Application-Dehumidification in HVAC Systems PDF

Applications
Engineering
Manual
December 2002 SYS-APM004-EN
Dehumidification in
HVAC Systems
Dehumidification in
HVAC Systems
John Murphy, senior applications engineer
Brenda Bradley, information designer
Preface
Trane, in proposing these system design and application concepts, assumes no
responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system design.
Design of the HVAC system is the prerogative and responsibility of the engineering
professional.
Trane and the Trane logo are registered trademarks of Trane, which is a
business of American Standard Companies.
2002 American Standard Inc. All rights reserved SYS-APM004-EN
As a leading HVAC manufacturer, we believe that it is our responsibility to serve
the building industry by regularly disseminating information gathered through
laboratory research, testing programs, and practical experience. Trane
publishes a variety of educational materials for this purpose. Applications
engineering manuals, such as this document, can serve as comprehensive
reference guides for professionals who design building comfort systems.
This manual focuses on dehumidification (the process of removing moisture
from air), as performed by HVAC systems in commercial comfort-cooling
applications. Using basic psychrometric analyses, it reviews the
dehumidification performance of various types of cold-coil HVAC systems,
including constant-volume, variable-volume, and dedicated outdoor-air
systems. In each case, full-load and part-load dehumidification performance is
compared with the 60 percent-relative-humidity limit that is currently
recommended by ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 622001. This manual also
identifies ways to improve dehumidification performance, particularly at part-
load conditions.
We encourage you to familiarize yourself with the contents of this manual
and to review the appropriate sections when designing a comfort-system
application with specific dehumidification requirements.
Note: This manual does not address residential applications, nor does it discuss
the particular dehumidification requirements for process applications, such as
supermarkets, manufacturing, or industrial drying.
Contents
SYS-APM004-EN iii
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
Sources and Effects of Indoor Moisture ......................................... 2
Why be Concerned about Indoor Humidity? ........................................................ 3
Indoor Air Quality .............................................................................................. 3
Occupant Comfort and Productivity ................................................................ 4
Building Maintenance ....................................................................................... 5
Climate Considerations ........................................................................................... 5
Energy Use ............................................................................................................... 7
Dehumidification Primer .......................................................................... 9
Types of Dehumidification ..................................................................................... 9
Local Dehumidification ..................................................................................... 9
Remote Dehumidification ............................................................................... 10
Processes for Dehumidification ........................................................................... 10
Condensation on a Cold Coil .......................................................................... 10
Adsorption Using a Desiccant ........................................................................ 13
Implications for HVAC Control ............................................................................. 17
Humidity Control during Unoccupied Periods .............................................. 17
Building Pressurization ................................................................................... 18
Airside Economizing ....................................................................................... 18
Dehumidifying with Constant-Volume Mixed Air .................. 19
Analysis of Dehumidification Performance ........................................................ 19
Application Considerations .................................................................................. 22
Ventilation ........................................................................................................ 22
Climate ............................................................................................................. 24
Packaged DX Equipment ................................................................................ 24
Total-Energy Recovery .................................................................................... 27
Cold Supply Air ................................................................................................ 29
Humidity Control during Unoccupied Periods .............................................. 30
Improving Coincidental Dehumidification .......................................................... 32
Adjustable Fan Speed ..................................................................................... 32
Mixed-Air Bypass ............................................................................................ 34
Return-Air Bypass ............................................................................................ 37
DX Coil Circuiting ............................................................................................ 41
Direct Control of Humidity ................................................................................ 44
Separate Air Paths ........................................................................................... 44
Supply-Air Tempering ..................................................................................... 50
Contents
iv SYS-APM004-EN
Dehumidifying with Variable-Volume Mixed Air ................... 61
Analysis of Dehumidification Performance ........................................................ 61
Minimum Airflow Settings ............................................................................. 63
Supply-Air-Temperature Reset ...................................................................... 64
Supply-Air Tempering at VAV Terminals ..................................................... 65
Humidity Control during Unoccupied Periods ............................................. 68
Improving Dehumidification Performance ......................................................... 70
Condition Outdoor Air Separately ................................................................. 70
Deliver Colder Supply Air ............................................................................... 73
Dehumidifying with Dedicated Outdoor Air ............................. 75
System Configurations ......................................................................................... 75
Design Objectives for Conditioned Outdoor Air ................................................ 77
Moisture Content ............................................................................................ 77
Dry-Bulb Temperature .................................................................................... 80
Humidity Control during Unoccupied Periods ............................................. 86
Economizer Cooling ........................................................................................ 87
Reset Control Strategies ................................................................................. 90
Reheating Conditioned Air with Recovered Heat ......................................... 94
Preconditioning Outdoor Air with Recovered Energy ................................. 98
Afterword ...................................................................................................... 100
Appendix A: Psychrometric Analysis ............................................ 101
Full-Load, Peak Dry-Bulb Condition .................................................................. 102
Part-Load, Peak Dew-Point Condition ............................................................... 107
Appendix B: Designing a Dedicated OA System .................. 111
Selecting the Dedicated Outdoor-Air Handler .................................................. 112
Selecting the Local HVAC Terminals ................................................................ 116
Glossary ......................................................................................................... 125
References .................................................................................................... 129
Index ................................................................................................................. 131
SYS-APM004-EN 1
Introduction
Uncontrolled moisture can reduce the quality of indoor air, make occupants
uncomfortable, and damage a buildings structure and furnishings. One form of
moisture is water vapor entrained in the air.
Before the widespread use of air conditioning, humid weather meant high
moisture levels indoors; indoor relative humidity remained acceptable,
however, because the dry-bulb temperature indoors also increased. During
warm weather, interior surfaces were only slightly cooler than the ambient
temperature, so indoor condensation seldom occurred. The presence of any
microbial growth primarily resulted from water leaks or spills, or from
condensation on poorly insulated walls during cold weather.
Until 1970, designers typically chose constant-volume reheat or dual-duct
systems to provide mechanical ventilation and air conditioning in commercial
and institutional buildings. Both types of systems effectively (albeit
coincidentally) controlled indoor humidity while regulating dry-bulb
temperature. As the 1970s drew to a close, heightened concern about the
availability and cost of energy prompted designers to choose system designs
that neither used wasteful reheat energy nor mixed hot and cold air streams.
Although many of todays HVAC systems adequately control the indoor
dry-bulb temperature, the lack of reheat or mixing allows humidity in the
space to float. High humidity levels can develop, especially during part-load
operation. When coupled with the cold indoor surfaces that result from
mechanical cooling, high humidity may lead to unwanted condensation on
building surfaces.
The HVAC system and application influence the severity and duration of high
indoor humidity. This manual therefore compares the dehumidification
performance of several common types of HVAC systems.
2 SYS-APM004-EN
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
Moisture can enter a building as a liquid or a vapor via several paths (Figure 1).
It can cause problems in either form, and after it is inside the building, it can
change readily from liquid to vapor (evaporation) or from vapor to liquid
(condensation). To assure that the conditioned environment inside the building
remains within the acceptable range, carefully evaluate all sources of moisture
at all operating conditions when designing the HVAC system.
Liquid sources include ground-water seepage, leaks in the building envelope,
spills, condensation on cold surfaces, and wet-cleaning processes (such as
carpet shampooing). Roof leaks are a common source of unwanted water,
especially in large low-rise buildings like schools. Leaking pipes, another
common source, can be particularly troublesome because the leaks often
develop in inaccessible areas of the building.
Water vapor develops inside the building or it can enter the building from
outdoors. Indoor sources include respiration from people, evaporation from
open water surfaces (such as pools, fountains, and aquariums), combustion,
cooking, and evaporation from wet-cleaning. Outdoor sources include vapor
pressure diffusion through the building envelope, outdoor air brought in by the
HVAC system for ventilation, and air infiltration through cracks and other
openings in the building envelope, including open doors and windows.
Refer to Managing Building Moisture,
Trane applications engineering manual
SYS-AM-15, for more information on
sources of moisture in buildings,
methods for calculating moisture-
related HVAC loads, and techniques for
managing moisture in the building
envelope, occupied space, and
mechanical equipment room.
Figure 1. Sources of moisture in buildings
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
SYS-APM004-EN 3
Proper practices of design, construction, and operation can help minimize
unwanted moisture inside the building. For example, proper landscaping can
provide good drainage, periodic roof maintenance can help eliminate roof
leaks, the building envelope can include a weather barrier to keep rain from
penetrating the wall structure, and (depending on the season and climate)
positive building pressurization can minimize the infiltration of humid
outdoor air.
Why be Concerned about Indoor Humidity?
Indoor Air Quality
Scientists agree that excess water or dampness can contribute significantly
to mold growth inside buildings. An article in the November 2002 issue of the
ASHRAE Journal notes that:
While it has been difficult for epidemioligic studies to
definitively link indoor mold and human illness, there are
indications that indoor mold is responsible for such health
concerns as nasal irritation, allergic and non-allergic rhinitis,
malaise, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
1
It is virtually impossible to avoid contact with the spores produced by fungi
(including molds). Fungi exist everywhere: in the air, in and on plants and
animals, on soil, and inside buildings. They extract the nutrients that they need
to survive from almost any carbon-based material, including dust. Excessive
indoor humidity, especially at surfaces, encourages fungi and other
microorganisms, such as bacteria and dust mites, to colonize and grow.
Minimizing sources of moisture is the best way to help minimize microbial
growth. Scientist/authors Sarah Armstrong and Jane Liaw recommend that:
In the absence of clear guidance regarding what types of
indoor fungi, or concentrations thereof in air, are safe or risky,
one may wish simply to prevent mold from growing in
buildings by acting quickly [drying water-damaged areas
within 24 to 48 hours] when water leaks, spills, or floods occur
indoors, being alert to condensation, and filtering air.
1
S. Armstrong and J. Liaw. The Fundamentals of Fungi, ASHRAE Journal 44 no. 11: 1823.
The Web site hosted by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is a good source for information
about indoor air quality and related
health effects (www.epa.gov/iaq).
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
4 SYS-APM004-EN
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 622001, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,
addresses the link between indoor moisture and microbial growth in this
recommendation:
Relative humidity in habitable spaces preferably should be
maintained between 30 percent and 60 percent to minimize
the growth of allergenic and pathogenic organisms.
(Section 5.10)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) adopts a similar stance in its
publication titled Mold Remediation in Schools and Commercial Buildings:
The key to mold control is moisture control. Solve moisture
problems before they become mold problems! [One way to
help prevent mold is to] maintain low indoor humidity, below
60 percent relative humidity (ideally 3050 percent, if possible).
This publication, which was published in March 2001 and is identified as
EPA 402-K-01-001, is available from www.epa.gov/iaq/molds. For more
information about the mechanics of mold growth and how it affects buildings
and HVAC systems, review Chapter 7 in Humidity Control Design Guide for
Commercial and Institutional Buildings (ISBN 1-883413-98-2). It was published
by ASHRAE in 2001, and is available from their online bookstore at
www.ashrae.org.
Occupant Comfort and Productivity
In addition to curbing microbial growth, limiting indoor humidity to an
acceptable level helps assure consistent thermal comfort within occupied
spaces, which:
Reduces occupant complaints
Improves worker productivity
Increases rental potential and market value
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 551992, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy, specifies thermal environmental conditions that are
acceptable to 80 percent or more of the occupants within a space. The comfort
zone (Figure 2) defined by Standard 55 represents a range of environmental
conditions based on dry-bulb temperature, humidity, thermal radiation, and air
movement. Depending on the utility of the space, maintaining the relative
humidity between 30 percent and 60 percent keeps most occupants
comfortable.
Note: A proposed revision to ASHRAE Standard 55 suggests redefining
the upper humidity limit for thermal comfort as a humidity ratio of 84 gr/lb
(12 g/kg). This approximates a dew point of 62F (16.7C) or a relative humidity
If approved, a proposed addendum to
Standard 62 would require that systems
be designed to limit the relative
humidity in occupied spaces to
65 percent or less at the design outdoor
dew-point condition. The design dew-
point condition, however, does not
necessarily coincide with the worst-case
condition for indoor relative humidity.
As the examples presented later in this
manual demonstrate, even higher
indoor relative humidities can occur on
mild, rainy days during the cooling
season. The proposal was still under
debate when this manual went to press.
Check ASHRAEs Web site,
www.ashrae.org, for more
information.
comfort
zone
Figure 2. Summer comfort zone defined
by ASHRAE Standard 551992
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
SYS-APM004-EN 5
of 65 percent when the dry-bulb temperature is 75F (23.9C). The proposal was
still under debate when this manual went to press.
Building Maintenance
The same fungi (mold and mildew) that cause people discomfort and/or harm
also can irreversibly damage building materials, structural components, and
furnishings through premature failure, rot, corrosion, or other degeneration.
Moisture-related deterioration affects maintenance costs and operating costs
by increasing the frequency of normal cleaning and by requiring periodic
replacement of damaged furnishings, such as moldy carpet and wallpaper.
Climate Considerations
The ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals is a popular source for tabular,
climatic data representing the outdoor design conditions of many locations.
Peak dry-bulb conditions for cooling systems appear under the heading
Cooling DB/MWB (dry bulb and mean-coincident wet bulb). The ASHRAE
weather tables also indicate how often each condition occurs. For example, the
0.4 percent, peak dry-bulb condition for Jacksonville, Florida, is 96F DB and
76F MWB (35.7C DB, 24.5C MWB). In other words, the outdoor dry-bulb
temperature exceeds 96F (35.7C) for 0.4 percent of the time, or 35 hours, in an
average year. Also, the average, coincident wet-bulb temperature at this dry
bulb is 76F (24.5C WB).
The sensible load caused by the introduction of outdoor air and weather-
dependent space loads, such as conduction, is greatest when the outdoor
dry-bulb temperature is highest. Consequently, engineers who design HVAC
systems typically and (most of the time) appropriately use the peak dry-bulb
condition to determine the required capacity for the cooling coil. The peak
latent load resulting from the introduction of outdoor air, however, does not
coincide with the highest outdoor dry-bulb temperature; instead, it occurs when
the dew point of the outdoor air is highest.
Beginning with the 1997 edition, the design weather data in the ASHRAE
HandbookFundamentals includes the peak dew-point condition for each
location. Although peak dew-point data is seldom used for design purposes, it
helps designers analyze the dehumidification performance of HVAC systems
and, at the same time, provides a more complete picture of the relevant
weather conditions. According to the 2001 Handbook:
The [extreme dew-point] values are used as a check point
when analyzing the behavior of cooling systems at part-load
conditions, particularly when such systems are used for
humidity control as a secondary (or indirect) function. (p. 27.3)
For more information about problems
resulting from moisture in buildings,
refer to Preventing Indoor Air Quality
Problems in Hot, Humid Climates:
Design and Construction Guidelines,
published by CH2M Hill, and to
Humidity Control Design Guide for
Commercial and Institutional
Buildings, published by ASHRAE.
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
6 SYS-APM004-EN
Peak dew-point design conditions for cooling systems appear under the
heading Dehumidification DP/MDB and HR (dew point/mean-coincident dry
bulb and humidity ratio). The 0.4 percent, peak dew-point condition for
Jacksonville, Florida, is 76F DP and 84F MDB (24.6C DP, 28.8C MDB).
Outdoor air is cooler at this condition, but contains more moisture than outdoor
air at the peak dry-bulb condition.
For outdoor air used for ventilation, the peak sensible load rarely coincides with
the peak latent load. Consequently, coils selected for the highest sensible load
may not provide sufficient latent capacity when the highest latent load occurs.
More often, however, coils controlled to maintain the dry-bulb temperature in
the space (sensible capacity) operate with inadequate latent capacity at part-
load conditions, even though the latent capacity may be available. Therefore, it
is important to evaluate system performance at full-load and part-load
conditions, based on the humidity-control requirements of the application.
Moisture problems arent confined to hot, humid climates. Too often,
indoor humidity problems are incorrectly associated only with buildings
located in hot, humid climates. While it is true that such areas experience
elevated outdoor humidity levels for a higher percentage of the year, the
absolute amount of moisture in the air is comparable to that experienced in
many other climates. To illustrate this fact, Table 1 shows the peak dry-bulb and
peak dew-point conditions for several cities across the United States. Although
these cities are located in different regions, the peak dew-point conditions for
most of these locations are remarkably similar.
Table 1. Cooling design conditions for various U.S. cities
1
1
Source: 2001 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals, Chapter 27 (Table 1B)
0.4% Peak
dry-bulb condition
0.4% Peak
dew-point condition
Baltimore, Maryland 93F DB (34.0C)
75F WB (23.7C)
75F DP (23.8C)
83F DB (28.1C)
Dallas, Texas 100F DB (37.8C)
74F WB (23.6C)
75F DP (23.7C)
82F DB (28.0C)
Denver, Colorado 93F DB (33.8C)
60F WB (15.3C)
60F DP (15.6C)
69F DB (20.4C)
Jacksonville, Florida 96F DB (35.7C)
76F WB (24.5C)
76F DP (24.6C)
84F DB (28.8C)
Los Angeles, California 85F DB (29.2C)
64F WB (17.7C)
67F DP (19.4C)
75F DB (23.6C)
Minneapolis, Minnesota 91F DB (32.8C)
73F WB (22.7C)
73F DP (22.5C)
83F DB (28.5C)
San Francisco, California 83F DB (28.4C)
63F WB (17.0C)
59F DP (15.2C)
67F DB (19.4C)
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
SYS-APM004-EN 7
It is important to understand that indoor humidity problems are not solely
attributable to outdoor air brought into the building for ventilation, however.
Indoor humidity levels typically depend as much on the sensible and latent
loads in the space (and the resulting space sensible heat ratio), the type of
HVAC system, and the method of controlling that system as they do on outdoor
conditions. Moisture-related problems therefore can occur in any geographic
region where buildings are mechanically ventilated and cooled.
Energy Use
Heightened concern about the cost and availability of energy is hastening the
obsolescence of HVAC systems that reheat cold supply air using new energy
or that mix hot and cold air streams to achieve the desired space temperature.
In the United States, the primary standard related to energy consumption in
commercial buildings is ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.12001, Energy
Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. It provides
minimum requirements for energy-efficient building design, including the
building envelope, lighting system, motors, HVAC system, and service-water
heating system.
Some people believe that the requirements of Standard 90.1 make it impossible
to maintain indoor humidity within the ranges recommended by Standard 62
and the U.S. EPA (p. 4). Section 6.3.2.1 and Section 6.3.2.3 of Standard 90.1
restrict the use of new energy for reheat and limit mixing of hot and cold air
streams; the intent is to restrict dehumidification systems and control strategies
that waste energy.
Section 6.3.2.3, (excerpted on the next page) is particularly relevant because
it specifically addresses HVAC systems that regulate indoor humidity. We
address its implications throughout this manual, and describe system designs
and control strategies that comply with Standard 90.1 while properly regulating
indoor humidity.
For more information on Standard 90.1
and its effect on the design of HVAC
systems, see the Trane Engineers
Newsletter titled 90.1 Ways to Save
Energy (ENEWS-30/1). This newsletter
is available at www.trane.com.
Standard 90.1 is available from
ASHRAEs online bookstore at
www.ashrae.org. A users guide
accompanies the standard.
Sources and Effects
of Indoor Moisture
8 SYS-APM004-EN
from ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.12001
on Dehumidification
6.3.2.3 Dehumidification. Where
humidistatic controls are provided, such
controls shall prevent reheating, mixing
of hot and cold airstreams, or other means
of simultaneous heating and cooling of
the same airstream.
Exceptions to 6.3.2.3:
a) The system is capable of reducing
supply air volume to 50% or less of the
design airflow rate or the minimum
rate specified in 6.1.3 of ASHRAE
Standard 62, whichever is larger,
before simultaneous heating and
cooling takes place.
b) The individual fan cooling unit has a
design cooling capacity of 80,000 Btu/h
(23 kW) or less and is capable of
unloading to 50% capacity before
simultaneous heating and cooling
takes place.
c) The individual mechanical cooling unit
has a design cooling capacity of 40,000
Btu/h (12 kW) or less. An individual
mechanical cooling unit is a single
system composed of a fan or fans and a
cooling coil capable of providing
mechanical cooling.
d) Systems serving spaces where specific
humidity levels are required to satisfy
process needs, such as computer
rooms, museums, surgical suites, and
buildings with refrigerating systems,
such as supermarkets, refrigerated
warehouses, and ice arenas. This
exception also applies to other
applications for which fan volume
controls listed in accordance with
Exception (a) are proven to be
impractical to the enforcement agency.
e) At least 75% of the energy for
reheating or for providing warm air in
mixing systems is provided from a site-
recovered (including condenser heat) or
site solar energy source.
f) Systems where the heat added to the
airstream is the result of the use of a
desiccant system and 75% of the heat
added by the desiccant system is
removed by a heat exchanger, either
before or after the desiccant system
with energy recovery.
SYS-APM004-EN 9
Dehumidification
Primer
Types of Dehumidification
Maintaining the indoor humidity within the desired range requires a means
of either locally removing moisture from the air that is already in the space, or
replacing that moisture-laden air with drier air that was dehumidified
elsewhere.
Local Dehumidification
Portable dehumidifiers, like those used in many residential basements, provide
dedicated, local dehumidification. These devices (Figure 3) commonly use
mechanical refrigeration to remove moisture from the air in the space: an
evaporator coil dehumidifies and coincidentally cools the entering air, and a
condenser coil reheats the leaving air. Humidity in the space decreases, while
the dry-bulb temperature increases.
Simple, in-space air conditioners often coincidentally dehumidify the space as
they cool it; but do not confuse these devices with dedicated dehumidification
equipment. The evaporator coil in a packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC,
Figure 4) responds to the room thermostat, directly cooling a mixture of
recirculated return air and outdoor air, and removing moisture in the process.
At full load, the air conditioner usually provides adequate dehumidification
because the thermostat keeps the unit running and the coil cold.
To avoid overcooling the space at part load, however, the thermostat
reduces the sensible-cooling capacity of the coil by cycling it on and off. Cycling
raises the average temperature of the coil, which significantly reduces its
dehumidification (latent-cooling) capacity. Simple air conditioners, such as the
PTAC, may provide adequate coincidental dehumidification for spaces with
constant cooling loads. When the cooling load varies widely, however,
additional equipment and/or controls may be required for adequate
dehumidification at part-load conditions.
Figure 3. Local dehumidification
Figure 4. Packaged terminal air conditioner
Dehumidification Primer
10 SYS-APM004-EN
Remote Dehumidification
The central air-conditioning system commonly serves as a remote source of
dehumidification for the occupied spaces in a commercial or industrial building.
To maintain an acceptable indoor humidity, the system must be properly
designed and controlled so that the air it supplies is drier than the air in the
space (Figure 5). In effect, the supply air must be dry enough to soak up the
water vapor in the space; the absorbed moisture is then carried from the space
in the return air.
Depending on the type of system and method of control, central air-
conditioning units may or may not be able to adequately dehumidify the space
at all load conditions. The dehumidification performance of various system
types and control methods is discussed in the next three chapters.
Processes for Dehumidification
An air-conditioning system typically uses one of two processes to dehumidify
the supply air that ultimately reaches the space: condensation on a cold coil or
adsorption via a desiccant.
Condensation on a Cold Coil
Water vapor condenses on a surface if the temperature of the surface is colder
than the dew point of the moist air in contact with it. Controlled condensation
dehumidifies an air stream by directing it across the cold surfaces of a finned-
tube coil. Circulating either chilled water or evaporating refrigerant through the
coil makes the coil surfaces cold enough to induce condensation. As warm,
moist air passes through the coil, water vapor condenses on the cold surfaces
(Figure 6); the condensate (liquid water) then drains down the coil fins and
collects in the drain pan, where it is piped from the air handler. The air leaves
the coil cooler and drier.
A psychrometric chart can illustrate how cold-coil dehumidification works.
This special-purpose chart (Figure 7) represents the interrelated physical
properties of moist air: dry-bulb (DB), wet-bulb (WB), and dew-point (DP)
temperatures; relative humidity (RH), enthalpy (h), and humidity ratio (W). For
example, if sensible heat is added or removed with no change in moisture
content, the condition of the air moves horizontally on the chart. Conversely,
if moisture is added or removed without changing the dry-bulb temperature,
then the condition of the air moves vertically on the chart.
Figure 8 (p. 12) illustrates what happens when a mixture of outdoor air and
recirculated return air at 80F DB, 60F DP (26.7C DB, 15.6C DP), enters a cold
coil. The temperature of the coil surface is well below the dew point of the
Figure 5. Remote dehumidification
Figure 6. Cold-coil dehumidification
SYS-APM004-EN 11
entering air. Sensible cooling occurs as the air passes through the coil; on the
chart, the air condition moves horizontally to the left. When the condition of the
air nears the saturated state (100 percent-relative humidity), moisture begins to
condense on the cold surface of the coil. The condition of the air now moves
diagonally down and to the left on the chart, representing the removal of both
sensible heat and moisture. Cool, dry air leaves the coil in this example at
55F DB, 53F DP (12.8C DB, 11.7C DP).
No moisture removal occurs unless the temperature of the coil surface is
lowered below the dew point of the entering air. If the coil surface is not colder
than the dew point, only sensible cooling takes place. Sensible cooling without
dehumidification is especially common during part-load operation of a
constant-volume system. Thats because constant-volume systems (discussed
in the next chapter) respond to part-load conditions by reducing coil capacity,
which raises the temperature of the coil surface and of the supply air.
For comfort-cooling applications that do not require a supply-air dew point
lower than 40F to 45F (4.5C to 7C), cold-coil condensation is the traditional
choice for dehumidification because of its low first cost and low operating cost.
Given that decision, the next choice is whether to use chilled water or
refrigerant to make the coil cold.
Figure 7. Psychrometric chart
The Trane psychrometric chart includes
a series of coil curves that depict the
approximate performance of a wide
range of coil configurations (Figure 19,
p. 26). These curved lines, established
from hundreds of laboratory tests of
various coil geometries at different air
and coolant temperatures, represent
the changes in dry-bulb and dew-point
temperatures as air passes through a
typical cooling coil. Of course, exact
coil performance depends on actual
coil geometry and can be precisely
determined by software that accurately
models the performance of the
specific coils.
12 SYS-APM004-EN
Chilled water systems, with their individually selected components, provide the
necessary design flexibility for applications that require low supply-air dew
points, that is, dew points approaching 40F to 45F (4.5C to 7C).
By contrast, most DX systems are packaged. Although prematched refrigeration
and air-handling components lower the initial cost of the system, they also
make the system less flexible by deferring certain design decisions to the
manufacturer. A traditional, off-the-shelf packaged DX system is optimized for
operation at about 400 cfm/ton (0.054 m/s/kW), which prevents it from
achieving low dew points. Specially designed DX equipment can reach dew
points of 45F to 50F (7C to 10C) because they are designed to deliver less
airflow (cfm) per cooling ton (L/s per kW).
When space loads or process requirements dictate an even lower supply-air
dew point, moisture adsorption is preferred for dehumidification.
Condensate management
When a cold coil is used for dehumidification, moisture condenses from the air
onto the surface of the coil and falls into the drain pan, where it is piped from
the air handler. Too often, inattention to proper trapping of the condensate line
causes spitting, which dampens the insulation inside the air handler and
ductwork, or restricts flow from the drain pan, causing it to overflow. Both
situations create opportunities for microbial growth. To assure proper
condensate removal under all operating conditions, comply with the
manufacturers instructions for drain-line installation and trapping.
Figure 8. Psychrometric analysis of cold-coil dehumidification
Managing Building Moisture, Trane
applications engineering manual
SYS-AM-15, discusses proper design
and installation of condensate traps for
draw-through and blow-through coil
configurations.
SYS-APM004-EN 13
Adsorption Using a Desiccant
Desiccants used for commercial dehumidification are selected for their ability to
collect large quantities of water vapor. The porous surface of the desiccant
attracts and retains water molecules from the passing air stream. This
dehumidification process is described as adsorption because the collected
moisture does not chemically or physically alter the desiccant.
Vapor pressure at the desiccant surface is directly proportional to the surface
temperature of the desiccant and the amount of moisture adsorbed there.
When the desiccant is cool and dry, its surface vapor pressure is low; when the
desiccant is warm and moist, its surface vapor pressure is high. Water vapor
migrates from areas of high vapor pressure to areas of low vapor pressure.
Consequently, a desiccant with a low surface vapor pressure will adsorb water
molecules from the surrounding air, while a desiccant with a high surface vapor
pressure will reject water molecules to the surrounding air.
The most common application of adsorption for commercial dehumidification
uses a rotating wheel that contains a fluted, desiccant-coated medium. The
wheel rotates between two air streams: the process air stream and the
regeneration air stream. Warm, moist process air enters one side of the
rotating wheel, where water vapor collects on the desiccant surface. As the
wheel rotates, the moisture-laden portion moves into the regeneration air
stream, where the collected water vapor is released and transported outdoors.
The cycle repeats with each rotation, providing continuous dehumidification.
The temperature of the regeneration air determines whether the adsorption
process is passive or active.
Passive adsorption
When the regeneration air is drier than the process air, but is not heated to
drive the moisture from the desiccant, the dehumidification process is
considered passive adsorption.
An example of passive adsorption is the use of building exhaust air to
regenerate the desiccant of a total-energy/enthalpy wheel (Figure 9). The wheel
is mounted so that the minimum outdoor (process) airflow required for
ventilation passes through half of the wheel, while exhaust (regeneration) air
passes through the other half. The wheel rotates quicklybetween 20 rpm and
60 rpmalternately exposing the desiccant to process air and regeneration air.
In the summer, when the outdoor air is hot and humid, the total-energy wheel
cools and dehumidifies the entering outdoor air by transferring sensible heat
and moisture to the cooler, drier exhaust air (Figure 10, p. 14). Desiccant
regeneration occurs at a low temperature78F (25.6C) in this example
without additional heat. In the winter, when the outdoor air is cold and dry, the
Solid desiccants are typically used for
dehumidification equipment applied in
commercial and institutional buildings.
Liquid desiccants are also available, but
they are traditionally used in industrial
applications. Refer to the Desiccant
Dehumidification and Pressure-Drying
Equipment chapter of the ASHRAE
HandbookHVAC Systems and
Equipment for more information.
Figure 9. Total-energy wheel
14 SYS-APM004-EN
total-energy wheel warms and humidifies the entering outdoor air by
transferring sensible heat and moisture from the warmer, moister exhaust air.
Although desiccant-coated devices, such as the total-energy wheel, reduce the
sensible heat and moisture content of entering outdoor air, these passive
adsorption devices are not considered as dehumidification equipment. Such
devices are less than 100 percent effective: When it is humid outside, process
air leaving the wheel always contains more moisture than regeneration air
(from the space) entering the exhaust side of the wheel. By definition, a passive
adsorption device cannot dehumidify the space because the air leaving the
supply side of the device never can be drier than the space. As demonstrated in
Dehumidifying with Constant-Volume Mixed Air (pp. 2729), a space under
these conditions will always require additional dehumidification.
Active adsorption
In the active adsorption process, the moisture-collecting ability of the desiccant
is improved by adding sensible heat to the regeneration air before it enters the
desiccant. Figure 11 depicts the active desiccant wheel mounted so that the
outdoor (process) air for ventilation passes through half of the wheel, while
regeneration air (either a separate outdoor air stream or exhaust air from the
building) passes through the other half.
