter out small ripple in the array power.This capacitor may mask the overall effects of the parasitic capacitance of the PV array. d) Voltage control maximum point tracker:- It is assumed that a maximum power point of a particular solar PV module lies at about 0.75 times the open circuit voltage of the module. So by measuring the open circuit voltage a reference voltage can be generated and feed forward voltage control scheme can be implemented to bring the solar pv module voltage to the point of maximum power.One problem of this technique is the open circuit voltage of the module varies with the temperature. So as the temperature increases the module open circuit voltage changes and we have to measure the open circuit voltage of the module very often. Hence the load must be disconnected from the module to measure open circuit voltage. Due to which the power during that instant will not be utilize. e) Current control maximum power point tracker:- The maximum power of the module lies at the point which is at about 0.9 times the short circuit current of the module. In order to measure this point the module or array is short-circuited. And then by using the current mode control the module current is adjusted to the value which is approx 0.9 times the short circuit current. The problem with this method is that a high power resistor is required which can stain the short-circuit current. The module has to be short circuited to measure the short circuit current as it goes on varying with the changes in insolation level.

18

CHAPTER 4.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MPPT SYSTEM

19

Fig.13

What is MPPT ?
A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank, utility power, DC motor, or DC pump.

. Fig.14 Characteristic curve of solar photovoltaic MPPT system

20

what do we mean by "optimize"?

Most PV panels are built to put out a nominal 12 volts. The catch is nominal. In actual fact, most all are designed to put out from 16 to 36 volts. The problem is that a nominal 12 volt battery is pretty close to an actual 12 volts - 10.5 to 12.7 volts, depending on state of charge. Under charge, most batteries want from around 13.2 to 14.2 volts to fully charge , quite a bit different than what most panels are designed to put out.This is electronic tracking, and has nothing to do with moving the panels. Instead, the controller looks at the output of the panels, and compares it to the battery voltage. It then figures out what is the best power that the panel can put out to charge the battery. It takes this and converts it to best voltage to get maximum AMPS into the battery. Most modern MPPT's are around 92-97% efficient in the conversion. You typically get a 20 to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actual gain can vary widely depending weather,temperature, battery state of charge, and other factors.

MPPT's are most effective under these conditions:

Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra power is needed the most. Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT we are losing most of that. Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun hours are low and you need the power to recharge batteries the most. Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a MPPT puts into them - another time when the extra power is needed the most. You can have both of these conditions at the same time. The Power point tracker is a high frequency DC to DC converter. They take the DC input from the solar panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a different DC voltage and current to exactly match the panels to batteries. MPPT's operate at high audio frequencies, usually in the 20-80 kHz range. Most newer models of MPPT controllers available are Microcontroller based. They know when to adjust the output that it is being sent to the battery, and they actually shut down for a few microseconds and "look" at the solar panel and battery and make any needed adjustments.

21

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL Simple explanation

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,such as silicon.Electronics (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction.The complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct (DC) electricity. Photogeneration of charge carriers When a photons hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen: 1)The photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally) happens for lower energy photon. 2)The photon can reflect off the surface, 3)The photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value.This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat,depending on the band structure. When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice.Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighboring atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the conduction band,where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electronhole pairs A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. However, the solar frequency specturm approximates a black body spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon. These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy

22

between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy. Charge carrier separation There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell: 1)drift of carriers, driven by an electrostatic field established across the device. 2)diffusion of carriers from zones of high carrier concentration to zones of low carrier concentration (following a gradient of electrochemical potential). In the widely used p-n junction solar cells, the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is by drift. However, in non-p-n-junction solar cells (typical of the third generation solar cell research such as dye and polymer solar cell), a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be absent, and the dominant mode of separation is via carrier diffusion. The p-n junction Main articles: semiconductor and p-n junction. The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from silicon. As a simplification,one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon.In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather, by diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer (or vice versa). If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of n-type silicon,then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely however, because of an electric field which is created by the imbalance of charge immediately on either side of the junction which this diffusion creates. The electric field established across the p-n junction creates a diode that promotes charge flow, known as drift current,that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electron and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also known as the "space charge region". Connection to an external load Ohomic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load. Electrons that are created on the n-type side, or have been "collected" by the junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductor-metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an 23

electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or are swept across the junction from the n-type side after being created there. The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi fermi levels of the minority carriers i.e. electrons in the p-type portion, and holes in the n-type portion.

Fig,15 The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

Fig.16 The schematic symbol of a solar cell To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown in fig. Also shown, on the right,is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams. Characteristic equation From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor: 24

I = IL ID ISH where I = output current (amperes) IL = photogenerated current (amperes) ID = diode current (amperes) ISH = shunt current (amperes) The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them: Vj = V + IRS where Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts) V = voltage across the output terminals (volts) I = output current (amperes) RS = series resistance () By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is: where I0 = reverse saturation current (amperes) n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode) q = elementary charge k = Boltzmanns constant T = absolute temperature For silicon at 25C, volts.

By Ohms law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is: 25

Where RSH = shunt resistance Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a solar cell, which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:

An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance but with V on the left-hand side. The two alternatives are identites; that is, they yield precisely the same results. In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved to determine the operating current I at that voltage. However, because the equation involves I on both sides in a transcendental function the equation has no general analytical solution. However, even without a solution it is physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods. (A general analytical solution to the equation is possible using Lamberts W function, but since Lambert's W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a technicality.) Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly,the most common application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior. Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the output terminals is defined as the open-circuit voltage. Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the final term of the characteristic equation, the open-circuit voltage VOC is:

Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the current I through the terminals is defined as the short-circuit current. It can be shown that for a high-quality solar cell (low RS and I0, and high RSH) the short-circuit current ISC is:

26

Effect of physical size The values of I0, RS, and RSH are dependent upon the physical size of the solar cell. In comparing otherwise identical cells, a cell with twice the surface area of another will, in principle, have double the I0 because it has twice the junction area across which current can leak. It will also have half the RS and RSH because it has twice the cross-sectional area through which current can flow. For this reason, the characteristic equation is frequently written in terms of current density, or current produced per unit cell area:

Where, J = current density (amperes/cm2) JL = photogenerated current density (amperes/cm2) Jo= reverse saturation current density (amperes/cm2) rS = specific series resistance (-cm2) rSH = specific shunt resistance (-cm2) This formulation has several advantages. One is that since cell characteristics are referenced to a common cross-sectional area they may be compared for cells of different physical dimensions. While this is of limited benefit in a manufacturing setting, where all cells tend to be the same size, it is useful in research and in comparing cells between manufacturers. Another advantage is that the density equation naturally scales the parameter values to similar orders of magnitude, which can make numerical extraction of them simpler and more accurate even with naive solution methods. A practical limitation of this formulation is that as cell sizes shrink certain parasitic effects grow in importance and can affect the extracted parameter values. For example, recombination and contamination of the junction tend to be greatest at the perimeter of the cell, so very small cells may exhibit higher values of J0 or lower values of rSH than larger cells that are otherwise identical. In such cases, comparisons between cells must be made cautiously and with these effects in mind.

