Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
June 2010
Introduction
Cracker manufacturers worldwide have been baking their products on Direct Gas Fired ovens since the 1930s. Although electrical and mechanical components improved over the years, the basic concept of Direct Gas Fired (DGF) cracker ovens remains the same (Figure 1). A cracker oven is ideally configured with a minimum of three (3) zones and a maximum of six (6) zones. These ovens typically vary in length from 30 m (100 ft) to 90 m (300 ft). Although produced by a number of equipment manufacturers, the basic Figure 1: Typical DGF Cracker Oven principles of DGF oven designs are the same. A series of ribbon burners placed above and below the baking band produce the heat that bakes the product. The ribbon burners operate on a gas/air mixture, which combusts directly in the baking chamber. The burners heat the wire mesh belt as well as the ovens environment that, in turn, bakes the product. Exhaust is normally controlled via a series of adjustable dampers in each zone that regulate the exhaust and thus control the amount of water vapor released from the oven. All oven zones are generally the same except Zone 1 where a preheat section may be added to the return chamber of the oven to reheat the belt.
Theres estimated to be 800 to 1,000 of these ovens operating in the cracker and biscuit industry worldwide.
In general, most products will fall into this range when baked on a typical tunnel oven. Once the total gas consumed by the oven is determined with a gas meter, the number needs to be broken down further to identify the areas consuming energy in the baking process. How much energy goes into the product and how much is attributed to oven losses? Once the breakdown is understood ways to improve the process and reduce energy can be determined. So, what consumes the heat in a DGF oven?
Qosr Energy Out Oven Surface Loses Qexh Energy Out Heated Exhaust Air is
replaced with cooler make-up air Product In Product Out
Qproduct Energy Out Qbelt Energy Out - Heat lost by the oven belt
Heat required for the product
The heat balance for the oven is as follows: Energy into the Oven: Energy Consumed: Energy Consumed: Energy Consumed: Energy Consumed: Combustion of Gas Qgas Qproduct Qbelt Qmuair Qosr
Drying the Product Heating the Belt Heating the Makeup Air Oven Surface Radiation losses
Qgas = Qproduct + Qbelt + Qmuair + Qosr Product: Energy is consumed in stages during the baking process. In the first stage, the cracker dough absorbs heat from the air, belt and radiation. As the water in the cracker dough transfers phases from liquid to gas it undergoes an energy transformation process called Latent Heat of Vaporization. Water is now separated from the product as vapor and both product and vapor continue to absorb heat and increase in temperature to match the oven environment. The product can be broken down and considered separately: dry materials and water. So the crackers go through the following energy changes: Heat Required by Product: Sensible Heat for Dry Product: Sensible Heat for Water in Product: Latent Heat of Evaporation: Sensible Heat of Vapor: Qproduct Qdryp= Mp cp (tp2 tp1) Qwat= Mw cp (tw2 tw1) Qevap= Mw (H) Qw vap= Mp cv (texh tp)
Mp, Mw, Mass Flow of the Product and Water cp, cv Specific Heat of the Product and Water Vapor H Energy of Vaporization Converting Water to Vapor tp2, tp1, tw2, tw1, texh, tp Temperatures of the Process: [tp2] product at oven exit; [tp1] product at oven entrance; [tw2] water at exit; [tw1] water at entrance; [texh] exhaust measured in oven stack; [tp] average product temperature in the oven. Belt: For the baking belt, the coolest temperature is measured on the inlet roll stand just prior to the oven. Raw product is deposited on the belt at this location. The hottest temperature recorded for the belt is at the oven discharge as it carries product out of the oven. The belt continually loses heat until it returns to the oven inlet unless there is a pre-heat system on the belt. Pre-heat is additional energy consumed by the process. To determine the energy consumption of the belt, either sum all the losses of heat for the belt or just calculate how much energy the belt absorbs during the baking process. Since the belt travels a fixed cycle, the heat gained equals the heat lost. The calculation for heat the belt is as follows: Heat Required for the Baking Belt: Qbelt= Mb cb (tb2 tb1)