As the active desiccant wheel slowly rotates between 10 rph and 30 rph, it
removes moisture from the outdoor (process) air stream and releases sensible
heat (Figure 12). The resulting temperature increase is directly proportional to
the amount of moisture removed from the process air. In this example, active
adsorption dehumidifies the process air to 44F DP (6.7C DP) and raises the
temperature of the process air to 120F DB (48.9C DB). Consequently, the
process air must be cooled before it is delivered to the buildings occupied
Figure 10. Example of passive adsorption performed by a total-energy wheel
J
a
c
k
s
o
n
v
i
l
l
e
,

F
l
o
r
i
d
a
Refer to Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in
HVAC Systems, Trane applications
engineering manual SYS-APM003-EN,
for more information about using the
passive adsorption of total-energy
wheels to precondition outdoor air.
SYS-APM004-EN 15
spaces. The psychrometric analysis (Figure 12) for this example system shows
that the cooling coil lowers the temperature of the process air to 80F DB
(26.7C DB).
On the regeneration side of the system, a gas-fired heater raises the
temperature of the regeneration air. Depending on the dew-point target for the
process air, regeneration air temperatures typically range from 130F to 250F
(54C to 121C). The warmer that the regeneration air is, the drier the resulting
process air will be.
Recall that Section 6.3.2.3 of ASHRAE Standard 90.1 requires that humidistatic
controls prevent simultaneous heating and cooling of the same air stream. It
therefore addresses active-adsorption dehumidification, which heats the
process air and requires downstream cooling. Exception F of Section 6.3.2.3
Figure 11. Active adsorption system
Figure 12. Example performance for an active adsorption system
16 SYS-APM004-EN
(p. 8 in this manual) defines the conditions for compliance; that is, an active
desiccant system must recover 75 percent of the heat that adsorption adds to
the process air.
For example, if the adsorption process adds 100,000 Btu/hr (29.3 kW) of
sensible heat to the process air, then 75,000 Btu/hr (22.0 kW) of energy must be
removed from that same air. One possible design solution places a sensible-
energy, air-to-air heat exchanger downstream of the active desiccant wheel to
transfer at least 75,000 Btu/hr (22.0 kW) of heat from the hot, dry process air to
the regeneration air. Another possible solution adds an air-to-air energy-
recovery device, such as a total-energy wheel, upstream of the active desiccant
wheel to precondition the outdoor air and transfer at least 75,000 Btu/hr
(22.0 kW) of heat (sensible plus latent energy) from the process air to another
air stream.
Typical applications for adsorption dehumidification
Total-energy wheels and other types of passive adsorption devices are used in
all types of HVAC systems to precondition outdoor air. This practice enables
downsizing of cooling and heating equipment, which reduces the initial cost of
the system; it also saves energy by reducing the cooling and heating loads
associated with ventilation.
Active adsorption systems are primarily used in applications where high
internal latent loads or process requirements dictate a lower-than-normal dew
point (below a threshold of 40F to 45F [4.5C to 7C]) for the supply air. Typical
applications include supermarkets, ice rinks, museums, industrial drying
processes, and other spaces that require exceptionally dry air. Given the
relatively high first cost, the energy required to heat the regeneration air, and
the additional energy needed to post-cool the process air, active adsorption
systems are seldom used in comfort-cooling applications. The succeeding
chapters of this manual therefore focus exclusively on comfort-cooling systems
that use cold coil condensation for dehumidification.
Q
s
1.085 2 634 cfm , 120F 85F ( ) =
100 = 000 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 1.24 m/s 48.9C 29.4C [ ] = ( )
29.3 = kW ( )
Sensible heat added by the adsorption process:
SYS-APM004-EN 17
Implications for HVAC Control
The next three chapters examine three types of HVAC systems, which are
distinguished from one another by how each system delivers ventilation air
to the space: constant-volume mixed air, variable-volume mixed air, and
dedicated outdoor air. In each case, the central theme is cold coil
dehumidification during full-load and part-load comfort cooling. The
performance benchmark is a relative humidity of 60 percent, which is the upper
limit currently recommended by ASHRAE Standard 62.
Certain control strategies will affect the dehumidification performance of any of
these HVAC systems:
Humidity control during unoccupied periods
Building pressurization
Airside economizing
Brief descriptions of how each of these control strategies affects
dehumidification performance follow. Specific application considerations by
system type are discussed within the appropriate chapter.
Humidity Control during Unoccupied Periods
Latent loads associated with occupants and their activities make humidity
control important during scheduled operation. But after-hours humidity control
is also important in facilities, such as schools, with few or no occupants for
extended periods. ASHRAE offers the following recommendation:
In humid climates, serious consideration should be given to
dehumidification during the summer months, when the school
is unoccupied, to prevent the growth of mold and mildew.
(1999 ASHRAE HandbookApplications, Chapter 6, p. 6.3)
Controlling humidity at all times of the day can greatly reduce the risk of
microbial growth on building surfaces and furnishings. Wet-cleaning
procedures (mopping floors, shampooing carpets) bring large amounts of
moisture into the building and usually take place when the building is
unoccupied. Drying wet surfaces is critical to prevent microbial growth. For
shampooed carpets, this is best accomplished by providing adequate air
motion and dehumidification during unoccupied hours.
Even when the average relative
humidity in a conditioned space is low,
high relative humidities can develop
near cold surfaces and increase the
likelihood of condensation. Enforcing a
maximum relative humidity of
60 percent or 65 percent should make
most surfaces 12F to 15F (6.7C to
8.3C) warmer than the space dew point
and generally avoid concentrations of
water vapor near surfaces.
18 SYS-APM004-EN
Building Pressurization
HVAC systems do more than provide heating, cooling, and ventilation; they also
bring makeup air into the building to replace the air removed by local exhaust
fans (in restrooms and kitchens, for example) and combustion equipment
(furnaces, fireplaces). Turning off the ventilation system during unoccupied
periods while allowing these devices to continue operating creates negative
pressure inside the building. Unconditioned outdoor air infiltrates the building,
which can raise the dew point in the envelope (risking condensation) and
increase the humidity in the occupied space (perhaps beyond the limit
recommended by ASHRAE).
One solution is to design the building control system so that it turns off all local
exhaust fans and combustion equipment whenever the ventilation system is
off. However, this approach may require a manual override to accommodate
after-hours cleaning.
Wind, variable operation of local exhaust fans, and stack effect in multistory
buildings can create building pressure fluctuations despite a properly balanced
HVAC system. Therefore, controlling building pressure directly may be
desirable to prevent negative pressure from developing inside the building
and it may be necessary during economizer operation to prevent
overpressurization.
Airside Economizing
An airside economizer can lower operating costs by using outdoor air to help
offset building cooling loads. When outdoor conditions are suitable for natural
cooling, the outdoor-air damper opens fully, assisting the mechanical cooling
equipment by offsetting as much of the cooling load as possible. At cooler
outdoor conditions, the outdoor-air damper maintains the target temperature in
the space by modulating between its full-open and minimum-open positions.
When the outdoor air is too warm or too cold for economizing, the outdoor-air
damper remains at the minimum-open position to provide the necessary
quantity of outdoor air for ventilation; meanwhile, the cooling or heating coil
satisfies the space load.
Proper control of the airside economizer is critical to maximize energy savings
without creating potential humidity problems.
Refer to Building Pressurization
Control, Trane applications engineering
manual AM-CON-17, for additional
information about how to regulate
building pressure through design and
control of the HVAC system.
SYS-APM004-EN 19
Dehumidifying with
Constant-Volume Mixed Air
Mixed-air systems use an air handler to condition a combination of outdoor air
and recirculated return air before delivering this mixed air to each space. A
constant-volume, mixed-air system supplies an unchanging quantity of air,
usually to a single space or thermal zone. The temperature of the supply air
modulates in response to the varying sensible-cooling load in the space.
Basic constant-volume systems, which consist of an air handler containing a
fan and a cold coil (Figure 13), indirectly affect indoor humidity. A thermostat
compares the dry-bulb temperature in the space to the setpoint; it then
modulates the cooling coil until the cooling capacity matches the sensible
loadthat is, until the space temperature and setpoint match. Reducing the
capacity of the cooling coil results in a warmer coil surface and less
dehumidification. Similarly, increasing the coil capacity makes the coil surface
colder and provides more dehumidification.
The peak sensible load on the cooling coil rarely coincides with the peak latent
load. So, a cooling coil selected for the highest sensible load (in some air-
handling arrangements) may not provide sufficient capacity when the highest
latent load occurs. More often, however, a cooling coil that is controlled to
maintain the space dry-bulb temperature often operates without adequate
moisture-removal capacity at peak latent-load conditions. As the following
examples reveal, accurate predictions of dehumidification performance require
an analysis of system operation at both full-load and part-load conditions.
Analysis of Dehumidification Performance
Consider a 10,000 ft (283 m), 30-occupant classroom in Jacksonville, Florida.
For thermal comfort, the space setpoint is 74F DB (23.3C DB). Supply airflow
Vsa is based on nine air changes per hour and is 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s). ASHRAE
Standard 62 requires 15 cfm (8 L/s) of outdoor air per person for adequate
ventilation; so, 450 cfm (0.21 m/s) of the supply air must be outdoor air.
Figure 13. Basic, constant-volume HVAC system
V
sa
10 000 cfm , 9 air changes/hr
60 min/hr
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
1 = 500 cfm ,
V
sa
283 m 9 air changes/hr
3 600 sec/hr ,
--------------------------------------------------------------------- =

0.7 = m/s ( )
Dehumidifying with
20 SYS-APM004-EN
The classroom is air conditioned by a basic constant-volume system, which
uses a chilled water coil to cool and dehumidify the supply air. A modulating
valve controls coil capacity.
Performance at peak dry-bulb (full-load) condition. According to
the 2001 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals, the peak dry-bulb condition for
Jacksonville is 96F DB, 76F WB (35.7C DB, 24.5C WB). At this condition, the
sensible and latent loads calculated for the classroom29,750 Btu/hr (8.7 kW)
and 5,250 Btu/hr (1.5 kW), respectivelyyield a sensible-heat ratio (SHR) of 0.85
in that space. Given the supply airflow of 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s), satisfying the
sensible-cooling load and maintaining the space at 74F DB (23.3C DB)
requires 55.7F (13.1C) supply air.
Figure 14 summarizes the psychrometric analysis of this systems full-load
dehumidification performance. At the peak dry-bulb condition, controlling the
temperature in the space to 74F (23.3C) will result in a comfortable relative
humidity of 52 percent.
Note: To simplify the analysis, which is detailed in Appendix A of this manual,
the latent load in the classroom is limited to moisture generated by the
occupants. A higher relative humidity would result if other sources of indoor
moisture, such as infiltration and vapor-pressure diffusion, were considered.
The cooling coil is expected to offset the non-space latent load that results
from ventilating the classroom with outdoor air.
0.85 = ( )
SHR
29 750 Btu/hr ,
29 750 Btu/hr , 5 250 Btu/hr , +
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
0.85 =
SHR
8.7 kW
8.7 kW 1.5 kW +
------------------------------------------ =

Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
29 = 750 Btu/hr T
supply
55.7F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
8.7 = kW T
supply
13.1C = ( )
At the peak dry-bulb condition:
Figure 14. Dehumidification performance of a basic, constant-volume HVAC system at various outdoor conditions
Design
condition
Full load Part load
Peak dry bulb Peak dew point Mild, rainy
OA 96.0F DB, 76.0F WB 76.0F DP, 84.0F DB 70.0F DB, 69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB, 52.4% RH 74.0F DB, 67.0% RH 74.0F DB, 73.0% RH
MA 80.6F DB 77.0F DB 72.8F DB
SA 55.7F DB 63.0F DB 66.5F DB
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 21
The total capacity required from the cooling coil at the peak dry-bulb condition
is 4.78 tons (16.8 kW).
At full load, the cooling coil removes both sensible heat and moisture (latent
heat), directly controlling space temperature and indirectly affecting space
humidity.
Performance at peak dew-point (part-load) condition. As the sensible-
cooling load in the space decreases, a constant-volume HVAC system allows
the supply-air temperature to rise by reducing the capacity of the cooling coil. In
this example system, coil capacity is reduced by modulating the water valve.
Although this control action successfully maintains the desired dry-bulb
temperature for the space, raising the supply-air temperature also reduces the
amount of moisture that condenses on the coil; space humidity rises. In other
words, making the coil surface warmer decreases the rate at which moisture
condenses from the mixed air.
To determine whether a system will provide adequate dehumidification at
part load, analyze performance at the peak dew-point condition. For our
Jacksonville classroom, the peak dew-point condition is 76F DP, 84F DB
(24.6C DP, 28.8C DB). The cooler outdoor dry-bulb temperature and
correspondingly lower solar and conducted heat gains reduce the sensible load
in the classroom to 17,850 Btu/hr (5.2 kW). Because the classrooms latent load
remains unchanged at 5,250 Btu/hr (1.5 kW), however, the sensible-heat ratio
(SHR) for the space drops to 0.77. Consequently, the 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) of
supply air must be delivered at a higher temperature, 63F (17.2C) in this case,
to avoid overcooling the space.
Warmer supply air, combined with the lower space SHR, raises the relative
humidity in the classroom from 52 percent to 67 percent (Figure 14)well
above the 60 percent limit that ASHRAE recommends. Although the cooling coil
could provide additional cooling (up to 4.78 tons [16.8 kW] if sized for the
design dry-bulb condition), the thermostat reduces coil capacity to 3.66 tons
(12.9 kW). This control action maintains the dry-bulb temperature in the
classroom at setpoint, but space humidity rises. Oversizing the cooling coil will
not prevent the shortfall in latent capacity if system control is based solely on
the dry-bulb temperature in the space.
Performance on a mild, rainy day (part-load condition). Although the
peak dew-point condition is helpful for analyzing the part-load dehumidification
performance of an HVAC system, do not assume that it represents the worst-
case condition for space humidity control. Most of the time, the humidity in the
space depends more on the space SHR and the system control strategy than on
outdoor conditions.
Consider our example Jacksonville classroom on a mild, rainy day. At 70F DB,
69F WB (21.2C DB, 20.6C WB), the sensible load in the classroom drops
Q
T
4.5 1 500 cfm , 31.4 22.9 Btu/lb ( ) =
57 = 375 Btu/hr 4.78 tons = ,
Q
T
1.2 0.7 m/s 73.1 53.1 kJ/kg [ ] = ( )
16.8 = kW ( )
The peak dew-point condition does not
necessarily represent the worst-case
condition for humidity control. It simply
is an easy test case for analyzing part-
load dehumidification performance.
Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr T
supply
63F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW T
supply
17.2C = ( )
At the peak dew-point condition:
Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
66.5F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
19.2C = ( )
On a mild, rainy day:
Dehumidifying with
22 SYS-APM004-EN
furtherthis time to 12,250 Btu/hr (3.6 kW). Given an unchanged latent load of
5,250 Btu/hr (1.5 kW) due to occupants, the SHR in the classroom drops to 0.70.
To prevent overcooling, the thermostat reduces the cooling coil capacity to
1.63 tons (5.74 kW) so that the 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) of supply air is delivered to
the classroom at 66.5F (19.2C). How is humidity in the classroom affected?
Relative humidity climbs to 73 percent!
Application Considerations
Ventilation
The 1989 revision of ASHRAE Standard 62 increased the required per-person
ventilation rate from 5 cfm to 20 cfm (from 3 L/s to 10 L/s) for office buildings,
and from 5 cfm to 15 cfm (from 3 L/s to 8 L/s) for schools. Bringing more
outdoor air into the building to satisfy ventilation requirements significantly
increases the cooling and heating loads on the HVAC system. But, does
bringing more outdoor air into the building for ventilation cause moisture-
related IAQ problems? Some people think so. Lets examine what happens if the
example classroom receives only 150 cfm (0.07 m/s) of outdoor air for
ventilation rather than the 450 cfm (0.21 m/s) that ASHRAE Standard 62
requires. Only the ventilation load differs from the previous examples
(Figure 14, p. 20); the sensible- and latent-cooling loads for the classroom are
unchanged, as are the supply-air temperatures and sensible-heat ratios (SHRs)
for that space.
Figure 15 illustrates the effect of underventilating the classroom:
At the peak dry-bulb condition, the relative humidity drops from 52 percent
to approximately 50 percent.
Figure 15. Dehumidification performance of a basic, constant-volume HVAC system with underventilation
Design
condition
Full load Part load
MA 76.2F DB 75.0F DB 73.6F DB
SA 55.7F DB 63.0F DB 66.5F DB
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 23
At the peak dew-point condition, the relative humidity drops from
67 percent to approximately 65 percent.
On a mild and rainy day, the relative humidity drops from 73 percent to
70 percent.
In this example, a lower ventilation rate slightly reduces space humidity;
however, the reduction may not remediate the humidity problems inherent to a
constant-volume control strategy that is based only on the space dry-bulb
temperature. More importantly, lowering the ventilation rate can create other
IAQ problems.
Lowering the ventilation rate does not significantly improve dehumidification
performance because space humidity depends on the dew point of supply air
leaving the cooling coilnot on the dew point of mixed air entering the coil.
Lowering the ventilation rate introduces a smaller quantity (and percentage) of
outdoor air, which lowers the dew point of the mixed air entering the cooling
coil. But as Figure 16 shows, the dew point of the supply air leaving the coil is
not much lower than when the system treats a larger quantity of outdoor air.
A lower sensible load, however, will result in a supply-air temperature that is
too warm to induce moisture condensation from the air passing through the
coil. Such conditions will also produce a considerably different supply-air
dew point.
In other words, when the outdoor air is more humid than the desired indoor
humidity, the extent to which ventilation (outdoor air) affects indoor humidity
depends on the loads in the space and the supply-air condition.
Figure 16. Effect of ventilation on the dehumidification performance of a basic,
constant-volume HVAC system
Design
condition
Ventilation airflow
450 cfm OA 150 cfm OA
OA
(peak DP)
84.0F DB,
76.0F DP
84.0F DB,
76.0F DP
RA 74.0F DB,
67.0% RH
74.0F DB,
64.6% RH
MA 77.0F DB,
67.0F DP
75.0F DB,
63.0F DP
SA 63.0F DB,
61.0F DP
63.0F DB,
59.5F DP
Dehumidifying with
24 SYS-APM004-EN
Climate
The previous example demonstrated that the quantity of outdoor air is not
necessarily the primary cause of indoor humidity problems. Can the same be
said for the condition of the outdoor air? Table 2 shows peak dew-point and
mild, rainy conditions for seven U.S. cities with differing climates. The table
also shows the relative humidity that would result in the same example
classroom, with its basic constant-volume HVAC system, at each condition.
Notice the similarity of the peak dew-point conditions for most locations. In
these regions, the resulting space relative humidity is similar at peak dew-point
conditions. In the dry climates (Denver and San Francisco), the system performs
better because the outdoor air is dry enough to provide a dehumidifying effect.
Although the increased frequency and duration of humid conditions is greater
in hot, humid climates, the conditions capable of causing moisture-related
problems occur in many regions. Ignoring system operation at part-load
conditions can lead to high indoor humidity in dry climates as well as in hot,
humid locales.
Packaged DX Equipment
In constant-volume applications with high ventilation requirements, packaged
direct-expansion (DX) air-conditioning equipment can compound indoor
humidity problems. More outdoor air, especially in humid climates, increases
the required cooling and dehumidification capacity.
Table 2. Constant-volume system performance for various cities in the United States
Location
Peak dew-point condition Mild, rainy condition
Outdoors Indoor RH Outdoors Indoor RH
Baltimore, Maryland 75F (23.8C) DP,
83F (28.1C) DB
62% 70F (21.2C) DB,
69F (20.6C) WB
65%
Dallas, Texas 75F (23.7C) DP,
82F (28.0C) DB
66% 70F (21.2C) DB,
69F (20.6C) WB
68%
Denver, Colorado 60F (15.6C) DP,
69F (20.4C) DB
55% 63F (17.2C) DB,
61F (16.1C) WB
58%
Jacksonville, Florida 76F (24.6C) DP,
84F (28.8C) DB
67% 70F (21.2C) DB,
69F (20.6C) WB
73%
Los Angeles, California 67F (19.4C) DP,
75F (23.6C) DB
62% 63F (17.2C) DB,
62F (16.7C) WB
65%
Minneapolis, Minnesota 73F (22.5C) DP,
83F (28.5C) DB
66% 70F (21.2C) DB,
69F (20.6C) WB
70%
San Francisco, California 59F (15.2C) DP,
67F (19.4C) DB
56% 54F (12.2C) DB,
53F (11.7C) WB
56%
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 25
The key to designing a system with adequate dehumidification capability at all
load conditions lies with determining the proper relationship between airflow
and cooling capacity. Sensible cooling loads in the spacenot ventilation
requirementsdictate airflow for the space (unless the required ventilation
exceeds the airflow needed to cool the space). The increase in outdoor air
required for ventilation requires more cooling capacity. For a given space load,
an increase in the ventilation load results in less airflow per cooling ton (m/s
per kW). The flexibility of applied systems, such as chilled-water air handlers,
normally lets you select equipment based on a specific airflow rate (cfm [m/s])
and a specific cooling capacity (tons [kW]). By contrast, packaged unitary
systems (a direct-expansion rooftop air conditioner, for example) typically limit
your selection to a cfm/ton (m/s/kW) range of application.
Recall that a chilled-water coil provides the air conditioning for the classroom in
the preceding examples. The coil was selected to deliver 4.78 tons (16.8 kW) of
cooling capacity at 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) supply airflow, resulting in a flow-to-
capacity ratio of 314 cfm/ton (0.042 m/s/kW).
Most packaged DX air conditioners, however, are designed to operate between
350 and 450 cfm/ton (0.047 and 0.060 m/s/kW). The classroom in our example
would require a nominal 5-ton (17.6 kW) air conditioner that delivers no less
than 350 cfm/ton (0.047 m/s/kW), or 1,750 cfm (0.83 m/s). To assure adequate
cooling capacity at full-load conditions, you must accept this higher-than-
required supply airflow instead of the desired 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s). Because the
sensible load is unchanged, however, the 1,750 cfm (0.83 m/s) of supply air
must be delivered at 58.3F (14.6C) to avoid overcooling the space.
Oversized supply airflow results in warmer air leaving the cooling coil. In non-
arid climates, this higher supply-air temperature reduces the dehumidification
capacity of the system. At the peak dry-bulb condition, the relative humidity in
the example classroom increases from 52 percent to 56 percent (Figure 17).
Q
s
1.085 1 750 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
29 = 750 Btu/hr T
supply
58.3F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.83 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
8.7 = kW T
supply
14.6C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 1 750 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr T
supply
64.6F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.83 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW T
supply
18.1C = ( )
Figure 17. Dehumidification performance of a basic, constant-volume, packaged DX air conditioner
Design
condition
Full load Part load
MA 79.7F DB 76.6F DB 73.0F DB
SA 58.3F DB 64.6F DB 67.5F DB
Dehumidifying with
26 SYS-APM004-EN
Not surprisingly, the classroom becomes even more humid at the peak
dew-point condition. With the thermostat throttling the capacity of the cooling
coil to meet the smaller space sensible load, the 64.6F (18.1C) supply air offers
even less dehumidification; relative humidity climbs to about 69 percent.
As for the mild and rainy day, the supply-air temperature rises to 67.5F (19.7C)
and the humidity in the space increases to 74 percent.
Selecting larger packaged unitary equipment to provide additional cooling
capacity can yield a higher supply airflow, correspondingly warmer supply air,
and an elevated indoor humidity.
Note: Excess supply airflow and the increased humidity that accompanies it
also can result from a conservative estimate of the space sensible load. When
selecting cooling equipment (whether chilled water or DX) for constant-volume
applications, exercise particular care to avoid oversizing the supply airflow.
Compressor cycling in DX equipment further complicates humidity problems.
When the compressors turn off, condensate on the cooling coil re-evaporates
and the supply fan pushes the moisture downstream to the occupied space.
Recent research (Henderson, 1998) led to the development of a latent capacity
degradation model for DX equipment in which the compressors cycle and the
supply fan runs constantly. This model (Figure 18) predicts the latent cooling
(dehumidification) capacity of the equipment as a function of the run-time
fraction, which represents how long the compressor operates during an hour.
Plotting the latent capacity degradation model on the psychrometric chart
(Figure 19) reveals that, over time, there is little difference in performance for
cycling DX systems versus chilled-water coils with modulating valves.
2
In other
words, given the same supply airflow, the resulting relative humidity indoors
will be essentially the same regardless of which type of system (DX or applied
chilled water) is used.
Q
s
1.085 1 750 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
67.5F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.83 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
19.7C = ( )
On a mild, rainy day:
Figure 18. Hendersons latent capacity
degradation model
Figure 19. Comparison of latent capacity degradation model to a Trane coil curve
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 27
Total-Energy Recovery
Some design engineers believe that passive energy-recovery devices provide
adequate space dehumidification. A passive, total-energy-recovery device, such
as a total-energy wheel (Figure 20), revolves through the parallel outdoor- and
exhaust-air streams, preconditioning the outdoor air and reducing the capacity
required from the cooling and heating coils. During the cooling season, the
desiccant-coated wheel removes both sensible heat and moisture from the
outdoor air and rejects it to the exhaust air. During the heating season, the
sensible heat and moisture that the wheel collects from the exhaust air
preheats and prehumidifies the entering outdoor air. Transferring energy
between the air streams provides two benefits: downsized equipment for
cooling, heating, and humidification; and reduced operating costs.
Chilled water applications. Figure 21 (p. 28) illustrates the effect of adding
a total-energy wheel, which has an effectiveness rating of 70 percent, to the
basic chilled water, constant-volume system in previous examples. At the peak
dry-bulb condition, the total-energy wheel preconditions the outdoor air to
81F DB, 66.8F WB (27.2C DB, 19.3C WB). The resulting mixed-air condition
reduces the total load on the cooling coil from 4.66 tons (16.4 kW) to 3.5 tons
2
H. Henderson. The Impact of Part-Load Air-Conditioner Operation on Dehumidification Performance:
Validating a Latent Capacity Degradation Model, Conference Proceedings from IAQ & Energy 1998:
Using ASHRAE Standards 62 and 90.1, (Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1998).
Refer to Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in
for more information about total-energy
wheels and other types of air-to-air
energy recovery.
Figure 20. Constant-volume system with total-energy recovery
Dehumidifying with
28 SYS-APM004-EN
(12.3 kW); however, the wheel does not affect the cooling loads in the space,
so the supply-air temperature and supply airflow remain unchanged. The
resulting relative humidity in the classroom drops from 52 percent to
50 percent at full load.
With a smaller sensible load in the space at the peak dew-point condition, the
thermostat reduces coil capacity from 3.66 tons to 2.47 tons (from 12.9 kW to
8.7 kW) to deliver 63F (17.2C) supply air. The resulting relative humidity is
65 percent, compared to 67 percent without the wheel. On a mild, rainy day,
the resulting relative humidity is 70 percent, compared to 73 percent without
the wheel.
Preconditioning the outdoor air with a total-energy wheel significantly reduces
mechanical cooling requirements at both full-load and part-load conditions, but
it does little to lower indoor humidity.
Even if the total-energy wheel could be 100 percent effective, when it is humid
outside, the air passing through the supply side of the wheel would be only as
dry asbut never drier thanthe air passing through the exhaust side of the
wheel. Because the exhaust air stream originates in the space, the air leaving
the supply side of the wheel will not be drier than the space.
Packaged DX applications. Adding a total-energy wheel to a constant-
volume, packaged DX air conditioner reduces the cooling capacity required
from the mechanical cooling system and, therefore, increases the required cfm/
ton (m
3
/s/kW). Consequently, the wheel may make it possible to select a
smaller DX unit with an airflow that more closely matches space requirements
(within the constraints of the flow-to-capacity ratio) in lieu of a larger unit with
too much airflow.
Figure 21. Dehumidification performance of a constant-volume system with total-energy recovery
Design
condition
Full load Part load
OA' 81.0F DB, 66.8F WB 77.0F DB, 70.0F WB 73.0F DB, 67.5F WB
SA 55.7F DB 63.0F DB 66.5F DB
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 29
At the peak dry-bulb condition in our example, preconditioning the outdoor air
with a 70 percent-effective, total-energy wheel reduces the coil load from
4.66 tons (16.4 kW) to 3.5 tons (12.3 kW). Based on the desired supply airflow
of 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s), the new airflow-to-capacity ratio of 428 cfm/ton
(0.057 m/s/kW) now falls within the design operating range for packaged DX
equipment. Basing the selection on 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) rather than 1,750 cfm
(0.83 m/s) lowers the supply-air temperature from 58.3F (14.6C) to 55.7F
(13.1C) and provides more dehumidification. The resulting relative humidity in
the classroom is 50 percent, rather than the 56 percent that resulted from the
oversized packaged DX unit without a wheel. At the part-load, peak dew-point
condition, the wheel results in a relative humidity of 65 percent, compared to
69 percent without the wheel. On a mild and rainy day, the resulting space
relative humidity is 70 percent, compared to 74 percent without the wheel.
So, the total-energy wheel improves the dehumidification performance of
constant-volume, packaged DX equipment by avoiding oversizing the airflow,
but it does not eliminate the problem of high indoor humidity.
Cold Supply Air
Lowering the leaving-air temperature of the cooling coil removes more
moisture from the air and requires less airflow to offset the sensible-cooling
load in the space. At the peak dry-bulb condition, delivering supply air to the
classroom at 50F (10C) rather than 55.7F (13.1C) reduces the required
supply airflow from 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) to 1,142 cfm (0.54 m/s). Supplying
colder, drier air also reduces the relative humidity from 52 percent to 47 percent
(Figure 22, p. 30). The total cooling capacity required from the coil increases to
5.1 tons (17.9 kW).
The classroom requires warmer supply air at the peak dew-point condition
because the sensible-cooling load is less. But the supply air is still significantly
cooler59.6F (15.3C) versus 63F (17.2C)than when the system delivers a
higher supply airflow. The resulting relative humidity also improves slightly
(62 percent versus 67 percent), and the required cooling capacity is 3.8 tons
(13.4 kW). For a mild, rainy day, the supply-air temperature increases to 64.1F
(17.8C) and requires a cooling capacity of 1.8 tons (6.3 kW). The resulting
relative humidity in the classroom reaches 69 percent.
Delivering cold supply air can improve the dehumidification performance
of a constant-volume system, but it will not solve the problem of high indoor
humidity.
Note: Applied chilled water systems typically work best for cold air
distribution because the designer can match the design requirements for
airflow and cooling capacity. Packaged DX systems defer many design
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
74 50F ( ) =
29 = 750 Btu/hr V
sa
1 142 cfm , = ,
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
23.3 10C [ ] = ( )
8.7 = kW V
sa
0.54m/s = ( )
Peak dry-bulb condition:
Q
s
1.085 1 142 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr T
supply
59.6F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.54 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW T
supply
15.3C = ( )
Peak dew-point condition:
Q
s
1.085 1 142 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
64.1F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.54 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
17.8C = ( )
Mild, rainy day:
Dehumidifying with
30 SYS-APM004-EN
decisions to the manufacturer, which reduces initial cost; however, the
limitations of a fixed design may make it difficult to achieve the desired
cold coil temperature.
Constant-volume systems that base control solely on the space dry-bulb
temperature (indirect dehumidification) are unlikely to remove much moisture
at night or during periods of low occupancy when space sensible loads are
likely to be very low. Constant-volume systems that include a means to directly
control space humiditydual-path air handlers (p. 47) or supply-air
tempering (p. 50), for examplewill require an after-hours source of reheat
energy. Dedicated outdoor-air systems, which are discussed in a later chapter
(pp. 7599), may be best suited to address dehumidification needs during
unoccupied periods.
Maintaining an appropriate indooroutdoor pressure difference is generally
straightforward during mechanical cooling operation because the airflows in a
constant-volume system do not change. Most problems occur at night (when
exhaust systems are left on, but the ventilation system is off) or during
economizer cooling.
