Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

Mathematical Logic, Peano, propositional calculus . Introduction .

In its birth Mathematical Logic was the theory of classes (Boole). The first person to have the opinion that the theory of statements (propositions) is more important , was the Hugh McColl (18 !"1#$#).who in a gro%p of papers on &the calc%l%s of e'%ivalent statements( p%t forwar) the belief that the only b%siness of logic is with the theory of statements an) that the chief statement connection is some sort of implication. The tho%ght that the theory of statements an) not that of classes is the root of Mathematical Logic , an) the tho%ght that implication of one sort or another is the chief relation to be given attention in logic, soon became the normal beliefs of those at the hea) of this fiel). Peano (18*8"1# +) ma)e %se of the logic of statements for ma,ing clear the arg%ments of every)ay mathematics , an) so viewing logic as an instr%ment for getting clear an) tight reasoning in s%ch mathematics. -e was the first to give the new logic the name of . Mathematical Logic . beca%se he consi)ere) it as a tool of mathematics/ for him Mathematical Logic is the logic of mathematics. (Nidditch) That0s beca%se the 1eano pointe) o%t that the implication was the main relationship in mathematics, all or almost all propositions in a mathematical system eg geometry, are implications . Th%s concl%)e) that it was possible with the %se of logic to establish the mathematical proposals ( all propositions in mathematics, not only in arithmetic) , in the form of a lang%age of symbols, an) )emonstrations of all theorems can be an interchange of s%ch symbols that relate to propositions an) their lang%age is of logical terminology, relationships. This is a generali2ation of mathematical

terminology, which changes in every fiel) , b%t remain common the feat%res of the pro)%ctive system, %n)er each )iscipline/

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

I have in)icate) by signs all the i)eas which occ%r in the f%n)amentals of arithmetic. The signs pertain either to logic or to arithmetic . I believe, however, that with only these signs of logic the propositions of any science can be e3presse), so long as the signs which represent the entities of the science are a))e). Peano

1eano

)e)icate) his life to improve the rigor of mathematics,

improving their logic fo%n)ations, )isplacing int%ition. The pro)%ctive str%ct%re of mathematics is a logical str%ct%re, an) mathematics is an interpretation. 4o Mathematical Logic has two si)es. 5ne in its roots in the past is the science of the )e)%ction form of reasoning, the mathematics of logic.1 It was in this that Boole an) others intereste) in the algebra of logic were wor,ing , aime) the mathemati2ation of logic . The other si)e of Mathematical Logic is the logic of mathematics, what is hi))en behin) the pro)%ctive systems of mathematics an) not only, something )eeper in 1eano6s )irection, with res%lts %ntil metamathematics an) the fo%n)ations of maths. 4o the other e3perts in Mathematical Logic en)e) %p being intereste) in logic for itself or were intereste) as 7rege was, in t%rning a bit of mathematics into logic. They )i) not see the val%e of logic as 1eano, as a tool for every)ay math, b%t as a philosophy. The propositional calculus . The propositional calc%l%s is the %ltimate generali2ation of all

mathematical systems. It employs the post%lational metho). 8 small set of ta%tologies serves as the post%lates of the )evelopment an) then several formal r%les are given in accor)ance with which all other ta%tologies can be obtaine) from the selecte) few. 9hat have in common the gro%p theory, :%cli)ean geometry an) vector spaces ; They are all pro)%ctive formal systems, where their formal image is to e3tract theorems from a3ioms or previo%s theorems. 7or this pro)%ction we %se reasoning ( inferences ) in the form .if so an) so then s%ch an) s%ch .. The propositional calc%l%s is an abstract generalization of this process of all pro)%ctive systems, an) this generali2ation ( the leit"motif of
1

8s the plane geometry of :%cli) is mathematics of the straight line an) circle, the

st%)y of < is the mathematics of real n%mbers, even the probabilities are the mathematics of ran)omness, etc

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

mathematics ) it is in the region of logic, the last ref%ge of rational thin,ing. The logical inference is now the ob=ect of o%r st%)y. 4o it is the last a3iomatic system which )escribes all the others an) so it m%st be regar)e) as f%n)amental . It is the formalism of all formalisms propose) in mathematical theories, from :%cli) %ntil to)ay. To )escribe e)itorially the lang%age of propositional calc%l%s ( as a pro)%ctive system ) as )evelope) in 1rincipia mathematica of <%ssell an) 9hitehea) on the )escription of 1eano, sho%l) be ( let0s bring to min) elements of :%cli) to have a reference) to )efine / a language , ie the )ata an) the operations of a3iomatic system, ( terms s%ch as the :%cli)ean point, straight line, s%rface etc. given by )efinitions) axioms are the basic properties of the lang%age from which they are pro)%ce) the theorems , ie proposals an) res%lts of the a3iomatic system with the help of rules that lea) mechanically from some propositions to others on the basis only of the form ( synta3 ) . They correspon) the common notions of :%cli) (if we a)) e'%als in e'%als, res%lt e'%als) . Let0s )etermine those elements of formalism that constit%te the propositional calc%l%s . 1.The language .

