Jawaharlal Nehru

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Jawaharlal Nehru

1st Prime Minister of India

In office 15 August 1947 27 May 1964

President

Rajendra Prasad Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Governor General

he !arl M"unt#atten "$ %ur&a 'hakravarti Rajag"pala(hari

Deputy

)alla#h#hai Patel

Preceded by

P"siti"n esta#lished

Succeeded by

*ul+arilal ,anda -A(ting.

Minister of Defence

In office /1 0(t"#er 1962 14 ,"ve&#er 1962

Preceded by

)1 21 2rishna Men"n

Succeeded by

3ash4antra" 'havan

In office /5 6anuary 1957 17 April 1957

Preceded by

2ailash ,ath 2atju

Succeeded by

)1 21 2rishna Men"n

In office 15 7e#ruary 195/ 15 6anuary 1955

Preceded by

,1 *"palas4a&i Ayyangar

Succeeded by

2ailash ,ath 2atju

Minister of Finance

In office 1/ 7e#ruary 1958 1/ Mar(h 1958

Preceded by

iruvell"re hattai 2rishna&a(hariar

Succeeded by

M"rarji 9esai

In office 24 6uly 1956 /5 August 1956

Preceded by

'hinta&an 94arakanath 9esh&ukh

Succeeded by

iruvell"re hattai 2rishna&a(hariar

Minister of !ternal "ffairs

In office 15 August 1947 27 May 1964

Preceded by

P"siti"n esta#lished

Succeeded by

*ul+arilal ,anda

Personal details

#orn

14 ,"ve&#er 1889 Allaha#ad: ,"rth;<estern Pr"vin(es: %ritish =ndia

Died

27 May 1964 -aged 74. ,e4 9elhi: =ndia

Political party

=ndian ,ati"nal '"ngress

Spouse$s%

2a&ala 2aul

&hildren

=ndira *andhi

"lma mater

rinity '"llege: 'a&#ridge =nns "$ '"urt

Profession

%arrister

'eli(ion

,"ne -Agn"sti( atheis&.>1?>2?>/?

Si(nature

Jawaharlal Nehru (IPA: [darlal neru] (

listen),

! No"em#er $$% & '( )ay %*!+!,), often

referred to as Panditji, was an Indian politician and statesman, a leader in the Indian independence mo"ement, and the first Prime )inister of independent India- Nehru was elected #y the Indian National .on/ress to assume office as independent India0s first Prime )inister in %!(, and re1elected when the .on/ress party won India0s first /eneral election in %2 - 3e was one of the founders of the international Non1Ali/ned )o"ement4he son of moderate nationalist leader and .on/ressman )otilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru #ecame a leader of the left win/ of the .on/ress- 3e #ecame .on/ress President under the mentorship of )ohandas 5aramchand 6andhi- Nehru ad"ocated 7emocratic 8ocialism9Fa#ian 8ocialism and a stron/ pu#lic sector as the means #y which economic de"elopment could #e pursued #y poorer nations- 3e was the father of Indira 6andhi and the maternal /randfather of :a;i" 6andhi, who would later ser"e as the third and si<th Prime )inisters of India respecti"ely&ontents
>hide?

1 !arly li$e and p"liti(al (areer -18891916.

o o o o

111 7a&ily and (hildh""d 112 !du(ati"n 11/ Marriage and (hildren 114 @egal (areer and p"liti(al a(tivities 2 Struggle $"r =ndian =ndependen(e -191647.

o o o o o o o o

211 P"liti(al apprenti(eship 212 ,"n;(""perati"n 21/ =nternati"nalising the struggle 214 Repu#li(anis& 215 9e(larati"n "$ =ndependen(e 216 'ivil dis"#edien(e 217 Ar(hite(t "$ =ndia 218 !le(t"ral p"liti(s

219 <"rld <ar == and Auit =ndia / Pri&e Minister "$ =ndia -1947;64.