Systems with airside economizers may require some method of building-
pressure control to avoid overpressurization.
Figure 22. Dehumidification performance of a constant-volume system that delivers cold supply air
Design
condition
Full load Part load
MA 82.7F DB 77.9F DB 72.4F DB
SA 50.0F DB 59.6F DB 64.1F DB
Consult Building Pressurization
Control, Trane applications
engineering manual AM-CON-17, for
information about regulating building
pressure through design and control of
the HVAC system.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 31
Airside Economizing
In constant-volume systems, the economizer cycle (p. 18) is often controlled by
monitoring the outdoor-air dry-bulb temperature and comparing it with a fixed,
predetermined limit. The following example illustrates the potential humidity
problems associated with this control strategy.
Suppose that the outdoor-air condition for our Jacksonville school is 65F DB,
64F WB (18.3C DB, 17.8C WB). The constant-volume system responds to the
less-than-design, sensible-cooling load in the space by reducing cooling
capacity, which raises the supply-air temperature to 68F (20C). If the
economizer setpoint is 65F (18.3C), the outdoor- and return-air dampers
modulate to mix 1,000 cfm (0.47 m
3
/s) of outdoor air with recirculated return air
to maintain the space temperature at setpoint. Although this method of
economizer control allows the cooling coil to shut off, the high moisture content
of the outdoor air increases the indoor humidity to 75 percent (Figure 23).
Application considerations
When using the fixed dry bulb method of economizer control, pick a limit
that is low enough to avoid bringing moisture-laden outdoor air indoors.
When designing a constant-volume system that requires an economizer
to comply with Standard 90.1, investigate fixed enthalpy and electronic
enthalpy control (which are allowed by the standard). Alternatively,
consider selecting cooling equipment with an efficiency that is high enough
to exempt the system from the economizer requirement.
To determine the appropriate economizer control, consider the climate,
hours of occupancy, and potential operating-cost savings.
In most climates, avoid using a differential (comparative) enthalpy
strategy to control the economizer in a constant-volume system. If you do
opt to use this strategy, install a humidity sensor in the space to disable the
economizer whenever the indoor relative humidity exceeds 60 percent.
Implications of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1. Standard 90.12001
(Section 6.3.1) contains requirements for economizers in HVAC systems,
including when they are required and how they should be controlled. When the
cooling capacity of the constant-volume air handler is less than either
65,000 Btu/hr (19 kW) or 135,000 Btu/hr (38 kW), depending on the climate, an
economizer is not required. If you choose to use one anyway, requirements
related to the control of that economizer no longer apply (because the standard
did not require the economizer in the first place). Although compliance with
Section 6.3.1 should minimize energy use, it may not acceptably control indoor
humidity at all operating conditions in all climates.
Section 6.3.1 defines high-limit-shutoff requirements for airside economizers.
These requirements are based on climate and control method (fixed dry bulb,
differential enthalpy, and so on). Fixed dry bulb control of economizers is
Figure 23. Effect of airside economizer
control on space humidity
Dehumidifying with
32 SYS-APM004-EN
allowed in any climate, with this stipulation: When used in a humid climate, the
economizer can only operate when the outdoor dry-bulb temperature is less
than or equal to 65F (18.3C). (The preceding example shows what can happen
when the fixed dry bulb economizer setpoint is too high.) Of course, the
effect of this control method for a particular installation will depend on the
number of hours that the system operates in the economizer mode.
Improving Coincidental Dehumidification
The design of a basic constant-volume HVAC system can be altered to improve
coincidental dehumidification performance without directly controlling space
humidity. Table 3 compares the effect of these modifications (described on
pp. 3243), when applied to the example classroom in Jacksonville, Florida.
Adjustable Fan Speed
Many room terminals, such as fancoils and classroom unit ventilators
(Figure 24), include fans that can run at different speeds. Depending on the
equipment, fan speed is controlled manually by a switch or automatically by a
unit controller.
Slowing the fan speed improves the coincidental dehumidification provided by
constant-volume room terminals; it is also the first step to reduce cooling
capacity. Lets use the example classroom to demonstrate the effect of less
airflow. Assume that the HVAC system provides 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) of supply
airflow when the fan operates at its highest speed. As the sensible-cooling load
in the space decreases (Figure 25), the system initially responds by switching to
Table 3. Comparison of coincidental (indirect) dehumidification
1
1
Comparison of dehumidification performance is based on a classroom in Jacksonville, Florida. See Analysis of
Dehumidification Performance (p. 19) for a description of the room and the constant-volume HVAC system serving it.
Design of constant-volume system
Resulting relative humidity, %
Peak dry bulb Peak dew point Mild, rainy day
Basic (unaltered) 52 67 73
Basic plus adjustable fan speed (p. 32) 52 60 68
mixed-air bypass (p. 34) 52 65 68
mixed-air bypass and adjustable
fan speed (p. 36)
52 58 65
return-air bypass with full
coil face at part load (p. 37)
52 55 60
return-air bypass with reduced
coil face at part load (p. 39)
52 64 66
Figure 24. Classroom unit ventilator
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 33
low-speed fan operation, which reduces the supply airflow to 1,025 cfm (0.48
m/s). As the space load decreases further, the control valve modulates the
chilled water flow through the coil to appropriately reduce cooling capacity.
Because the fan operates at high speed when the peak dry-bulb condition
exists, dehumidification performance matches that of the basic constant-
volume system described at the beginning of our analysis (p. 20). That is, the
system supplies 55.7F (13.1C) air to satisfy the sensible-cooling load in the
space and maintain the 74F DB (23.3C) target; the resulting humidity is
52 percent.
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 26), the reduced supply
airflow results in a lower supply-air temperature, 57.9F (14.3C) versus 63F
(17.2C). Reducing the airflow allows the coil to remove more moisture,
improving the dehumidification performance of the system. At this condition,
the relative humidity in the space improves from 67 percent to 60 percent; the
required cooling capacity is 3.9 tons (13.7 kW).
On the mild and rainy day, the supply-air temperature rises to 63F (17.2C) and
the resulting space relative humidity climbs to 68 percent. The required cooling
capacity is 1.7 tons (6.0 kW).
Adjusting the fan speed offers an important acoustical benefit, particularly
for room terminals located within the occupied space: Fans operate quieter
at low speed.
Unit controls should automatically adjust the position of the outdoor-air
damper whenever the fan speed changes, thereby assuring that the space
continues to receive the proper amount of outdoor air. As part of the system
Figure 25. Example of automatic
fan-speed adjustment
Q
s
1.085 1 025 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr T
supply
57.9F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.48 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW T
supply
14.3C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 1 025 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
63.0F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.48 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
17.2C = ( )
Mild, rainy day:
Figure 26. Constant-volume dehumidification performance at low fan speed
Design
condition
Part load
Peak dew point Mild, rainy
OA 76.0F DP,
84.0F DB
70.0F DB,
69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB,
60.0% RH
74.0F DB,
68.0% RH
SA 57.9F DB 63.0F DB
Dehumidifying with
34 SYS-APM004-EN
air-balancing procedure and with the exhaust fan operating, determine the
appropriate damper position for each fan speed.
Mixed-Air Bypass
Face-and-bypass dampers, arranged to allow mixed air to bypass the cooling
coil, are often used to improve the indirect dehumidification performance of a
constant-volume system. Simple and inexpensive, mixed-air bypass blends
cold, dry air leaving the cooling coil with bypassed mixed air. The space
thermostat controls cooling capacity by adjusting the positions of the linked
face-and-bypass dampers, regulating airflow through and around the coil to
achieve the proper supply-air temperature (Figure 27); chilled water flow
through the coil remains constant. This control method is sometimes described
as letting the cooling coil run wild.
At the peak dry-bulb condition, the face damper is wide open and the bypass
damper is closed. All of the mixed air passes through the cooling coil, so
dehumidification performance is identical to that of the basic constant-volume
system without mixed-air bypass (p. 20).
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition, the face damper modulates closed
and the linked bypass damper modulates open to satisfy the space-thermostat
setpoint. The entering water temperature and water-flow rate through the coil
are unchanged. Diverting some of the mixed air around the coil slows the
velocity of the air passing through the coil; more of the entrained moisture
condenses, so the conditioned air (CA) leaves the coil drier and colderthat is,
at 52F (11.1C) for our example classroom in Jacksonville (Figure 28), as
determined with the help of a coil-performance program. The conditioned air
then blends with the bypassed, mixed air to achieve the desired supply-air
temperature of 63F (17.2C).
Figure 27. Basic constant-volume HVAC system with mixed-air bypass
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 35
Do not assume that the cold, dry air leaving the coil will adequately dehumidify
the space. At the peak dew-point condition, moisture in the bypassed air
prevents more than a slight decrease in relative humidityfrom 67 percent to
65 percent, in this case. The total coil load increases from 3.68 tons (12.9 kW) to
3.98 tons (14.0 kW).
On the mild and rainy day, the air leaves the cooling coil at 46.1F (7.8C) and
blends with the bypassed, mixed air to achieve the required supply-air
temperature of 66.5F (19.2C). The resulting relative humidity rises to
68 percent, and the required cooling capacity is 1.8 tons (6.3 kW). Again, mixed-
air bypass improves the indirect (coincidental) dehumidification of this basic
constant-volume system but only slightly.
Resetting the chilled water temperature or varying the water flow through
the cooling coil will degrade the dehumidification performance of a
constant-volume system equipped with mixed-air bypass.
Mixed-air bypass works with either blow-through or draw-through
supply fans. It also requires less space than true (full coil face active at part
load) return-air bypass, making it advantageous for terminal-unit
applications.
Mixed-air bypass dehumidifies more effectively than return-air bypass in
arid climates, where outdoor air is usually drier than return air. For climates
where return air is usually drier than outdoor air, however, return-air bypass
(p. 37) dehumidifies more effectively than mixed-air bypass.
To prevent water vapor from condensing on the interior and/or exterior of
the air-handler casing, close the chilled-water control valve when the fan is
off, or when the face damper is nearly closed.
Figure 28. Constant-volume dehumidification performance with mixed-air bypass
Design
condition
Part load
OA 76.0F DP,
84.0F DB
70.0F DB,
69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB,
64.5% RH
74.0F DB,
68.0% RH
CA 52.0F DB 46.1F DB
Dehumidifying with
36 SYS-APM004-EN
Mixed-air bypass plus adjustable fan speed. Indirect dehumidification
provided by a constant-volume system with mixed-air bypass improves when
combined with low-speed fan operation as the first step of capacity control.
Recall from an earlier example (p. 32) that the system first responds to a
decrease in the space sensible-cooling load by switching the fan to low speed,
which reduces supply airflow to 1,025 cfm (0.48 m/s).
When the space load decreases further, the face-and-bypass dampers vary the
cooling capacity accordingly by diverting some of the mixed air around the coil.
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 29), less airflow lowers the
supply-air temperature from 63F (17.2C) to 57.9F (14.3C). Reduced supply
airflow also means that more mixed air passes through the coil before blending
with the bypassed mixed air. The air that passes through the cooling coil is
cooled to 51.5F DB (10.8C DB). At this condition, the relative humidity in the
space improves to 58 percent, compared to 65 percent with mixed-air bypass
only. The required cooling capacity is 4.1 tons (14.4 kW).
On the mild and rainy day, the air leaves the cooling coil at 46.1F (7.8C) and
blends with the bypassed, mixed air to achieve the required supply-air
temperature of 63F (17.2C). The resulting relative humidity is 65 percent,
compared to 68 percent with mixed-air bypass only. The required cooling
capacity is 1.8 tons (6.3 kW).
Adjusting the fan speed offers an important acoustical benefit, particularly
for in-room terminals: Fans operate quieter at low speed.
Unit controls should automatically adjust the position of the outdoor-air
damper whenever the fan speed changes, thereby assuring that the space
continues to receive the proper amount of outdoor air. As part of the system
Figure 29. Constant-volume dehumidification performance with mixed-air bypass and
low-speed fan operation
Design
condition
Part load
OA 76.0F DP,
84.0F DB
70.0F DB,
69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB,
58.0% RH
74.0F DB,
65.0% RH
Q
s
1.085 1 025 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr T
supply
57.9F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.48 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW T
supply
14.3C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 1 025 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
63.0F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.48 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
17.2C = ( )
Mild, rainy day:
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 37
air-balancing procedure and with the exhaust fan operating, determine the
appropriate damper position for each fan speed.
Return-Air Bypass
Full coil face area. Face-and-bypass dampers also can be arranged to
bypass only return air (Figure 30) instead of a mixture of outdoor and return air.
Return-air bypass requires additional space and ductwork, which may increase
initial cost; however, it also limits humidity better than other methods of
coincidental dehumidification, making return-air bypass a cost-effective
enhancement for constant-volume systems.
As with mixed-air bypass, the space thermostat controls cooling capacity by
adjusting the position of the linked face-and-bypass dampers, regulating
airflow through and around the cooling coil. Because the coil runs wild, its
surface can be very cold at part-load conditions, enhancing the systems ability
to dehumidify the space without directly controlling humidity. What makes
return-air bypass more effective than mixed-air bypass at most loads, however,
is that it directs all of the moist outdoor air through the cooling coil. The cold,
dry air leaving the cooling coil then blends with relatively dry return air (rather
than a mixture of humid outdoor and return air).
At the peak dry-bulb condition, the face damper is wide open and the bypass
damper is closed; therefore, all of the mixed air passes through the cooling coil.
At this condition, dehumidification performance is identical to that of the basic
constant-volume system in our example Jacksonville classroom (p. 20). As the
sensible-cooling load in the space decreases, the face damper modulates
toward closed and the linked bypass damper modulates open. Some of the
recirculated return air bypasses the cooling coil, while the rest mixes with the
outdoor air and passes through the cooling coil. The bypassed return air and
conditioned air mix downstream of the coil (Figure 31, p. 38). The entering
water temperature and water flow rate through the coil remain unchanged, so
Figure 30. Basic constant-volume HVAC system with return-air bypass
Dehumidifying with
38 SYS-APM004-EN
with less airflow through the coil, the air leaving the coil is colder than at the
peak dry-bulb condition.
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 31, Figure 32), all 450 cfm
(0.21 m/s) of the outdoor air brought into the classroom for ventilation passes
through the cooling coil, as does 300 cfm (0.14 m/s) of the recirculated return
air; the resulting coil load is 4.2 tons (14.7 kW). The rest of the recirculated
return air, 750 cfm (0.35 m/s), bypasses the coil and mixes with the 51.8F
(11.0C) conditioned air leaving the coil. When the blended, 63F (17.2C) supply
air reaches the classroom, the resulting relative humidity is 55 percent.
On the mild and rainy day (Figure 32, Figure 33), only 400 cfm (0.19 m/s) of the
outdoor air passes through the cooling coil, which results in a cooling load of
2.2 tons (7.7 kW). The remaining 50 cfm (0.02 m/s) of outdoor air mixes with
Figure 31. Effect of return-air bypass on part-load airflows (peak dew-point condition)
It is difficult to accurately model the
part-load performance of an HVAC
system with return-air bypass. Both the
airflow through the coil and the
temperature of the mixed air as it
enters the coil change as the face-and-
bypass dampers modulate. Analyzing
part-load performance is a trial-and-
error process that is best accomplished
using coil modeling software and a
psychrometric chart.
Figure 32. Constant-volume dehumidification performance with return-air bypass and
entire coil surface
Design
condition
Part load
OA 76.0F DP,
84.0F DB
70.0F DB,
69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB,
55.2% RH
74.0F DB,
60.0% RH
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 39
1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of recirculated return air and bypasses the coil. In the
classroom, the blended 66.5F (19.2C) supply air results in a relative humidity
of 60 percent.
Reduced coil face area. There are various ways to implement return-air
bypass in HVAC equipment. Because of the limited space within terminals, such
as unit ventilators, operating the face-and-bypass dampers often reduces the
usable face area of the coil. In other words, as the face damper opens (in
response to a diminishing sensible-cooling load), it actually blocks part of the
cooling-coil surface (Figure 34). Less dehumidification occurs because less of
the coil is available for cooling and because the velocity of the air passing
through the coil is essentially unchanged.
Figure 33. Effect of return-air bypass on part-load airflows (mild, rainy condition)
Figure 34. Operation of face-and-bypass dampers that reduce available coil surface
Dehumidifying with
40 SYS-APM004-EN
Our example classroom helps demonstrate the effect of less coil surface
during return-air-bypass operation (Figure 35). If the face area of the coil
decreases as the face damper closes, the relative humidity in the classroom
climbs to 64 percent at the part-load, peak dew-point condition, as compared to
55 percent when the entire coil face is available. The required cooling capacity
is 3.9 tons (13.7 kW). Mild and rainy conditions require 1.9 tons (6.7 kW) of
cooling capacity, and the resulting relative humidity increases to 66 percent.
Resetting the chilled water temperature or varying the water flow through
the cooling coil degrades the dehumidification performance of a constant-
volume system equipped with return-air bypass.
Return-air bypass requires a draw-through supply-fan arrangement and
more space, typically, than mixed-air bypass. For proper dehumidification,
the air-handler configuration must mix the bypassed return air with
conditioned air downstream of the cooling coil (Figure 36).
Because it usually directs all incoming outdoor air through the cooling coil,
return-air bypass dehumidifies better than mixed-air bypass when the
outdoor air contains more moisture than the return air. For arid climates
where outdoor air is usually drier than return air, however, mixed-air bypass
(p. 34) works best.
At very low loads, the airflow through the coil may be less than the outdoor
airflow. In this case, the remaining portion of the outdoor air mixes with the
recirculated return air to bypass the cooling coil. Even though some of the
outdoor air bypasses the cooling coil, the percentage of outdoor air in the
bypass path generally is very low when compared to mixed-air bypass.
Figure 35. Constant-volume dehumidification performance with return-air bypass and
reduced coil surface
Design
condition
Part load
OA 76.0F DP,
84.0F DB
70.0F DB,
69.0F WB
RA 74.0F DB,
64.0% RH
74.0F DB,
66.0% RH
Figure 36. Examples of air handlers with
properly configured return-air bypass
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 41
When considering equipment that uses return-air bypass, determine
whether the face of the cooling coil is blocked at part-load conditions.
Reducing the available face area significantly impairs dehumidification
performance.
To prevent water vapor from condensing on the interior and/or exterior of
the air-handler casing, close the chilled-water control valve when the fan is
off, or when the face damper is nearly closed.
DX Coil Circuiting
When more than one liquid-refrigerant distributor serves a direct-expansion
(DX) cooling coil, the coil is divided into sections (Figure 37). Each section is
independently controlled by its own expansion device. The most common
configurations for divided, finned-tube evaporator coils are:
Face-split, which divides the coil into parallel sections. Both sections are
active when the cooling load is high, providing a uniform leaving-air
temperature. At low loads, only one coil section is active to cool and
dehumidify the air passing through it. Air passing through the inactive (top)
section remains unconditioned. The two air streams mix downstream of the
coil, producing average temperature and humidity conditions.
Intertwined, which divides the coil by feeding alternate tubes of the coil via
two distributors. At high loads, both distributors feed liquid refrigerant to all
of the tubes. At low loads, only one distributor operates, and the coil
performs as though its fin surface area were substantially greater.
Therefore, the coil surface can be warmer at part load (reducing the risk of
frost), and still provide a uniform leaving-air temperature. This performance
characteristic makes intertwined coils well-suited for VAV applications.
Which of these DX coil-circuiting arrangements, face-split or intertwined,
provides the best constant-volume dehumidification? To find out, we used a
computer model to simulate performance at the part-load, peak dew-point
condition for our example Jacksonville classroom. The HVAC system in this
analysis contained two equally sized compressors and a coil served by two
solenoid valves. Whenever the thermostat turned off a compressor, the
corresponding solenoid valve stopped refrigerant flow through half of the coil.
Table 4 compares the results of the analysis.
At the peak dew-point condition, one compressor operates continuously while
the other cycles on and off. With both compressors operating and the entire coil
surface active, the leaving-air condition58.7F DB, 58.4F DP (14.8C DB,
14.7C DP)is identical for both coil circuiting arrangements. Offsetting the
space sensible-cooling load and maintaining the thermostat setpoint, however,
requires 63F DB (17.2C DB) supply air. Therefore, operating both compressors
Figure 37. Common DX coil configurations
Dehumidifying with
42 SYS-APM004-EN
eventually overcools the space. The thermostat then stops the second
compressor, and one of the solenoid valves prevents refrigerant flow through
half of the coil.
Face-split coil. With only one compressor operating, air passing through the
active (bottom) half of the face-split coil is cooled and dehumidified to 57.8F
DB, 57.5F DP (14.3C DB, 14.2C DP). When this conditioned air mixes with the
unconditioned air that passed through the inactive (top) half of the coil, the
resulting mixed air downstream of the coil is 67.4F DB, 62.7F DP (19.7C DB,
17.1C DP). The supply air eventually undercools the space because it is too
warm to offset the sensible-cooling load. At this point, the thermostat restarts
the second compressor and the entire coil surface is active again.
With the second compressor cycling on and off, the average supply-air
condition during an hour of HVAC operation is 63.0F DB, 60.6F DP (17.2C DB,
15.9C DP).
Intertwined coil. Unlike face-split circuiting, every other row in an
intertwined coil still receives refrigerant after the second compressor stops. Air
passing through the coil is cooled and dehumidified to 64.0F DB, 63.5F DP
(17.8C DB, 17.5C DP). Because the supply air is too warm to offset the sensible-
cooling load, the second compressor cycles as necessary to maintain the
thermostat setpoint. However, because the supply-air condition is close to the
desired condition of 63F (17.2C), the system with the intertwined coil operates
the second compressor much less throughout the hour than the system with
the face-split coil.
Table 4. Performance comparison of DX coil-circuiting options at peak dew point
1
1
Coil performance is based on the peak dew-point condition for Jacksonville, Florida: 76F DP, 84F DB (24.6C DP,
28.8C DB).
Operating condition Face-split coil Intertwined coil
Coil leaving-air temperature with:
Both compressors operating
Full coil surface active
58.7F (14.8C) DB,
58.4F (14.7C) DP
58.7F (14.8C) DB,
58.4F (14.7C) DP
Coil leaving-air temperature
with:
One compressor operating
Half of coil surface active
active coil section only 57.8F (14.3C) DB,
57.5F (14.2C) DP
not applicable
mixed air downstream
of coil
67.4F (19.7C) DB,
62.7F (17.1C) DP
64.0F (17.8C) DB,
63.5F (17.5C) DP
Averaged supply-air condition to
match sensible-cooling load
63.0F (17.2C) DB,
60.6F (15.9C) DP
63.0F (17.2C) DB,
62.6F (17.0C) DP
Resulting condition in space 74.0F (23.3C) DB,
68% RH
74.0F (23.3C) DB,
71% RH
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 43
With the second compressor cycling on and off, the average supply-air
condition for an hour of operation yields 63.0F DB, 62.6F DP (17.2C DB,
17.0C DP).
Conclusion. At the peak dew-point condition, with one compressor
operating continuously and the other cycling on and off, the constant-volume
performance of face-split and intertwined coils is similar. The average supply-
air dew point for the face-split coil is only 2F (1.1C) less than that of the
intertwined coil, and it results in a space relative humidity that is only 3 percent
less. To represent a broader range of loads, performance was also compared for
mild, rainy conditions (Table 5) and yielded similar results. Again, the face-split
coil provided a slightly lower space relative humidity, that is, 71 percent versus
73 percent for the intertwined coil.
None of the performance models accounted for the transient effect of moisture
re-evaporating from the inactive half of the face-split coil; so, the already small
difference in performance is likely to be even less.
Application consideration
For constant-volume DX applications in which humidity control is important,
use supply-air tempering (pp. 5052), or separately condition the incoming
outdoor air (pp. 4450), to improve dehumidification performance.
Table 5. Performance comparison of DX coil-circuiting options on a mild, rainy day
1
1
Coil performance is based on a mild, rainy condition for Jacksonville, Florida: 70F DB, 69F WB (21.2C DB, 20.6C WB).
Operating condition Face-split coil Intertwined coil
Coil leaving-air temperature
with:
One compressor operating
Half of coil surface active
active coil section only 55.0F (12.8C) DB,
54.8F (12.7C) DP
not applicable
mixed air downstream
of coil
63.9F (17.7C) DB,
61.0F (16.1C) DP
60.5F (15.8C) DB,
60.3F (15.7C) DP
Coil entering- and leaving-air
temperatures with:
No compressors operating
Entire coil surface inactive
72.8F (22.7C) DB,
66.1F (18.9C) DP
72.8F (22.7C) DB,
66.1F (18.9C) DP
Averaged supply-air condition to
match sensible-cooling load
66.5F (19.2C) DB,
62.5F (16.9C) DP
66.5F (19.2C) DB,
63.3F (17.4C) DP
Resulting condition in space 74.0F (23.3C) DB,
71% RH
74.0F (23.3C) DB,
73% RH
Dehumidifying with
44 SYS-APM004-EN
Direct Control of Humidity
Coincidental (indirect) dehumidification enhancements may work well for
comfort-cooling applications in certain indoor environments and in certain
climates. When latent loads and sensible loads vary significantly, however, or
when it is necessary to maintain a low humidity in the occupied space, it may
be necessary to directly control both dry-bulb temperature and humidity. This is
usually accomplished either by separately conditioning the outdoor air and
return air or by overcooling and tempering the supply air.
Note: For the analyses discussed in this section, we assumed that the
HVAC system directly controls the indoor relative humidity, keeping it below
60 percent.
Separate Air Paths
Providing separate treatment paths for the outdoor air entering the building
and for return air from the space can enable direct humidity control. These
paths may reside in individual air handlers, as in a dedicated outdoor-air
system, or within the same air-handler casing, as in a dual-path air handler.
Dedicated outdoor-air system
As its name implies, a dedicated outdoor-air (OA) system devotes one air
handler exclusively to cooling and dehumidifying all outdoor air so that it is
drier than the air in the space. The conditioned outdoor air is then delivered
either directly to the space or to other air handlers. Common names for an air
handler that serves this purpose include dedicated outdoor-air unit,
100 percent-outdoor-air unit, fresh-air unit, and makeup-air unit.
Figure 38 shows a dedicated outdoor-air system that delivers 450 cfm
(0.21 m/s) of dry, neutral-temperature outdoor air directly to our example
Jacksonville classroom. The dedicated OA unit dehumidifies the entering
outdoor air to a low dew point and then reheats it to the approximate dry-bulb-
temperature target for the space. In this example, the dedicated OA system
dehumidifies the outdoor air to 52F DP (11.1C DP) and then reheats it to
71F DB (21.7C DB).
The dedicated OA unit modulates cooling-coil capacity to maintain the
desired leaving dew-point temperature. This dew point is determined during
the design process to assure that the conditioned outdoor air is dry enough to
properly dehumidify the space at all load conditions. With the addition of a
space humidity sensor, the leaving dew-point temperature can be reset in
response to actual space conditions. Meanwhile, a fancoil in the classroom
cools 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) of recirculated air from the space to offset the local
cooling loads.
Dedicated outdoor-air systems can be
arranged in several ways. These
configurations are discussed in more
detail in Dehumidifying with
Dedicated Outdoor Air, pp. 7599.
dedicated OA unit
Figure 38. Dedicated outdoor-air system
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 45
At the peak dry-bulb condition (Figure 39), the fancoil cools 100 percent-
recirculated air to 56.6F DB (13.5C DB); the resulting relative humidity is
50 percent. (This supply-air temperature is slightly warmer than in a basic
constant-volume system because the 71F DB [21.7C DB] air, supplied by the
dedicated outdoor-air unit, offsets part of the sensible-cooling load in the
space.) Together, the dedicated outdoor-air unit and the fancoilwhich
provide 3.0 tons (10.6 kW) and 2.8 tons (9.8 kW), respectivelyoffset the total
cooling load of 5.8 tons (20.4 kW).
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 40, p. 46), the dedicated
outdoor-air unit delivers the outdoor air at the same conditions, 71F DB
(21.7C DB) and 52F DP (11.1C DP). Fancoil capacity modulates to match the
lower sensible-cooling load in the space, which raises that units supply-air
temperature to 63.9F (17.7C) and results in a relative humidity of 56 percent.
Again, the total cooling load of 4.8 tons (16.9 kW) is divided between the
dedicated outdoor-air unit and the fancoil, which handle 3.4 tons (12.0 kW)
and 1.4 tons (4.9 kW), respectively.
Figure 39. Dehumidification performance of a dedicated outdoor-air system
at peak dry-bulb condition
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
=
29 = 750 Btu/hr ,
1.085 450cfm 74 71F ( ) [ ]
28 = 285 Btu/hr ,
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C ( ) [ ])
T
supply
56.6F =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
= ( )
8.7 kW = (
8.29 kW = ( )
T
supply
13.5C = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
Appendix B in this manual describes
the design process that we used to select
the dedicated outdoor-air unit and the
local terminal(s). For this example, we
sized the dedicated OA unit to maintain
the relative humidity below 60 percent
in the classroom at full- and part-load
conditions.
Dehumidifying with
46 SYS-APM004-EN
The sensible-cooling load in the space is even lower on the mild and rainy day,
so the supply-air temperature from the fancoil increases to 67.4F (19.5C),
while the conditioned air from the dedicated outdoor-air unit remains
unchanged. The resulting relative humidity in the space is 60 percent. Of the
total cooling load, which is 2.9 tons (10.2 kW), the dedicated outdoor-air unit
handles 2.0 tons (7.0 kW) and the fancoil handles 0.9 tons (3.2 kW).
Figure 40. Dehumidification performance of a dedicated outdoor-air system
at peak dew-point condition
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
=
17 = 850 Btu/hr ,
1.085 450cfm 74 71F ( ) [ ]
16 = 385 Btu/hr ,
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C ( ) [ ] )
T
supply
63.9F =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
= ( )
5.2 = (
4.8 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
17.7C = ( )
Figure 41. Dehumidification performance of a dedicated outdoor-air system on a mild,
rainy day
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
=
12 = 250 Btu/hr ,
1.085 450cfm 74 71F ( ) [ ]
10 = 785 Btu/hr ,
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C ( ) [ ] )
T
supply
67.4F =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Q
s,fc
Q
s,space
Q
s,doa
= ( )
3.6 kW = (
3.2 kW = ( )
T
supply
19.5C = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
Mild, rainy day:
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 47
Dual-path air handler
A dual-path air handler, which separately conditions both return air and outdoor
air, offers an alternative to one dedicated outdoor-air unit for the system and a
room terminal in each space. Each air path includes a dedicated cooling coil, but
the same constant-volume fan serves both paths (Figure 42).
Working together, the cooling coils in the return-air (RA) and outdoor-air (OA)
paths maintain the dry-bulb temperature and humidity in the space:
The OA cooling coil prevents the humidity in the space from exceeding a
predefined limit, dehumidifying the outdoor air enough to offset the latent
load. A humidity sensor in the space directly controls coil capacity.
The RA cooling coil provides the additional cooling needed to offset the
sensible load. A thermostat in the space directly controls coil capacity to
maintain the space dry-bulb temperature at setpoint.
At the example classrooms peak dry-bulb condition (Figure 43, p. 48), each coil
conditions the air to 55.7F (13.1C). When the combined airflows are supplied
to the space, the resulting relative humidity is about the same as that achieved
by the basic, single-coil HVAC system. The total load of 4.81 tons (16.9 kW) is
split between the outdoor-air coil, which handles 2.15 tons (7.6 kW), and the
return-air coil, which handles 2.66 tons (9.4 kW).