The lang%age here are propositions , operations , and parentheses . These will only see in mathematics of propositional calc%l%s . Propositions . Mathematical proposition is a statement that can be tr%e or false (not both) 1ropositions Mercury It If is not day is certain there is a that natural metal Mars light is (complex ( are/ singlet) inhabited. ) .

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

The ship ( at the time ) approaches Chios or Mytilene , kok an) later in symbolic logic represente) by the letters p, ', r ... The concepts in these propositions are merc%ry, metal , )ay, light, ship. The symbolic lang%age of propositional calc%l%s )evelope) by 1eano an) on, b%t the fo%n)ations were set by the calc%l%s of Boole, o who ha) alrea)y intro)%ce) the logic of the propositions, an) more ol) stoic ( stoic >th cent%ry B?) . 1ropositions are the basic cell of speech. 9hat is the concepts on the si)e of thin,ing , are the propositions on the si)e of the e3plicit e3pression ( 1apano%tsos ) . Their logical interpretation is the fin)ing of tr%e or false +. Com inations of propositions ( operations ).

In Mathematical Logic, we have the following combination of propositions / 1.p @ ' ( rea) p an) ') is calle) conjunction It raine) on the mo%ntain and )roppe) hail on the plain . I too, the train and went to 8thens . -ere ( in common lang%age ), the .an). connects two proposals that are relevant to each other. In propositional calc%l%s e3presse)
@

which

connects any two proposals witho%t referring to their possible relationship. con!uncti"e sentence is typically true #hen and only #hen both proposals p and $ is true eg 4%mmer is a season of year an) the fifth agreement compose) -omer. ( false) I come from the city an) on the top (is ) cinnamon. (tr%e ) A is a )octor an) the n%mber > is o)) ( false) +. pv' (p or ') is calle) disjunction

BCDEFGH IJKFL M NDOPQ FBPRFKELSDQ IK T EP FNHUIVILK W XIVYIGUFL ZB[C\IL] 8ristotle

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus ( v symbol from the Latin vel)

www.mpantes.gr

The ship ( at the time ) approaches Chios or Mytilene. (pv') I will ret%rn to my homelan) alive or )ea). (pv') 8gain 0or 0 in or)inary lang%age has two interpretations. Means the meaning of the Latin a%t (p or ' b%t not both ), or the meaning of the Latin again vel (p or ' or both). In symbolic logic we %se the notion of vel, altho%gh in many cases the concept of a%t is the only one possible. 8gain the two engage) proposals can be %nrelate). The classical logic calls the first sentence rela3e) )is=%nction (at least one will happen , the first sentence ) an) the secon) e3cl%sive (ma3im%m one will happen , the secon) sentence) . The tr%th of a )is=%nction / the p"$ is true if and only if at least one of the t#o statements is true. The two sentences above are tr%e.

p ^ ' ( if p then ') is calle) implication If )ay then there is nat%ral light. the proposition p % $ represents a proposition that is false #hen and only #hen p is true and $ false. If the angles of a triangle s%m to two right then agontai two parallel point"to" line ( false) If 4ocrates is immortal then the s'%are has e'%al si)es (tr%e ) . That is/ a false proposition implies any proposition. > p _ ' (p if an) only if ') is calle) e!ui"alence the tr%th is that the e$ui"alence is true if and only if p and $ are both true or false. :g 4ocrates is immortal _ the s%m of the angles of a triangle is *$$th (tr%e ) .

*. p` ( not p) is calle) the negation of p or contra)iction represents the )enial or negation of p. Ie the p` represents a sentence tr%e when p is false an) p` is false when p is tr%e. 9e m%st not conf%se a ref%sal

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

by an apophatic proposal. The negation of the above proposal is/ it is not tr%e that if 4ocrates is immortal then the s'%are has e'%al si)es . 5bvio%sly the negation of the negation of a sentence is the proposition itself . The most complete of the logical constr%ctions is the argument. It is a series of interrelate) proposals forme) to ma,e clear ( to .prove. ) the tr%th of a r%le. The process or metho) by which the min) )evises an arg%ment, calle) reasoning . ( 1apano%tsos ) all propositions lea)ing to the final are the premises , an) the final sentence conclusion. 5%r reasoning in the form of implication .if this an) this , then so an) so . b%t sho%l) not be conf%se) with the implication ^ which is an operation, b%t the arg%ment is a relationship ( T2o%varas ) . ... The reasoning is logical and phrasal complex where just put some proposals ( the
premises ) ensues with logical necessity , another proposal different from the former, it is true for the sole reason that those premises are true ... Aristotle) .