27

Cell temperature

Fig.17 Effect of temperature on the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell Temperature affects the characteristic equation in two ways: directly, via T in the exponential term, and indirectly via its effect on I0. (Strictly speaking, temperature affects all of the terms, but these two far more significantly than the others.) While increasing T reduces the magnitude of the exponent in the characteristic equation, the value of I0 increases in proportion to exp(T). The net effect is to reduce VOC (the open-circuit Voltage) linearly with increasing temperature. The magnitude of this reduction is inversely proportional to VOC; that is, cells with higher values of VOC suffer smaller reductions in voltage with increasing temperature. For most crystalline silicon solar cells the reduction is about 0.50%/C, though the rate for the highestefficiency crystalline silicon cells is around 0.35%/C. By way of comparison, the rate for amorphous silicon solar cells is 0.20-0.30%/C, depending on how the cell is made. The amount of photogenerated current IL increases slightly with increasing temperature because of an increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in the cell. This effect is slight, however: about 0.065%/C for crystalline silicon cells and 0.09% for amorphous silicon cells. The overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency can be computed using these factors in combination with the characteristic equation. However, since the change in voltage is much stronger than the change in current, the overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on voltage. Most crystalline silicon solar cells decline in efficiency by 0.50%/C and most amorphous cells decline by 0.15-0.25%/C. The figure to the right shows I-V curves that might typically be seen for a crystalline silicon solar cell at various temperatures.

28

Series resistance

Fig.18 Effect of series resistance on the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell As series resistance increases, the voltage drop between the junction voltage and the terminal voltage becomes greater for the same flow of current. The result is that the current-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the terminal voltage V and a slight reduction in ISC, the short-circuit current. Very high values of RS will also produce a significant reduction in ISC; in these regimes, series resistance dominates and the behavior of the solar cell resembles that of a resistor. These effects are shown for crystalline silicon solar cells in the I-V curves displayed in the figure to the right. Shunt resistance

Fig.19 Effect of shunt resistance on the currentvoltage characteristics of a solar cell As shunt resistance decreases, the current diverted through the shunt resistor increases for a given level of junction voltage. The result is that the voltage-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the terminal current I and a slight reduction in VOC. Very low values of RSH will produce a significant reduction in VOC. Much as in the case of a high series resistance, a badly shunted solar cell will take on operating characteristics similar to those of a resistor.These effects are shown for crystalline silicon solar cells in the I-V curves displayed in the figure to the right.

29

Reverse saturation current

Fig.20 Effect of reverse saturation current on the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell

If one assumes infinite shunt resistance, the characteristic equation can be solved for VOC:

Thus, an increase in I0 produces a reduction in VOC proportional to the inverse of the logarithm of the increase. This explains mathematically the reason for the reduction in VOC that acompanies increases in temperature described above. The effect of reverse saturation current on the I-V curve of a crystalline silicon solar cell are shown in the figure to the right. Physically, reverse saturation current is a measure of the "leakage"of carriers across the p-n junction in reverse bias. This leakage is a result of carrier recombination in the neutral regions on either side of the junction.

4.4) DC-DC CONVERTER

Introduction. The power switch was the key to practical switching regulators. Prior to the invention of the Vertical Metal Oxide Semiconductor (VMOS) power switch, switching supplies were generally not practical.The inductor's main function is to limit the current slew rate through the power switch. This action limits the otherwise high-peak current that would be limited by the switch resistance alone. The key advantage for using an inductor in switching regulators is that an A linear regulator uses a resistive voltage drop to regulate the voltage,losing power (voltage drop times the current) in the form of heat.A switching regulators inductor does have a voltage drop and an associated current but the current is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage. Because of this,the energy is stored and can be recovered in the discharge phase of the switching cycle.This results in a much higher efficiency and much less heat. 30

What is a Switching Regulator?

A switching regulator is a circuit that uses a power switch,an inductor,and a diode to transfer energy from input to output. The basic components of the switching circuit can be rearranged to from a step-down(buck) ,step-up(boost).or an inverter (flyback). These design are shown in fig. 21,22 ,23 & 24 respectively,where Figures 23 & 24 are the same except for the transformer and the diode polarity.Feedback and control circuitry can be carefully nested around these circuits to regulate the energy transfer and maintain a constant output within nornmal operating conditions.

Fig.21 Buck converter topologies

Fig..22 simple boost converter

Figure 23. Inverting topology.

31

Figure 24.Transformer flyback topology.

Why Use a Switching Regulator? Switching regulators offer three main advantages compared to a linear regulators. First, switching efficiency can be much better than linear. Second, because less energy is lost in the transfer smaller components and less thermal management are required. Third, the energy stored by an inductor in a switching regulator can be transformed to output voltages that can be greater than the input (boost), negative (inverter), or can even be transferred trough a transformer to provide electrical isolation with respect to the input. Linear regulators provide lower noise and higher bandwidth ,their simplicity can sometimes offer a less expensive solution. These are the advantages of the linear regulators. There are, admittedly, disadvantages with switching regulators.They can be noisy and require energy management in the form of a control loop.The solution to these control problems is found integrated in modern switching modes controller chips. Charge Phase A basic boost configuration is depicted in fig.25. Assuming that the switch has been open for a long time and that the voltage drop across the diode is negative, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the input voltage. When the switch closes, the input voltage, +VIN, is impressed across the inductor and the diode prevents the capacitor from discharging +VOUT to ground. Because the input voltage is DC, current through the inductor rises linearly with time at a rate proportional to the input voltage divided by the inductance.

32

Figure 25. Charging phase: when the switch closes, current ramps up through the inductor.

Discharge Phase Fig.26 shows the discharge phase. When the switch opens again, the inductor current continues to flow into the rectification diode to charge the output.As the output voltage rises,the slope of the current ,di/dt though the inductor reverses. The output voltage rises until equilibrium is reached or: VL= Ldi/dt In other words, the higher the inductor voltage, the faster inductor current drops.

Fig.26 Discharge phade:when the switch opens,current flows to the load through the rectifying diode

In a steady-state operating condition the average voltage across the inductor over the entire switching cycle is zero. This implies that the average current through the inductor is also in steady state. This is an important rule governing all inductor-based switching topologies. Taking this one step further, we can establish that for a given charge time ton and a given input voltage and with the circuit in equilibrium, there is a specific time, tOFF, for an output voltage. Because 33

the average inductor voltage in steady state must equal zero, we can calculate for the boost circuit. VIN tON = tOFF VL and because: VOUT = VIN + VL We can then establish the relationship: VOUT = VIN (1 + tON/tOFF) using the relationship for duty cycle (D): tON/(tON + tOFF) = D Then for the boost circuit: VOUT = VIN/(1-D) Similar derivations can be had for the buck circuit: VOUT = VIN D and for the inverter circuit (flyback): VOUT = VIN D/(1-D)

Introduction to Microcontroller
A Microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM,ROM,I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip.In other words,the processors,RAM,ROM,,I/Oports,and timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O,or timer to it.The fixed amount of on-chip ROM,RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are critical.In many applications,for example a TV remote control,there is no need for the computing power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor.