o o o o o
4 @ega(y

/11 !("n"&i( p"li(ies /1111 @and and agrarian re$"r& /12 9"&esti( p"li(ies /1211 States re"rganisati"n /1/ !du(ati"n and s"(ial re$"r& /14 ,ati"nal se(urity and $"reign p"li(y /15 7inal years and the rise "$ =ndira *andhi

o o

411 '"&&e&"rati"n 412 =n p"pular (ulture 5 <ritings 6 A4ards 7 See als" 8 Re$eren(es 9 7urther reading 15 %i#li"graphy 11 !Bternal links

+edit,=arly

life and political career ( $$%& % *)

his se(ti"n is incomplete1 Please help t" i&pr"ve the arti(le: "r dis(uss the issue "n the talk page1 (June 2012) his arti(le may re)uire copy editin( for (rammar* style* cohesion* tone etc1 3"u (an assist #y editing it1 (June 2012)

+edit,Family

and childhood

Nehru was #orn into a prominent 5ashmiri Pandit family- 3is father was )otilal Nehru and his mother was 8waruparani Nehru- 3e had two youn/er sisters who were named >i;aya ?akshmi and 5rishna-+2, Nehru /rew up in his #irthplace in Allaha#ad- 3is father owned a wealthy estate in Allaha#ad which was called Anand @ha"an- Nehru spent his childhood in the company of many illustrious people who "isited the estate to call upon his father, a wealthy #arrister and influential nationalist politician with the Indian National .on/ress-+*,

+edit,Education
Nehru was educated #y a series of @ritish /o"ernesses and tutors until he was si<teen- 3e ;oined the 4heosophical 8ociety in India at a/e thirteen- 3e had Indian tutors who tau/ht him 3indi and 8anskrit- Nehru /rew up an atheist-+(, Nehru attended 3arrow in =n/land ( %A2&A() #efore earnin/ an honours de/ree in natural science from the 4rinity .olle/e in .am#rid/e Bni"ersity ( %A(& A)-+$, Nehru Cualified as a #arrister after two years ( % A& ') at the Inns of .ourt 8chool of ?aw in ?ondon-+%,

+edit,Marriage

and children

Nehru returned to India in % '- 3is mother arran/ed his marria/e with 5amala 5aul, a /irl from a conser"ati"e middle1class 5ashmiri @rahman family in % '- 5aul was the /rand1dau/hter of 5ishanlal Atal, who had #een prime minister of Jaipur, so the match was accepta#le to the aristocratic )otilal Nehru- 4he marria/e ceremony finally took place in % *, when 5amala had attained the a/e of se"enteen years- Nehru and 5aul had a dau/hter in % (, who was named Indira Priyadarshini5amala /a"e #irth to a pre1matured #a#y #oy, who died in %'!- After that she underwent a miscarria/e in %'(- 5amala could not #ear this trauma and fell seriously ill- 8he was then dia/nosed of tu#erculosis and underwent treatment in "arious hospitals in the country as well as a#road- Nehru took her a#road for treatment in 8witDerland and was with her when she #reathed her last in %E*Nehru was later alle/ed to ha"e had a relationship with Padma;a Naidu, who was the dau/hter of his friend 8aro;ini Naidu- In the %!As, Nehru was alle/ed to ha"e had an affair with =dwina )ount#atten, who was the wife of ?ouis )ount#atten, the last >iceroy of India-+
A,

+edit,Legal

career and political activities

Fn his return from =n/land in % ', Nehru ;oined the Allaha#ad 3i/h .ourt as a #arrister, #ut he soon lost interest in a le/al career- :ather he was attracted towards the national mo"ement for home rule- Nehru made his first appearance at the .on/ress platform as a dele/ate to the @ankipore session in % '- 7urin/ World War I, Nehru "olunteered for the 8t- John Am#ulance and spoke out a/ainst the censorship acts passed #y the @ritish /o"ernment in India- 3e also worked for the All India 3ome :ule ?ea/ue under @al 6an/adhar