Mb Mass Flow of the Belt cb Specific Heat of the Belt tb2, tb1 Temperatures of the Belt: (tb2] at exit; [tb1] at entrance
Surface Radiation: The heat lost to surface radiation requires a number of assumptions. The insulation and construction of the oven define the Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) used to calculate surface heat losses. This is similar in concept to how the insulation R values define how well a house holds heat. The more insulation and air entrapment a structure contains then the better overall R value of the structure. The Heat Transfer Coefficient, however, is inverse of the R value. High R values mean lower heat transfer coefficients and thus less energy lost. In order to calculate heat lost through surface radiation, the oven surface areas must be calculated. Heat Loss due to Oven Surface Area Radiation: Uo Heat Transfer Coefficient Ao Surface area of the Oven to, tr Temperatures of the Oven and Room Makeup Air: The exhaust system removes heated air and water vapor from the process. An ideal exhaust system would only remove water vapor from the process without removing the heated air. However the water vapor and air are thoroughly mixed together so removing one gas removes the other. Water vapor is lighter than air and will stratify in the upper chambers of the oven. The art of baking is to remove enough water vapor from the process so as not to saturate the inside of the oven and make the drying process less efficient. For maximum drying efficiency, all of the water vapor should be removed to allow the water to transition more easily out of the product. This would be very inefficient from an energy standpoint but it achieves the fastest possible product drying curve. To determine the energy required for makeup air, the exhaust flow rate is needed as well as the air temperature of the room and the oven temperature. Heat Required for Makeup Air: Ma - Mass Flow of the Air cpa - Specific Heat of the Air texh, tr Temperatures of the Exhaust and Room Qmair = Ma cpa (texh tr) Qosr = Uo Ao (to - tr)
Zone 1: 48 DGF
Zone 2: 48 DGF
Zone 3: 48 DGF
Zone 4: 48 DGF
Zone 5: 48 DGF
Zone 6: 60 DGF
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2,040 (1,200)
100 100 50 50
use the average temperature inside the oven as the oven environment temperature. According to the Figure 6, the average oven environment temperature is approximately 200C (392F).
What is the total hourly consumption of gas energy used by the Oven?
According to the flow meter, the oven consumes 125 m3/hr (4,415 ft3/hr) of gas to produce 1,833 kg/hr (4,032 lbs/hr) of finished crackers. The local natural gas at the plant has an energy value of 10.6 KW-hr/m3 (1,020 BTU/ft3) when burned properly. For simplicity of calculations, assume the oven is set up correctly and that the burners are operating efficiently. Calculated Hourly Gas Energy used by the Oven: 125 m3 gas/hr x 10.6 KW-hr/ m3 gas = 1,325 KW (4,521,088 BTU/hr)
What is the calculated energy required to bake 1,833 kg/hr of Finished Crackers?
From the discussion on Heat Balance, the energy in must equal the energy out.
Qin = Qout
Qin = Energy in the Oven from the combustion of Gas Qout = Energy consumed during the Baking Process (Product, Belt, Makeup Air and Oven Surface Radiation Losses)
From the information collected during a site survey at the bakery, the following basic process data was collected: Product: Bake Time: Oven Belt Speed: Production: Mixer Dough Moisture: Oven Entrance Moisture: End of Oven Moisture: Finished Production Rate: Dry Ingredients Rate: Dough Rate at Mixer: Dough Rate into Oven: Total Water in Dough: Total Water in Dough at the Oven: Water Remaining in Finish Product: Round Laminated Snack Cracker 2 min 32 sec (2.58 minutes) 36 m/min 1,833 kg/hr (4,032 lbs/hr) of finished product 30% 28% 2.25% 1,833 kg/hr @ 2.25% Moisture 1,792 kg/hr @ 0% Moisture 2,560 kg/hr @ 30% Moisture 2,489 kg/hr @ 28% Moisture 2,560 kg/hr - 1,792 kg/hr = 768 kg/hr 2,489 kg/hr - 1,792 kg/hr = 697 kg/hr 1,833 kg/hr x 0.0225 = 41 kg/hr
Oven Dimensions: Total Oven Surface Area: Oven Exhaust Capacity: Oven Inlet and Exit Open Area: Belt Type and weight:
1.72 m wide x 1.45 m high x 91 m long 582 m2 2,040 m3/hr (1200 cfm) for each Zone; 0.185 m3 each CB5 Carbon Steel Belt @ 22.0 kg/m2
The information in a Table 3 correlates each value with a meaning in the energy balance equations. In addition, the calculations call for standard engineering values, which can be found in Handbooks1.