34

Block Diagram of Microcontroller: CPU I/O RAM Timer ROM Serial COM Port

Criteria for choosing a microcontroller The first and foremost criterion in choosing a microcontroller is that it must the task at hand efficiently and cost effectively. In analyzing the needs of a microcontroller-based project,we must first see whether an 8-bit,16-bit,or 32-bit microcontroller can best handle the computing needs of the task most effective Among other considerations in this category are: Speed Packaging Power consumption The amount of RAM & ROM chip. The number of I/O pins and the timer on the chip. How easy to upgrade to higher-performance or lower power-consumption version. Cost per unit. All these criterion are fulfill by using a AVR ATMEGA8 Microcontroller

Features of AVR ATMEGA8 Microcontroller

High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller Advanced RISC Architecture 130 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments 8K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory 512 Bytes EEPROM 1K Byte Internal SRAM Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM 35

Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C(1) Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation Programming Lock for Software Security Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Three PWM Channels 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy 6-channel ADC in PDIP package Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, andStandby I/O and Packages 23 Programmable I/O Lines 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF Operating Voltages 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L) 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8) Speed Grades 36

0 - 8 MHz (ATmega8L) 0 - 16 MHz (ATmega8) Power Consumption at 4 Mhz, 3V, 25C Active: 3.6 mA Idle Mode: 1.0 mA Power-down Mode: 0.5 A

LOAD (BATTERY):
The current limiting method is required to charged the liead-acid batteries.The charge time of a sealed lead-acid battery is 12-16 hours (up to 36 hours for larger capacity batteries). With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge methods, the charge time can be reduced to 10 hours or less. Lead-acid cannot be fully charged as quickly. It takes about 5 times as long to recharge a lead-acid battery to the same level as it does to discharge. A multi-stage charger first applies a constant current charge, raising the cell voltage to a preset voltage. Stage 1 takes about 5 hours and the battery is charged to 70%. During the topping charge in Stage 2 that follows, the charge current is gradually reduced as the cell is being saturated. The topping charge takes another 5 hours and is essential for the well being of the battery. If omitted, the battery would eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge. Full charge is attained after the voltage has reached the threshold and the current has dropped to 3% of the rated current or has leveled off. Fig. shows the charging characteristics of battery.

Fig.27 Charging Characteristics of Battery 37

CHAPTER 5.
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

38

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS & DESCRIPTION

To track the Maximum power point, a Hardware section is required which consist of different parts. Each part performs the different function. The different hardware parts are: Microcontroller Buffer Opto coupler Transistor Amplifier Buck converter Current to Voltage converter using OP-AMP Positive voltage to Negative Voltage Converter Micro switch which connected to Port of microcontroller LED which connected to Port of microcontroller Positive 5V regulated Power Supply LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

Specification of the MPPT Solar Charge Controller :

Design for 1Amp Current
Consider the, Solar Photovoltaic Module Voltage = 25 Volt, which is the Input of the Buck Converter so ,Vin = 25V Required Voltage for Charging a 12V Battery about 13.5Volt, So we consider the Output of the Buck converter, Vout = 15Volt and consider the Output current Iout = 1Amp

39

Now

DESIGNING OF BUCK CONVERTER

Fig.28 Buck converter using IC3524

40

Vin = 25 Volt Vout = 15Volt Iout = 1Amp f = 31.25 KHz L =( 2.5 x 25 x 15)/31.25 x 1000 x ( 15 + 25 ) x 1 = 0.75 Mh Consider, Vo = 50mV Co = 1 x 15 / 0.05 x 31.25 x1000 (15 +25) = 240 F Nearest available value is 220F, 35V. To reduce the ripple component a 0.1 F Non-electrolytic capacitor is connected in parallel with the electrolytic capacitor. Now

Enhancement of the Output Current

Design for 5Amp Current

Vin = 25 Volt Vout = 15Volt Iout = 5Amp f= 31.25 KHz L =( 2.5 x 25 x 15)/31.25 x 1000 x ( 15 + 25 ) x 5 = 0.15mH Ripple Voltage Vo = 50mV Co = 5 x 15 / 0.05 x 31.25 x1000 (15 +25) = 1200 F Nearest available value is 1000uF, 35V & 220F. These two are connected in parallel to get 1220F 41

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCUIT

AVR ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

BUFFER LED SOLAR PV ARRAY OPTO-COUPLER BUCK CONVETER LOAD SWITCH (micro) LCD DISPLAY

AMPLIFIER

Fig.29

42

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER

SPV 1N4148 1N4148

1N4148 330E

1N4148 330E

1N4148 330E

0.1E

+5V

LCD DISPLAY 16X2 10K 47K 10E

-12V

1K

1N4148 1N4148

100E 1K,1/2W

BA159

PC817

Batt.

47K

+5V

CD4049

10K 0.1E 1K

1K

+12V

1K

BD139 12 3

10K 47K 10K

SW Push button

+5V

470E 1K

R17 2.2K

10K

-12V

+5V

1N4148 1N4148

0.uF

10uF

TL084 1K

10uF

1 2 3 4

TC7660

+12V 8 7 6 5

+5V

1n C4

10K
+5V

1K
1 22 20 21 9 0.1uF

+12V

ATMEGA 8 MICRO CONTROLLER

100nF 10uF

ADC0 ADC1 ADC2 ADC3 ADC4 ADC5 PD0 PD1 PD2 PD3 PD4 PD5 PD6 PD7 PB0 PB1 PB2 PB3 PB4 PB5

23 24 25 26 27 28 2 3 4 5 6 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

10K 47K 10K

10 8

7 100uH 100uF

LM7805 +12v
1 3

+5v 100uF 0.1uF

SW Push button

SW Push button

1000uF

0.1uF

VI
2

VO

10K

10K

+5V

Fig.30

43

1N4148 1N4148

IRF 9640 123

+5V

0.75mH 100uF 0.1uF

5K

+5V

TL084

PIN CONFIGURATION OF AVR ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

PIN FUNCTION PIN 1: PC6- Generic IO pin PC6(Port C6) /RESET- Reset Pin for MCU, active at low PIN 2: PD0- Generic IO pin PD0 (Port D0) PIN 3: PD1- Generic IO pin PD1 (Port D1) PIN 4: PD2- Generic IO pin PD2 (Port D2) INTO- External interrupt source 0 to the MCU. PIN 5: PD3- Generic IO pin PD3 (Port D3) INT1- External interrupt source 1 to the MCU. PIN 6: PD4- Generic IO pin PD4(Port D4) T0- Timer/Counter0 clock source XCX- USART external clock PIN 7: Vcc Power Supply(+5V) PIN 8: GND Common Ground PIN 9: PB6- Generic IO pin PB6(Port B6) XTAL1-Pin for external clock source (crystal,resonator) for MCU(input) TOSC1-Timer Oscillator Pin1-clock source for asynchronous clocking of 44