4ilak and Annie @easant-+

Nehru campai/ned on #ehalf of the .on/ress a/ainst the indentured la#our system
',

forced upon Indian workers in Fi;i as well as the discrimination faced #y Indians in 8outh Africa-+

In % *, the leaders of India met at the Anand @ha"an to hammer out the ?ucknow Pact, which united the reunified .on/ress with the)uslim ?ea/ue- 4he ?ucknow session in % * first #rou/ht to/ether the three men who would shape the destiny of the su#continentG Nehru, Jinnah, and 6andhi- + Nehru #ecame 8ecretary of the All India 3ome :ule ?ea/ue in % $- +
!, E,

3is father had meanwhile #ecome

President of the Allaha#ad #ranch of the ?ea/ue and had rallied the .on/ress moderates in support of Annie @easant, who had #een arrested #y the @ritish in June % (- Nehru, who had #een workin/ to pro"ide military trainin/ for the Indian middle1class in cooperation with the @ritish throu/h the Indian 7efense Forces (modelled on the =uropean defense forces in India), mana/ed to con"ince the committee mem#ers of the pro;ect (led #y his father, 4e; @ahadur 8apru, and .- H- .hintamani) 1 to call it off as a protest a/ainst the arrest of @easant- +
2,

In % 2 Nehru #ecame acti"e in the functionin/ of the 5isan 8a#ha (farmers association) of Bttar Pradesh and #ecame its deputy president in % $- Nehru0s contacts with peasants chan/ed his life style- 3e soon #ecame one of the most popular leaders of India due to his common people appeal- 3is work for the farmers and la#ourers endeared him to the lower middle class and peasant classes of India- 4hese were the Cualities that mo"ed 6andhi (who was lookin/ to #roaden the support #ase of the .on/ress and who had met him in the % * ?ucknow session of the party) to include Nehru in the inner circles of the .on/ress-

+edit,8tru//le

for Indian Independence ( % *&!()

his se(ti"n is incomplete1 Please help t" i&pr"ve the arti(le: "r dis(uss the issue "n thetalk page1 (June 2012) his arti(le may re)uire copy editin( for (rammar* style* cohesion* tone etc1 3"u (an assist #y editing it1 (June 2012) his arti(le needs additional citations for verification1 Please help i&pr"ve this arti(le #y adding (itati"ns t" relia#le s"ur(es1 Cns"ur(ed &aterial &ay #e (hallenged and re&"ved1(June 2012)

Jawaharlal Nehru and )ahatma 6andhi

Nehru returned to India in % ', where he worked as a #arrister in Allaha#ad while mo"in/ up the ranks of the .on/ress durin/ World War I- 3is close association with the .on/ress dates from % % in the immediate aftermath of World War INehru first met 6andhi in % * at the ?ucknow session of the .on/ress- It was to #e the #e/innin/ of a lifelon/ partnership #etween the two which lasted until the 6andhi0s death- Nehru Cuickly rose to prominence under the mentorship of 6andhi- @y late %' , he had already #ecame one of the most prominent leaders of the .on/ressWhen the @ritish colonial administration outlawed the .on/ress party, Nehru went to prison for the first timeF"er the ne<t '! years he was to ser"e another ei/ht periods of detention- In all, he would spend more than nine years in ;ail-

+edit,Political

apprenticeship

Nehru0s political apprenticeship under 6andhi lasted from % % to %'%- 3e was elected /eneral secretary of the .on/ress party for two terms in the %'As- 3is first term #e/an with the 5akinada session of the .on/ress in %'E- Alon/ with 8u#has .handra @ose, Nehru was considered a radical within the party durin/ his tenure as /eneral secretary due to his re;ection of dominion status for India in fa"our of complete independenceNehru co1operated with 7r- N-8- 3ardiker in foundin/ the 3industani 8e"a 7al in %'ENehru was elected chairman of the Allaha#ad )unicipal @oard in %'E- +
!,