These in 8ristotle a B%t in a typical a3iomatic system s%ch as the propositional calc%l%s, where from a3ioms we pro)%ce theorems , what interests %s is the typical val%r of reasoning , ie if the implication involve) is tr%e regar)less of the tr%th or falsity of the premises an) the concl%sion . Then the reasoning is calle) vali) otherwise invali) . Tr%e or false are only the propositions . This is the path of formalism in formal logic . 8n example of reasoning in this symbolic lang%age is/ bp @ (p ^ ')c ^ ' (we rea) bp an) ( if p then ')c implies '. for e3ample If p . is a s%nny )ay. an) ' . the rain )oesn6t fall . then we rea) the reasoning / (is a s%nny )ay an) on a s%nny )ay the rain )oesn6t fall so the rain )oes not fall( . Is a vali) reasoning ; Truth ta les . The cleaner an) more %niform metho) to s%mmari2e the typical reasonable interpretations of con=%nction, )is=%nction, implication , e'%ivalence, )enial an) arg%ment is the %se of truth ta les . In these tables 8 signifies that the correspon)ing proposition is tr%e an) d false. 8n

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

interpretation correspon)s tr%th val%es to the propositions an) e3pan)s on comple3 form%las by %sing a tr%th table which is s%mmari2e) below/

Base) on this table, we wo%l) loo, if the previo%s reasoning is vali) or invali) . 9ill form the final form of the proposition step by step loo,ing at the 8 or d.

eotice that the last col%mn has tr%th val%e 8 ( tr%e) . This means that the reasoning is vali) ( the arg%ment typically tr%e) regar)less of the tr%th of the premises p an) '. 1ropositions of this ,in) are calle) tautologies and ha"e a special role in the study of logic . 7in)ing the ta%tological character of the e3pressions is ma)e on the basis of the tr%th table . The val%e of tr%th table lies precisely in this/ that it is a control algorithm of tautologies ( T2o%varas ) In propositional calc%l%s there is no )istinction between ta%tology an) vali) reasoning. The ta%tologies are calle) an) logical tr%ths or tr%ths of logic beca%se they can be recogni2e) as tr%e thro%gh the principles of propositional calc%l%s an) witho%t reference to any a))itional information. 4o the ta%tology is a necessarily correct proposition beca%se of the logical form%la , an) not )%e to faithf%l performance of the ob=ective worl) ( the typical tr%th) an) can not be %se) for a false reasoning. 8 ta%tology in common lang%age is . 7ree)om is being free( . . the mathematical tautologies do not describe real world situations but rather
show the logical form of the world (Ramsey)

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

The ta%tologies of propositional calc%l%s reflect the correct laws of correct reasoning , not only in mathematics b%t also any other science ( f. Trigger gepartment of Mathematics , hniversity of ?rete). :3amples of ta%tologies we have in the following table where we meet the ,nown laws of 8ristotelian logic. The control of ta%tology is )oing with tr%th tables .

Logicall# e!ui"alent sentences / If yo% b%il) tr%th tables of both propositions p ^ ' an) p ^ ' , we see that they agree between the res%lts of tr%th an) %ntr%th . The two propositions m an) n are calle) logically e$ui"alent proposals an) the proposal m _ n is a ta%tology , or a law of logic. -ere are some pairs of logically e'%ivalent proposals (_) ( from :ves) that give the meaning of e'%als (i) in the pro)%ctive str%ct%re of the propositional calc%l%s . they are easily )emonstrate) with tr%th tables . The importance of e'%ivalent proposals lies in the fact that we can alternate them in an e3pression witho%t affecting the tr%th val%e of the initial e3pression.