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 44, p. 48), the humidity
sensor modulates the capacity of the OA cooling coil to maintain the relative
humidity at the desired upper limit60 percent in this case. This is done by
opening the chilled water valve and reducing the leaving-coil temperature to
52F (11.1C). The thermostat reduces the capacity of the RA cooling coil to
match the diminished sensible load; the resulting temperature of the blended
Figure 42. Dual-path air handler
Arranging the air paths in a stacked
configuration (below) reduces the
footprint of the dual-path air handler.
Dehumidifying with
48 SYS-APM004-EN
supply air is 63F (17.2C). Again, the total cooling load of 4.07 tons (14.3 kW) is
divided between the two coils: the OA coil handles 3.44 tons (12.1 kW) and the
RA coil handles 0.63 tons (2.2 kW). The system directly controls the relative
humidity in the space to the desired upper limit of 60 percent.
Maintaining 60 percent-relative humidity when it is mild and rainy outside
(Figure 45) requires a leaving-air temperature of 51F (10.6C) from the OA coil.
To achieve a blended supply-air temperature of 66.5F (19.2C) and avoid
overcooling the space, the RA coil cools the recirculated return air from 74F
(23.3C) to 73.1F (22.8C). The OA coil load is 2.09 tons (7.4 kW), and the RA coil
load is 0.09 tons (0.3 kW).
Figure 43. Dehumidification performance of a dual-path air handler
at peak dry-bulb condition
Figure 44. Dehumidification performance of a dual-path air handler at
peak dew-point condition
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 49
Table 6 summarizes the cooling-coil loads at the peak dry-bulb, peak dew-point,
and mild, rainy conditions. In this case, the highest load on the RA cooling coil
occurs at the peak dry-bulb condition, while the highest load on the OA cooling
coil occurs at the peak dew-point condition. However, neither of these
conditions necessarily represents the worst-case combined load for these coils.
Size each cooling coil for its individual peak load.
Because the peak loads on the two coils occur at different times, size the
cooling equipment (a central chilled water plant, for example) based on the
block load rather than the sum of the peak loads.
If the risk of below-freezing outdoor temperatures exists during occupied
periods, consider protecting the chilled water coil in the outdoor air path by:
installing a preheat coil upstream of the chilled water coil; using an air-to-air,
energy-recovery device to recover heat from the exhaust air; or adding
glycol to the chilled water system.
When the sensible load is low enough, the RA cooling coil may actually turn
off while the OA cooling coil continues to produce cold air. A heating coil is
generally required to heat the recirculated return air and avoid overcooling
the space.
Section 6.3.2.3 of ASHRAE Standard 90.12001 (see p. 8 in this manual)
restricts the mixing of hot and cold air. If the dual-path air handler adds heat
to the return-air path at certain part-load conditions, and if it meets one of
the following criteria, it may be exempt from this restriction:
Per Exception B, the dual-path air handlers design cooling capacity is
6.67 tons (23 kW) or less, and the combined load on both coils is less than
50 percent of design capacity when heat is added to the return-air path.
Figure 45. Dehumidification performance of a dual-path air handler on a mild, rainy day
Table 6. Summary of cooling-coil loads
for example dual-path air handler
1
1
Outdoor conditions refer to the classroom examples set
in Jacksonville, Florida:
Peak dry bulb 96F (35.7C) DB, 76F (24.5C) WB
Peak dew point 76F (24.6C) DP, 84F (28.8C) DB
Mild, rainy 70F (21.2C) DB, 69F (20.6C) WB
Cooling load, tons (kW)
OA coil RA coil Block
Peak
DB
2.15
(7.6)
2.66
(9.4)
4.81
(16.9)
Peak
DP
3.44
(12.1)
0.63
(2.2)
4.07
(14.3)
Mild,
rainy
2.09
(7.4)
0.09
(0.3)
2.18
(7.7)
Dehumidifying with
50 SYS-APM004-EN
Per Exception D, the dual-path air handler serves a space that requires
specific humidity levels to satisfy process needs; examples include
computer rooms, museums, surgical suites, supermarkets, refrigerated
warehouses, and ice arenas.
Per Exception E, at least 75 percent of the heat added to the return-air path
originates from an on-site source of recovered (condenser heat, for
example) or solar energy.
For cold-weather climates, size the capacity of the RA heating coil to offset
the heating loads in the space.
Size the OA cooling coil for the minimum outdoor airflow required for
ventilation. Provide an additional outdoor air path if the system includes an
airside economizer.
For proper system control, install a humidity sensor in the space and assure
that the air-handler controls can independently modulate the capacity of
each cooling coil.
Supply-Air Tempering
Using a single cooling coil in series with a source of heat for tempering
(Figure 46) provides an alternative means of directly controlling indoor
humidity. The cooling coil dehumidifies the air to a dew point that is dry
enough to maintain the space at an acceptable humidity level. The downstream
heating coil tempers (raises) the supply-air dry-bulb temperature just enough
to maintain the thermostat setpoint and avoid overcooling the space.
Note: In this manual, we use the term tempering instead of reheat
because the heating coil only moderates the cooling effect of the dry supply air.
The space still requires cooling, but not as much as the dehumidification
process provides.
Figure 46. Constant-volume HVAC system with supply-air tempering
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 51
At the peak dry-bulb condition for our Jacksonville classroom, a constant-
volume system with supply-air tempering performs identically to the basic
system in our original example (Figure 14, p. 20). Both systems also respond
identically when the sensible-cooling load in the space decreases; that is, they
raise the supply-air temperature by reducing the cooling capacity of the coil. If
the space humidity rises above the maximum limit, however, the system with
supply-air tempering overcools the supply air by modulating the cooling-coil
capacity to enforce the maximum humidity limit. Another common control
strategy operates the cooling coil at full capacity when the humidity in the
space exceeds the specified maximum limit, which lowers the relative humidity
more quickly so that the system can return to the normal cooling mode.
In either case, the overcooled supply air then passes through the heating coil,
which adds a small amount of heat to temper the air and avoid overcooling
the space.
Recall that the basic, constant-volume system achieved a relative humidity
of 67 percent at the peak dew-point condition. In the system with supply-air
tempering (Figure 47), however, the humidity sensor increases the capacity of
the cooling coil to avoid violating the 60 percent maximum limit for relative
humidity; the resulting leaving-coil temperature is 58F DB (14.4C DB). The
thermostat prevents overcooling by increasing the capacity of the heating coil,
which tempers the supply air to 63F (17.2C). The total load on the cooling coil
at this condition is 4.74 tons (16.7 kW); there is also a 8.14 MBh (2.4 kW) load on
the heating coil.
On the mild and rainy day, the air leaves the cooling coil at 59F (15C), and is
then tempered to 66.5F (19.2C) to enforce the 60-percent-humidity limit in the
space. At this condition, the total cooling-coil load is 3.15 tons (11.1 kW) and the
heating coil-load is 12.2 MBh (3.6 kW).
Figure 47. Dehumidification performance of supply-air tempering at part-load conditions
Dehumidifying with
52 SYS-APM004-EN
Application considerations. Table 7 and Figure 48 summarize the coil
loads at the peak dry-bulb, peak dew-point, and mild, rainy conditions. In this
example, the largest cooling burden occurs at the peak dry-bulb condition.
Although the enthalpy of the outdoor air is higher at the peak dew-point
condition, the humidity sensor in the space permits the relative humidity (RH)
to reach the maximum limit; therefore, the enthalpy of the air leaving the coil is
higher, too. Lowering the maximum RH limit may cause the highest cooling
load to occur at a condition other than the peak dry bulb.
When designing a constant-volume system that includes supply-air
tempering, size the cooling coil and central plant (in the case of a chilled
water system) to handle the largest cooling load. Remember that the largest
load may occur at full-load or part-load conditions, depending on the
desired humidity limit and the load characteristics of the space.
Adding a reheat coil to the supply-air path increases the fan power
requirement.
Supply-air tempering using recovered heat can reduce system operating
costs by avoiding the use of new energy for heat. Furthermore, it may allow
the system to meet the requirements of energy standards (ASHRAE
Standard 90.1, for example) and codes.
For proper system control, install a humidity sensor in the space. Also,
assure that the air-handler controls can determine when to switch between
the standard cooling and dehumidification modes, as well as modulate
the capacity of each coil independently.
Figure 48. Comparison of coil loads for supply-air tempering at various conditions
Table 7. Summary of coil loads for supply-
air-tempering example
1
1
Outdoor conditions refer to the classroom examples set
in Jacksonville, Florida:
Peak dry bulb 96F (35.7C) DB, 76F (24.5C) WB
Peak dew point 76F (24.6C) DP, 84F (28.8C) DB
Mild, rainy 70F (21.2C) DB, 69F (20.6C) WB
Coil load (kW)
Cooling, tons Heating, MBh
Peak DB 4.78
(16.8)
0.00
(0.0)
Peak DP 4.74
(16.7)
8.14
(2.4)
Mild, rainy 3.15
(11.1)
12.20
(3.6)
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 53
Recovered heat
Tempering supply air requires a source of heat, but ASHRAE Standard 90.1
2001 prohibits the use of new energy for tempering or reheat in constant-
volume systems, doesnt it? Not necessarily. Section 6.3.2.3 (see p. 8 in this
manual) defines several exceptions for which new-energy reheat is permitted
smaller terminal equipment, midsize equipment that is capable of unloading to
50 percent capacity before reheat is used, and systems that serve certain types
of spaces (museums, surgical suites, and supermarkets, for example).
Furthermore, tempering is always permissible if at least 75 percent of the
energy required for reheat is recovered on-site.
Restricted use of new energy for tempering will probably result in HVAC
systemdesigns that temper supply air by recovering heat from the cooling
process, particularly in dehumidification applications. Recovering sensible heat
from another part of the HVAC system reduces operating costs by avoiding the
use of new energy (electricity, hot water, steam, gas) for that purpose. Sources
of recoverable heat include:
Condenser water in a water-cooled, chilled water system
Hot refrigerant in a refrigeration system
Another air stream or another location in the same air stream (using an air-
to-air heat exchanger)
Condenser-water heat recovery. In a water-cooled-chiller application of
the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the compressor discharges hot
refrigerant vapor into a shell-and-tube heat exchanger or condenser. Heat
transfers from the hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor inside the condenser
shell to the relatively cool water flowing through the tubes; the loss of heat
causes the refrigerant to condense into a liquid. The warm condenser water is
then pumped to a cooling tower, where it is cooled by the outdoor air. Instead
of rejecting the condenser heat to the cooling tower, it can be recovered and
used to temper supply air.
Condenser-water heat recovery is especially cost-effective in supply-air-
tempering applications. It not only provides sufficient heat for tempering, but
allows the primary heating equipment (boilers) to be turned off during the
summer. Of course, recovered heat is only available while the chiller operates.
Any water-cooled chiller can provide sensible heat for supply-air tempering.
Chiller with a standard condenser
The leaving-air temperatures in supply-air-tempering applications typically
range from 55F (13C) to 75F (24C), so the water used for tempering need
not need be hot. Most standard water-cooled chillers can provide suitable
condenser-water temperatures if operated at a slightly elevated refrigerant-
condensing temperature.
For more information on recovering
heat from a water-cooled chiller,
including system configurations that
optimize this arrangement, refer to the
following manuals:
Waterside Heat Recovery
in HVAC Systems, Trane
SYS-APM005-EN
Multiple-Chiller-System
Design and Control, Trane
SYS-APM001-EN
Application Guide: Chiller Heat
Recovery, ASHRAE publication
ISBN 1-8883413-74-5
Dehumidifying with
54 SYS-APM004-EN
Recirculating the same condenser water through an air handlers hot water coil
and an open cooling tower increases the potential for tube fouling. Adding a
second water loop, another pump, and a plate-and-frame heat exchanger can
eliminate this risk. One loop circulates water through the chiller condenser, the
plate-and-frame heat exchanger, and the hot water coil; the other loop
circulates water through the plate-and-frame heat exchanger and the open
cooling tower (Figure 49).
This arrangement also accommodates closed-circuit cooling towers or other
types of evaporative fluid coolers. However, it is less efficient than other
methods of condenser-water heat recovery because it adds an intermediate
heat-transfer step and uses more pump energy.
Heating chiller in sidestream position
For systems with multiple chillers, using one of the chillers as a heater offers
a more efficient alternative to an intermediate heat exchanger. The heating
chiller does not require an additional condenser; instead, it is installed and
controlled for the condenser heat that it rejects. The evaporator is connected to
the chilled water loop, typically in the sidestream configuration (Figure 50); it
provides only the cooling needed to satisfy the heating load on the condenser.
The temperature of the water leaving the evaporator is a by-product, letting the
more efficient cooling-only chillers meet the rest of the cooling load. In effect,
the evaporator of the heating chiller precools the system return water,
reducing the load on the downstream chillers.
This arrangement is well-suited for the year-round heating loads associated
with supply-air tempering to control humidityespecially for buildings that
require significantly less heating than cooling (buildings in hot, humid climates,
for example). The heating chiller operates more efficiently than other heat-
producing devices, and it is less expensive than a chiller equipped with a
second, heat-recovery condenser.
Figure 49. Condenser-water heat recovery using a plate-and-frame heat exchanger
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 55
Chiller with heat-recovery condenser
Another means of condenser-water heat recovery requires a chiller that is
equipped with either two separate condensers (Figure 51) or a single condenser
containing two separate tube bundles. Both scenarios require two condenser-
water loops: one loop circulates water through a cooling tower to reject heat
from the standard condenser, and the other carries water from the dedicated
heat-recovery condenser to the hot-water coil for supply-air tempering.
The hot refrigerant vapor discharged by the compressor migrates to the
condenser with the lowest pressure. Condenser pressure is a function of that
condensers leaving water temperature. Raising the leaving water temperature
of the standard condenserreducing the flow rate or increasing the entering
water temperatureincreases the heat available from the heat-recovery
condenser. This approach eliminates the intermediate heat exchanger, but the
additional condenser increases the initial cost of the chiller.
In a multiple-chiller system, installing the heat-recovery chiller in the
sidestreamconfiguration (Figure 52) provides two notable benefits. First, the
Figure 50. Condenser-water heat recovery using a sidestream heating chiller
Figure 51. Centrifugal chiller with
heat-recovery condenser
Dehumidifying with
56 SYS-APM004-EN
heat-recovery chiller can supply warmer water than the other operating chillers.
It provides only the cooling needed to offset the supply-air-tempering load on
the heat-recovery condenser, effectively precooling the returning system water
and letting the more efficient cooling-only chillers meet the rest of the cooling
load.
Second, if piped in a primarysecondary (decoupled) configuration, the
heat-recovery chiller receives the warmest system water. This arrangement
maximizes recoverable heat as well as the efficiency of this chiller. Because it is
positioned upstream of the bypass line, the heat-recovery chiller is not affected
by excess flow from the supply side of the system (which would otherwise
lower that chillers entering-water temperature).
Figure 52. Condenser-water heat recovery using a sidestream, heat-recovery chiller
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 57
Refrigerant heat recovery. Heat generated by the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle is also recoverable from direct-expansion (DX) refrigerating
equipment and air-cooled chillers. This is typically accomplished by piping a
heat-recovering refrigerant coil downstream of the compressor, either in series
with, or parallel to, the standard condenser coil. Sometimes described as a
hot-gas reheat coil or desuperheater, the heat-recovery coil collects
sensible heat from the hot refrigerant vapor and transfers it to the supply air
stream. When the humidity indoors exceeds the desired upper limit, the
evaporator (DX cooling) coil dehumidifies the supply air; the heat-recovery coil
then tempers the cold, dry supply air to avoid overcooling the space.
Figure 53 depicts a refrigerant, heat-recovery coil that is piped in series with a
standard air-cooled condenser. If the humidity exceeds the maximum limit,
cooling capacity is increased in response to indoor humidity. The linked face-
and-bypass dampers modulate the capacity of the heat-recovery coil to
maintain the space temperature at setpoint. If the humidity does not exceed
the maximum limit, then the cooling coil is controlled to maintain the space
temperature at setpoint. Because tempering is unnecessary, the face dampers
modulate closed and the bypass dampers modulate open. Directing the air
stream around the heat-recovery coil lowers the pressure drop.
Figure 54 (p. 58) shows a refrigerant heat-recovery coil piped in parallel with the
condenser in a water-source heat pump. If the humidity exceeds the maximum
limit, the compressor operates to lower the indoor humidity. A two-position
refrigerant valve opens to divert the hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor from
the compressor to the refrigerant heat-recovery coil, which is located
downstream of the refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger. (The heat exchanger acts
as an evaporator during the cooling mode.) This refrigerant valve cycles open
and closed to maintain the space temperature at setpoint.
For more information about recovering
heat from a DX refrigeration system,
refer to Refrigerant Heat Recovery,
Trane applications engineering manual
SYS-AM-5.
Figure 53. Direct-expansion HVAC system with series-piped condenser and refrigerant,
heat-recovery coil
Dehumidifying with
58 SYS-APM004-EN
Refrigerant heat recovery is readily packaged within an air handler and is
not susceptible to freezing, which makes it a convenient and relatively
inexpensive means to temper supply air.
If not factory-engineered and -installed, use care when selecting the heat-
recovery coil and installing the refrigerant piping and controls. Pipe the
heat-recovery coil in series with the condenser, and use face-and-bypass
dampers to control capacity. Doing so simplifies the refrigeration circuit and
facilitates proper compressor lubrication.
Heat for tempering is only available while the compressor operates.
The additional coil increases the airside pressure drop and associated fan-
energy consumption.
Air-to-air heat recovery. Sensible heat for supply-air tempering can be
recovered from another air stream (or another location in the same air stream)
by using an air-to-air heat exchanger. The air-to-air heat exchanger can be a coil
loop, a fixed-plate heat exchanger, a heat pipe, or a sensible rotary heat
exchanger (heat wheel). There are two configurations for using a sensible air-to-
air heat exchanger for supply-air tempering: series and parallel.
Figure 54. Water-source heat pump with parallel-piped condenser and heat-recovery coil
Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in
HVAC Systems (Trane applications
engineering manual SYS-APM003-EN)
discusses the use of air-to-air heat
exchangers for tempering supply air.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 59
Series configuration
Figure 55 depicts a constant-volume, mixed-air system. The air-to-air,
sensible-energy-recovery device is applied in a series (or wrap-around)
configuration. To temper the supply air, the device removes sensible heat from
the air upstream of the dehumidifying/cooling coil and releases it downstream
of the coil. Technically, this arrangement transfers heat from one location to
another within the same air stream, rather than recovering it from elsewhere
in the system.
Parallel configuration
Figure 56 shows the same constant-volume, mixed-air system; this time, the
sensible-energy-recovery device is applied in a parallel configuration. The
device collects sensible heat from the return air stream and releases it
downstream of the dehumidifying/cooling coil, warming the supply air.
Figure 55. Air-to-air heat recovery applied in a series configuration
Figure 56. Air-to-air heat recovery applied in a parallel configuration
Dehumidifying with
60 SYS-APM004-EN
Series or parallel?
In constant-volume, mixed-air systems, both series and parallel configurations
reduce the heating energy required for tempering. When comparing the
amount of recoverable heat, however, the return air stream (parallel
configuration) is a more constant source of heat than the outdoor air (series
configuration). If recovered heat is needed when the outdoor air is warmer than
the return air, the series configuration transfers more heat; but if recovered heat
is needed when the outdoor air is cooler than the return air, the parallel
configuration transfers more heat.
Although both configurations precool the entering air, which saves cooling
energy when tempering, neither configuration permits downsizing of the
cooling and heating plants. At the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition, the air is
supplied to the space at the design (cold) supply-air temperature. Tempering is
unnecessary, so no precooling occurs. Therefore, the cooling coil and cooling
plant must be sized to handle the total design-cooling load.
Finally, either configuration may require supplemental heat at certain
conditions; also, both require a method for modulating the capacity of the air-
to-air heat exchanger to avoid overheating the space during dehumidification.
The right choice for a given project depends on the balance of initial cost,
energy savings for cooling and heating, and increased fan energy resulting
from the additional static-pressure loss through the heat exchanger.
SYS-APM004-EN 61
Dehumidifying with
Variable-Volume Mixed Air
Mixed-air systems use an air handler to condition a combination of outdoor air
and recirculated return air before delivering the mixed air to each space. The
variable-air-volume (VAV) version of a mixed-air system (Figure 57) consists of
a central air handler and multiple VAV terminals, each of which is controlled by
a space thermostat. Unlike a constant-volume system, which delivers a
constant amount of air at varying temperatures, a VAV system delivers varying
amounts of constant-temperature air, typically 45F to 55F DB (7C to 13C DB).
A thermostat in each space compares the dry-bulb temperature to a setpoint,
and the VAV terminal responds by modulating the volume of supply air to
match the changing sensible-cooling load in the space. Meanwhile, the central
supply fan modulates to maintain the static-pressure setpoint in the duct
system, and the capacity of the central cooling coil modulates to maintain a
constant supply-air dry-bulb temperature.
VAV systems typically provide effective, coincidental dehumidification over a
wide range of indoor load conditions (sensible-heat ratios). If supply-air-
temperature reset is not used, and as long as any space needs cooling, the VAV
air handler will supply dry (low-dew-point) air to all VAV terminals. Moisture
generated within the space is absorbed by the dry supply airoffsetting the
latent loadthen removed from the space by the return air stream.
Analysis of Dehumidification Performance
Accurate predictions of coincidental dehumidification require an analysis of
system operation at both full-load and part-load conditions. The following
examples are based on the 10,000 ft (283 m), 30-occupant classroom in
Jacksonville, Florida. Unlike the previous constant-volume examples, which
featured a single-space system, the classroom is served by a multiple-space
system. To provide thermal comfort, the target condition is 74F DB (23.3C DB)
Figure 57. Basic, variable-air-volume HVAC system
Dehumidifying with
62 SYS-APM004-EN
and 50 percent-relative humidity, with a design supply airflow of nine air
changes or 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) per hour.
Performance at peak dry-bulb (full-load) condition. At the peak dry-bulb
condition, the space sensible-cooling load and supply-air temperature are the
same as for a constant-volume system. Given the supply airflow of 1,500 cfm
(0.7 m/s), the system must deliver 55.7F (13.1C) supply air to offset the
sensible cooling load in the space and satisfy the thermostat setpoint of 74F DB
(23.3C DB).
Psychrometric analysis (Figure 58) reveals that the cooling coil removes both
sensible heat and moisture from the air, directly controlling space temperature
and coincidentally affecting space humidity. Maintaining the temperature in the
space at 74F (23.3C) requires a total capacity of 4.78 tons (16.8 kW) from the
cooling coil and results in a comfortable relative humidity of 52 percent.
As the sensible-cooling load decreases, the VAV system supplies less air to the
space while maintaining a constant supply-air temperature.
Performance at peak dew-point (part-load) condition. Lower solar- and
conducted-heat gains and cooler outdoor air reduce the sensible-cooling load in
the classroom. With no change in the occupant-generated latent load, the
sensible-heat ratio for the space drops to 0.77. The supply-air temperature
remains constant at 55.7F (13.1C), so supply airflow is reduced to 899 cfm
(0.42 m/s). The required cooling capacity is 4.0 tons (14.2 kW).
Because the supply air is still cool and dry, the relative humidity in the
classroom only rises to 57 percent (Figure 58). By contrast, the relative humidity
reaches 67 percent when the classroom is served by a basic constant-volume
system operating at the same condition (p. 21).
Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
29 = 750 Btu/hr T
supply
55.7F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
8.7 = kW T
supply
13.1C = ( )
Figure 58. Dehumidification performance of a variable-air-volume HVAC system at various outdoor conditions
Design
condition
Full load Part load
MA 80.6F DB 79.0F DB 71.1F DB
SA 55.7F DB 55.7F DB 55.7F DB
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
23.3 13.1C [ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW ( )
V
sa
0.42 m/s = ( )
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
74 55.7F ( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr ,
V
sa
899 cfm =
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 63
Performance on a mild, rainy day (part-load condition). Although the
peak dew-point condition is helpful for analyzing the part-load dehumidification
performance of an HVAC system, do not assume that it represents worst-case
conditions for humidity control. Typically, indoor humidity depends as much on
the sensible and latent cooling loads in the space, the type of HVAC system, and
the method of controlling that system, as it does on outdoor conditions.
Consider our example Jacksonville classroom on a mild, rainy day (Figure 58)
70F DB, 69F WB (21.2C DB, 20.6C WB). With no change in the occupant-
generated latent load, the space sensible load drops to 12,250 Btu/hr (3.6 kW)
and the space sensible-heat ratio drops to 0.70. Only 617 cfm (0.29 m/s) of
constant-temperature supply air is required to offset the sensible load without
overcooling the space. At this airflow, the relative humidity increases to
60 percent while the required capacity from the cooling coil decreases to
2.1 tons (7.4 kW).
Minimum Airflow Settings
In most applications, each VAV terminal has a minimum airflow setting that
usually represents either the ventilation requirement for the space or the
performance limits of the diffusers or VAV terminal. Providing less than the
required minimum airflow may:
Underventilate the space and degrade indoor air quality.
Dump cold supply air into the space, making occupants uncomfortable.
(Most diffusers require a minimum discharge velocity to properly mix the air
within the space.)
Cause erroneous airflow readings that interfere with proper control. (The
accuracy of the flow sensor in the VAV terminal is based upon a specific
airflow range.)
The minimum airflow setting for the VAV terminal that serves our example
classroom is 550 cfm (0.26 m/s).
Eventually, the sensible-cooling load in the space becomes small enough
that the required supply (primary) airflow is less than the minimum airflow
setting of the VAV terminal. If we assume that the minimum airflow setting for
the example classroom is 700 cfm (0.33 m/s), then this situation occurs on a
mild, rainy day. If the supply-air temperature is held constant at 55.7F (13.1C),
the VAV system will overcool the space to 71.8F (22.1C).
A psychrometric analysis (Figure 59, p. 64) reveals that the relative humidity
will climb to 66 percent because of the decreased dry-bulb temperature. As a
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
23.3 13.1C [ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW ( )
V
sa
0.29 m/s = ( )
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
74 55.7F ( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr ,
V
sa
617 cfm =
Mild, rainy day:
Q
s
1.21 0.33 m/s T
space
13.1C [ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
space
22.1C = = ( )
Q
s
1.085 700 cfm T
space
55.7F ( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
space
71.8F = ,
Mild, rainy day and minimum airflow:
Dehumidifying with
64 SYS-APM004-EN
result, the classroom will feel cool and damp even though the actual moisture
content of the air is unchanged from the previous example in which only
617 cfm (0.29 m/s) is supplied to the classroom.
Supply-Air-Temperature Reset
One way to prevent overcooling is to reset the supply-air temperature upward
at low-load conditions. If the minimum airflow setting is 700 cfm (0.33 m/s),
raising the supply-air temperature to 57.9F (14.3C), for example, avoids
overcooling the classroom on a mild, rainy daybut the cooling coil also
removes less moisture from the supply air. As a result, the relative humidity in
the space increases to 65 percent (Figure 60).
Resetting the supply-air temperature reduces the energy consumed by the
mechanical cooling equipmentfrom 2.1 tons (7.2 kW) to 1.9 tons (6.7 kW) in
Figure 59. Overcooling results when minimum airflow exceeds required airflow
Q
s
1.21 0.33 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
14.3C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 700 cfm 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
57.9F = ,
Mild, rainy day and SA temperature reset:
Figure 60. Effect of supply-air-temperature reset on dehumidification performance
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 65
this example. All spaces receive warmer air. Therefore, the spaces not only
become more humid, but also require more air to offset the sensible-cooling
loads. The fans therefore consume more energy.
Note: In VAV applications, supply-air-temperature reset is typically used to
avoid excessive reheat during cold weather. Avoid using supply-air-temperature
reset during the cooling season unless the system analysis indicates that the
savings in mechanical cooling and reheat energy will outweigh the increase in
supply-fan energy and space humidity.
Supply-Air Tempering at VAV Terminals
Overcooling and increased humidity can be avoided by tempering the supply
air when it diminishes to the minimum airflow setting of the VAV terminal.
Tempering moderates the cooling effect by adding sensible heat to the
supply air, either at the VAV terminal (Figure 61) or within the space.
Figure 62 illustrates the effect of adding supply-air tempering to the VAV system
that serves our example classroom. When the supply airflow is reduced to the
minimum airflow setting of 700 cfm (0.33 m/s), a heating coil in the VAV
terminal warms the 55.7F (13.1C) supply air to 57.9F (14.3C) before delivering
it to the space. This avoids overcooling the classroom and, on a mild and rainy
day, results in a relative humidity of 60 percent. The total load on the cooling
coil is 2.1 tons (7.4 kW), while the load on the heating coil is 1.7 MBh (0.49 kW).
Certain zones in a VAV system typically require tempering, even when high
sensible-cooling loads exist elsewhere. To curb operating costs, consider
on-site recovered heat (discussed on p. 66) for supply-air tempering.
If the VAV control strategy includes supply-air-temperature reset, provide a
humidity sensor to regulate the humidity in the space. Raising the supply-air
Figure 61. VAV terminal with heating coil
Figure 62. Dehumidification performance of a VAV system with supply-air tempering at
VAV terminals
Dehumidifying with
66 SYS-APM004-EN
temperature not only increases supply airflow but also the energy
consumption of the fans. The increase in fan energy often exceeds the
cooling and tempering energy saved as a result of resetting the supply-air
temperature.
When using electric heating coils, comply with the manufacturers
guidelines for minimum airflow limits across the heating elements to assure
safe operation.
Options for supply-air tempering include radiant heaters in the space, heating
coils mounted on the VAV terminals, fan-powered VAV terminals, and dual-duct
air distribution.
Heating coils at VAV terminals
It is common to think of electricity, hot water, or steam as a source of heat for
supply-air tempering performed by a heating coil at the VAV terminal. However,
recovering sensible heat from elsewhere in the HVAC system reduces operating
costs. For example, the sensible heat collected from the condenser of a water-
cooled chiller is easily distributed to VAV terminals throughout the building.
Condenser-water heat recovery is particularly well-suited for supply-air
tempering applications: It provides the relatively small amount of heat needed
for tempering and allows the primary heating equipment (boilers, for example)
to be turned off during the summer. Any water-cooled chiller can be used to
provide sensible heat for supply-air tempering. Examples of common system
configurations were discussed in the previous chapter; see pp. 5356.
Fan-powered VAV terminals
When return air from the space passes through an open ceiling plenum, it
collects heat from the lights and roof. A fan-powered VAV terminal mixes this
warm plenum air with cold primary air to provide local tempering at low-load
conditions. Depending on the application, the plenum air may be warm enough
to reduce or eliminate the need for a supplemental heating coil.
There are two types of fan-powered VAV terminals: parallel and series.
These classifications describe the arrangement of the fan in the VAV terminal
relative to the primary-air fan in the central air handler (Figure 63).
The small, constant-volume fan in a parallel, fan-powered VAV terminal is
situated in the local recirculated-return-air path, parallel to the primary-air fan.
As the cooling load in the space decreases, the central air handler delivers less
primary air to the VAV terminal. The small fan in the VAV terminal only operates
when the primary airflow drops to the minimum airflow setting. Mixing
recirculated return air from the plenum with the cool primary air increases the
total airflow delivered to the space and raises the supply-air temperature.
Doesnt ASHRAE Standard 90.12001
prohibit the use of new-energy reheat
in VAV terminals?
Not necessarily. Section 6.3.2.3 (see
p. 8 in this manual) defines several
exceptions for which new-energy reheat
is permitted. Exception A in the
standard permits the use of new energy
for reheat after the supply airflow is
reduced to a defined limit.