Timer/counter1 PIN 10: PB7- Generic IO pin PB6(Port B7) XTAL2-Pin for external clock source (crystal,resonator) for MCU(inTOSC2-Timer Oscillator Pin2-clock source for asynchronous clocking of Timer/counter1 PIN 11: PD5- Generic IO pin PD5(Port D5) T1-Timer/Counter1 clock source. PIN 12: PD6- Generic IO pin PD6(Port D6) N0: AIN0 Analog comparator Positive input.When configured as an input and with the internal MOS pull-up resistor switched off,thin film also serves as the positive input of the on chip analog comparator. PIN 13: PD7- Generic IO pin PD7(Port D6)AIN1: AIN1 Analog comparator Negative input. When configured as an input and with the internal MOS pull-up resistor switched off, thin film also serves as the negative. PIN 14: PB0- Generic IO pin PB0(Port B0) ICP1-Timer/Counter1 input capture pin. PIN 15: PB1- Generic IO pin PB1(Port B1) OC1A-Output Compare matchA output.The pin can serve as an external output for the Timer/Counter1 output CompareA.The pin has to be configured as an output to serve the function. The OC1A pin is also the output pin for the PWM mode timer function. PIN 16: PB2- Generic IO pin PB2(Port B2) /ss-slave select pin for using with SPI. OC1A-Output Compare matchB output.The pin can serve as an external output for the Timer/Counter1 output CompareB.The pin has to be configured as an output to serve the function. The OC1A pin is also the output pin for the PWM mode timer function. PIN 17: PB3- Generic IO pin PB3(Port B3) OC2-Timer/Counter2 output compare match output. The pin can serve as an external output for the timer/counter2 output compare.the pin has to be configured as an output to serve this function.The OC2 pin is also the output pin for the PWM mode timer function. PIN 18: PB4- Generic IO pin PB4(Port B4) MISO-Data output pin for memory uploading or SPI. PIN 19: PB5- Generic IO pin PB5(Port B5) SCK-Clock input pin for memory up/downloading or SPI. PIN 20: AVCC- Power supply for AD Converter. PIN 21: AREF- Reference voltage for AD converter. PIN 22: GND- Common Ground. PIN 23: PC0- Generic IO pin PC0(Port C0) ADC0-Analog to Digital input ADC0. PIN 24: PC1- Generic IO pin PC1(Port C1) ADC1-Analog to Digital input ADC1. PIN 25: PC2- Generic IO pin PC2(Port C2) ADC2-Analog to Digital input ADC2. PIN 26: PC3- Generic IO pin PC3(Port C3) 45

ADC3-Analog to Digital input ADC3. PIN 27: PC4- Generic IO pin PC4(Port C4) ADC4-Analog to Digital input ADC4. SDA-2-wire serial bus Data.When the TWEN bit in TWCR is Set (one to enable the 2-wire serial interface, pin is disconnected from the port and becomes the erial Data I/O pin for the 2wire serial interface. PIN 28: PC5- Generic IO pin PC5(Port C5) ADC5-Analog to Digital input ADC5. SCL-2-wire serial Interface Clock. When the TWEN bit in TWCR is Set (one to enable the 2wire serial interface, pin is disconnected from the port and becomes the serial Clock I/O pin for the 2-wire serial interface.

To track the Maximum Power Point, Solar Photo Voltaic Array acts as a source which is connected to a Buck Converter. Buck Converter is a step down converter which is used to step down the voltage which is generated from a solar photo voltaic array. The output of the Buck Converter is controlled by a switch. MOSFET acts as a switch. This switch is controlled by the duty cycle of the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) which is connected to a Gate of the MOSFET. This PWM is generated from a AVR ATMEGA8 Microcontroller. Pin No. 15,16,17 of Microcontroller generates the PWM. .

Generation of PWM from the Microcontroller

Timer/Counter2 is a general purpose, single channel, 8-bit Timer/Counter module.The main features are: Single Channel Counter Clear Timer on Compare Match (Auto Reload) Glitch-free, phase Correct Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) Frequency Generator 10-bit Clock Prescaler Overflow and Compare Match Interrupt Sources (TOV2 and OCF2) Allows Clocking from External 32 kHz Watch Crystal Independent of the I/O Clock.

46

A simplified block diagram of the 8-bit Timer/Counter.

Fig.31 The Timer/Counter (TCNT2) and Output Compare Register (OCR2) are 8-bit registers. Interrupt request.signals are all visible in the Timer Interrupt Flag Register (TIFR).All interrupts are individually masked with the Timer Interrupt Mask Register (TIMSK). Definitions: Many register and bit references in this document are written in general form. A lower case n replaces the Timer/Counter number, in this case. However, when using the register or bit defines in a program, the precise form must be used (i.e., TCNT2 for accessing Timer/Counter2 counter value and so on).

47

Timer/Counter Clock Sources: The Timer/Counter can be clocked by an internal synchronous or an external asynchronous clock source. The clock source clkT2 is by default equal to the MCU clock, clk I/O. When the AS2 bit in the ASSR Register is written to logic one, the clock source is taken from the Timer/Counter Oscillator connected to TOSC1 and TOSC2. Counter Unit: The main part of the 8-bit Timer/Counter is the programmable bi-directional counter unit. Counter Unit Block Diagram

Fig.32 Signal description (internal signals): count Increment or decrement TCNT2 by 1. direction Selects between increment and decrement. clear Clear TCNT2 (set all bits to zero). clkT2 Timer/Counter clock. TOP Signalizes that TCNT2 has reached maximum value. BOTTOM Signalizes that TCNT2 has reached minimum Value (zero)

Fast PWM Mode: The fast Pulse Width Modulation or fast PWM mode (WGM21:0 = 3) provides a high PWM waveform generation option. The fast PWM differs from the other PWM option by its singleslope operation. The counter counts from BOTTOM to MAX then restarts from BOTTOM. In non-inverting Compare Output mode, the Output Compare (OC2) is cleared on the Compare Match between TCNT2 and OCR2, and set at BOTTOM.In inverting Compare Output mode, the output is set on Compare Match and cleared at BOTTOM.Due to the single-slope operation, the operating frequency of the fast PWM mode can be twice as high as the phase correct PWM mode that uses dual-slope operation. This high frequency makes the fast PWM mode well 48

suited for power regulation, rectification, and DAC applications. High frequency allows physically small sized external components (coils, capacitors), and therefore reduces total system cost. Fast PWM Mode, Timing Diagram

Fig.33 This 8-bit PWM is connected to a buffer IC. Digital Buffer: Output of the NOT gate is the "complement" or inverse of its input signal. For example, when its input signal is "HIGH" its output state will NOT be "HIGH" and when its input signal is "LOW" its output state will NOT be "LOW", it inverts. Another single input logical device used a lot in electronic circuits and which is the reverse of the NOT gate is called a Digital Buffer. A Digital Buffer is another single input device that does no invert or perform any type of logical operation on its input signal as its output exactly matches that of its input signal. In other words, its Output equals its Input. It is a "Non-inverting" device and so will give us the Boolean expression of: A = Q. Then we can define the operation of a single input Digital Buffer as being: "If A is true, then Q is true" A Digital Buffer can also be made by connecting together two NOT gates as shown below. The first will "invert" the input signal A and the second will "re-invert" it back to its original level.