Nehru0s second term as /eneral secretary #e/an with the )adras session of the .on/ress in %'(-

+edit,Non-cooperation
4he first #i/ national in"ol"ement of Nehru came at the onset of the non1cooperation mo"ement in %'A- 3e led the mo"ement in the Bnited Pro"inces (now Bttar Pradesh)- Nehru was arrested on char/es of anti1 /o"ernmental acti"ities in %' and was released a few months later- In the rift that formed within the .on/ress followin/ the sudden closure of the non1cooperation mo"ement after the .hauri .haura incident, Nehru remained loyal to 6andhi and did not ;oin the 8wara; Party formed #y his father )otilal Nehru and .: 7as-

+edit,Internationalising

the struggle

Nehru played a leadin/ role in the de"elopment of the internationalist outlook of the Indian freedom stru//le3e sou/ht forei/n allies for India and for/ed links with mo"ements for freedom and democracy all o"er the world- In %'(, his efforts paid off and the .on/ress was in"ited to attend the con/ress of oppressed nationalities in @russels in @el/ium- 4he meetin/ was called to coordinate and plan a common stru//le a/ainst imperialism- Nehru represented India and was elected to the =<ecuti"e .ouncil of the ?ea/ue a/ainst Imperialism that was #orn at this meetin/-+
*,

7urin/ the mid1 %EAs Nehru was much concerned with de"elopments in =urope, which seemed to #e driftin/ toward another world war- 3e was in =urope early in %E*, "isitin/ his ailin/ wife, shortly #efore she died in a sanitarium in 8witDerland- ="en at this time he emphasiDed that in the e"ent of war IndiaIs place was alon/side the democracies, thou/h he insisted that India could only fi/ht in support of 6reat @ritain and France as a free countryNehru closely worked with 8u#hash @ose in de"elopin/ /ood relations with /o"ernments of free countries all o"er the world- 3owe"er, the two split in the late %EAs when @ose a/reed to seek the help of fascists in dri"in/ the @ritish out of India- At the same time, Nehru had supported the people of 8pain who were fi/htin/ to defend themsel"es a/ainst Franco- People of many countries "olunteered to fi/ht the fascist forces in 8pain and formed the International @ri/ade- Nehru alon/ with his aide >-5- 5rishna )enon went to 8pain and e<tended the support of the Indian people to the people of 8pain- Nehru refused to meet )ussolini, the dictator of Italy when the latter e<pressed his desire to meet him- 4hus Nehru came to #e seen as a champion of freedom and democracy all o"er the world-+
(,+ $,

+edit,Republicanism
Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferin/s of the people in the states ruled #y Indian Princes- 3e suffered imprisonment in Na#ha, a Princely state, when he went there to see the stru//le that was #ein/ wa/ed #y the 8ikhs a/ainst the corrupt )ahants- 4he nationalist mo"ement had #een confined to the territories under direct @ritish rule- Nehru helped to make the stru//le of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist mo"ement for freedom- 4he All India states people0s conference was formed in %'(- Nehru who had #een supportin/ the cause of the people of the princely states for many years was made the President of the conference in %E2- 3e opened up its ranks to mem#ership from across the political spectrum- 4he #ody would play an important role durin/ the political inte/ration of India, helpin/ Indian leaders >alla#h#hai Patel and >-5- 5rishna )enon (to whom Nehru had dele/ated the task of inte/ratin/ the princely states into India) ne/otiate with hundreds of princesIn July %!*, Nehru pointedly o#ser"ed that no princely state could pre"ail militarily a/ainst the army of independent India-+ 5in/s,
+'A, %,