The minimum airflow setting for most
zones in a VAV system is less than the
limits defined by this section of
Standard 90.1.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 67
The slightly larger, constant-volume fan in a series, fan-powered VAV terminal
is positioned in the local supply-air path so that it is in series with the primary-
air fan. Unlike the parallel configuration, the fan in a series, fan-powered VAV
terminal operates continuously when the space is occupied. The fan draws air
from both the primary air stream and the plenum to supply the space with a
constant volume of air at all times. As the cooling load in the space decreases,
the central air handler delivers less primary air to the VAV terminal. To maintain
a constant supply airflow, the VAV terminal draws in more recirculated return
air from the plenum. A heating coil can provide supplemental supply-air
tempering if the cooling load drops below the VAV terminals minimum
primary-airflow setting.
A system that uses series, fan-powered VAV terminals does a better job of
dehumidifying the space at part-load conditions than systems equipped with
other types of VAV terminals. Series, fan-powered VAV terminals require more
primary airflow (PA) to offset the warm return air (RRA), which is recirculated to
provide the space with a constant supply airflow. More of the dry primary air
results in lower space humidity.
Dual-duct air distribution
VAV systems that are designed for dual-duct air distribution also temper supply
air at part-load conditions by mixing warm air with cold primary air. Instead of
using recirculated return air from the plenum, the VAV terminal receives warm
primary air through separate ductwork. Two modulating devices, one for each
air stream, control the amount of cool and/or warm primary air that enters the
Figure 63. Fan-powered VAV terminals
Dehumidifying with
68 SYS-APM004-EN
VAV terminal (Figure 64). The primary air streams mix inside the VAV terminal
and are then delivered to the space (Figure 65).
As the cooling load in the space decreases, the modulation device that controls
the cool primary air modulates toward its minimum-open position. When the
cooling load drops to the point where the required amount of cool primary air is
less than the VAV terminals minimum airflow setting, the second modulation
device begins to open. This allows warm primary air to mix with and temper the
cool primary air before it is supplied to the space.
With further decreases in the cooling load, the space will eventually require
heating. To offset an increasing heating load, the VAV terminal mixes the
minimum amount of cool primary air with ever-increasing amounts of warm
primary air. When the heating load becomes large enough, the recirculated
return air is heated before it is delivered to the VAV terminals as warm
primary air.
Buildings that are served by VAV systems may require an after-hours source of
reheat energyfor example, heating coils at the VAV terminals or warm
plenum air if the VAV terminals are fan-powered. If the VAV system includes an
air handler that exclusively conditions the outdoor air, then the dedicated
outdoor-air handler also can provide after-hours dehumidification. (The next
chapter discusses dedicated outdoor-air systems in detail.)
Figure 64. Dual-duct VAV terminal
Figure 65. VAV system with dual-duct air distribution
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 69
For most buildings, the difference between indoor and outdoor static pressures
results directly from the combined effect of continuously changing conditions:
weather (stack effect), wind, and operation of the mechanical ventilation
system (local exhaust fans, airside economizer). Maintaining the desired
pressure difference, even during normal daytime operation, is particularly
challenging in VAV applications because the supply airflow also changes.
Preventing both infiltration and economizer-induced overpressurization
requires a control strategy that directly controls building pressure. Such
strategies monitor building pressure and then modulate relief airflow
accordinglyby either adjusting the capacity of the relief fan or the position
of the relief damperto maintain the desired pressure difference across the
building envelope.
Airside Economizing
Climate, hours of occupancy, and potential savings in operating cost usually
influence the choice between methods of economizer control. In most VAV
applications, however, the differential (comparative) enthalpy economizer best
balances dehumidification performance and operating-cost savings. As its
name implies, comparative enthalpy control compares the enthalpy of the
outdoor air to the enthalpy of the recirculated return air. When the outdoor air
has a lower enthalpy than the return air, the outdoor-air damper fully opens.
This strategy reduces cooling-energy consumption. Because the air that passes
through the cooling coil in a VAV application is always dehumidified to the
same low dew point, it avoids introducing unwanted moisture into the space.
Note: If the VAV system includes both an airside economizer and supply-air-
temperature reset, make sure that the control scheme will not introduce humid
outdoor air into the space.
Consult Building Pressurization
manual AM-CON-17, for information
about regulating building pressure
through design and control of the
HVAC system.
Dehumidifying with
70 SYS-APM004-EN
Improving Dehumidification Performance
VAV systems can provide effective coincidental dehumidification over a wide
range of indoor load conditions; but the basic design of the system can be
altered to enhance dehumidification performance.
Condition Outdoor Air Separately
One way to improve indoor humidity control is to separately treat the outdoor
air before mixing it with recirculated return air. A dedicated air handler cools
and dehumidifies all of the outdoor air to a dew point that is drier (lower) than
the space. The conditioned outdoor air then is delivered to one or more VAV air
handlers, or directly to the individual, dual-duct VAV (Figure 66) terminals that
serve each zone. The ventilation damper in the dual-duct VAV terminal
maintains the required quantity of outdoor air from the dedicated outdoor-air
unit, while the primary-air damper regulates the 100 percent-recirculated
return air from the VAV air handler.
To demonstrate how separately conditioning the outdoor air affects
dehumidification performance, lets revisit the example classroom. Assume that
the dedicated outdoor-air handler supplies 450 cfm (0.21 m/s) of outdoor air to
the dual-duct VAV terminal serving the classroom. The outdoor air is cooled
and dehumidified to 52F DP (11.1C DP) and deliveredwithout tempering or
reheatto the ventilation damper in the dual-duct terminal.
At the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition (Figure 67), the VAV air handler
delivers 1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of 57.3F (14.1C), primary air to the second damper
in the dual-duct VAV terminal. Inside the VAV terminal, primary air (PA) mixes
with conditioned outdoor air (CA); the resulting supply air yields a 50-percent
relative humidity in the classroom. The cooling-coil load is 3.1 tons (10.8 kW)
Figure 66. Dual-duct VAV terminal used
with dedicated outdoor air
Figure 67. Dehumidification performance of a VAV system with separately conditioned
outdoor air at peak dry-bulb condition
Q
s,doa
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) 10 742 Btu/hr , = =
Q
s,doa
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] 3.1 kW = = ( )
Q
s
29 750 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
pa
( ) T
pa
57.3F = =
Q
s
8.7 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
pa
[ ] T
pa
14.1C = = ( )
Recirculating air handler at peak dry-bulb condition:
Space sensible-cooling load offset by dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 71
for the dedicated outdoor-air handler and 1.8 tons (6.2 kW) for the VAV
air handler.
Less sensible cooling is required at the part-load, peak dew-point condition
(Figure 68). Therefore, while the dual-duct VAV terminal receives the same
amount of 52F DP (11.1C DP), conditioned outdoor air, it receives only 392 cfm
(0.18 m/s) of primary air from the VAV air handler. The combined airflow,
842 cfm (0.40 m/s), yields a relative humidity of 55 percent in the classroom.
This time, the cooling-coil load is 3.4 tons (12.1 kW) for the dedicated outdoor-
air handler and 0.7 tons (2.6 kW) for the VAV air handler.
On a mild, rainy day (Figure 69, p. 72), the VAV terminal mixes 450 cfm
(0.21 m/s) of conditioned outdoor air with only 83 cfm (0.04 m/s) of primary
air, which results in a relative humidity of 58 percent. In this application, the
minimum airflow for the VAV terminal is only 450 cfm (0.21 m/s), which equals
the ventilation requirement for the classroom.
Cooling-coil loads are 2.0 tons (7.2 kW) for the dedicated outdoor-air handler
and 0.2 tons (0.7 kW) for the VAV air handler.
outdoor air at peak dew-point condition
Q
s
18 750 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 V
pa
74 57.3F ( ) V
pa
392 cfm = =
Q
s
5.2 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 V
pa
23.3 14.1C [ ] V
pa
0.18 m/s = = ( )
Recirculating air handler at peak dew-point condition:
Q
s,doa
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) 10 742 Btu/hr , = =
Q
s,doa
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] 3.1 kW = = ( )
Dehumidifying with
72 SYS-APM004-EN
In a traditional, mixed-air VAV system, the multiple-space equation
(Equation 61) from ASHRAE Standard 622001 requires that the VAV air
handler bring in more outdoor air than the sum of the space ventilation
requirements. A dedicated-outdoor-air design delivers conditioned outdoor
air directly to individual VAV terminals (or spaces) and, therefore, is not
considered to be a multiple-space, recirculating ventilation system. For this
reason, a dedicated outdoor-air system requires less total outdoor airflow
than a traditional VAV design.
Using a dual-duct VAV terminal in this manner typically requires the
addition of a reheat coil for tempering at low cooling loads. (Eventually, the
space sensible-cooling load decreases to the point that the primary-air
damper closes. The cold, conditioned outdoor air then must be tempered to
avoid overcooling the space.)
As an alternative to separately conditioning the outdoor air in a VAV system,
modify the fan-powered VAV terminals by adding a second ventilation
damper. The modified VAV terminals operate similarly to dual-duct VAV
terminals, but the free heat from the plenum can be used to temper the
conditioned outdoor air when the space cooling load is low.
The next chapter, Dehumidifying with Dedicated Outdoor Air, discusses
system configurations, design procedures, and application considerations for
air distribution systems that separately treat outdoor air.
outdoor air on a mild, rainy day
Q
s
12 250 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 V
pa
74 57.3F ( ) V
pa
83 cfm = =
Q
s
3.6 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 V
pa
23.3 14.1C [ ] V
pa
0.04 m/s = = ( )
Recirculating air handler on a mild, rainy day:
Q
s,doa
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) 10 742 Btu/hr , = =
Q
s,doa
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] 3.1 kW = = ( )
For more information about the
multiple-space equation from
ASHRAE Standard 62 and how it
applies to traditional, mixed-air VAV
systems, see The Threefold Challenge
of Ventilating Single-Duct VAV
Systems in Trane Engineers Newsletter
ENEWS-27/1. It is archived in the
newsletters section of www.trane.com/
commercial.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 73
Deliver Colder Supply Air
Lowering the leaving-air temperature for the central cooling coil condenses
more moisture from the supply air and requires less airflow to offset the
sensible-cooling load in the space.
At the peak dry-bulb condition (Figure 70), delivering supply air to the example
classroom at 50F (10C) instead of 55.7F (13.1C) reduces the required airflow
from 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) to 1,142 cfm (0.54 m/s). Supplying the classroom with
colder, drier supply air also reduces the relative humidity from 52 percent to
47 percent. The required cooling-coil capacity is 5.1 tons (17.8 kW).
The classroom needs less of the constant-temperature supply air at the peak
dew-point condition because the sensible-cooling load is smaller. To match the
load in the space, the VAV system reduces the supply airflow to 685 cfm
(0.32 m/s). The resulting relative humidity is 50 percent, and the required
cooling capacity is 4.3 tons (15.1 kW).
On a mild, rainy day, the amount of supply air needed to offset the classrooms
sensible-cooling load is less than the VAV terminals minimum airflow setting;
local tempering is required to avoid overcooling. As in the example at the
beginning of this chapter, the minimum airflow setting is 550 cfm (0.26 m/s).
The VAV terminal must temper the air to 53.5F (11.9C) before delivering it to
the space. The resulting relative humidity in the classroom is 52 percent. The
cooling-coil load is 2.5 tons (8.8 kW), while the heating-coil at the VAV terminal
is 2.1 MBh (0.6 kW).
Figure 70. Effect of cold supply air on dehumidification performance of a VAV system
Design
condition
Full load Part load
RA 74.0F DB, 47% RH 74.0F DB, 50% RH 74.0F DB, 52% RH
MA 82.7F DB 80.6F DB 70.7F DB
SA 50.0F DB 50.0F DB 53.5F DB
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
74 50F ( ) =
17 = 850 Btu/hr V
sa
685 cfm = ,
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
23.3 10C [ ] = ( )
5.2 = kW V
sa
0.32 m/s = ( )
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
74 50F ( ) =
29 = 750 Btu/hr V
sa
1 142 cfm , = ,
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
23.3 10C [ ] = ( )
8.7 = kW V
sa
0.54 m/s = ( )
Q
s
1.085 550 cfm 74F T
supply
( ) =
12 = 250 Btu/hr T
supply
53.5F = ,
Q
s
1.21 0.26 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
3.6 = kW T
supply
11.9C = ( )
Mild, rainy day:
Dehumidifying with
74 SYS-APM004-EN
In addition to drier spaces, other benefits of cold-air systems include smaller
air handlers, VAV terminals, and ducts, as well as less supply-fan energy.
Increased reheat energy and fewer hours of airside economizer operation
partially offset the supply-fan energy savings. Intelligent system control is
crucial to fully realize the potential savings.
Some designers raise the space thermostat setpoint to further reduce the
supply airflow in cold air systems. This decision increases the indoor
dew point, which may negate the benefit of otherwise drier spaces.
Applied, chilled water systems typically work best for cold air distribution
because the designer can match the design requirements for airflow and
cooling capacity. Packaged, direct-expansion (DX) systems defer many
design decisions to the manufacturer, which reduces the initial cost;
however, the limitations of a fixed design may make it difficult to achieve the
desired cold coil temperature.
A previous issue of the Trane Engineers
Newsletter, titled Cold Air Makes Good
$ense (ENEWS-29/2), discusses the
benefits and design considerations
associated with cold-air VAV systems.
To read it, visit the newsletters section
of www.trane.com/commercial.
The Cold Air Distribution System
Design Guide (ISBN 1-883413-37-0), by
Allan T. Kirkpatrick and James S.
Elleson, is another useful reference. It is
available from ASHRAEs online
bookstore at www.ashrae.org.
SYS-APM004-EN 75
Dehumidifying with
Dedicated Outdoor Air
System Configurations
A dedicated outdoor-air handler separately filters, cools, dehumidifies, heats,
and/or humidifies all ventilation (outdoor) air. It also can enable the direct
control of indoor humidity. There are several ways to lay out a constant- or
variable-air-volume HVAC system for separate treatment of ventilation air
(Figure 71). These configurations are based on two factors:
Where the conditioned outdoor air is delivereddirectly to occupied
spaces, to air terminals, or to other types of HVAC equipment
The dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned air (CA)neutral, which
approximates room air, or cold, which usually approximates conventional,
55F (13C) supply air.
Table 8 summarizes the traits of each configuration.
Figure 71. Configurations for dedicated
outdoor-air systems
Table 8. Configurations for HVAC systems with dedicated outdoor-air treatment
System schematic Typical characteristics Application considerations
Neutral CA to space Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Offsets latent- and sensible-cooling loads
resulting from ventilation (outdoor air)
Cools and dehumidifies the outdoor air so that
its dew point is lower than that of room air
Reheats conditioned outdoor air to a neutral
dry-bulb temperature
Delivers conditioned outdoor air (via
ductwork) directly to the space
Local HVAC units:
Are installed within the occupied space
Offset local sensible-cooling and
heating loads
Provides design flexibility by accommodating
any type of terminal device, plus horizontal
and vertical discharge arrangements
Well-suited for applications with coincidental
heating and cooling needs because it has little
effect on space loads
Commonly applied with in-room HVAC
equipment, such as fancoils, through-the-
wall air conditioners, and classroom unit
ventilators
Cold CA to space Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Cools and dehumidifies the outdoor air so that
dry-bulb and dew-point temperatures are
lower than room air
Does not reheat the conditioned outdoor air
ductwork) directly to the space
Local HVAC units:
Are installed within the occupied space
heating loads
Typically applied with in-room HVAC
equipment; also used with radiant ceiling
panels and other non-traditional devices
Requires less cooling capacity from the
terminal devices, which permits downsizing,
but also may create heating loads in spaces
that require little or no cooling
To prevent uncomfortable drafts, select high-
performance diffusers that induce room air to
mix with (and warm) the cold conditioned air
before it reaches occupants
Adding even a small amount of heat to the
conditioned air after it leaves the cooling coil
will increase the cooling capacity needed from
the terminal devices
continued on next page
Dehumidifying with
76 SYS-APM004-EN
Neutral CA to other equipment Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Cools and dehumidifies the outdoor air
ductwork) to outdoor-air inlets of local units
Local HVAC units:
Are installed outside the occupied space in
ceiling plenums, closets, or equipment rooms
Mix recirculated return air with conditioned
outdoor air inside the unit casing
heating loads
Commonly applied with central air handlers
(chilled water or DX) or local HVAC terminals,
such as blowercoils, packaged rooftop air
conditioners, vertical self-contained air
conditioners, and dual-duct VAV terminals
Well-suited for applications with coincidental
heating and cooling needs because it has little
effect on space loads
or to plenum (near other equipment) Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Cools and dehumidifies the outdoor air
ductwork) near return-air inlets of local units
Local HVAC units:
Are installed in the ceiling plenum
heating loads
Are without mixing boxes, so conditioned
outdoor air and recirculated return air mix in
the ceiling plenum
Typically applied with water-source heat
pumps, horizontal fancoils, and other local
HVAC units without mixing boxes
Requires ducts to deliver conditioned outdoor
air within 5 ft (1.5 m) of local HVAC units
Requires a local or powered central exhaust
system
To prevent condensation on beams, ducts,
and other surfaces, assure that the CA dry-
bulb temperature exceeds the plenum-air
dew point
Cold CA to other equipment Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Cools and dehumidifies outdoor air
Does not reheat the conditioned outdoor air
ductwork) to outdoor-air inlets of local units
Local HVAC units:
Are installed outside the occupied space
Mix recirculated return air with conditioned
outdoor air inside the unit casing
Offset sensible-cooling and heating loads in
the space
Typically applied with blowercoils, packaged
rooftop air conditioners, central air handlers,
self-contained air conditioners, and dual-duct
VAV terminals
Spaces that need little or no cooling may
require local reheat
Requires less cooling capacity from terminal
devices, which permits downsizing
Avoids reheat at the dedicated outdoor-air
handler
Table 8. Configurations for HVAC systems with dedicated outdoor-air treatment (continued)
System schematic Typical characteristics Application considerations
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 77
Design Objectives for
Conditioned Outdoor Air
Moisture Content
Regardless of where the conditioned outdoor air is delivered, the dedicated
outdoor-air handler should make the incoming outdoor air drier than the air in
the space. Delivering drier (low-dew-point) air eliminates the sensible- and
latent-cooling loads associated with ventilation. If the dew-point temperature of
the conditioned outdoor air is lower than the dew point in the space, it will also
offset the local latent-cooling loads. Consequently, the HVAC terminals only
need to offset the local sensible-cooling loads.
Delivering low-dew-point, conditioned air can greatly improve the
dehumidification performance of constant-volume systems, particularly at
part-load conditions. (See Direct Control of Humidity, pp. 4446.) It also
allows the HVAC terminals to run dry under most conditions: With the
dedicated outdoor-air handler offsetting the local latent loads, the space
dew point can be kept below the dew point of the air supplied by the local
terminals. Little or no moisture condenses on local cooling coils and collects in
drain pans, perhaps eliminating one source of moisture within the space and
the HVAC system.
Why not condition the outdoor air to a neutral dry-bulb temperature without
overcooling it to obtain a low dew point? To demonstrate the effect of this
design choice, lets revisit the 30-occupant classroom in Jacksonville, Florida,
which was introduced on p. 19. For this example, the HVAC system includes a
dedicated outdoor-air handler that cools the outdoor air to a neutral dry-bulb
temperature of 74F (23.3C) without overcooling it; the conditioned air is then
delivered directly to the classroom, where a fancoil provides the local
air conditioning.
Although the outdoor-air handler eliminates the sensible-cooling load
associated with ventilation, it only offsets part of the latent-cooling load
because the dew point of the conditioned outdoor air is still much higher than
the dew point in the space. The remaining moisture in the conditioned outdoor
air must be removed from the classroom by the fancoil. The fancoil also
must offset the entire space cooling load, both sensible and latent, because the
neutral outdoor air does not provide a cooling effect.
At the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition, the fancoil must supply air at
55.7F DB (13.1C DB) to maintain the classroom at 74F DB (23.3C DB). The
psychrometric analysis in Figure 72 (p. 78) illustrates that delivering the
outdoor air at a neutral dry-bulb temperature, but humid with respect to the
how to determine the conditioned-air
dew point that will allow the dedicated
outdoor-air handler to offset the local
latent cooling loads.
Dehumidifying with
78 SYS-APM004-EN
space, yields a relative humidity of 59 percent. Contrast this performance with
the 52 percent relative humidity that the basic constant-volume system
provides without a dedicated outdoor-air handler (p. 20).
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition, the dedicated outdoor-air handler
again cools the outdoor air to 74F DB (23.3C DB). Due to the smaller sensible-
cooling load, the fancoil supplies the classroom with warmer air, 63F (17.2C),
to avoid overcooling. Although the dry-bulb target is maintained, the relative
humidity increases to 70 percent (Figure 73).
Figure 72. Dehumidification performance of neutral-temperature conditioned air,
without overcooling, at peak dry-bulb condition
without overcooling, at part-load, peak dew-point condition
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 79
Dehumidification performance is even worse on a mild, rainy day. The cooling
coil in the dedicated outdoor-air handler shuts off because the 70F DB
(21.2C DB) outdoor air is cooler than the thermostat setpoint. The outdoor air
offsets a small portion of the classrooms sensible-cooling load, so the fancoil
only cools the recirculated return air to 67.7F DB (19.8C DB). As a result, the
relative humidity in the classroom increases even more, to 76 percent
(Figure 74).
The preceding examples demonstrate that supplying conditioned air at a
neutral dry-bulb temperature, without subcooling it to reduce its moisture
content, provides less dehumidification than a system without a dedicated
outdoor-air handler. In addition to lowering the sensible-heat ratio in the space,
eliminating only the sensible-cooling load from the outdoor air makes it difficult
for the local units to provide adequate coincidental dehumidification. Avoid
designing dedicated outdoor-air systems that operate in this manner if the
outdoor dew point is greater than the desired dew point indoors for any
significant amount of time.
without overcooling, on a mild and rainy day
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 70F ( ) =
1 = 953 Btu/hr ,
Dedicated outdoor-air handler:
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.2C [ ] = ( )
0.53 kW = ( )
Q
s
12 250 , 1 953 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil:
Q
s
3.6 0.53 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
67.7F =
T
supply
19.8C = ( )
Dehumidifying with
80 SYS-APM004-EN
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Whether the dedicated outdoor-air handler delivers conditioned, dry air directly
to the space, to HVAC terminals, or to other air handlers, it can be designed to
condition the outdoor air to a neutral or cold dry-bulb temperature.
Dry, neutral-temperature air. A dedicated outdoor-air handler that supplies
dry, neutral-temperature air (Figure 75) initially cools and dehumidifies the
outdoor air; the resulting dew point usually ranges from 40F (4C) to 60F
(16C), depending on the latent load in the space. The same unit then reheats
the dehumidified outdoor air to approximately room temperature, usually
between 70F DB and 75F DB (21C DB and 24C DB), before discharging it.
The appropriate dry-bulb temperature for a particular application best balances
the following concerns:
Energy required to reheat the conditioned outdoor air
Cooling effect of the conditioned air on the sizing and operation of local
HVAC terminals
Heating energy used by the local HVAC terminals at part-load conditions
Figure 76 shows the peak dry-bulb conditions that exist when the classroom
receives 450 cfm (0.21 m/s) of conditioned outdoor air. In this case, the
dedicated outdoor-air handler cools and dehumidifies the outdoor air to
52F DP (11.1C DP), which offsets the latent cooling load in the classroom and
imposes a load of 3.0 tons (10.6 kW) on the cooling coil. This unit then reheats
the air to 71F DB (21.7C DB) before discharging it directly into the classroom;
the reheat load is 9.3 MBh (2.7 kW).
Because the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air approximates
that of the classroom74F (23.3C) in this examplethe cooling effect is
minimal. To offset the classrooms remaining sensible-cooling load, the fancoil
Figure 75. Dedicated outdoor-air handler that supplies dry, neutral-temperature air
how to determine the conditioned-air
dew point that will allow the dedicated
outdoor-air handler to offset the local
latent cooling loads. This appendix
also explains how to size the local
HVAC terminals.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 81
cools 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) of recirculated return air to 56.6F DB (13.5C DB); this
requires 2.8 tons (9.8 kW) of capacity and yields a 50 percent-relative humidity.
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition (Figure 77), the dedicated outdoor-air
handler again delivers 71F DB, 52F DP (21.7C DB, 11.1C DP) air. Although the
reheat load remains 9.3 MBh (2.7 kW), the cooling load increases to 3.4 tons
(12.0 kW). Meanwhile, fancoil capacity modulates to raise the supply-air
temperature to 63.9F DB (17.7C DB) and maintain the thermostat setpoint. The
resulting relative humidity is 56 percent, and the cooling load on the fancoil is
1.4 tons (4.9 kW).
Figure 76. Dehumidification performance of dry, neutral-temperature, conditioned outdoor
air at the peak dry-bulb condition
Q
s
29 750 , 1 465 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil at peak dry-bulb condition:
Q
s
8.7 0.41 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
56.6F =
T
supply
13.5C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 71F ( ) =
1 = 465 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C [ ] = ( )
0.41 kW = ( )
Space sensible-cooling load offset by
dedicated outdoor-air handler:
air at the peak dew-point condition
Q
s
17 850 , 1 465 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil at peak dew-point condition:
Q
s
5.2 0.41 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
63.9F =
T
supply
17.7C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 71F ( ) =
1 = 465 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C [ ] = ( )
0.41 kW = ( )
Dehumidifying with
82 SYS-APM004-EN
On a mild and rainy day (Figure 78, p. 82), the dedicated outdoor-air handler still
produces 71F DB, 52F DP (21.7C DB, 11.1C DP) air; the cooling-coil load
decreases to 2.0 tons (7.0 kW) and the reheat load is still 9.3 MBh (2.7 kW). In the
classroom, the fancoil modulates to supply 67.4F DB (19.7C DB) air, which
corresponds to a cooling load of 0.9 tons (3.2 kW). The resulting relative
humidity is 60 percent.
Dry, cold air. In contrast, some dedicated outdoor-air systems deliver air at a
cold temperature, usually 45F to 55F DB (7C to 13C DB). These systems cool
and dehumidify the outdoor air, but do not reheat it. Typically, the conditioned
outdoor air is delivered directly to the mixing box of local air-handling
equipment, such as blowercoils, unit ventilators, air handlers, packaged
rooftop air conditioners, or dual-duct VAV terminals. Some systems, however,
are designed to deliver cold ventilation air directly to occupied spaces.
Using the example classroom, Figure 79 shows the psychrometric analysis of
the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition. The dedicated outdoor-air handler cools
and dehumidifies the entering air to 52F DP (11.1C DP), then delivers the
conditioned air to the classroom. The dew point of this conditioned outdoor air
is low enough to offset the latent cooling load in the classroom. At the peak dry-
bulb condition for Jacksonville, Florida, the cooling-coil load for the dedicated
outdoor-air handler is 3.0 tons (10.6 kW). Because the ventilation air is delivered
cold, there is no reheat load.
The dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air is much cooler than
the space, so it provides a greater sensible-cooling effect than dry, neutral-
temperature air. It also permits the use of a fancoil with less cooling capacity.
At the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition, the fancoil in the classroom cools
air on a mild, rainy day
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 71F ( ) =
1 = 465 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C [ ] = ( )
0.41 kW = ( )
Q
s
12 250 , 1 465 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil on a mild, rainy day:
Q
s
3.6 0.41 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
67.4F =
T
supply
19.7C = ( )
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 83
only 1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of recirculated return air to 57.3F DB (14.1C DB),
which offsets the remaining sensible-cooling load. The cooling load on the fan
coil is 1.8 tons (6.3 kW), and the resulting relative humidity is 50 percent.
At the part-load, peak dew-point condition for the classroom (Figure 80), the
dedicated outdoor-air handler delivers the conditioned air, CA, at the same
temperature as for the peak dry-bulb condition. Because the outdoor enthalpy
is higher, however, the cooling load increases to 3.4 tons (12.0 kW). Meanwhile,
the fancoil modulates to match the thermostat setpoint by raising the supply-
Figure 79. Dehumidification performance of dry, cold, conditioned outdoor air at the
peak dry-bulb condition
Space sensible cooling load offset by
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) =
10 = 742 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] = ( )
3.1 kW = ( )
Q
s
29 750 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil at peak dry-bulb condition:
Q
s
8.7 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
57.3F =
T
supply
14.1C = ( )
Figure 80. Dehumidification performance of dry, cold conditioned outdoor at the
Q
s
17 850 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil at peak dew-point condition:
Q
s
5.2 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
67.8F =
T
supply
19.8C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) =
10 = 742 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] = ( )
3.1 kW = ( )
Dehumidifying with
84 SYS-APM004-EN
air temperature to 67.8F DB (19.8C DB). The resulting relative humidity is
56 percent, and the cooling load on the fancoil is 0.67 tons (2.4 kW).
On a mild and rainy day (Figure 81), the dedicated outdoor-air handler still
produces 52F DP (11.1C DP) air, but the cooling load decreases to 2.0 tons
(7.0 kW). Fancoil capacity modulates to supply air at 72.7F DB (22.6C DB),
which results in a 60 percent-relative humidity and a cooling load of 0.12 tons
(0.42 kW).
Neutral or cold?. Either design of a dedicated outdoor-air system can
effectively control indoor humidity as long as the conditioned outdoor air is
sufficiently dry. Table 9 helps to illustrate the benefits and tradeoffs of these
designs by comparing the loads and airflows for the full-load, peak dry-bulb
condition.
If the conditioned outdoor air is delivered directly to the space, providing it at a
neutral dry-bulb temperature simplifies local comfort control. If delivered to a
ceiling plenum, the neutral-temperature air prevents condensate from forming
on the plenum surfaces.
Systems that provide dry, cold conditioned air avoid the energy costs of
reheating the outdoor air to a neutral dry-bulb temperature. They also require
less overall cooling capacity than dedicated outdoor-air systems that deliver
dry, neutral-temperature air. The low dry-bulb temperature offsets part of the
sensible-cooling load in the space. Similarly, when cold conditioned air is
delivered to other HVAC equipment, it mixes with recirculated return air from
the space; the resulting mixed-air enthalpy is lower, which in turn reduces the
cooling capacity required by the coils in the HVAC terminals.
Figure 81. Dehumidification performance of dry, cold, conditioned outdoor air on a
mild, rainy day
Q
s
12 250 , 10 742 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
supply
( ) =
Fancoil on a mild, rainy day:
Q
s
3.6 3.1 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
supply
[ ] = ( )
T
supply
72.7F =
T
supply
22.6C = ( )
Q
s
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) =
10 = 742 Btu/hr ,
Q
s
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] = ( )
3.1 kW = ( )
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 85
Compared with neutral-temperature designs, dedicated outdoor-air systems
that deliver cold air provide additional benefits:
Less fan airflow and, therefore, lower fan-energy consumption. (Neutral-
temperature conditioned air provides the space with less sensible cooling,
so the local units must provide more cooling to achieve the same effect.)
Smaller HVAC terminals, which can either lower the initial cost and increase
usable floor space or provide an acoustical benefit by keeping the same-
sized cabinet and operating the fan at a lower speed. (In the examples
summarized in Table 9, the cold air design represents a 30 percent
reduction in both cooling-coil capacity and fan airflow.)
Table 9. Comparison of coil loads and airflows for dedicated outdoor-air systems
1
Dry, neutral CA
2
to space Dry, cold CA
2
to space
Cooling-coil load:
dedicated outdoor-air handler
fancoil
total
3.0 tons (10.6 kW)
2.8 tons ( 9.8 kW)
5.8 tons (20.4 kW)
3.0 tons (10.6 kW)
1.8 tons ( 6.3 kW)
4.8 tons (16.9 kW)
Reheat-coil load:
fancoil
9.3 MBh (2.7 kW)
0 MBh (0.0 kW)
Fan airflow:
fancoil
total
450 cfm (0.21 m/s)
1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s)
1,950 cfm (0.9 m/s)
450 cfm (0.21 m/s)
1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s)
1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s)
1
Coil loads and airflows are based on the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition for a classroom in Jacksonville, Florida. The
classroom holds 30 occupants, has an area of 10,000 ft (283 m), and a target condition of 74F DB (23.3C DB), 50% RH.