49

BUFFER
A
1 2

A'

Fig.34 Truth Table

A 0 1

Q 0 1

HEX INVERTER IC CD4049 used as a buffer when two inverter are connected i.e output of the one inverter is connected to the other that produces the buffer. Buffer is used to boost up the PWM signal & also used for High impedance matching at the output.

OPTO-COUPLER

Output of the Buffer is connected to a Opto-coupler. Opto-coupler is used as a isolator. It isolate the digital section from the high voltage power section. This isolator is used to save the low voltage digital circuit from the high voltage power circuit. PC817 used as a Opto-coupler.

50

Theory of Optocoupler
The optical coupler is a venerable device that offers the design engineer new freedoms in designing circuits and systems. Problems such as ground loop isolation,common mode noise rejection, power supply transformations, and many more problems can be solved or simplified with the use of an optical coupler. Operation is based on the principle of detecting emitted light. The input to the coupler is connected to a light emitter and the output is a photodector, the two elements being separated by a transparent insulator and housed in a lightexcluding package. There are many types of optical couplers; for example, the light source could be an incandescent lamp or a light emitting diode (LED). Also,the detector could be photovoltaic cell, photoconductive cell, photodiode, phototransistor, or a lightsensitive SCR. By various combinations of emitters and detectors, a number of different types of optical couplers could be assembled. Once an emitter and detector have been assembled as a coupler, the optical portion is permanently established so that device use is only electronic in nature. This eliminates the need for the circuit designer to have knowledge of optics. COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS The PC817 is an optical coupler consisting of a gallium arsenide (GaAs) LED and a silicon phototransistor. INPUT For most applications the basic LED parameters IF and VF are all that are needed to define the input. Fig.36 shows these forward characteristics, providing the necessary information to design the LED drive circuit. Most circuit applications will require a current limiting resistor in series with the LED input. OUTPUT The output of the coupler is the phototransistor. The basic parameters of interest are the collector current IC and collector emitter voltageVCE.Figure37 is a curve of VCE(sat) versus IC for two different drive level. COUPLING To fully characterize the coupler, a new parameter, the dc current transfer ratio or coupling efficiency ( ) must be defined. This is the ratio of the transistor collector current to diode current IC/IF.

51

RESPONSE TIME The speed is fairly slow compared to switching transistors, but is typical of phototransistors because of the large basecollector area. The switching time or bandwidth of the coupler is a function of the load resistor RL because of the RLCO time constant where CO is the parallel combination of the device and load capacitances.

Fig.35 Opto-Coupler

Fig.36 Input Characteristic of Opto-Coupler

52

Fig.37 Output Characteristic of Opto-Coupler

AMPLIFIER
Output of the Opto-coupler is connected to a Transistor Amplifier which is used to amplify the DC level of the PWM signal. BD139 power transistor is used as a Amplifier when proper biasing is applied to the circuit.

Circuit Diagram of the Amplifier:

SPV 100E 1K,1/2W Opto-coupler output 2.2K

O/P of Amplifier

Fig.38 This Amplifier output is used to drive the Gate of MOSFET. So this amplifier is used as a driver circuit of the MOSFET. MOSFET used as a switch for Buck Converter

53

Why we use Buck Converter: We know that for charging a 12Volt battery minimum required voltage is 13.5 Volt, but Solar PV Module produces a 25Volt.So to step down the voltage Buck Converter or StepDown converter is required.

BUCK CONVERTER
SPV Voltage IRF 9640 MOSFET 3.3mH Output of Buck conve 0.1uF 100uF

1K,1/2 W

100E

Amplified PWM

Fig.39

Buck Converter: In a regulator ,the average output voltage Va,is less than the input voltage,Vs hence the name buck, a very popular regulator. The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a MOSFET.The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when MOSFET is switched on at t=0. The input current,which rises,flows through filter inductor L, filter capacitor C and load resistor R.Mode2 begins when MOSFET is switched off at t=t1.The freewheeling diode Dm conducts due to energy stored in the inductor and the inductor current continues to flow through L,C,load and diode Dm. The inductor Current falls until MOSFET is switched on again in the next cycle. The equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in figure.39.The waveforms for the voltage & current flows continuously in the inductor L.It is assumed that the current rises and falls linearly in practical circuits, the switch has a finite, nonlinear resistance.Its effect can generally be negligible in most applications. Depending on the switching frequency, filter inductance and capacitance the inductor current could be discontinuous. The voltage across the inductor L is , in general eL = L di/dt Assuming that the inductor current rises linearly from I1 to I2 in time t1, Vs Va = L ( I2-I1/t1) = L I/t1 Or t1 = IL/(Vs- Va) and the inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in time t2, -Va = - L I/t2 54

t2 = IL/Va where I=I2 I1 is the peak-peak ripple current of the inductor L. equating the value of I, I = (Vs Va)t1/L = Va t2/L Substituting t1 = kT and t2 = (1 - k)T yields the average output voltage as Va = Vs t1/T = kVs Assuming a lossless circuit Vs x Is = Va x Ia=KxVsxIa and the average input current Is = k x Ia The switching period T can be expressed as T = 1/f = t1 +t2 = IL/(Vs Va) + IL/Va = ILVs/(Va(Vs - Va)) Which gives the peak-to-peak ripple current as I = Va(Vs - Va)/fLVs I = Vsk(1 - k) /fL Using Kirchhoffs current law, we can write the inductor current iL as iL = ic +io If we assume that the load ripple current io is very small and negligible, iL = ic. The average capacitor current, which flows into for t1 +t2 = T/2 is Ic = I/4 The cacitor voltage is expressed as Vc=1/C ic dt +vc (t=0) And the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is Vc =Vc Vc(t = 0)=1/C T/ 2 I/4 dt = I T/8x C= I 0 Substituting the value of I from Eq, Vc = Va (Vs Va0/(8LCf2 Vs) Vc = Vsx k (1-k)/(8LCf2) Condition for Continuous Inductor Current and Capacitor Voltage: If IL is the average inductor current , the inductor ripple current I = 2IL We get, Vs(1 - k)k/fL = 2IL = 2 Ia = 2kVs/R Which gives the critical vaule of the inductor Lc as Lc = L = (1 - k) R/2f If Vc is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage Vc = 2Va We get Vs x (1-k) x k/(8xLxCxf2) = 2xVa = 2xkxVs Which gives the critical value of the capacitor Cc as Cc =C = 1-k/(16xLxf2) The buck converter requires only for on-off the MOSFET and has efficiency greater than 90%.The di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor L. However, the input current is discontinuous and a smoothing input filter is normally required. 55

The output of the Buck Converter produces the voltage which is less from the solar PV Module array voltage. The Output of the Buck Converter is used to charging a 12V,7Amp-hr Lead acid Battery.