In January %!(, Nehru said that independent India would not accept the 7i"ine :i/ht of

and in )ay %!(, he declared that any princely state which refused to ;oin the .onstituent Assem#ly

would #e treated as an enemy state- 7urin/ the draftin/ of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (e<cept Nehru) of that time were in fa"our of allowin/ each Princely state or .o"enantin/ 8tate to #e independent as a federal state alon/ the lines su//ested ori/inally #y the 6o"ernment of India act ( %E2)- @ut as the draftin/ of the constitution pro/ressed and the idea of formin/ a repu#lic took concrete shape (due to the efforts of Nehru), it was decided that all the Princely states9.o"enantin/ 8tates would mer/e with the Indian repu#lic- Nehru0s dau/hter, Indira 6andhi, de1reco/niDed all the rulers #y a presidential order in %*%- @ut this was struck down #y the 8upreme .ourt of India- ="entually, the /o"ernment #y the '*th Amendment to the constitution was

successful in a#olishin/ the Princely states of India- 4he process #e/an #y Nehru was finally completed #y his dau/hter #y the end of %( -

+edit,

eclaration o! Independence

Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the .on/ress resol"e to make a complete and e<plicit #reak from all ties with the @ritish =mpire- 3e introduced a resolution demandin/ Jcomplete national independenceJ in %'(, which was re;ected #ecause of 6andhi0s opposition- +'
,

In %'$ 6andhi a/reed to Nehru0s demands and proposed a resolution that called for the @ritish to /rant dominion status to India within two years- If the @ritish failed to meet the deadline, the .on/ress would call upon all Indians to fi/ht for complete independence- Nehru was one of the leaders who o#;ected to the time /i"en to the @ritish 1 he pressed 6andhi to demand immediate actions from the @ritish- 6andhi #rokered a further compromise #y reducin/ the time /i"en from two years to one- Nehru a/reed to "ote for the new resolution7emands for dominion status was re;ected #y the @ritish in %'%- Nehru assumed the presidency of the .on/ress party durin/ the ?ahore session on '% 7ecem#er %'% and introduced a successful resolution callin/ for complete independenceNehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated: "We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the e ploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna !waraj or complete independence."+'', At midni/ht on New Hear0s ="e %'%, Nehru hoisted the tricolour fla/ of India upon the #anks of the :a"i in ?ahore- A pled/e of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold ta<es- 4he massi"e /atherin/ of pu#lic attendin/ the ceremony were asked if they a/reed with it, and the "ast ma;ority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in appro"al- (' Indian mem#ers of central and pro"incial le/islatures resi/ned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian pu#lic sentiment- 4he .on/ress asked the people of India to o#ser"e '* January as Independence 7ay- 4he fla/ of India was hoisted pu#licly across India #y .on/ress "olunteers, nationalists and the pu#lic- Plans for a mass ci"il diso#edience was also underwayAfter the ?ahore session of the .on/ress in %'%, Nehru /radually emer/ed as the paramount leader of the Indian independence mo"ement- 6andhi stepped #ack into a more spiritual role- Althou/h 6andhi did not

officially desi/nate Nehru his political heir until %!', the country as early as the mid1 %EAs saw in Nehru the natural successor to 6andhi-

+edit,"ivil

disobedience

Nehru and most of the .on/ress leaders were initially am#i"alent a#out 6andhi0s plan to #e/in ci"il diso#edience with a satya/raha aimed at the @ritish salt ta<- After the protest /athered steam, they realiDed the power of salt as a sym#ol- Nehru remarked a#out the unprecedented popular response, Kit seemed as thou/h a sprin/ had #een suddenly released-L+'E, Nehru was arrested on ! April %EA while entrainin/ from Allaha#ad for :aipur- 3e had earlier, after addressin/ a hu/e meetin/ and leadin/ a "ast procession, ceremoniously manufactured some contra#and salt- 3e was char/ed with #reach of the salt law, tried summarily #ehind prison walls and sentenced to si< months of imprisonment- Nehru nominated 6andhi to succeed him as .on/ress President durin/ his a#sence in ;ail, #ut 6andhi declined, and Nehru then nominated his father as his successor- With Nehru0s arrest the ci"il diso#edience acCuired a new tempo, and arrests, firin/ on crowds and lathi char/es /rew to #e ordinary occurrences4he salt satya/raha succeeded in drawin/ the attention of the world- Indian, @ritish, and world opinion increasin/ly #e/an to reco/niDe the le/itimacy of claims #y the .on/ress party for independence- Nehru considered the salt satya/raha the hi/h water mark of his association with 6andhi, +'!, and felt that its lastin/ importance was in chan/in/ the attitudes of Indians: J"f course these movements e ercised tremendous pressure on the British #overnment and shoo$ the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses....%on&cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self&respect and self&reliance....They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression' their outloo$ widened and they began to thin$ a little in terms of India as a whole....It was a remar$able transformation and the (ongress, under #andhi)s leadership, must have the credit for it. J+'2,