2
CA = Conditioned outdoor air provided by a dedicated outdoor-air handler/system
Dehumidifying with
86 SYS-APM004-EN
As discussed in a previous chapter, Dehumidification Primer (p. 17), around-
the-clock control of humidity can greatly reduce the risk of microbial growth on
building surfaces and furnishings.
Delivering conditioned outdoor air directly to the space permits after-hours
humidity control without operating the local HVAC terminals. If the
dedicated outdoor-air unit includes a return-air path, close the outdoor-air
damper and open the return-air damper to avoid conditioning unneeded
outdoor air. (The ventilation requirement is significantly less after-hours,
when there are few or no occupants in the building.)
If the outdoor air is delivered to local HVAC terminals, then the fans in the
local units must operate in conjunction with the dedicated outdoor-air unit.
Using a packaged, direct-expansion air conditioner to condition the outdoor
air eliminates after-hours operation of the central, chilled water plant.
To control after-hours operation of the dedicated outdoor-air unit, install a
humidity sensor in the space. Use the sensor to enforce the maximum
humidity limit for periods when the space is unoccupied.
Along with ventilation, the dedicated outdoor-air handler can provide makeup
air for local exhaust systems (such as restroom exhaust fans and kitchen
exhaust hoods) and combustion processes. In some buildingseither due to
oversight or by designthe dedicated outdoor-air unit is turned off during
unoccupied periods, while local exhaust fans and processes continue to
operate. This creates negative pressure within the building, and causes
unconditioned outdoor air to infiltrate the building envelope. Infiltration of
humid air can raise the humidity indoors; it can also lead to condensation
within building walls and on cold surfaces in the occupied space.
While the dedicated outdoor-air unit operates, a central relief fan directly
controls building pressure. Based on input from a building-pressure sensor, the
capacity of the relief fan modulates to maintain the desired difference between
the indoor and outdoor static pressures.
If the system control scheme disables ventilation when the building is
unoccupied, make sure that it also turns off all local exhaust fans and
Including an air-to-air energy recovery
device to precondition the outdoor air
can help justify the cost of routing the
building exhaust back to the dedicated
outdoor-air handler (which provides the
return-air path during after-hours
operation). Outdoor-air preconditioning
is discussed on pp. 9899.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 87
combustion processes. Provide a manual override to permit operation
during after-hours cleaning.
Monitor indoor humidity at all times and operate the dedicated outdoor-air
unit whenever humidity rises to an unacceptable level.
Wind, variable operation of local exhaust fans, and stack effect can cause
pressure fluctuations inside the building, even when the HVAC system is
properly balanced. To prevent infiltration and avoid overpressurization
during economizer operation, consider implementing a system design that
directly controls building pressure.
If the dedicated outdoor-air unit serves multiple spaces with different
occupancy schedules, consider providing a means of varying the intake
airflow to meet changing ventilation requirements and to prevent
overpressurization when some of the local exhaust fans are turned off.
Economizer Cooling
Designers usually size dedicated outdoor-air handlers to condition only the
minimum amount of outdoor air required for ventilation. When this is the case,
the supply fan in the dedicated outdoor-air handler and the ductwork are too
small to take advantage of economizer-cooling opportunities by bringing in
more outdoor air. There are other ways to provide an economizer cycle,
however, depending on where the conditioned ventilation air is delivered and
on the other equipment in the system.
Separate economizer-air path
When ventilation air is delivered directly to the occupied spaces, economizer
cooling can be provided via outdoor-air intakes at the local HVAC terminals.
Classroom unit ventilators and fancoils, which are installed along perimeter
walls, simplify the addition of a separate outdoor-air path for economizer
cooling. When outdoor conditions are suitable, the local outdoor-air damper
modulates between fully closed and fully open to control space temperature.
The local outdoor-air damper remains closed whenever the outdoor air is too
warm or too cold for economizer operation.
The dedicated outdoor-air unit typically is operated to provide conditioned air
during both economizer and non-economizer modes. This practice permits
the minimum outdoor airflow to be monitored and recorded during all occupied
hours.
When ventilation air is delivered to the mixing boxes of other air handlers
rather than to each space, each local unit can be configured to include two
outdoor-air paths (Figure 82, p. 88). One path, from the dedicated outdoor-air
unit, provides minimum outdoor airflow for ventilation. The second path
Refer to Building Pressurization
manual AM-CON-17, to learn more
about the design and control of HVAC
systems that regulate building
pressure.
Dehumidifying with
88 SYS-APM004-EN
permits economizer cooling. For example, a dedicated outdoor-air unit can
deliver conditioned outdoor air to the mixing boxes of several packaged rooftop
air conditioners. Each mixing box includes two outdoor-air dampers: one for
conditioned ventilation air and the other for untreated economizer air.
During normal (mechanical) cooling or heating operation, the economizer
damper is closed. During economizer cooling, the economizer damper
modulates as needed between fully closed and fully open to offset as much of
the cooling load as possible. If the system includes a device that measures
outdoor airflow, the damper in the ventilation path typically remains open,
regardless of the economizer damper position. This makes it possible to
monitor and record the minimum outdoor airflow for ventilation during all
occupied hours.
Local economizer operation requires some form of building-pressure
control. Bringing more outdoor air into the building for economizer cooling
requires more relief airflow.
Providing two outdoor-air paths to each local air handler may require
additional ductwork and controls.
Figure 82. Dedicated outdoor-air system with two outdoor-air paths for local economizing
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 89
Implications of ASHRAE Standard 90.1. Section 6.3.1 in the 2001 version
of the standard defines requirements for HVAC systems with economizers. In
the case of airside economizers, the section specifies damper characteristics,
how to control the economizer dampers, and how to relieve air from the
building to prevent overpressurization. It also prescribes how and when to shut
off the economizer cycle when the weather is no longer suitable for free
cooling; high-limit shutoff requirements vary by climate and control method.
Although compliance with these requirements minimizes energy use, it may
not provide acceptable humidity control at all operating conditions or in all
climates. For instance, Standard 90.1 permits the use of the fixed-dry-bulb-
temperature high limit in any climate. When applied in a humid locale, the high
limit can only disable economizer cooling when the outdoor temperature is
65F DB (18.4C DB) or higher. A previous example (p. 31) demonstrated what
can happen in a constant-volume system when the shutoff setting is too high; in
that case, the indoor humidity reached 75 percent!
Understand that Standard 90.1 does not mandate an economizer if the cooling
capacity of each local HVAC unit is less than either 65,000 Btu/hr (19 kW) or
135,000 Btu/hr (38 kW), depending on climatewhich is typically true of
systems with dedicated outdoor-air handlers and local HVAC terminals. If you
include an economizer anyway, the control requirements in Section 6.3.1 will
not apply. Therefore, you can devise a control strategy that more effectively
controls humidity.
When using fixed dry-bulb temperature for economizer control in a constant-
volume system, choose a shutoff setting that is low enough to avoid bringing
mild-but-humid outdoor air into the building. For better dehumidification,
however, consider a more sophisticated control method that uses an indoor
humidity sensor to disable the economizer whenever the relative humidity in
the space exceeds 60 percent.
In constant-volume applications for which Standard 90.1 does require an
economizer, investigate control methods such as fixed enthalpy or electronic
hybrid enthalpy.
Waterside economizing
Waterside economizers can satisfy many of the economizer requirements
defined in Section 6.3.1 of ASHRAE Standard 90.12001 and in local codes.
One way to provide free cooling in a chilled water system is to install a plate-
and-frame heat exchanger between the chilled water and condenser-water
loops, upstream of the chillers. When the leaving-tower water is cold enough,
circulating it through the heat exchanger will satisfy at least part of the cooling
load and reduce or eliminate the need to operate the chillers.
Weather permitting, outdoor air is a
source of free cooling for the building.
But as the air warms, it will eventually
increase energy usage by creating a
cooling load. To avoid the unwanted
load, the high-limit shutoff disables the
economizer and the HVAC system
provides the minimum outdoor airflow
for ventilation.
Standard 90.1 identifies five common
types of high-limit shutoff for the
control of airside economizers:
fixed dry-bulb temperature
differential dry-bulb temperature
fixed enthalpy
differential enthalpy
electronic hybrid enthalpy/
temperature
Not all control methods are appropriate
in all climates. The right choice will
depend on climate, hours of occupancy,
method of air distribution (constant- or
variable-volume), and operating-cost
savings
For more information about using a
plate-and-frame heat exchanger to
provide free cooling in a chilled water
system, refer to the Trane Engineers
Newsletter titled A New Era of Free
Cooling (ENEWS-20/3). It is archived
in the newsletters section of
www.trane.com/commercial.
Dehumidifying with
90 SYS-APM004-EN
Water-source heat pump (WSHP) systems are candidates for waterside
economizing, too. For much of the year, some of the heat pumps provide
cooling while others simultaneously provide heating. During the winter, the
perimeter heat pumps extract heat from the water loop. The cool water then
can be used by the interior heat pumps to offset the heating loads generated by
lights, people, and office equipment. Diverting the cool loop water through a
separate economizer coil (Figure 83) allows the heat pump to cool the entering
air without operating the compressor. Because the economizer coil is situated
upstream of the main coil, it can also supplement mechanical cooling
when possible.
Reset Control Strategies
Many dedicated outdoor-air systems are designed to deliver conditioned
outdoor air at a constant dry-bulb temperature and at a dew point that does not
exceed the setpoint. This control approach is simple because it allows the
dedicated outdoor-air unit to operate independently of the local HVAC
terminals. It also maintains the indoor humidity at or below the upper limit.
Implementing a reset control strategy can help minimize the additional energy
cost of separately treating outdoor air. The reset strategy can be based on dew
point, dry-bulb temperature, or airflow.
Reset the supply-air dew point
When sensible-cooling loads in the space are high, the local HVAC terminals
may offset part of the dehumidification load by performing latent cooling.
When latent-cooling loads in the space are low, the dehumidification load is
less, too. In either situation, the resulting indoor humidity will be lower than the
upper limit, which means that the dew-point temperature for the conditioned
outdoor air can be reset upward.
Figure 83. Waterside-economizer coil in a water-source heat pump
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 91
Dedicated outdoor-air handler serves a single space
Install the humidity sensor either in the space or in the return-air path. When
the humidity in the space drops below the upper limit, the sensor resets the
dew point of the conditioned air upward only enough to enforce the maximum
humidity and, in doing so, reduces cooling-energy consumption. To enforce the
maximum humidity limit when the space humidity rises, the sensor resets the
dew point of the conditioned air downward.
Dedicated outdoor-air handler serves multiple spaces
One option is to install a single humidity sensor in a representative space or
in a common return-air path. When the humidity of the monitored air is low
enough, the sensor resets the conditioned-air dew point upward to reduce
cooling-energy use. Although economical to install, using a single sensor to
represent several spaces necessarily reflects the average humidity.
Depending on the load characteristics of the spaces, the actual humidity may
exceed the limit in one space and be less than the limit in another.
(Figure 84) To resolve this multiple-space problem, install a humidity sensor in
each space that is served by the dedicated outdoor-air handler, or at least in
those spaces where high humidity is expected. A building automation system
(BAS) monitors all of the spaces to determine the critical space with the highest
humidity. Then, the BAS sends a signal to the dedicated outdoor-air unit to reset
the leaving-air dew point only enough to enforce the maximum humidity limit
in the critical space. This approach optimizes system performance: By
responding to actual conditions, the system maintains the humidity at or below
the limit in all spaces while consuming no more cooling energy than necessary.
Figure 84. Control arrangement for fancoil system with dedicated outdoor-air
Dehumidifying with
92 SYS-APM004-EN
Reset the supply-air dry-bulb temperature
When a dedicated outdoor-air handler delivers air that is cooler than the space
setpoint, it reduces the sensible-cooling load on the local HVAC terminals. If the
space load is already low, the terminal may need to add heat to avoid
overcooling the space. Resetting the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned
outdoor air by modulating the reheat capacity of the dedicated outdoor-air unit
minimizes the reheat energy used by the local terminals.
Dedicated outdoor-air handler serves a single space
To reset the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air, install a
thermostat in the space to modulate the reheat capacity of the dedicated
outdoor-air handler. Commonly used in hotelhallway applications (discussed
on p. 93), the dedicated outdoor-air handler enforces the humidity limit in the
space without overcooling it.
Dedicated outdoor-air handler serves multiple spaces
To most effectively implement a reset strategy, use a building automation
system to monitor all of the HVAC terminals and to identify the critical
spacethat is, the space with the lowest sensible-cooling load. If the
terminals contain chilled water coils, the BAS monitors the position of the
chilled-water control valves. The space with the lowest load is served by the
terminal whose control valve is the most closed. (If the terminals contain
refrigerant coils, the BAS monitors compressor operation; in that case, the
critical space is the one with the shortest compressor run-time.)
Based on a signal from the BAS, the dedicated outdoor-air handler then
modulates its reheat capacity, resetting the dry-bulb temperature of the
conditioned air upward only enough so that the terminal with the lowest
sensible-cooling load operates at near-zero cooling capacity. Notice that reset is
accomplished by modulating reheat capacity, not cooling capacity. The premise
is that the dew point of the conditioned air is controlled independently to meet
the humidity-control requirements for the spaces. This optimization strategy
provides conditioned outdoor air that offsets as much of the sensible-cooling
load in each space as possible without requiring any of the terminals to activate
their heating coils. This can be beneficial if the dedicated outdoor-air handler
recovers reheat energy from some other part of the system, thereby avoiding
the use of new energy for reheat, both at the dedicated outdoor-air unit and
at the terminals.
Dynamically resetting the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air
is particularly beneficial in a two-pipe systemespecially if a packaged, DX air
conditioner serves as the dedicated outdoor-air unit. The packaged DX unit can
delay the changeover from cooling to heating because it is not connected to the
chiller or boiler; in doing so, it saves energy and improves occupant comfort.
When the two-pipe system is in cooling mode (boiler off), the dry-bulb
temperature supplied by the dedicated outdoor-air unit is reset upward to
maintain a heating load of zero on the terminal in the critical space. When the
Use particular care if the system
discharges conditioned outdoor air into
the ceiling plenum, near the terminals.
To prevent condensation on cold
surfaces, the dry-bulb temperature of
the conditioned outdoor air should be
well above the dew point of the air in
the plenum.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 93
two-pipe system is in heating mode (chiller off), the dry-bulb temperature is
reset downward to maintain a cooling load of zero on the terminal in the
critical space.
If one dedicated outdoor-air handler serves multiple spaces with widely
differing loadsfor example, interior spaces with nearly constant full-load
cooling and perimeter spaces that require heatingthen for the interior spaces,
it may be necessary to size the terminals as if the dedicated outdoor-air unit
delivers neutral-temperature air. This practice may prevent downsizing of some
of the terminals, so the benefits of this strategy must be weighed against the
first-cost impact of terminal-unit sizing.
Dedicated outdoor-air handler serves a common hallway
In some applications, such as hotels, the dedicated outdoor-air handler
ventilates an entire floor of guest rooms by delivering conditioned outdoor air
to a central hallway (Figure 85). Local exhaust then draws the ventilation air into
each guest room from the hallway. In addition to providing outdoor air for
ventilation, the dedicated outdoor-air handler also controls the temperature and
humidity in the hallway.
In this case, size the dedicated outdoor-air unit based on either the ventilation
airflow requirement of the spaces it serves, or the sensible load in the hallway,
whichever is the highest. A humidity sensor installed in the hallway resets the
dew point of the conditioned outdoor air, maintaining the humidity in the
hallway at or below the desired limit. A thermostat, also installed in the hallway,
resets the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air as needed to
maintain the setpoint.
Figure 85. Conditioned outdoor air delivered to a common hallway
Dehumidifying with
94 SYS-APM004-EN
Reset outdoor-air quantity
Most dedicated outdoor-air handlers are designed to deliver a constant flow of
conditioned outdoor air; however, applications in which the population varies
widely during normal building operation may benefit from variable intake
airflow. Automatically adjusting the quantity of conditioned outdoor air to
match the systems current ventilation requirements can reduce operating costs
without sacrificing indoor air quality.
With separate dampers and a method for fan-capacity control, a dedicated
outdoor-air system can be designed to vary the outdoor airflow to each space
based on the estimated population. Population estimates can originate from
occupancy sensors (occupied or unoccupied), carbon dioxide (CO
2
) sensors, or
time-of-day schedules in a building automation system (BAS).
Reheating Conditioned Air with Recovered Heat
Dedicated outdoor-air handlers that reheat the outdoor air, after cooling it
to a low dew point for dehumidification, can use either new energy (gas,
electricity, hot water, or steam) or sensible heat recovered from another part
of the system.
Section 6.3.2.3 of the U.S. energy standard, ASHRAE 90.12001 (see excerpt on
p. 8) defines the circumstances, or exceptions, in which new-energy reheat is
permitted. For example, Exception A permits the use of new-energy reheat if
the system first reduces the supply-air volume to the minimum ventilation rate
specified by ASHRAE Standard 62. Because the quantity of air typically supplied
by the dedicated outdoor-air unit already equals the minimum ventilation
airflow required by Standard 62, its airflow cannot be reduced further.
Therefore, in most cases, Standard 90.1 will not prohibit new-energy reheat in
dedicated outdoor-air units that deliver neutral-temperature air for ventilation.
Recovering heat for reheat may be desirable even if it is not required by
Standard 90.1 because it reduces system operating costs. Sources of
recoverable heat include:
Hot refrigerant in a refrigeration system
Condenser water in a water-cooled, chilled water system
Another air stream, or another location within the same air stream
Refrigerant heat recovery
Systems that include a packaged, DX-type air conditioner as the dedicated
outdoor-air unit are excellent candidates for refrigerant-heat recovery
(Figure 86). Because reheat is required while the cooling coil dehumidifies the
outdoor air, recovering heat from the refrigeration system saves reheat energy.
A condenser-reheat coil transfers sensible heat from the hot refrigerant to the
Using CO
2
for Demand-Controlled
Ventilation, Trane Engineers
Newsletter (volume 31, number 3),
describes the use of carbon-dioxide
sensors to estimate the population in the
building and reset the amount of
outdoor air introduced for ventilation.
You can find it in the newsletters
section of www.trane.com/commercial.
This exception is the subject of
Example 6-YY, found in the Users
Manual that accompanies ASHRAE
Standard 90.1. Both publications are
available from the bookstore on the
ASHRAE Web site (www.ashrae.org).
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 95
air downstream of the cooling coil. Refrigerant heat recovery is discussed
further on pp. 5758.
Condenser-water heat recovery
Sensible heat also can be recovered from the warm water leaving the
condenser of a water-cooled chiller. Instead of pumping the condenser water to
the cooling tower, it can be circulated to one or more dedicated outdoor-air
handlers and used for reheat. Any water-cooled chiller can provide sensible
heat for reheat. Also, water is more easily distributed to multiple units than
refrigerant. For examples of common system configurations, see pp. 5356.
Air-to-air heat recovery/transfer
Sensible heat for reheat can be recovered from another air streamor another
location in the same air streamusing an air-to-air heat exchanger, such as a
coil loop, a fixed-plate heat exchanger, a heat pipe, or a rotary sensible-heat
exchanger (heat wheel). When the air-to-air heat exchanger provides reheat in a
dedicated outdoor-air system, it can be applied in one of two configurations:
series or parallel.
Series configuration
Figure 87 (p. 96) shows a dedicated outdoor-air handler that includes a fixed-
plate heat exchanger. The heat exchanger, which could be any type of sensible-
energy recovery device, is applied in a series, or wrap-around, configuration.
The heat exchanger removes sensible heat from the air upstream of the
cooling/dehumidifying coil and transfers it downstream to reheat the air leaving
the coil.
Applying the air-to-air heat exchanger in a series arrangement conserves
new energy that would otherwise be used to reheat the outdoor air. It also
reduces the cooling load by precooling the outdoor air upstream of the
Figure 86. Packaged DX, dedicated outdoor-air unit with condenser-reheat coil
Consult Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in
for more information about using an
air-to-air heat exchanger for reheat in a
dedicated outdoor-air system. Topics
include series and parallel
configurations and a coil loop with
three coils.
Dehumidifying with
96 SYS-APM004-EN
dehumidifying coil. In this application, reheat is required whenever the cooling
coil dehumidifies, even at design conditions, because the conditioned outdoor
air is delivered at a neutral dry-bulb temperature. The precooling effect
provided by the heat exchanger reduces the design load on the cooling coil; it
also may permit downsizing of the cooling plant.
During cold weather, when the dedicated outdoor-air unit must heat the
entering air, the cooling coil is turned off. Because the air-to-air heat exchanger
is arranged in series with the cooling coil, it provides no benefit. An
arrangement that bypasses the cooling coil and air-to-air heat exchanger during
cold weather would save fan energy by reducing the airside pressure drop.
Parallel configuration
Figure 88 shows the same dedicated outdoor-air handler, this time with the air-
to-air heat exchanger applied in a parallel arrangement. The heat exchanger
recovers sensible heat from the exhaust air and releases it downstream of the
cooling/dehumidifying coil to reheat the leaving air. (This example shows a
fixed-plate heat exchanger, but any type of air-to-air, sensible-heat exchanger
will work.)
Like the series arrangement, applying the air-to-air heat exchanger in a parallel
arrangement saves the new energy that would otherwise be needed to reheat
the air. Unlike the series arrangement, however, the parallel arrangement does
not reduce the load on the cooling coil, nor does it enable downsizing of the
cooling plant. This is because the heat recovered from the exhaust air would be
rejected from the building anyway.
Figure 87. Series heat-recovery arrangement for reheating conditioned outdoor air
In the strict sense of the term, heat
recovery does not include the series
arrangement of an air-to-air heat
exchanger. Rather than capturing heat
from another source (exhaust air, for
example), the series arrangement
moves heat from one location to another
within the same air stream.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 97
Another important advantage characterizes the parallel arrangement: When it
is cold outside and the dedicated outdoor-air handler must heat the entering
outdoor air, the parallel-arranged, air-to-air heat exchanger can recover heat
from the exhaust air to warm the entering outdoor air. This lowers the
operating costs for heating and may allow downsizing of the heating plant.
Cold climates may require a means of frost prevention for the air-to-air heat
exchanger during full-recovery, heating operation. If the dedicated outdoor-air
handler includes a chilled-water cooling coil, it may also require freeze
protection because the heat exchanger adds heat downstream of the coil.
Series or parallel?
In dedicated outdoor-air handlers that supply neutral-temperature air, both
arrangements reduce the new energy required for reheat. The series
arrangement can transfer more heat whenever the outdoor air is warmer than
the exhaust air. It also saves cooling energy, which may allow downsizing of the
cooling plant. By comparison, the parallel configuration depends less on
outdoor conditions and transfers more heat whenever the outdoor air is cooler
than the exhaust air. (This is because the temperature of the exhaust air is
relatively constant.) The parallel configuration also can operate during the
heating mode, which saves heating energy and may allow downsizing of the
heating plant.
Implementing the parallel configuration requires additional ductwork to bring
most of the buildings exhaust air back to a central location; the series
configuration does not. Given the difference in initial cost, air-to-air heat
recovery is commonly implemented using the series arrangement unless the
system includes an additional energy-recovery device (for example, a total-
Figure 88. Parallel heat-recovery arrangement for reheating conditioned outdoor air
A coil loop that consists of three coils
combines both arrangements of air-to-
air energy recovery. The series
arrangement is active when the cooling
coil operates, saving cooling energy and
reheat energy. When the cooling coil
turns off and the heating coil operates,
the parallel arrangement becomes
active, saving heating energy.
Dehumidifying with
98 SYS-APM004-EN
energy wheel) for outdoor-air preconditioning. Figure 89 illustrates a dedicated
outdoor-air handler that includes dual-function energy recovery.
Ultimately, the right choice for a given project will depend on the balance of
initial cost, cooling- and heating-energy savings, and the increased fan energy
imposed by the additional static-pressure drop through the heat exchanger.
Preconditioning Outdoor Air with Recovered Energy
The previous section discussed the use of air-to-air energy recovery for
reheating conditioned outdoor air. This type of energy recovery also is suited
for preconditioning outdoor air as it enters the dedicated outdoor-air handler.
Figure 90 illustrates a dedicated outdoor-air handler that includes a total-energy
wheel to transfer energy between the outdoor air and exhaust air. During the
summer, when the outdoor air is hot and humid, the total-energy recovery
device can precool and predry the outdoor air by transferring both sensible heat
and moisture to the exhaust air. During the winter, when the outdoor air is cold
and dry, the same device can preheat and prehumidify the outdoor air by
recovering both sensible heat and moisture from the exhaust air and
transferring it to the entering outdoor air.
Substituting a sensible-energy recovery device (such as a coil loop, fixed-plate
heat exchanger, heat pipe, or sensible-energy wheel) may reduce the initial cost
of the device, but it precludes the opportunity to predry or prehumidify the
entering outdoor air.
Using air-to-air energy recovery to precondition the outdoor air can reduce
the operating cost of the dedicated outdoor-air handler; it may even allow
downsizing of the mechanical cooling, heating, and humidification equipment.
Figure 89. Dual-function air-to-air energy recovery
Consult Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in
to learn more about using an air-to-air
heat exchanger to precondition outdoor
air. The manual discusses compliance
with ASHRAE Standard 90.1 and
various energy-recovery technologies; it
also outlines control modes for
dedicated outdoor-air systems.
Dehumidifying with
SYS-APM004-EN 99
As demonstrated on pp. 2729, however, a total-energy recovery device does
little to control space humidity. A cold coil (or an active desiccant system) is
needed to dehumidify the air to a dew point that is drier than the air in
the space.
Any sensible- or total-energy recovery device can precondition outdoor air. The
choice between them usually is based on the initial cost and energy-savings
potential in the specific application. In either case, the parallel arrangement
required for preconditioning also requires additional ductwork to bring most of
the building-exhaust air back to a central location.
Control of the energy-recovery device
Integrating the operation of the energy-recovery device into the control
sequences for the dedicated outdoor-air handler (and the rest of the HVAC
system) is critical to realize the anticipated cost savings and to reduce the
payback period. Although the simplest strategy cycles the device with the fan,
this approach does not maximize energy savings.
At many outdoor conditions, the capacity of the energy-recovery device must
modulate or the device must be turned off to avoid transferring unwanted
moisture or sensible heat to the entering outdoor air. This is especially true for
dedicated outdoor-air units that deliver dry, cold air rather than reheating the
conditioned air to a neutral temperature.
Operating the energy-recovery device at full capacity under these conditions,
which could represent 15 percent to 25 percent of the annual operating hours,
will waste energy by operating the wheel and the dedicated outdoor-air handler
in opposition to each other.
Figure 90. Parallel heat-recovery arrangement for preconditioning outdoor air
100 SYS-APM004-EN
Afterword
The dehumidification performance of a cold-coil HVAC system hinges on
the ability of the cooling coil to reduce the dew point of the passing air below
that of the air in the space. Single-zone, constant-volume, mixed-air systems
are most often used to condition entering outdoor air; they also can be the
most problematic when it comes to dehumidification, particularly at part-load
conditions. VAV systems generally provide effective, coincidental
dehumidification over a range of indoor load conditions.
Contrary to popular belief, high indoor humidity can be an issue in nearly all
geographic locations, not just in areas where hot, humid conditions prevail.
Indoor humidity typically depends as much on the sensible- and latent-cooling
loads in the space, the type of HVAC system, and the method of controlling that
system as it does on outdoor conditions. Whenever high relative humidity
exists at or near a cold, porous surface, moisture adsorption increases and
moisture-related problems (such as increased health risks from mold growth
and premature replacement of equipment and furnishings) become likely.
When properly designed and controlled, however, the HVAC system can
significantly reduce the moisture content of indoor air. Increased humidity in
the space can also result from higher-than-necessary supply airfloweither
due to an overly conservative estimate of the space sensible-cooling load or the
use of oversized, packaged DX equipment. When selecting cooling equipment,
especially for constant-volume applications, exercise particular care to avoid
oversizing the design airflow. Analyze system dehumidification performance at
both full- and part-load conditions, and consider the advantages and
disadvantages of each system enhancement. The right choice for a given
project depends on the climate, building use, available budget, and operating-
cost goals.
SYS-APM004-EN 101
Appendix A:
Psychrometric Analysis
An imaginary, elementary-school classroom in Jacksonville, Florida,
provides the context for the examples of dehumidification performance that
appear throughout this manual. In the chapter titled Dehumidifying with
Constant-Volume Mixed Air (pp. 1960), the classroom is air conditioned by
the basic single-zone, constant-volume HVAC system shown in Figure 91.
A thermostat compares the dry-bulb temperature in the classroom to the
setpoint. The system then modulates the capacity of the cooling coil
accordingly, which adjusts the supply-air temperature until the temperature in
the classroom matches the setpoint.
As the coil cools the passing air stream, it reduces the airs moisture content
via condensation on the coil surface. The thermostat determines the coil-
surface temperature and, therefore, the supply-air temperature. Modulating the
coil to increase its sensible-cooling capacity makes the coil surface colder,
which causes more condensation and (therefore) more dehumidification.
Reducing coil capacity results in a warmer coil that provides less
dehumidification.
Predicting the dehumidification performance of an HVAC system entails a
psychrometric analysis of its operation, both at full-load and at the range of
part-load conditions. This section demonstrates the analysis process by
examining the performance of this basic system at two operating points
Full load, peak dry bulb: 96F DB, 76F WB (35.7C DB, 24.5C)
Part-load, peak dew point: 76F DP, 84F DB (24.6C DP, 28.8C DB)
The outcome of this two-part analysis is summarized on pp. 2021.
Figure 91. Basic, constant-volume HVAC system
The peak dew-point condition does not
necessarily represent the worst-case
condition for humidity control. It simply
is an easy test case for analyzing part-
load dehumidification performance.
Appendix A:
102 SYS-APM004-EN
Full-Load, Peak Dry-Bulb Condition
Step 1: Plot the outdoor condition (OA) and the desired indoor
condition (RA) on a psychrometric chart. The ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals lists the 0.4 percent peak-dry-bulb condition for Jacksonville,
Florida, as 96F DB, 76F WB (35.7C DB, 24.5C WB). For this example, the
desired condition in the classroom is 74F DB (23.3C DB) with a relative
humidity of 50 percent. See Figure 92.
Step 2: Calculate the sensible- and latent-cooling loads in the space.
At the peak dry-bulb condition, the sensible and latent loads calculated for the
classroom are 29,750 Btu/hr (8.7 kW) and 5,250 Btu/hr (1.5 kW), respectively.
These loads yield a space sensible-heat ratio (SHR) of 0.85, which means that
85 percent of the classrooms cooling load is sensible and 15 percent is latent.
Step 3: Calculate the temperature and quantity of air required
to offset the sensible-cooling load in the space. Having already
determined the space sensible-cooling load and the desired indoor
temperature, either: define the supply airflow and calculate the supply-air
The examples throughout this manual
are based on 0.4 percent data from
the ASHRAE climatic data tables.
This percentage indicates that the
temperature is likely to equal or exceed
the design value for 35 hours each year.
Some design engineers choose to use
more extreme conditions; others base
their designs on the 1 percent or
2 percent values, which represent
more hours.