The Battery is charged by the Maximum Power Point tracking (MPPT) method using Microcontroller. To track the Maximum Power Point, it is required to scene the solar PV module voltage & Current and also required to scene the Buck Converter Output Voltage & also Current which is used to charged the battery. We know that Microcontroller is a Digital system and its operating voltage is +5V.But Solar PV Module & Buck Converter produces the High voltage. It is required to reduced in +5V by using a voltage divider method. After reducing the high voltage analog signal become a digital signal. These digital signal are read by the ADC(A-to-D) port of the AVR ATMEGA8 Microcontroller. Similarly, current of the Solar PV module & current which is produced by the Buck Converter is converted into a voltage. These voltages are also read by the ADC Port of the AVR ATMEGA8 Microcontroller.

Now the Voltage Divider Method:

Solar PV Voltage

+5V

1K

Fig.40 Solar PV Module Voltage = 25V It is required to reduce the maximum upto to +5V. R1 = 47K 56

1N4148

10K

1N4148

47K

R2 = 10K R2/(RI + R2) x 25 = 10K/(10K + 47K) x 25 V = 4.38V

This voltage is connected to a ADC port of the ATMEGA8 Microcontroller. Similarly, Output of the Buck Converter is required to reduced upto +5V. Output of Buck Converter = 15V. R1 = 22K R2 = 10K R2/(R1 + R2)X15 = 10K/(10K + 22K) x 15 V = 4.68V
Buck Converter O/P
+5V

1K

Fig.41

Current to Voltage Converter:

O/P of the Buck Converter or Solar PV Voltage
7 +5V + V+ 7 +5V + V+ 3 OS2 5 6 1 -5V 4 3 OS2 5 6 1

1N4148

10K

1N4148

22K

12V,7A-h Battery
0.1E

10K

OUT V2 OS1

1K

OUT -5V V4 2 OS1

47K

10K

Fig.42 It is an Inverting amplifier using Op-Amp TL084. If Battery is charged by the 1A Current. We connect a 0.1 resistance which is connected in series with the Battey. So Maximum Voltage is drpped across 0.1 is 0.1V. 57

Now this Voltage is amplified by using a Inverting amplifier. For Inverting Amplifier, Vo/Vin = -Rf/Rin Vo should be maximum 5V. Gain hould be Maximum (5/0.1)=50 We consider the Rin = 1k Rf = 50K We consider the 47K resistor because nearest available Value of 50k resistor is 47K.It is Inverting amplifier so it produces a -4.7V. To obtain a +4.7V output a similar amplifier is designed whose gain is 1. So we consider Rf = Rin =10K. So, all the Voltage & Current of a Solar PV Module & Buck Converter are converted into +5V. Now all the voltage & Current of a Solar PV Module & Buck Converter are connected to a ADC Port of a Microcontroller. Pin No.23,24,25,26 of a Microcontroller used as a ADC Channel. The Micro Switches are connected to a Port D4 & D5 to Set or Reset the Microcontroller. Pin No.6,11 of a Microcontroller used as a Port D4 & D5. Light Emitting Diode (LED) are connected to a Port B0,B1,B2 to indicate the different operating condition. Pin No.14,15,16 of a Microcontroller used as a Port B0, B1 & B2. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Method: Maximum Power Point Tracking is performed by using a very advanced method (Incremental Conductance Method) which is independent of temperature, other atmospheric condition that is used to track the maximum Power Point very quickly. Maximum Power Point is tracked by using a microcontroller. So, to track the maximum power point, Solar PV Module voltage is connected to a source of the p- channel MOSFET and also connected to a ADC of the Microcontroller. Solar PV module Current is also converted into a Voltage and is connected to a ADC of the microcontroller.

58

Similarly, Buck converter output Voltage is connected to a ADC of the microcontroller. The output of the Buck is used to charging a Battery.So the current of the Buck Converter is converted to a voltage which is connected to a ADC of the microcontroller. For Maximum Power Point tracking Solar PV Module voltage is connected to a Buck Converter which is controlled by the duty cycle of the PWM. The PWM is generated from the AVR ATMEGA 8 Microcontroller. So, to track the Maximum Power Point , For a particular duty cycle of the PWM, Measure the Solar PV Module Voltage ( Vin1) Solar PV Module Current (Iin1) Buck Converter Output Voltage (Vout1) Buck Converter Output Current (Iout1) Now increase the duty cycle by 1 Measure the Solar PV Module Voltage ( Vin2) Solar PV Module Current (Iin2) Buck Converter Output Voltage (Vout2) Buck Converter Output Current (Iout2) Now measure the difference between the Voltage & current to obtain the conductance Vin = Vin2 Vin1 Iin = Iin2 Iin1 Vout = Vout2 Vout1 Iout = Iout2 Iout1 So the Incremental Conductance (S1) = Iin / Vin And instanteneous Conductance (S2) = - ( Iin2/ Vin2) Then the Maximum Power Point will tracked that means MPPT will performed. So to track the Maximum Power Point a Software Programming is required to adjust the duty cycle automatically & extract the Maximum Power from the Solar PV Module for every change in Voltage & Current of the PV module.

59

Votage Converter Circuit:

NC +12Volt IC TC7660 NC NC

10uF

Fig.43 This circuit is used to convert from +12Volt to -12Volt supply. We know that Output of the battery produce +12Volt.There is no any -12Volt supply.But in this circuit amplifier is used which is made by Operational-Amplifier(Op-Amp).For biasing of the Op-Amp +12Volt & -12volt both are required. At last Output is displayed on a LCD .Solar PV module Voltage & Current and also Buck Converter Output Voltage & Current all are read from the LCD(Liquid crystal Display). It is a 16*2 Character LCD.

Fig.44

60

10uF

-12Volt

CHAPTER 6. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION.

61

SOFTWARE SECTION
The Solar Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking charge Controller is controlled by the variation of the duty cycle of the PWM which is used to control the Buck Converter. This control is done by the microcontroller. There are different programming language which is used in Microcontroller such as Assembly, C language ,Basic etc. Here, a special type of Software is used to compile the programmed in microcontroller. Name of the Software is AVR BASCOM. In the BASCOM software we can write the program in different languages such as Assembly, C language ,Basic etc. But in this project Program is written by the AVR BASCOM BASIC language. This language is very easy to write and also very easy to debug the error. So to write the Software coding, a algorithm is required. Here a special type of algorithm is used to track the Maximum Power Point. The Algorithm is Incremental Conductance method. This algorithm is independent of temperature, other atmospheric condition.