Designation Process Conditions (Units) Value
Mass Flow of the Dry Product: Mass Flow of Water in the Product at Oven Entrance: Mass Flow of Water in the Product at Oven Exit: Mass Flow of Water Evaporated in Oven: Temperature of Product/ Water at Oven Entrance: Temperature of Product/ Water at Oven Exit: Belt Temperature at Oven Entrance: Belt Temperature at Oven Exit: Air Density at Oven Temperature of 200C: Air Density at Oven Exhaust Temperature of 150C: Air Density of the Oven Room at a temperature of 30C: Temperature Average of the Product/Water in the Oven: Average Temperature of the Oven: Temperature of the Room: Temperature of the Exhaust (Estimated from Stack): Specific Heat Capacity of the Water: Specific Heat Capacity of the Dry Product (Cracker @ 2.5% Moisture): Specific Heat Capacity of the Water Vapor: Specific Heat Capacity of Air: Specific Heat Capacity of Carbon Steel Belt: Latent Heat of Evaporation: Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Oven/ Dryer: (Estimated)
Mp (kg/hr) Mw (kg/hr) Mw (kg/hr) Mw evap (kg/hr) tp1 & tw1 (C) tp2 & tw2 (C) tb1 (C) tb2 (C) a (kg/m3) a (kg/m3) a (kg/m3) tp ave (C) to (C) tr (C) texh (C) cpw kJ/(kg C) cpc kJ/(kg C) cpv kJ/(kg C) cpa kJ/(kg C) cpb kJ/(kg C) H kJ/kg Uo W/(m2 C )
1,792 697 41 656 30 98 180 225 0.75 0.84 1.13 64 200 35 150 4.2 1.57 2.0 1.0 0.49 2,270 3.0
Qmair = 143.7 kg/min x 1.0 kJ/kg C x (150C - 35C) = 16,526 kJ/min Qmair = 16,526 kJ/min x 60 min/hr x 1 KW hr / 3,600 kJ = 275.4KW
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Total Heat Required for Oven Qoven = Qosr + (Qdryp + Qwat + Qevap + Qwvap) + Qbelt + Qmair Qoven = 288.1 KW + 553.3 KW + 291.1 KW + 275.4 KW = 1,408 KW
Close but not quite the same. Several reasons can explain the difference: Oven Burners may not be burning perfectly, converting all of the gas energy to heat. The oven may not be getting 10.6 KW-hr/m 3 (1,020 BTU/ft 3) from the combustion process as burners get fouled in the baking process. Estimates on the ovens Heat Transfer Coefficient may be slightly off. Measured Exhaust Flow rates may be slightly off. However, the calculated rate is within 10% of the actual value. Therefore this information can be used to determine the magnitude of the four categories of oven energy consumption identified (Figure 7).
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the oven; blowing cool air over the oven also Cracker Oven Energy Input increases the heat transfer. So there must be a balance between keeping the oven room temperature warm enough to minimize radiant heat Oven Surface Heat transfer yet cool enough for people and electriMake Up Air cal components to co-exist. 20% Heat The ideal situation is an isolated oven room 18% where people do not have to work continuously within the environment. Isolated oven room temperatures between 32 and 42C (90 and 110F) minimize radiant heat losses of ovens. Oven Makeup Air: Removing water vapor is required in all baking ovens. Unfortunately, Belt Heat removing water vapor means removing heated 21% Product Heat air. If during the process of removing this water 39% vapor and air, the two streams can be separated discharge the water and save the heated air Figure 7: Oven Energy Consumption a much more efficient process would result. This is the function of a Makeup Air Heat Exchanger. Cooler makeup air entering the oven is passed over the hotter tubes of exhausting air thus transferring energy to the makeup air stream. The temperature of the exhaust air decreases as the temperature of the makeup air increases. Using heat exchangers makes it possible to capture up to 50% of the energy required to heat the makeup air thus reducing overall energy consumption of the process by approximately 5 to 10%. Oven Belt Heat: All tunnel ovens with belts traveling inside and outside the oven lose heat when outside the oven. Reviewing the basic energy equation for the belt, there are two opportunities to reduce the energy lost by the belt. First, a well insulated oven return will maintain more heat in the belt during the return process yielding a higher oven entrance temperature. Returning the belt back through the bottom of the oven chamber is even better. Higher temperatures inside the oven maintain a higher retention of belt heat. Belt weight accounts for the other opportunity to reduce heat. Lower belt weights consume less energy. Consider changing heavy dense belts such as a CB5 belt (22.0 kg/m2) with a similar but lighter belt such as a CB3 belt (15.6.0 kg/m2). This can reduce overall oven energy consumption by approximately 5%.
Contact details
For more information contact, Reading Bakery Systems, Robesonia, PA, USA. Ph 610-693-5896, Email: Joseph.Zaleski@readingbakery.com
References
Engineering Tool Box: www.engineeringtoolbox.com. Scorpion Oven Report. Midwest Bakery Producing Round Snack Crackers. May 2010.
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