Figure 92. Outdoor (peak dry bulb) and indoor conditions for Jacksonville classroom
SHR
29 750 Btu/hr ,
29 750 Btu/hr , 5 250 Btu/hr , +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.85 = =
SHR
8.7 kW
8.7 kW 1.5 kW +
------------------------------------------- - 0.85 = =

Appendix A:
SYS-APM004-EN 103
temperature, or choose the supply-air temperature and calculate the required
airflow. In either case, solve following equation:
where,
Qs = sensible-cooling load in the space, Btu/hr (kW)
Tsa = dry-bulb temperature of the supply air, F (C)
Tsp = desired dry-bulb temperature for the space, F (C)
Vsa = supply airflow delivered to the space, cfm (m/s)
For this example, assume that the supply airflow for the classroom is nine
air changes per hour. The volume of the classroom is 10,000 ft (283 m), so the
required supply airflow is 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s):
To offset the sensible-cooling load and satisfy the thermostat setpoint by
maintaining 74F DB (23.3C DB) in the classroom, the supply airflow must be
delivered at 55.7F DB (13.1C DB):
Step 4: Calculate the entering-air condition for the cooling coil. The
air entering the cooling coil is a mixture of outdoor air and recirculated air
returning from the space. For this example, assume that the condition of the
return air is the same as the air in the classroom74F DB (23.3C DB) and a
relative humidity of 50 percent.
According to ASHRAE Standard 622001, properly ventilating the classroom
requires 15 cfm (8 L/s) of outdoor air per person. Given the design occupancy
of 30 people, and because the system only serves this classroom, 450 cfm
In the Qs equations at right, 1.085 and
1.21 are derived from the properties of
air; they are not constants. At the
standard air condition, which is 69F
(21C) dry air at sea level, the product of
density, specific heat, and the
conversion for time (I-P units only)
equals 1.085 (1.21). A different air
condition or elevation will result in a
different value.
Q
s
1.085 V
sa
T
sp
T
sa
( ) =
Q
s
1.21 V
sa
T
sp
T
sa
[ ] = ( )
V
sa
10 000 ft , air change 9 air changes hr
60 min hr
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 500 cfm , = =
V
sa
283 m air change 9 air changes hr
3 600 , sec hr
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.7 m/s = =

Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) 29 750 Btu/hr T
sa
55.7F = , = =
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] 8.7 kW T
sa
13.1C = = = ( )
Space- and return-air temperatures
are essentially the same in systems that
use HVAC units installed within the
occupied space (fancoils or classroom
unit ventilators, for example). In other
system configurations, the air returning
from the space picks up sensible heat
and enters the air handler at a warmer
temperature than that in the occupied
space. This is common in systems where
the return air travels through an open
ceiling plenum or passes through light
fixtures.
To simplify this example, we ignored
return-air heat gain in our analysis.
Appendix A:
104 SYS-APM004-EN
(0.21 m/s) of the 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s) supply airflow must be outdoor air. The
resulting dry-bulb temperature of this mixture is 80.6F (26.8C):
When plotted on a psychrometric chart (Figure 93), the mixed-air (MA)
condition lies on the straight line that connects the outdoor-air (OA) and
return-air (RA) conditions. In this case, the condition of the mixed air, which
will enter the cooling coil, lies at the intersection of OARA and the line that
corresponds to the calculated dry-bulb temperature, 80.6F (26.8C).
Step 5: Determine the leaving-coil condition of the supply air. Using
the curvature of the adjacent coil curves as a guide, draw a curve from the
mixed-air condition (MA) until it intersects the supply-air temperature (SA)
calculated in Step 3in this case, 55.7F (13.1C).
Note: The Trane psychrometric chart includes a series of curves depicting the
changes in dry-bulb and dew-point temperatures that occur as air passes
through a typical cooling coil. Derived from laboratory tests, these coil
curves represent various coil geometries at different air and coolant
temperatures. For a more precise prediction of performance, use software that
accurately models the actual coil geometry.
T
ma
450 cfm 96F ( ) 1 050 cfm , 74F ( ) +
450 cfm 1 050 cfm , +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80.6F = =
T
ma
0.21 m/s 35.7C [ ] 0.5 m/s 23.3C [ ] +
0.21 m/s 0.5 m/s +
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26.8C = =

Figure 93. Plotting the entering mixed-air condition for the cooling coil
Appendix A:
SYS-APM004-EN 105
Step 6: Determine the air condition of the space. The space sensible-
heat ratio (SHR) determines the resulting air condition in the space for a given
supply-air temperature:
a Establish the slope of the SHR line by drawing a line that connects the
appropriate value on the SHR scale0.85, in this casewith the index
point in the center of the chart.
b Using the SHR line as a reference, draw a parallel line from the supply-
air condition (SA) to the line representing the desired space dry-bulb
temperaturethat is, from 55.7F DB (13.1C) to 74F (23.3C).
(Figure 94) Although the target humidity for the classroom is 50 percent, the
0.85 SHR and 55.7F DB (13.1C) supply air will yield a relative humidity of
roughly 52 percent. To close the loop, we must repeat the psychrometric
analysis (Steps 16) until successive iterations produce the same value for RA.
Repeat Step 1. The outdoor-air condition (OA) remains the same; but in this
iteration, RA' represents the indoor condition.
Repeat Steps 2 and 3. Because the sensible- and latent-cooling loads in
the classroom are unchanged, the supply airflow and supply-air dry-bulb
temperature also remain the same.
Repeat Step 4. Plot the new mixed-air condition (MA') by drawing a line
that connects the outdoor-air condition (OA) to the new return-air condition
(RA'). MA' lies at the intersection of OARA' and the dry-bulb temperature that
was calculated for the mixed air, 80.6F DB (26.8C DB).
Figure 94. Using supply-air temperature and the sensible-heat ratio to find the resulting
air condition in the space
Appendix A:
106 SYS-APM004-EN
Repeat Step 5. To find the new supply-air condition (SA'), draw a curve from
the new mixed-air condition (MA') to the supply-air temperature of 55.7F
(13.1C). Use the curvature of the adjacent coil curves as a guide.
Repeat Step 6. Using the 0.85 SHR line as a reference, draw a parallel line
from the supply-air condition (SA') to the line representing the desired space
temperature, 74F (23.3C) in this case. Figure 95 shows that the resulting air
condition (RA'') in the space now coincides with the starting point.
At the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition for this example, controlling the basic
constant-volume system to 74F DB (23.3C DB) results in a relative humidity of
about 52 percent.
Step 7: Calculate the required cooling-coil capacity. Solving the
following equation shows that the cooling coil must provide 4.78 tons (16.8 kW)
of cooling at the full-load, peak dry-bulb condition:
where,
hma = enthalpy of mixed air entering the cooling coil, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Figure 95. Closing the psychrometric loop for the peak dry-bulb condition
In the QT equations at right, 4.5 and
1.2 are derived from properties of the
density and the conversion for time (I-P
units only) equals 4.5 (1.2). A different
air condition or elevation will result in a
different value.
Q
T
4.5 V
sa
h
ma
h
sa
( ) =
4.5 1 500 cfm , 31.4 22.9 Btu/lb ( ) = 57 375 Btu/hr or 4.78 tons , =
Q
T
1.2 V
sa
h
ma
h
sa
[ ] = ( )
1.2 0.7 m/s 73.1 53.1kJ/kg [ ] = 16.8kW = ( )
Appendix A:
SYS-APM004-EN 107
hsa = enthalpy of supply air leaving the cooling coil, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
QT = total cooling load on the coil, Btu/hr (kW)
Vsa = supply airflow passing through the coil, cfm (m/s)
Part-Load, Peak Dew-Point Condition
Note: The steps involved in a psychrometric analysis remain the same,
regardless of the operating conditions. This section details these steps again by
way of illustration.
Step 1: Plot the outdoor (OA) and target indoor (RA) conditions on a
psychrometric chart. The ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals lists the peak
dew-point condition for Jacksonville, Florida, as 76F DP, 84F DB (24.6C DP,
28.8C DB). For this example, the desired condition in the classroom remains at
74F DB (23.3C DB) with a relative humidity of 50 percent.
Step 2: Calculate the sensible- and latent-cooling loads in the space.
The outdoor condition at the peak dew point is comparatively cooler than at the
peak dry bulb. Because less heat conduction occurs, the sensible-cooling load
in the space drops to 17,850 Btu/hr (5.2 kW). However, the latent-cooling load
remains the same because the occupants are still in the classroom. These loads
represent a space sensible-heat ratio (SHR) of 0.77:
Space sensible and latent loads, and therefore the space SHR, vary with
outdoor conditions, the time of year, and the time of day. Unlike the peak dry-
bulb condition, where you can assume (for most North American locations) that
the highest dry-bulb temperature occurs during the midafternoon hours of July
or August, such an assumption is not valid for the peak dew-point condition.
Hourly weather data for Jacksonville indicates that the 0.4 percent, peak
dew-point condition occurs on the occasions listed below. Notice that the time
of each occurrence differs from one date to the next. Depending on the
Date Time of day
Outdoor condition
Dry bulb Dew point
August 23 8:00 a.m.
84.0F DB 76.1F DP September 1 1:00 p.m.
September 2 4:00 p.m.
SHR
17 850 Btu/hr ,
17 850 Btu/hr , 5 250 Btu/hr , +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.77 = =
SHR
5.2 kW
5.2 kW 1.5 kW +
--------------------------------------------- 0.77 = =

The occurrences of the peak dew-point
in Jacksonville appear to be
concentrated in late August/early
September. By contrast, a similar
analysis for St. Louis, Missouri, reveals
that this condition occurs in late June/
early July. Clearly, it is unwise to
assume that the peak dew-point
condition occurs during the same
month, regardless of location.
Appendix A:
108 SYS-APM004-EN
orientation of the exterior surfaces of a given space, as well as the occupancy
schedule, the space SHR can vary dramatically between these occasions.
The classroom in this example has one, west-facing exterior wall with windows.
Of the three, peak dew-point occurrences, the lowest space SHR occurs at
8:00 a.m. because the solar and conduction loads are smaller. A psychrometric
analysis will yield substantially different results, depending on which peak dew-
point occurrence is used to calculate the cooling loads in the space.
Step 3: Calculate the temperature and quantity of air required to
offset the space sensible-cooling load. Because a constant-volume
system serves the classroom in this example, the supply airflow must remain at
1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s). To compensate for the smaller space sensible-cooling load
and still maintain the 74F DB (23.3C) setpoint, the system must deliver the
supply airflow at 63F (17.2C):
Step 4: Calculate the entering-air condition for the cooling coil. The
coil cools a mixture of outdoor air and recirculated return air. Assuming that the
return-air condition is identical to the condition in the classroom74F DB
(23.3C) DB and 50 percent relative humiditythe resulting mixed-air dry-bulb
temperature is 77F (24.9C):
On the psychrometric chart (Figure 96), mixed-air condition MA lies on the
straight line that connects the outdoor-air and return-air conditions, OA and RA.
Date Time of day
Cooling loads in classroom, Btu/hr
Space SHR Sensible Latent
August 23 8:00 a.m. 17,850 5,250 0.77
September 1 1:00 p.m. 29,975 5,250 0.85
September 2 4:00 p.m. 29,250 875 0.97
Q
s
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) 17 850 Btu/hr T
sa
63.0F = , = =
Q
s
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] 5.2 kW T
sa
17.2C = = = ( )
T
ma
450 cfm 84F ( ) 1 050 cfm , 74F ( ) +
450 cfm 1 050 cfm , +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77.0F = =
T
ma
0.21 m/s 28.8C [ ] 0.5 m/s 23.3C [ ] +
0.21 m/s 0.5 m/s +
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24.9C = =

Appendix A:
SYS-APM004-EN 109
Step 5: Determine the leaving-coil, supply-air condition. Using the
curvature of the adjacent coil curves, draw a curve from the mixed-air
condition (MA) until it intersects the supply-air temperature (SA) calculated in
Step 3in this case, 63F (17.2C).
Step 6: Determine the air condition in the space. (Figure 97) Draw a 0.77
SHR line that intersects both the supply-air condition and the target dry-bulb
Figure 96. Part-load, peak dew-point conditions for the Jacksonville, Florida, classroom
Figure 97. Resulting air condition (RA') in the space does not match the target (RA)
Appendix A:
110 SYS-APM004-EN
temperature for the classroom, 74F (23.3C). This time, the space sensible-heat
ratio and supply-air temperature yield a relative humidity of 65 percent.
Repeat Steps 16: Because the starting and ending conditions are not the
same, repeat the psychrometric analysis as often as necessary to close the
loop. The outdoor-air condition (OA) remains the same, but RA' now
represents the indoor condition.
(Figure 98) For this example, completing the third iteration finally yields a space
condition that matches the starting point. At the part-load, peak dew-point
condition, controlling the classrooms basic constant-volume system to 74F DB
(23.3C DB) results in a relative humidity of approximately 67 percent (RA'').
Step 7: Calculate the required cooling-coil capacity. Solving the
following equation shows that the total cooling-coil load to maintain the target
dry-bulb temperature is 3.66 tons (12.7 kW)but without adequately
dehumidifying the space.
Figure 98. Closing the psychrometric loop for the peak dew-point condition
Q
T
4.5 1 500 cfm , 34.1 27.6 Btu/lb ( ) 43 875Btu/hr or 3.66 tons , = =
Q
T
1.2 0.7 m/s 79.3 64.2 kJ/kg [ ] 12.7 kW = = ( )
SYS-APM004-EN 111
Appendix B: Designing a
Dedicated Outdoor-Air System
Two fundamental decisions underlie the design of a dedicated outdoor-air
system and affect the selection of the dedicated outdoor-air handler and local
HVAC terminals:
Whether to deliver the conditioned outdoor air directly to the space or to
local HVAC terminals
Whether to condition the outdoor air to a neutral or cold dry-bulb
temperature
(Figure 99) To provide the desired dehumidification, the dedicated outdoor-air
handler commonly is sized to offset the local latent loads in the space, plus the
sensible and latent loads of the outdoor air brought into the building for
ventilation. The local HVAC terminals may also help to dehumidify the space
when the sensible load is high, yielding an indoor humidity that is drier than the
target. As a rule of thumb:
Size the dedicated outdoor-air handler so that it also offsets the space latent
loads and the total ventilation load at the peak outdoor-enthalpy condition
(pp. 112115).
Size each local HVAC terminal so that it offsets the sensible-cooling load in
the space at the peak dry-bulb condition. Design capacity will vary with the
system configuration, that is
The rest of this chapter describes the selection process for each case.
neutral to space (pp. 117118) neutral to unit (pp. 120122)
cold to space (pp. 119120) cold to unit (pp. 122124)
Figure 99. Typical division of loads in dedicated outdoor-air systems
112 SYS-APM004-EN
Selecting the
Dedicated Outdoor-Air Handler
The following steps establish the required airflow, dew point, and dry-bulb
temperature for the conditioned air.
Step 1: Determine the entering-air condition. Three factors dictate the
cooling capacity required from the dedicated outdoor-air handler: airflow, the
enthalpy of the entering outdoor air, and the enthalpy of the conditioned air
leaving the cooling coil. If the outdoor airflow is constant, then the basis of
design is the condition resulting in the greatest difference in enthalpy across
the cooling coil.
Indoor latent loads fluctuate with occupancy and processes, as well as with
ambient conditions and wind through infiltration. These variables can make it
difficult to discover when the greatest enthalpy difference occurs. However, if
the latent loads within the space are relatively constant and infiltration is
minimal, assume that the greatest enthalpy difference occurs at the highest
outdoor-air enthalpy.
In most climates, the peak latent ventilation load occurs at a lower dry-bulb
temperature and higher dew point than the outdoor-air condition that produces
the peak sensible ventilation load. The ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals is a
popular source for climatic data representing the outdoor design conditions for
many locations. To aid the design of cooling and dehumidifying systems, the
handbook includes:
Peak dry-bulb and mean-coincident wet-bulb temperatures
(sensible-design condition)
Peak dew-point and mean-coincident dry-bulb temperatures
(latent-design condition)
Peak wet-bulb and mean-coincident dry-bulb temperatures
(enthalpy-design condition)
Table 10 lists the 0.4 percent, cooling-design data for Jacksonville, Florida.
Plotting these values on the psychrometric chart (Figure 100) illustrates that the
highest outdoor enthalpy exists at the peak wet-bulb condition. In this case, the
enthalpy of the outdoor air is 8 percent higher than it is at the peak dry-bulb
(sensible-cooling design) condition.
Note: Using the peak dry-bulb condition as the basis of design will undersize
the dedicated outdoor-air handler, making it unable to properly dehumidify the
outdoor air at certain part-load conditions. Remember that the primary purpose
of the dedicated outdoor-air system is to properly control space humidity at all
load conditions.
The examples throughout this manual
are based on 0.4 percent data from
the ASHRAE climatic data tables. This
percentage indicates that the
temperature is likely to equal or exceed
the design value for 35 hours each year.
Some design engineers choose to use
more extreme conditions; others base
their designs on the 1 percent or
2 percent values, which represent
more hours.
SYS-APM004-EN 113
Step 2: Choose the maximum limit for space humidity. ASHRAE
Standard 622001 recommends maintaining the indoor humidity at less than
60 percent-relative humidity (RH) to prevent high relative humidity at surfaces
and thereby minimize microbial growth on building materials and furnishings.
Therefore, select the dedicated outdoor-air handler with enough capacity to
prevent the humidity in any space from exceeding 60 percent at the worst-case
condition. The indoor humidity may be drier than 60 percent at less extreme
conditions, depending on how the system is controlled.
In this example, combining the 74F (23.3C) setpoint for the space with a
maximum relative humidity of 60 percent corresponds to a humidity ratio of
75.2 grains/lb (10.8 g/kg) or a dew point of approximately 59F (15C).
Table 10. Design weather conditions for cooling/dehumidifying in Jacksonville, Florida
1
Design condition Enthalpy
Peak dry bulb, mean-coincident wet bulb 96F (35.7C) DB,
76F (24.5C) WB
39.3 Btu/lb
(91.4 kJ/kg)
Peak dew point, mean-coincident dry bulb 76F (24.6C) DP,
84F (28.8C) DB
41.5 Btu/lb
(96.5 kJ/kg)
Peak wet bulb, mean-coincident dry bulb 79F (26.1C) WB,
91F (32.8C) DB
42.4 Btu/lb
(98.6 kJ/kg)
1
Source: 2001 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals, Chapter 27, Table 1B (0.4% condition)
Figure 100. Comparison of outdoor-air enthalpies at 0.4% cooling-design conditions for
Jacksonville, Florida (see Table 10)
114 SYS-APM004-EN
Note: Selecting the unit to enforce a lower humidity limit (50 percent, for
example) is possible, but requires larger equipment and consumes more
energy.
Step 3: Determine the latent loads in the space. The dedicated outdoor-
air handler will offset the local latent loads in the space it serves, as well as the
total ventilation load. Common sources of latent load include respiration from
people, processes (such as cooking), and the infiltration of humid outdoor air
through cracks and other openings in the building structure; see Sources and
Effects of Indoor Moisture, p. 2.
For this example, the dedicated outdoor-air handler serves four classrooms of
a school in Jacksonville, Florida. Table 11 lists the latent load for each space; in
this case, the latent loads presumedly remain constant whenever the building
is occupied.
Step 4: Determine the total airflow that the dedicated outdoor-air
handler must deliver. According to ASHRAE Standard 622001, a classroom
requires 15 cfm (0.007 m/s) of outdoor air per person for ventilation. Given the
design occupancies and associated outdoor-air requirements listed in Table 11,
the dedicated outdoor-air handler in this example must deliver a total outdoor
airflow of 1,815 cfm (0.86 m/s).
Step 5: Determine which zone requires the driest conditioned
outdoor air. Because the dedicated outdoor-air handler will offset the latent
loads in each space (as well as the total ventilation load), the conditioned
outdoor air must be dry enough to enforce the maximum humidity limit in the
Table 11. Design criteria for a dedicated outdoor-air system that serves four classrooms in
Jacksonville, Florida (example)
Space characteristics Classroom 101 Classroom 102 Classroom 103 Classroom 104
Sensible load 29,750 Btu/hr
(8.7 kW)
26,775 Btu/hr
(7.8 kW)
26,927 Btu/hr
(7.9 kW)
28,262 Btu/hr
(8.3 kW)
Latent load 5,250 Btu/hr
(1.5 kW)
5,465 Btu/hr
(1.6 kW)
5,697 Btu/hr
(1.7 kW)
5,250 Btu/hr
(1.5 kW)
Sensible-heat ratio (SHR) 0.85 0.83 0.83 0.84
Occupants 30 30 32 29
Required outdoor airflow 450 cfm
(0.21 m/s)
450 cfm
(0.21 m/s)
480 cfm
(0.23 m/s)
435 cfm
(0.20 m/s)
Humidity ratio of
conditioned air, W
ca
58.3 grains/lb
(8.34 g/kg)
57.6 grains/lb
(8.24 g/kg)
58.0 grains/lb
(8.29 g/kg)
57.7 grains/lb
(8.25 g/kg)
Managing Building Moisture, Trane
SYS-AM-15, helps designers identify
and quantify moisture sources. It also
presents moisture-management
techniques for the building envelope,
occupied spaces, and mechanical
equipment rooms.
SYS-APM004-EN 115
worst-case space. Use the following equation to calculate the required
conditioned-air humidity ratio, W
ca
, for each space:
where,
Q
L
= latent load in the space, Btu/hr (kW)
V
oa
= conditioned outdoor airflow, cfm (m/s), which is supplied to the
space by the dedicated outdoor-air handler
W
ca
= humidity ratio of the conditioned outdoor air, grains/lb (grams/kg)
W
sp
= maximum limit for the humidity ratio in the space,
grains/lb (grams/kg)
For example, to assure that the humidity (W
sp
) in Classroom 101 does not
exceed the maximum limit of 75.2 grains/lb (10.8 g/kg), the humidity ratio of the
conditioned outdoor air, W
ca
, must be 58.3 grains/lb (8.34 g/kg).
Table 11 shows the results of this calculation for all four classrooms. Although
the highest latent load exists in Classroom 103, the critical space is
Classroom 102 because it requires the driest air (lowest humidity ratio, W
ca
).
Supplying the conditioned outdoor air at a humidity ratio of 57.6 gr/lb
(8.24 g/kg) will offset the latent load in each classroom and assure that the
humidity in Classroom 102 does not exceed the maximum limit; lower
humidities will result in the other classrooms.
Step 6: Determine the required dew point for the conditioned
outdoor air. With the help of a psychrometric chart (Figure 101, p. 116), we
find that a humidity ratio of 57.6 grains/lb (8.24 g/kg) is equivalent to a dew-
point temperature of 52F (11.1C).
Dehumidifying 1,815 cfm (0.86 m/s) of outdoor air from the peak wet-bulb
condition to a 52F (11.1C) dew point requires 14.3 tons (50.4 kW) of
cooling capacity.
Incidentally, lowering the maximum humidity limit to 50 percent would require
16.9 tons (59.4 kW)an 18 percent increase in capacity.
Step 7: Determine the supply-air dry-bulb temperature for the
dedicated outdoor-air handler. If the system design requires neutral-
temperature conditioned air, then the air leaving the dedicated outdoor-air
handler must be reheated to the desired dry-bulb temperature. This is typically
between 70F and 75F (21C and 24C). For our example, assume that the air is
reheated to 71F (21.7C).
If the system design is based on cold conditioned air rather than neutral-
temperature air, then the dry-bulb temperature from the dedicated outdoor-air
Q
L
0.69 V
oa
W
sp
W
ca
( ) =
Q
L
3.0 V
oa
W
sp
W
ca
[ ] = ( )
In the Q
L
equations at right, 0.69 and
3.0 are derived from the properties of
density, the latent heat of water vapor,
and a conversion factor for units
7,000 grains/lb (1,000 grams/kg) and
60 min/hrequals 0.69 (3.0). A
different air condition or elevation will
result in a different value.
Q
L
5 250 Btu/hr , =
0.69 450 cfm 75.2 gr/lb W
ca
( ) =
W
ca
58.3 gr/lb =
Q
L
1.5 kW = ( )
3.0 0.21 m/s 10.8 g/kg W
ca
[ ] = ( )
W
ca
8.34 g/kg = ( )
Step 5 (Classroom 101):
Q
T
4.5 1 815 cfm , 42.4 21.4 Btu/lb ( ) =
171 518 Btu/hr , 14.3 tons = =
Q
T
1.2 0.86 m/s 98.6 49.8 kJ/kg [ ] = ( )
50.4 kW = ( )
Step 6:
116 SYS-APM004-EN
handler depends on the supply-air dew point. In our example, assuming that
saturated air leaves the cooling coil, then the leaving-air dry-bulb temperature
is 52F (11.1C).
Note: For simplicity, our example does not include the effect of fan heat. A
draw-through fan arrangement will increase the dry-bulb temperature of the
conditioned outdoor air. The slightly warmer air offsets less of the sensible load
in the space, which will affect the selection criteria for the local HVAC terminals.
Selecting the Local HVAC Terminals
Using the dedicated outdoor-air handler to offset the latent loads in the space
reduces the total cooling capacity that the local HVAC terminals must provide
and, therefore, affects the selection of these units. For this discussion, a local
HVAC terminal represents any type of air-handling equipment that controls the
sensible-cooling load in the space, including fancoils, unit ventilators, water-
source heat pumps, blowercoils, air handlers (chilled water or DX cooling),
packaged rooftop air conditioners, and vertical self-contained air conditioners.
The following instructions describe how to determine the required cooling
capacity, supply airflow, and supply-air dry-bulb temperature for the local
HVAC terminals when they are used in conjunction with a dedicated outdoor-air
handler. Design criteria for the local HVAC terminals depend on where the
conditioned outdoor air is delivered (to the space or to the unit), and at what
dry-bulb temperature (neutral or cold). To illustrate how these factors affect the
selection of HVAC terminals, the process is repeated for neutral-to-space,
Figure 101. Plotting the humidity ratio to determine the equivalent dew-point temperature
Table 12. Sensible-cooling-design criteria
for Classroom 101
Sensible load 29,750 Btu/hr
(8.7 kW)
Latent load 5,250 Btu/hr
(1.5 kW)
Sensible-heat ratio (SHR) 0.85
Required outdoor airflow 450 cfm
(0.21 m/s)
Target condition 74F (23.3C) DB,
60% RH max
Neutral conditioned
outdoor air
71F (21.7C) DB,
52F (11.1C) DP
Cold conditioned
outdoor air
52F (11.1C) DB,
52F (11.1C) DP
SYS-APM004-EN 117
cold-to-space, neutral-to-unit, and cold-to-unit systems using Classroom 101 as
an example. (Classroom 101 was introduced on p. 114; Table 12 summarizes its
design criteria.)
Neutral CA to space
(Figure 102) When the conditioned outdoor air (CA) is delivered directly to the
space at a dry-bulb temperature that approximately equals room air, it has little
effect on the sensible-cooling load in the space.
Step 1: Determine the entering-air condition for the HVAC terminal.
Because the outdoor air is delivered directly to the space, all of the air that
enters the HVAC terminals cooling coil is recirculated return air; therefore, the
room-air condition becomes the entering-air condition for the local HVAC
terminal. For this example, the dry-bulb temperature of the recirculated return
air in Classroom 101 is 74F (23.3C).
Step 2: Calculate the sensible-cooling load on the HVAC terminal.
If it is cooler than room air, the conditioned outdoor air reduces the sensible-
cooling load on the HVAC terminal. To determine the required cooling-coil
capacity, subtract the amount of sensible cooling provided by the conditioned
outdoor air (Q
s, ca
) from the sensible-cooling load in the space (Q
s, space
) at the
peak dry-bulb condition:
where,
Q
s, ca
= sensible cooling provided by conditioned outdoor air,
Btu/hr (kW)
Q
s, coil
= sensible-cooling load on the terminal coil, Btu/hr (kW)
Q
s, space
= sensible-cooling load in the space, Btu/hr (kW)
Figure 102. Typical HVAC system with neutral-to-space conditioned outdoor air
Q
s, coil
Q
s, space
Q
s, ca
=
118 SYS-APM004-EN
Q
s, ca
can be determined using the following equation:
where,
T
ca
= dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air, F (C)
T
sp
= desired dry-bulb temperature for the space, F (C)
V
oa
= conditioned outdoor airflow delivered to the space,
cfm (m/s)
The conditioned outdoor air in this example is only 3F (1.6C) cooler than the
air in Classroom 101, and only slightly reduces the sensible-cooling load in the
space. The HVAC terminal must offset the remaining 28,285 Btu/hr (8.29 kW).
Step 3: Determine the airflow and dry-bulb temperature for supply air
from the HVAC terminal. After determining both the sensible-cooling load
and the target dry-bulb temperature for the space, either:
Define the supply airflow and use that value to calculate the supply-air
temperature; or,
Choose the supply-air temperature and use that value to calculate the
required airflow.
If we assume that the HVAC terminal for Classroom101 must deliver nine air
changes per hour, then the required supply airflow is 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s), and
the resulting supply-air temperature is 56.6F DB (13.5C DB).
Alternatively, a designer may choose to select the HVAC terminal so that the
total airflow circulated in the spacethat is, conditioned outdoor air delivered
directly to the space plus return air recirculated by the HVAC terminalequals
nine air changes per hour. When we apply this strategy to Classroom 101, the
HVAC terminal must provide only 1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of supply air, but at the
much lower supply-air temperature of 49.2F (9.6C) DB.
Note: Delivering cold supply air through an HVAC terminal that is located in the
occupied space may create uncomfortable drafts. To mitigate this risk, either
deliver the supply air through overhead, high-aspiration diffusers, which will
promote better mixing and increase air throw, or select the HVAC terminals
based on a supply-air temperature that is closer to 55F (12.8C). The design of
the HVAC terminal can make it difficult to achieve low supply-air temperatures,
too; the available coil configurations may dictate the combination of supply
airflow and supply-air temperature.
For this example, the HVAC terminal that was selected for Classroom 101 will
cool 1,500 cfm (0.7 m
3
/s) of recirculated return air to 56.6F (13.5C).
Q
s, ca
1.085 V
oa
T
sp
T
ca
( ) =
Q
s, ca
1.21 V
oa
T
sp
T
ca
[ ] = ( )
Q
s, coil
29 750 , 1 465 , 28 285 Btu/hr , = =
Q
s, ca
1.085 450 cfm 74 71F ( ) =
1 465 Btu/hr , =
Q
s, ca
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 21.7C [ ] = ( )
0.41 kW = ( )
Q
s, coil
8.7 0.41 8.29 kW = = ( )
Q
s, coil
28 285 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) =
T
sa
56.6F =
Q
s, coil
8.29 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] = ( )
T
sa
13.5C = ( )
Q
s, coil
28 285 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) =
T
sa
49.2F =
Q
s, coil
8.29 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] = ( )
T
sa
9.6C = ( )
SYS-APM004-EN 119
Cold CA to space
(Figure 103) When the conditioned outdoor air is delivered directly to the space
at a dry-bulb temperature that is significantly cooler than room air, it offsets a
much larger portion of the sensible-cooling load in the space.
Step 1: Determine the entering-air condition for the HVAC terminal.
Because the outdoor air is delivered directly to the space, all of the air that
enters the HVAC terminals cooling coil is recirculated return air; therefore, the
room-air condition becomes the entering-air condition for the local HVAC
terminal. For this example, the dry-bulb temperature of the recirculated return
air in Classroom 101 is 74F (23.3C).
Step 2: Determine the sensible-cooling load on the HVAC terminal.