62

DESCRIPTION OF THE ALGORITHM (Incremental Conductance Method): Detetc the Solar PV Module Volage V1 & Output Current I1 for a particular duty cycle of the PWM. Measure the Power P1 =V1xI1. Now increase the duty cycle by 1 and measure the Solar Module Voltage V2 & O/P Current I2 . Measure the Power P2 =V2xI2 Measure V = V2 V1 I = I2 I1 If V = 0 then I = 0 If I = 0 then output voltage remains the same If I 0 & If I > 0 decrease the duty cycle by 1 If I < 0 increase the duty cycle by 1 If V 0 then I/V = - (I2/ V2) If I/V = - (I2/ V2) then output remains same If I/V - (I2/ V2) then if I/V > - (I2/ V2) Increase the duty cycle by 1 if I/V < - (I2/ V2) then decrease the duty cycle by 1

63

START

FLOW CHART

Detect V(k) &I(k)

OF MPPT using (INC)

Compute dV & dI dV=V(k)-V(k-1) dI=I(k)-I(k-1)

YES

dV=0
NO YES YES

dI/dV = -I/V
NO YES

dI=0 NO YES

dI/dV NO > -I/V

NO Increase O/P Voltage Decrease O/P voltage

dI>0 NO

Increase O/P voltage

Decrease O/P Voltage

O/P Voltage remains the same

Renew V(k) & I(k) V(k-1)=V(k) I(k-1)=I(k)

O/P Volt.remains the same

64

Coding of Incremental Conductance Method (Using AVR BASCOM BASIC Language)

'$sim $regfile = "m8def.dat" $crystal = 8000000 ' /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' Config Adc = Single , Prescaler = Auto , Reference = Avcc Start Adc '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' Dim W1 As Word 'spv voltage1' Dim W2 As Word 'o/p current1' Dim W3 As Word 'spv voltage2' Dim W4 As Word 'o/p current2' Dim S1 As Integer 'change in voltage'' ' Dim S2 As Integer 'change in current'' Dim R1 As Single 'change in conductance' Dim R2 As Single 'instanteneous conductance' '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Config PortB.3 = Output Config Timer2 = Pwm , Prescale = 8 , Pwm = On , Compare Pwm = Clear Up '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Dim Gp As Integer 'duty cycle of Pwm' Gp = 1 Main: Compare2 = Gp Waitms 200 B: W1 = Getadc(2) Waitms 200 W2 = Getadc(3) Waitms 200 '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' Gp = Gp + 1 'duty cycle is increased by 1' Compare2 = Gp Waitms 200 Start: W3 = Getadc(3) Waitms 200 W4 = Getadc(2) 65

'///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' S1 = W3 - W1 S2 = W4 - W2 '///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// If S1 = 0 Then Goto C Else Goto D End If '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' C: If S2 = 0 Then Goto E Else Goto F End If '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// /////////////////////// D: R1 = S2 / S1 R2 = W4 / W3 '///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// If R1 = R2 Then Goto G Else Goto H End If '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ' E: Gp = Gp Compare2 = Gp Goto End F: If S2 > 0 Then Goto I Else Goto J End If '////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' 66

G: Gp = Gp Compare2 = Gp Goto End H: If R1 > R2 Then Goto K Else Goto L End If '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' I: Gp = Gp + 1 Compare2 = Gp If Gp > 200 Then Gp = 200 Compare2 = Gp End If Goto End '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////' J: Gp = Gp - 1 Compare2 = Gp If Gp = 255 Then Gp = 0 End If Goto End K: Gp = Gp + 1 Compare2 = Gp If Gp > 200 Then Gp = 200 Compare2 = Gp End If Goto End '////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////'

67

L: Gp = Gp - 1 Compare2 = Gp If Gp = 255 Then Gp = 0 End If Goto End End: W3 = W1 W4 = W2 Goto Start '

68

Description of the Algorithm (Modified Incremental Conductance Method):

Vmax & Imax are the maximum desiarable voltage & Current. At First detect the SPV Voltage(Vi1) & SPV Current (Ii1)for a particular Duty Cycle of the PWM. And detect the Buck Converter Output Voltage (Vb1) & Battery Current (Ib1). Now Increase the Duty Cycle by 1. Again, detect the SPV Voltage(Vi2) & SPV Current (Ii2). And detect the Buck Converter Output Voltage (Vb2) & battery Current (Ib2). Now Again Increase the Duty Cycle by 1. Detect the SPV Voltage(Vi3) & SPV Current (Ii3). And detect the Buck Converter Output Voltage (Vb3) & Battery Current (Ib3). Compute the Change in Voltages & Currents. dV1=Vb2-Vb1 dI1 =Ib2-Ib1 dV2= Vb3-Vb2 dI2=Ib3-Ib2 Now Compute the Change in Conductance S1=dI1/dV1 S2=dI2/dV2 If S2>S1 then Duty Cycle is increased by 1 And similarly, If S2<S1 then Duty Cycle is decreased by 1. Then New value is stored in the previous value. Now we check the battery condition, If Ib3<Imax ,Vb3 should be less than Vmax. If Ib3>Imax ,Vb3 should be greater than Vmax. If Vb3 greater than Vmax after some delay it will return back to the initial condition. If Vb3<Vmax it again compute the Incremental Conductance

69

Modified Incremental

START

Conductance Method

Detect Vi,Ii,Vmax,Imax,Vb,Ib Duty Cycle= D

Compute dV1 ,dV2,Ib1,Ib2 For D=1 ;dV1 =Vb2-Vb1; dI1 = Ib2 Ib1 For D=D+1; dV2 = Vb3-Vb2; dI1 = Ib3-Ib2

Compute change in conductance S1=dI1/dV1, S2 =dI2/dV2

NO S2>S1 D=D-1 S1=S2

YES

D=D+1

NO Ib3<Imax YES YES Vb3<Vmax YES DELAY N N

Vb3>Vmax

70

Coding of modified Incremental Conductance Method

'$sim $regfile = "m8def.dat" $crystal = 8000000 ' ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Config Adc = Single , Prescaler = Auto , Reference = Avcc Start Adc '////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Dim Vb1 As Word buck o/p voltage1 Dim Vb2 As Word buck o/p voltage2 Dim Vb3 As Word buck o/p voltage3 Dim Ib1 As Word battery current1 Dim Ib2 As Word battery current2 Dim Ib3 As Word battery current3 Dim Vmax As Word 'max O/P voltage' Dim Imax As Word 'max O/P current' Dim Vi As Word 'spv voltage Dim Ii As Word spv current Dim Wi As Word spv power Dim P1 As Word 'change in voltage1' Dim P2 As Word 'change in voltage2' Dim Q1 As Word 'change in current1' Dim Q2 As Word 'change in curent2' Dim S1 As Word 'change in conductance1' Dim S2 As Word 'change in conductance2' ' /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Config Portb.3 = Output Config Timer2 = Pwm , Prescale = 8 , Pwm = On , Compare PWM = Clear Up '////////////////////////////////////////////////// Dim Gp As Integer 'duty cycle of PWM' ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// M: Gp = 1 Vmax = 1000 Imax = 1000 Vi = Getadc(3) Ii = Getadc (4) W = Vix Ii 71

X: Compare2 = Gp Waitms 200 'delay 200ms' Vb1 = Getadc(1) Waitms 100 Ib1 = Getadc(2) Waitms 100 ' //////////////////////////////////////////////////// Y: Gp = Gp + 1 'Duty cycle is increased by 1' Compare2 = Gp Waitms 200 Vb2 = Getadc(1) Waitms 100 Ib2 = Getadc(2) Waitms 100 '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Z: Gp = Gp + 1 'Duty cycle is increased by 1' Compare2 = Gp Waitms 200 Vb3 = Getadc(1) Waitms 100 Ib3 = Getadc(2) Waitms 100 '///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// P1 = Vb2 - Vb1 P2 = Vb3 - Vb2 Q1 = Ib2 - Ib1 Q2 = Ib3 - Ib2 '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// S1 = Q1 / P1 S2 = Q2 / P2 '///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// If S2 > S1 Then Goto A Else 72

Goto B End If ' //////////////////////////////////////////////////// A: Gp = Gp + 1 Compare2 = Gp Waitms 100 S1 = S2 '//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// B: Gp = Gp - 1 Compare2 = Gp Waitms 100 S1 = S2 '////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// If S1 = S2 Then If Ib3 < Imax Then Goto C Else Goto D End If End If '/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// C: If Vb3 < Vmax Then Goto Z Else Wait 5 Goto M End If D: If Vb3 > Vmax Then Wait 5 Goto M Else Goto Z End If End 'end program

73

CHAPTER 7. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

74

Implementation of the hardware for the MPPT system is done using AVR Microcontroller. A personal computer (PC) is used for implementing the control.
System components .