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus $ . %xioms .

www.mpantes.gr

The a3ioms as in all pro)%ctive systems are s%ggestions that apply to all mo)els of the system ( eg in all gro%ps) . In propositional calc%l%s mo)els are vario%s assessments of the tr%th val%e of the propositions. ( T2o%varas ) so the a3ioms will be tr%e propositions for all assessments , so they are ta%tologies . ?hoose some of which are pro)%ce) other important .In 1rincipia mathematica there are fo%r a3ioms (-owar) :ves) that are ta%tologies / 1. a3iom of tautolog# (pv') _ p + . a3iom of addition ' ^ (pv') the )is=%nction is tr%e when an agent is tr%e . a3iom of permutation (pv') ^ ('vp) >. a3iom of summation (' ^ r) ^ b(pv') ^ (pvr)c as in algebra if a j b then akcjbkc &. 'ules . To )erive ta%tologies from given ta%tologies. These are 1. <%le of su stitution / we can replace in a given ta%tology any proposition given by a letter with a new proposition, an) will have a new ta%tology eg replacing in a3iom+ the (pv') for p , we have a new ta%tology (p v ') ^ bp v (p v ')c +.<%le of definitional su stitution . 9e may replace any e3pression in a given ta%tology with another e3pression that is )efinitionally i)entical with it an) obtain a new ta%tology . . . <%le of implication/ given two ta%tologies m an) m ^ n the )erive) ta%tology n is obtaine). >. r%le of ad(unction / from two ta%tologies m an) n the )erive) ta%tology m @ n is )erive). 8n) now we can pro)%ce theorems , among which the classical laws of logic ( 8ristotelian laws ). The propositional calc%l%s )erives 8ristotelian logic, it goes )eeper in the realm of inference.

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus ).Theorems

www.mpantes.gr

10

Theorem 1/ (' ^ r) ^ b(p ^ ') ^ (p ^ r)c ( transitivity of implication ) 9e have (' ^ r) ^ b(pv') ^ (pvr)c ( a3iom >). (' ^ r) ^ b(p`v ') ^ (p`v r) ( r%le +) (' ^ r) ^ b(p ^ ') ^ (p ^ r)c ( logically e'%ivalent proposals (' ^ ') an) (pv'), have the same tr%th table ) . Theorem $/ p ^ (p v p) 9e have ' ^ (p v ') ( a=iom + ) p ^ (p v p) ( r%le 1 replacement of p instea) of ') Theorem &/ p ^ p (the implication is refle3ive ) (' ^ r) ^ b(p ^ ') ^ (p ^ r)c ( theor. 1 ) b(pvp) ^ pc ^ blp ^ (pvp)m ^ (p ^ p)c ( replace the pvp instea) of ' an) p instea) of r) (p v p) ^ p ( Theorem 1 ) lp ^ (p v p)m ^ (p ^ p) ( <%le p ^ (p v p) ( Theorem + ) p ^ p ( <%le ) )

Theorem ). p v p` ( either p is tr%e or p is false, e3cl%)e) mi))le) (p v ') ^ (' v p) ( a3iom ) (p` v p) ^ (p v p`) ( replacing p` for p an) p for ') p` v p ( logical e'%ivalence for pvp _ (p ^ p) p v p` ( <%le )

Theorem * to show that if by )efinition p means ', then p _ ' is a ta%tology. 7rom Theorem we have p ^ p an) <%le + p ^ ' an) ' ^ p an) <%le > of the a)=%nction , (p ^ ') v (' ^ p) an) an e'%ivalent proposition (the last in panel ) we p _ '. Conclusions .

Mathematical Logic, Peano, proposition calculus

www.mpantes.gr

11

These theorems give %s the general nat%re of propositional calc%l%s . 5ne feat%re of the calc%l%s is that is an e3ample of a Boolean algebra . If yo% interpret the classes of Boole6s algebra to mean propositions , an) 1 an) $ as ta%tology an) its opposite , respectively ( contra)iction ), the a3ioms of algebra of Boole ( from a previo%s article) are theorems of propositional calc%l%s (-owar) :ves sel.+*! ). :ach theorem then in Boole6s algebra lea)s to a correspon)ing theorem of propositional calc%l%s. B%t the propositional calc%l%s cannot be )erive) from the calc%l%s of classes since the classes )o not contain the logical feat%res of the combinations of propositions. In Boole, logic e3ists an) is ill%strate) on mathematics, in 1eano logic is to interpret mathematics is a generali2ation . 4o the properties of propositions m%st be ass%me) first an) cannot be )erive) from any other system, the propositional calc%l%s is a f%n)amental )e)%ctive system. +ources . Logic ( 1apano%tsos , go)ona ) 1hilosophy of mathematics ( nJNTK oFGLNIJPZ , Technical ?hamber of preece) :lements of mathematical logic ( 8th.T2o%varas , qiti ) Logic ( f. Trigger gepartment of Mathematics , hniversity of ?rete, Internet) The history of mathematics (<ichar) Man,iewic2, e). 8le3an)ria ) 7o%n)ations an) f%n)amental concepts of mathematics (-owar) :ves ,gover) The )evelopment of mathematical logic. (1.-.ei))itch, gover ) ,eorge Mpantes mathematics teacher ---. Mpantes.gr .