If it is cooler than room air, the conditioned outdoor air reduces the sensible-
cooling load on the HVAC terminal. To determine the required cooling-coil
capacity, subtract the amount of sensible cooling provided by the conditioned
outdoor air (Q
s, ca
) from the sensible-cooling load in the space (Q
s, space
) at the
peak dry-bulb condition:
where,
Q
s, ca
= sensible cooling provided by conditioned outdoor air,
Btu/hr (kW)
Q
s, coil
= sensible-cooling load on the terminal coil, Btu/hr (kW)
Q
s, space
= sensible-cooling load in the space, Btu/hr (kW)
Figure 103. Typical HVAC system with cold-to-space conditioned outdoor air
Q
s, coil
Q
s, space
Q
s, ca
=
120 SYS-APM004-EN
Q
s, ca
can be determined using the following equation:
where,
T
ca
= dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor air, F (C)
T
sp
= desired dry-bulb temperature for the space, F (C)
V
oa
= conditioned outdoor airflow delivered to the space,
cfm (m/s)
The conditioned outdoor air in this example is 22F (12.2C) colder than the air
in Classroom 101, which offsets 36 percent of the sensible-cooling load in that
space. The HVAC terminal must offset the remaining 19,008 Btu/hr (5.57 kW).
Note: This example omits the effect of fan heat. A draw-through fan
arrangement will increase the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor
air, which will affect the selection of the HVAC terminal.
from the HVAC terminal. After you know both the sensible-cooling load and
the target dry-bulb temperature for the space, you can either:
temperature; or,
required airflow.
For our example, we assumed that Classroom 101 requires nine air changes per
hour, or 1,500 cfm (0.7 m/s). Because the dedicated outdoor-air handler
delivers 450 cfm (0.21 m/s) directly to the space, the local HVAC terminal must
condition only 1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of recirculated return air. The required
supply-air temperature is 57.3F DB (14.1C DB).
Neutral CA to unit
(Figure 104) When the conditioned outdoor air is delivered to HVAC terminals
instead of directly to the space, it affects the condition of the mixed air that
enters the HVAC terminals cooling coil.
Because the conditioned outdoor air is not delivered directly to the space, it has
no direct effect on the sensible-cooling load in the space. Therefore, the
sensible-cooling load for Classroom 101 is 29,750 Btu/hr (8.7 kW) at the peak
dry-bulb condition.
Q
s, ca
1.085 V
oa
T
sp
T
ca
( ) =
Q
s, ca
1.21 V
oa
T
sp
T
ca
[ ] = ( )
Q
s coil ,
29 750 , 10 742 , 19 008 Btu/hr , = =
Q
s, ca
1.085 450 cfm 74 52F ( ) =
10 742 Btu/hr , =
Q
s, ca
1.21 0.21 m/s 23.3 11.1C [ ] = ( )
3.13 kW = ( )
Q
s coil ,
8.7 3.13 5.57 kW = = ( )
Q
s coil ,
19 008 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 050 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) =
T
sa
57.3F =
Q
s coil ,
5.57 kW = ( )
1.21 0.5 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] = ( )
T
sa
14.1C = ( )
SYS-APM004-EN 121
temperature; or,
required airflow.
If we assume that the HVAC terminal for Classroom 101 must deliver nine air
changes per hour, then the required supply airflow for the classroom is
1,500 cfm (0.7 m
3
/s) and the resulting supply-air temperature is 55.7F DB
(13.1C DB).
Step 3: Determine the entering mixed-air condition (T
ma
) for the HVAC
terminal. Before the conditioned outdoor air passes through the cooling coil
of the HVAC terminal, it mixes with recirculated return air from the space. For
this example, we assumed that the recirculated return air did not pick up heat as
it traveled from the space to the HVAC terminal. Therefore, 73.1F DB (22.8C
DB) mixed air for Classroom 101 results from combining:
450 cfm (0.21 m/s) of conditioned outdoor air at 71F DB and 52F DP
(21.7C DB, 11.1C DP)
1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of recirculated return air at 74F DB (23.3C DB) and
49 percent-relative humidity
A psychrometric analysis (Figure 105, p. 122) of the peak dry-bulb condition
shows that the mixed-air condition (MA) lies on the straight line that would
connect the conditions of the conditioned outdoor air (CA) and the return air
Figure 104. Typical HVAC system with neutral-to-unit conditioned outdoor air
Q
s
29 750 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) =
T
sa
55.7F =
Q
s
8.7 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] = ( )
T
sa
13.1C = ( )
To predict the relative humidity for
recirculated return air from the space,
perform a psychrometric analysis of the
122 SYS-APM004-EN
(RA) from the space. For Classroom 101, the entering mixed-air condition at the
HVAC terminal is 73.1F DB and 60.9F WB (22.8C DB, 16.1C WB).
Therefore, when the HVAC terminal for Classroom 101 is part of a neutral-to-
unit, dedicated outdoor-air system, it must be selected to cool 1,500 cfm
(0.7 m/s) of mixed air from 73.1F DB, 60.9F WB (22.8C DB, 16.1C WB) to a
supply-air temperature of 55.7F (13.1C).
Cold CA to unit
(Figure 106) When the conditioned outdoor air is delivered to HVAC terminals
instead of directly to the space, it affects the condition of the mixed air entering
the terminals cooling coil.
Because the conditioned outdoor air is not delivered directly to the space, it
has no direct effect on the sensible-cooling load in the space. Therefore, the
sensible-cooling load for Classroom 101 is 29,750 Btu/hr (8.7 kW) at the peak
dry-bulb condition.
T
ma
450 cfm 71F ( ) 1 050 cfm , 74F ( ) +
450 cfm 1 050 cfm , +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73.1F = =
T
ma
0.21 m/s 21.7C [ ] 0.5 m/s 23.3C [ ] +
0.21 m/s 0.5 m/s +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22.8C = =

Figure 105. Peak dry-bulb condition for HVAC terminals that receive neutral-temperature
conditioned outdoor air (example)
SYS-APM004-EN 123
temperature; or,
required airflow.
If we assume that the HVAC terminal must provide Classroom 101 with nine
air changes per hour, then the supply airflow for the classroom is 1,500 cfm
(0.7 m/s) and the resulting supply-air temperature is 55.7F DB (13.1C DB).
Step 3: Determine the entering mixed-air condition (T
ma
) for the HVAC
terminal. Before the conditioned outdoor air passes through the cooling coil
of the HVAC terminal, it mixes with recirculated return air from the space. If we
assume that the recirculated return air from Classroom 101 does not pick up
heat en route to the HVAC terminal, then:
450 cfm (0.21 m/s) of conditioned outdoor air at 52F DB and 52F DP
(11.1C DB, 11.1C DP) mixes with
1,050 cfm (0.5 m/s) of recirculated return air at 74F DB (23.3C DB) and
49 percent-relative humidity, resulting in 67.4F DB (19.8C DB) mixed air.
Figure 106. Typical HVAC system with cold-to-unit conditioned outdoor air
Q
s
29 750 Btu/hr , =
1.085 1 500 cfm , 74F T
sa
( ) =
T
sa
55.7F =
Q
s
8.7 kW = ( )
1.21 0.7 m/s 23.3C T
sa
[ ] = ( )
T
sa
13.1C = ( )
To predict the relative humidity for
recirculated return air from the space,
perform a psychrometric analysis of the
T
ma
450 cfm 52F ( ) 1 050 cfm , 74F ( ) +
450 cfm 1 050 cfm , +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67.4F = =
T
ma
0.21 m/s 11.1C [ ] 0.5 m/s 23.3C [ ] +
0.21 m/s 0.5 m/s +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19.8C = =

124 SYS-APM004-EN
A psychrometric analysis (Figure 107) of the peak dry-bulb condition shows that
the mixed-air condition (MA) lies on the straight line that connects the points
representing the conditioned outdoor air (CA) and the return air (RA) from the
space. For Classroom101, the entering mixed-air condition at the HVAC
terminal is 67.4F DB and 58.8F WB (19.8C DB, 14.9C WB).
Therefore, when the HVAC terminal for Classroom 101 is part of a cold-to-
unit, dedicated outdoor-air system, it must be selected to cool 1,500 cfm
(0.7 m
3
/s) of mixed air from 67.4F DB, 58.8F WB (19.8C DB, 14.9C WB) to a
supply-air temperature of 55.7F (13.1C).
Note: This example omits the effect of fan heat. A draw-through fan
arrangement will increase the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned outdoor
air, as well as the condition of the mixed air entering the HVAC terminal.
Figure 107. Peak dry-bulb condition for HVAC terminals receiving cold, conditioned
outdoor air
SYS-APM004-EN 125
Glossary
active desiccant. See desiccant.
adsorption. The process by which a material accumulates moisture from the
air without undergoing a chemical change.
air handler (AHU). A piece of equipment that moves and/or conditions air to
maintain the thermal comfort of an indoor environment.
air-to-air energy recovery. The transfer of sensible heat, or sensible heat
plus moisture, between two or more air streams, or between two locations
airside economizer. A device and/or control strategy that conserves energy
by introducing cool outdoor air to reduce the mechanical cooling requirement.
Operation is based on one of the following: a fixed outdoor-air temperature;
a fixed outdoor-air enthalpy; a comparison of return- and outdoor-air
temperatures; or a comparison return- and outdoor-air enthalpies.
ANSI. American National Standards Institute (www.ansi.org)
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55. Titled Thermal Environmental Conditions
for Human Occupancy, this standard specifies the combinations of indoor
environments and personal factors that will produce thermal conditions
acceptable to 80 percent or more of the occupants.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62. Titled Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality, this standard specifies minimum ventilation rates necessary to
minimize the potential for adverse, building-related health effects and to
maintain odor-related comfort.
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1. Titled Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, this standard sets minimum design
requirements that encourage energy efficiency throughout the buildingthat
is, for the envelope, lighting, motors, HVAC, and service-water heating systems.
ASHRAE. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (www.ashrae.org)
coil loop. An airside, energy-recovery device consisting of two or more
finned-tube coils that are piped together in a closed loop to transfer sensible
heat. A small pump circulates the working fluid through the two coils. Also
called coil runaround loop or runaround loop.
conditioned outdoor air (CA). Outdoor air that has been heated, cooled,
humidified, and/or dehumidified by a dedicated outdoor-air unit before being
delivered directly to the conditioned space or to the mixing boxes of other local
units. Also called conditioned air.
Glossary
126 SYS-APM004-EN
constant-volume system. Type of air-conditioning system that meets the
changing load conditions in the space by varying the temperature of an
unchanging volume of supply air.
dedicated outdoor-air unit. An air handler or packaged air conditioner that
exclusively cools, heats, dehumidifies, and/or humidifies all of the outdoor air
brought into the building for ventilation. The conditioned outdoor air may be
delivered directly to the conditioned space or to other air handlers or terminal
equipment. Also called makeup-air unit, 100 percent-outdoor-air unit, or
fresh-air unit.
desiccant. An absorbent or adsorbent substance, liquid or solid, that removes
water or water vapor from a material. A passive desiccant system naturally
releases collected moisture to a drier air stream. An active desiccant system
releases collected moisture with the help of an external source of heat, thereby
improving the moisture-collecting ability of the desiccant.
direct expansion (DX). A type of refrigerating system in which the heat-
transfer medium is in direct contact with the air or fluid to be cooled or heated.
For example, refrigerant inside an evaporator coil absorbs heat directly from
the air passing through the coil.
dual-path air handler. An air handler that uses separate cooling coils to
condition the outdoor air and the recirculated return air before the mixture is
delivered to the space.
enthalpy (h). The total amount of heat energy, both sensible and latent, in
the air at a given condition.
exhaust air (EA). Air removed from the conditioned space and expelled from
the building by mechanical ventilation. See also recirculated return air (RRA)
and return air (RA).
face-split coil circuiting. A type of direct-expansion, evaporator
arrangement that divides the coil into parallel, independently controlled
sections. Sections are activated or deactivated to match the coil capacity with
the cooling load. Also called horizontal-split coil circuiting and parallel-flow coil
circuiting.
fixed-plate heat exchanger. An airside, energy-recovery device that consists
of thermally conductive plates. It transfers sensible heat between two air
streams that flow perpendicular to each other.
heat pipe. An airside, energy-recovery device consisting of refrigerant-filled,
finned tubes. Heating one end of the pipe causes the refrigerant to vaporize and
migrate to the other end, where it condenses and releases sensible heat.
Gravity or a capillary wick returns the liquid to the hot end of the pipe.
Glossary
SYS-APM004-EN 127
intertwined coil circuiting. A type of direct-expansion, evaporator
arrangement that uses one of two distributors to feed every other tube in each
coil row, dividing the coil into overlapping, independently controlled sections.
Sections are activated or deactivated to match the coil capacity with the
cooling load.
mixed air (MA). Combination of outdoor air (OA) and recirculated return air
(RRA).
mixed-air bypass. A method of part-load coil control that changes the
temperature of the supply air downstream of the coil by varying the amount of
air that passes through and around the coil. Airflow is controlled by the linked
face dampers and bypass dampers positioned on the entering-air side of the
coil. See also return-air bypass.
neutral air. Supply-air condition characterized by a dry-bulb temperature and
humidity ratio that do not impose a heating or cooling load in the space.
outdoor air (OA). Air brought into the buildingeither by a ventilation
system or through openings provided for natural ventilationfrom outside the
building. Also called fresh air, but distinguished from outside air, which
ASHRAE defines as air surrounding a refrigerated or conditioned space.
outdoor-air preconditioning. The process of cooling, dehumidifying,
heating, and/or humidifying outdoor air by transferring energy (either sensible
heat or sensible heat plus moisture) to and from the exhaust air stream.
passive desiccant. See desiccant.
peak dew-point condition. Design dew-point and mean-coincident dry-bulb
temperatures for a specific geographic location, as tabulated in the ASHRAE
HandbookFundamentals.
peak dry-bulb condition. Design dry-bulb and mean-coincident wet-bulb
HandbookFundamentals.
peak wet-bulb condition. Design wet-bulb and mean-coincident dry-bulb
temperatures, as tabulated in the ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals.
primary air (PA). Treated air that is delivered to a terminal device, where it
mixes with recirculated return air via induction or fan power.
recirculated return air (RRA). Air that is taken from, and then delivered to,
the conditioned space(s)usually after passing through an air-conditioning
system. See also return air (RA).
Glossary
128 SYS-APM004-EN
return air (RA). Air removed from the conditioned space(s) and either
recirculated or exhausted. See also recirculated return air (RRA) and exhaust
air (EA).
return-air bypass. A method of part-load coil control that changes the
temperature of the supply air downstream of the coil by mixing the air that
passes through the coil with return air that bypasses the coil. Both airflows are
controlled by linked face dampers and bypass dampers positioned on the
entering-air side of the coil. See also mixed-air bypass.
sensible-design condition. Design dry-bulb and mean-coincident wet-bulb
HandbookFundamentals. See also peak dry-bulb condition.
sensible-heat ratio (SHR). Ratio of sensible-heat gain to total (sensible plus
latent) heat gain.
sensible-energy wheel. An energy-recovery device that rotates through two
air streams, transferring sensible heat (temperature) from one air stream to the
other. The heat-transfer media consists of a matrix of channels, which direct the
two air streams in opposite directions, approximately parallel to each other.
Also called a heat wheel.
supply air (SA). Air mechanically delivered to the conditioned space for
ventilation, heating, cooling, humidification, and/or dehumidification.
supply-air tempering. The process of adding sensible heat to the air
downstream of the dehumidifying coil, which allows independent control of
both latent and sensible loads in the space. Only systems that directly control
supply-air dew point or humidity in the space are candidates for supply-air
tempering.
total-energy recovery. The transfer of sensible heat (temperature) and latent
heat (moisture) between two or more air streams or between two locations
total-energy wheel. A desiccant-coated, energy-recovery device that rotates
through two air streams, transferring sensible heat (temperature) and latent
heat (moisture) from one air stream to the other. Structured as a matrix of
channels, the heat-transfer media directs the air streams through the wheel in
a counterflow arrangement. The desiccant typically regenerates at room
temperature. Also known as enthalpy wheel or passive desiccant wheel.
variable-air-volume (VAV) system. Type of air-conditioning system that
varies the volume of constant-temperature air supplied to meet the changing
load conditions in the space.
SYS-APM004-EN 129
References
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE). 2001. Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62. Atlanta, GA:
ASHRAE.
ANSI and ASHRAE. 1992. Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
ANSI, ASHRAE, and Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA). 2001. Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings, ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Dorgan, C.B., R.J. Linder, and C.E. Dorgan. 1999. Application Guide: Chiller Heat
Recovery. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Harriman, L., G. Brundett, and R. Kittler. 2001. Humidity Control Design Guide
for Commercial and Institutional Buildings. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Odom, D. and G. DuBose. 1996. Preventing Indoor Air Quality Problems in Hot,
Humid Climates: Problem Avoidance Guidelines, CH2M Hill (www.ch2m.com),
in cooperation with the Disney Development Company. Orlando, FL: CH2M Hill.
Trane. 1983. Refrigerant Heat Recovery, SYS-AM-5. La Crosse, WI: Inland
Printing Company. Available from http://trane.com/bookstore/; accessed
May 2002.
. 1991. Two GOOD Ideas Combine to Form One New GREAT Idea,
Engineers Newsletter, volume 20, number 1. Available at http://www.trane.com/
commercial/library/EN20-1.pdf; accessed May 2002.
. 1999. Air Conditioning Clinic: Psychrometry, TRG-TRC001-EN. La Crosse,
WI: Inland Printing Company. Available from http://trane.com/bookstore/;
accessed May 2002.
. 2000. Building Moisture and Humidity Management, Engineers
Newsletter Live satellite broadcast, APP-APV005-EN (August 30, videocassette).
La Crosse, WI: AVS Group. Available from http://trane.com/bookstore/; accessed
May 2002.
. 2000. Split Dehumidification Unit for Modular Climate Changer Air
Handlers, CLCH-PRB005-EN. La Crosse, WI: Inland Printing Company.
. 2001. Dedicated Outdoor-Air Ventilation Systems, Engineers
Newsletter Live satellite broadcast, APP-APV008-EN (September 19,
videocassette). La Crosse, WI: AVS Group. Available from http://trane.com/
bookstore/; accessed May 2002.
References
130 SYS-APM004-EN
: Hallstrom, A., PE, T. Robeson, D. Stanke, and B. Bradley. 1994. Designing
an IAQ-Ready Air Handler System, SYS-AM-14. La Crosse, WI: Inland Printing
Company. Available from http://trane.com/bookstore/; accessed May 2002.
: Stanke, D., B. Bradway, A. Hallstrom, and N. Bailey. 1998. Managing
Building Moisture, SYS-AM-15. La Crosse, WI: Inland Printing Company.
Available from http://trane.com/bookstore/; accessed May 2002.
: Stanke, D., J. Murphy, and B. Bradley. 2000. Air-to-Air Energy
Recovery, Engineers Newsletter, volume 29, number 5. Available at
http://www.trane.com/commercial/library/vol29_5/EN29-05.pdf; accessed
May 2002.
: Stanke, D. and B. Bradley. 2000. Dehumidify with Constant-Volume
Systems, Engineers Newsletter, volume 29, number 4. Available at http://
www.trane.com/commercial/library/vol29_4/ENews_29_04_082800.pdf;
accessed May 2002.
: Stanke, D. and B. Bradley. 2001. Dedicated Ventilation Systems,
Engineers Newsletter, volume 30, number 3. Available at http://www.trane.com/
commercial/library/vol30_3/enews_30_03.pdf; accessed May 2002.
: Murphy, J. 2002. Air-to-Air Energy Recovery in HVAC Systems,
SYS-APM003-EN. La Crosse, WI: Inland Printing Company. Available from
http://trane.com/bookstore/; accessed May 2002.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2001. Mold Remediation in
Schools and Commercial Buildings, EPA 402-K-01-001 (March). Available from
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/molds; accessed May 2002.
Index
SYS-APM004-EN 131
a
active adsorption 1416
adjustable fan speed
constant-volume systems 3234
with mixed-air bypass 3637
adsorption dehumidification 1316
see also cold-coil dehumidification
after-hours humidity control 17, 30, 86
airside economizing
control methods 31
dedicated outdoor-air systems 8788
effect on building pressurization 30, 69
overview 18
requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 3132, 89
variable-volume systems 69
air-to-air heat recovery
coil loop with three coils 97
outdoor-air preconditioning 97, 9899
parallel configuration 9697
reheating conditioned outdoor air 9598
series configuration 9596
supply-air tempering 5860
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 4
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62 4
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1
heat recovery for reheat 94
implications for dual-path air handlers 4950
overview 7
reheat at VAV terminals 66
requirements for economizers 3132, 89
restrictions for humidistatic controls (Section 6.3.2.3 excerpt) 8
b
building maintenance, effect of moisture on 5
building pressurization
infiltration 3
overview 18
Index
132 SYS-APM004-EN
c
central air-conditioning systems
chilled water 12
packaged DX (direct-expansion) 12
remote dehumidification 10
chilled water systems
cold air distribution 74
condenser-water heat recovery 5356
design flexibility 12
total-energy wheels 2728
chilled-water-temperature reset 35
chillers with heat-recovery condensers 5556
circuiting configurations of finned-tube refrigerant coils 4143
climate considerations 57
coil curves 11, 26, 104
cold supply air
cold-coil dehumidification 1012
see also adsorption dehumidification
comfort zone 45
compressor cycling 26
condensate management 12
condensation
causes of unwanted 1
cold-coil 1012
source of moisture indoors 2
condenser-water heat recovery
supply-air tempering at VAV terminals 66
conditioned outdoor air (CA)
cold 75, 76
delivered to a common hallway 93
determining the required dew point 115
determining total airflow 114
moisture content 7779
neutral temperature 75, 76
neutral-temperature vs. cold 8485
reheating with recovered heat 9498
constant-volume systems
adjustable fan speed 3234
airside economizing 3132
building pressurization 30
cold supply air 2930
conditioning outdoor air separately 4450
DX (direct-expansion) coil circuiting 4143
humidity control during unoccupied periods 30
mixed-air bypass 3437
overview 19
return-air bypass 3741
see also full-load dehumidification performance and part-load dehumidification performance
Index
SYS-APM004-EN 133
control strategies
affecting dehumidification performance 17
chilled-water-temperature reset 35
conditioned-outdoor-air dry-bulb-temperature reset in dedicated outdoor-air systems 9293
energy recovery in dedicated outdoor-air systems 99
outdoor-airflow reset 94
supply-air dew-point reset 9091
supply-air dry-bulb-temperature reset in variable-volume systems 6465
cooling coils used for dehumidification 1012
cooling-load division for dedicated outdoor-air systems 111
cooling-load equation 103
d
damage caused by moisture 5
dampness. See moisture sources inside buildings
dedicated outdoor-air systems
common hallway 93
configurations 7576
division of cooling loads 111
dry, cold air 8284, 119120, 122124
dry, neutral-temperature air 8082, 117118, 120122
economizer cooling 8790
maximum space humidity 113114
moisture content 7779
multiple-space humidity control 9293
neutral-temperature vs. cold conditioned outdoor air 8485
preconditioning outdoor air with recovered energy 9899
reheating conditioned air with recovered heat 9498
required dew point for conditioned outdoor air 115
reset control strategies 9094
rules of thumb for sizing equipment 111
selecting local HVAC terminals 116124
separate air paths for constant-volume systems 4446
single-space humidity control 92
variable-volume (VAV) systems 7072
dehumidification
adsorption using a desiccant 1316
local 9
remote 10
restrictions imposed by ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 8
via condensation on a cold coil 1012
desiccant-based adsorption 1316
desiccants 13
see also process air and regeneration air
design weather data 5, 102, 112
desuperheaters 57
dew-point temperature and space humidity 23
direct control of humidity 4460
dual-duct air distribution 6768
dual-path air handler 4750
Index
134 SYS-APM004-EN
DX (direct-expansion) systems
coil circuiting 4143
dehumidification in constant-volume applications 2426
refrigerant heat recovery 5758
e
economizers. See airside economizing or waterside economizing
enthalpy wheels. See total-energy wheels
EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
equations
cooling-coil capacity 106
mixed-air condition 122
mixed-air dry-bulb temperature entering the coil 104
sensible-cooling loads on local HVAC terminals 117
sensible-heat ratio (SHR) 102
supply airflow to space 103
equipment selection
dedicated outdoor-air handlers 112116
local HVAC terminals 116124
evaporation as a source of moisture indoors 2
exhaust air for desiccant regeneration 13
f
face-and-bypass dampers
mixed-air bypass 34
refrigerant heat-recovery application 57
return-air bypass 37, 39
face-split refrigerant coils 41
fan-powered VAV terminals 6667
finned-tube refrigerant coils 41
full-load dehumidification performance at peak dry bulb
dedicated outdoor-air systems 7778, 8081, 8283
psychrometric analysis demonstrated 102107
variable-volume systems 62, 7071, 73
h
heat gain by return air 103
heat recovery
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 94
outdoor-air preconditioning 9899
heating chiller for condenser heat recovery 5455
hot-gas reheat coils 57
Index
SYS-APM004-EN 135
humidity control
critical space 114115
multiple-space, dedicated-outdoor-air systems 9293
separate path for outdoor air 4450
single-space, dedicated-outdoor-air systems 92
worst-case condition 21, 101
humidity control during unoccupied periods 17, 68, 86
humidity indoors
choosing a maximum limit 113114
contributing factors 7
i
indoor air quality (IAQ)
effect of humidity 34
indoor humidity
choosing a maximum limit 113114
dependencies 7
reasons to control 35, 100
see also relative humidity
infiltration 3, 18, 20
in-space air conditioners 9
intertwined refrigerant coils 41
l
latent capacity degradation model 26
local dehumidification 9
local HVAC terminals 116
calculating the entering-mixed-air condition 121122
sizing for dedicated outdoor-air systems 111
supply airflow 118, 120, 121, 123
supply-air dry-bulb temperature 118, 120, 121, 123
m
maximum relative humidity
ASHRAE recommendation 17
choosing a limit 113114
finding the worst-case space 114115
revision proposed by ASHRAE 4
microbial growth
causes 1, 3
defending against 3, 17
minimizing unwanted moisture 34
minimum airflow settings for VAV terminals 6364
mixed-air bypass
application considerations 35
with adjustable fan speed 3637
see also return-air bypass
Index
136 SYS-APM004-EN
mixed-air condition, plotting on a psychrometric chart 104, 121122
mixed-air dry-bulb-temperature equation 104
mixed-air systems 19
see also constant-volume systems and variable-volume systems
moisture sources inside buildings 2
moisture-related damage 5
mold indoors
building maintenance 5
occupant health 3
remediation 3, 4, 17
n
nighttime humidity control
overview 17
o
outdoor air treated separately 4450, 7072, 7599
outdoor-air preconditioning
benefits 16
dedicated outdoor-air systems with energy recovery 9899
outdoor-airflow reset 94
oversizing supply airflow, results of 2526
p
packaged DX (direct-expansion) systems
dehumidification in constant-volume applications 2426
refrigerant heat recovery 5758, 9495
total-energy wheels 2829
parallel, fan-powered VAV terminals 66
part-load dehumidification performance at peak dew point
adjustable fan speed 33
comparison of DX (direct-expansion) coils 42
constant-volume systems 21, 24
dedicated outdoor-air systems 4449, 7072, 78, 81, 8384
mixed-air bypass 3435
Index
SYS-APM004-EN 137
part-load dehumidification performance on a mild, rainy day
comparison of DX (direct-expansion) coils 43
constant-volume systems 2122, 24, 33
dedicated outdoor-air systems 4449, 7072, 79, 82, 84
passive adsorption 1314
passive energy-recovery devices 27
analyzing dehumidification performance 56
constant-volume dehumidification 21, 24
dedicated outdoor-air dehumidification 78, 81, 8384
variable-volume dehumidification 62, 71, 73
peak dry-bulb condition 5
constant-volume dehumidification 2021
dedicated outdoor-air dehumidification 7778, 8081, 8283
variable-volume dehumidification 62, 7071, 73
plate-and-frame heat exchangers
condenser heat recovery 54
waterside economizer cooling 89
portable dehumidifiers 9
preconditioning outdoor air
benefits 16
dedicated outdoor-air systems with energy recovery 9899
process air 13
productivity 4
psychrometric chart
coil curves 11, 26, 104
described 10
mixed-air condition 104
return-air condition 105
sensible-heat ratio (SHR) 105
supply-air condition 104
r
recovered heat
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 94
outdoor-air preconditioning 2729, 9899
supply-air tempering 5360, 66
refrigerant coils 41
refrigerant heat recovery 5758, 9495
regeneration air 13
reheat at VAV terminals 66
reheating conditioned outdoor air (CA) 9498
relative humidity
ASHRAE-recommended range 4
contributing factors 20
limit recommended by ASHRAE 17
Index
138 SYS-APM004-EN
remote dehumidification 10
reset control strategies
chilled water temperature 35
conditioned-outdoor-air dry-bulb temperature 9293
outdoor airflow 94
supply-air dew point 9091
supply-air dry-bulb temperature in variable-volume systems 6465
return-air bypass
full coil face area 3739
reduced coil face area 3940
see also mixed-air bypass
return-air condition, plotting on a psychrometric chart 105
return-air heat gain 103
room air conditioners 9
s
selecting local HVAC terminals for dedicated outdoor-air systems 116124
sensible-heat ratio (SHR)
equation 102
plotting on a psychrometric chart 105
series, fan-powered VAV terminals 67
sidestream heating chiller for condenser heat recovery 5455
simultaneous heating and cooling, restrictions on 8
sizing equipment in dedicated outdoor-air systems
cold conditioned outdoor air to local HVAC terminals 122124
cold conditioned outdoor air to space 119120
neutral-temperature conditioned outdoor air to local HVAC terminals 120122
neutral-temperature conditioned outdoor air to space 117118
Standard 55. See ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55
Standard 62. See ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62
Standard 90.1. See ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1
supply airflow
effects of oversizing 2526, 100
equation 103
local HVAC terminals 118, 121122
supply-air condition, plotting on a psychrometric chart 104
supply-air dew-point reset 9091
supply-air dry-bulb temperature
local HVAC terminals 118, 121
supply-air dry-bulb-temperature reset
supply-air tempering
heating coils at VAV terminals 66
Index
SYS-APM004-EN 139
t
tempering supply air
heating coils at VAV terminals 66
terminal units. See local HVAC terminals
thermal comfort 45
total-energy wheels
chilled water applications 2728
desiccant regeneration for passive adsorption 1314
packaged DX (direct-expansion) applications 2829
preconditioning outdoor air 27, 9899
treating outdoor air separately
u
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
indoor air quality 3
mold remediation 4
underventilation and space humidity 2223
unoccupied humidity control
overview 17
v
vapor pressure
desiccant performance 13
relative humidity 20
variable-volume systems
airside economizing 69
conditioning outdoor air separately 7072
delivering colder supply air 7374
minimum airflow settings 6364
overview 61
supply-air tempering at VAV terminals 6568
supply-air-temperature reset 6465
VAV (variable-air-volume) terminals
minimum airflow settings 6364
see also local HVAC terminals
ventilation and loads 22
Index
140 SYS-APM004-EN
w
waterside economizing 8990
water-source heat pumps
refrigerant heat recovery 5758
waterside economizer cooling 90
weather barrier 3
weather data 5, 102, 112
Trane
A business of American Standard Companies
www.trane.com
For more information, contact your local Trane
office or e-mail us at comfort@trane.com
Trane has a policy of continuous product and product data improvement and reserves the right to
change design and specifications without notice.
Literature Order Number SYS-APM004-EN
Date December 2002
Supersedes New
Stocking Location InlandLa Crosse

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