The hardware setup of the MPPT consists of a - Solar PV module - Dc/Dc converter(step down) with driving circuit of P-Channel MOSFET that acts as a switch. - A load (12V,7AH Battery ) Personal computer(installed with BASCOM software & Ponyprog Programmer through which microcontroller programmed was burned.)

Hardware Setup
Fig.45

75

1).Solar PV module:Solar PV module used is a 38W module having 17.7Vp and 2.2Ap at 25degree Celsius and 1000W/m2. The module is multicrystalline having 36 cells. The module is shown in the fig.

.
SOLAR PV MODULE Fig.46 2).Dc/Dc converter:-

The dc/dc converter is the main component of the MPPT system it acts as an interface between the module and the load. The experiment is carried out using the step down converters. The detailes of the converters are explain in the chapter 5.The converters are controlled through the Duty Cycle of PWM that is generated form a AVR Microcontroller . A driver circuit is used to drive the MOSFET.For reliable operation a MOSFETt of rating 100V and 25A was selected. MOSFET is P- Channel IRF9640. The other components of the dc/dc converter isinductor and capacitor where selected according to the thumb rule.
3).Software Programming Language BASCOM & Ponyprog Programmer through which microcontroller Programme was burned are installed on Personal Computer:-

76

Personal computer is used for Compile the program into the AVR Atmega8 The selected algorithm is implemented by using a BASCOM software.

Microcontroller

The algorithm developed and simulation in the BASCOM is downloaded in the AVR Microcontroller through serial Port of the PC using Ponyprog Programmer.
LOAD:- Load used is a purely a 12V, 7 A-H Battery.

STEP DOWN DC-DC CONVERTER USING IC 3524

Fig.47

77

HARDWARE SETUP FOR MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER(1)

Fig.48

78

HARDWARE SETUP FOR MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER(2)

Fig.49

79

GENARATED PWM SIGNAL ON DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

Fig.50

80

CHAPTER 8. RESULT

81

DATA TABLE OF MPPT SYSTEM

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

O/P VOLTAGE(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 6

O/P CURRENT(I) 0 2.5 3 2.6 3.25 3.2 3.16 3.14 3.125 3.11 3 2.91 2.83 2.61 2.28 2 0

O/P POWER(P) 0 2.5 6 8 13 16 19 22 25 28 30 32 34 34 32 30 0

82

VOLTAGE Vs POWER CURVE OF THE MPPT SYSTEM

35 30 25

O/P Power)

20 15 10 5 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20

O/P Voltage

Fig.51

83

CHAPTER 9. Conclusions & Future Scope

84

Conclusions:
1).Power output of module improves by using MPPT system.It is observed that the module gives the output maximum power of 29W at on time(12:00 noon).In early morning it gives power of about 10W same power is obtained in the evening. The temperature has effect on the maximum Power. 2).Power output should be increased by increasing the current rating. To increase the power, biasing power should be decreased. 3)The power delivered to the load in case of step-down converter is about 30W. Output voltage of the Buck Converter is decreased which is about 15Volt. 4).Temperature of the module is an important parameter. The power output of the module changes by about 0.5% for every degree rise in temperature.Due to the increase in temperature the power output decreases very sharply. 5) The module placement also plays an important role in power output. Module is kept south facing hat is the path of the sun for around the year . Buts its elevation angle must be adjusted every month to get high power output. The axial tracking for the individual module which are not too heavy (10W to 60W) can be obtained automatically. Where as for the panel or arrays the automatic tracking is not feasible due to large torque required to rotate the arrays. So in these cases a manual tracking/automatic tracking can be performed by adjusting the array direction for three times a day. i.e. morning, afternoon and evening. This type of tracking can add to the power in the module.

Future scope:
1) Development of different Microcontroller based dedicated MPPT controller for solar PV module based on the different algorithm such as observe & perturbation, computational method etc. This can be a low cost embedded controller. 2)Automatic recording and monitoring of the temperature and insolation level on the module to predict the maximum power of the module. 3) Development of a high Power Output MPPT system. 4)Converting the whole system into a single Integrated Circuit.

85

CHAPTER 10. References

86

References:
1) Eftichios Koutroulis, Kostas Kalaitzakis, Member, IEEE, and Nicholas C. Voulgaris,
Development of a Microcontroller Based solar Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Control System. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 16, NO. 1, JANUARY 2001

2) Chihchiang Hua and Chihming Shen.

Control of DC/DC Converters for Solar Energy System with Maximum Power Tracking. 3) Joe-Air Jiang1, Tsong-Liang Huang2, Ying-Tung Hsiao2*and Chia-Hong Chen2, Maximum Power Tracking for Photovoltaic Power Systems. Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering, National Taiwan University Taipei, Taiwan 106, R.O.C. Department of Electric Engineering, Tamkang UniversityTamsui, Taiwan 251, R.O.C. 4) Sachin Jain, Student Member, IEEE, and Vivek Agarwal Senior Member, IEEE A New Algorithm for Rapid tracking of Approximate Maximum Power Point in Photovoltaic systems. IEEE POWER ELECTRONICS LETTERS, VOL. 2, NO. 1, MARCH 2004 5) Mohamad A. S. Masoum, Seyed Mahdi Mousavi Badejani, and Ewald F. Fuchs.IEEE, Microprocessor-Controlled New Class of Optimal Battery Chargers for Photovoltaic Applications. 6) Chihchiang Hua, Member, IEEE, Jongrong Lin, and ChihmingShen Implementation of a DSPcontrolled Photovoltaic Peak Power Tracking system, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 45, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1998. 7).D. P. Hohm, M. E. Ropp,Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms Using an Experimental, Programmable, Maximum Power Point Tracking Test Bed,IEEE,2000.pp.1699-1702.

8) Mohammad A. S. Masoum, Hooman Dehbonei, and Ewald F. Fuchs, Theoretical and Experimental Analyses of Photovoltaic Systems With Voltage and CurrentBased Maximum Power-Point Tracking.IEEE TRANSACTION ON ENERGY CONVERSION,VOL.17,No.4.DECEMBER 2002. 9) www.ieeexplore.ieee.org. 10) www.atmel.com 11) BASCOM AVR Software

87

CHAPTER 11. ANNEXURE

88

THANK YOU