+edit,#rchitect

o! India

Nehru ela#orated the policies of the .on/ress and a future Indian nation under his leadership in %'%- 3e declared that the aims of the con/ress were freedom of reli/ion, ri/ht to form associations, freedom of e<pression of thou/ht, eCuality #efore law for e"ery indi"idual without distinction of caste, colour, creed or reli/ion, protection to re/ional lan/ua/es and cultures, safe/uardin/ the interests of the peasants and la#our, a#olition of untoucha#ility, introduction of adult franchise, imposition of prohi#ition, nationalisation of industries, socialism, and esta#lishment of a secular India- All these aims formed the core of the JFundamental :i/hts and =conomic PolicyJ resolution drafted #y Nehru in %'%1E and were ratified #y the All India .on/ress .ommittee under 6andhi0s leadership-+'*, 3owe"er, some .on/ress leaders o#;ected to the resolution and decided to oppose Nehru-

4he espousal of socialism as the .on/ress /oal was most difficult to achie"e- Nehru was opposed in this #y the ri/ht1win/ .on/ressmen 8ardar Patel, 7r- :a;endra Prasad and .hakra"arthi :a;a/opalachari- Nehru had the support of the left1win/ .on/ressmen )aulana ADad and 8u#ash .handra @ose- 4he trio com#ined to oust 7r- Prasad as .on/ress President in %E*- Nehru was elected in his place and held the presidency for two years ( %E*&E()-+'(, Nehru was then succeeded #y his socialist collea/ues @ose ( %E$&E%) and ADad ( %!A& !*)- After the fall of @ose from the mainstream of Indian politics (due to his support of "iolence in dri"in/ the @ritish out of India), the power stru//le #etween the socialists and conser"ati"es #alanced out- 3owe"er, 8ardar Patel died in %2A, lea"in/ Nehru as the sole remainin/ iconic national leader, and soon the situation #ecame such that Nehru was a#le to implement many of his #asic policies without hindrance- 4he conser"ati"e ri/ht1win/ of the .on/ress (composed of India0s upper class elites) would continue opposin/ the socialists until the /reat schism in %*%- Nehru0s dau/hter, Indira 6andhi, was a#le to fulfill her father0s dream #y the !'nd amendment ( %(*) of the Indian constitution #y which India officially #ecame JsocialistJ and JsecularJ- +'$, 7urin/ Nehru0s second term as /eneral secretary of the .on/ress, he proposed certain resolutions concernin/ the forei/n policy of India-+'%, From that time onwards, he was /i"en carte #lanche in framin/ the forei/n policy of any future Indian nation- Nehru de"eloped /ood relations with /o"ernments all o"er the world- 3e firmly placed India on the side of democracy and freedom durin/ a time when the world was under the threat of fascism-+
$,

Nehru was also /i"en the responsi#ility of plannin/ the economy of a future India- 3e appointed the

National Plannin/ .ommission in %E$ to help in framin/ such policies- +EA, 3owe"er, many of the plans framed #y Nehru and his collea/ues would come undone with the une<pected partition of India in %!(-

+edit,Electoral

politics
his se(ti"n is incomplete1 Please help t" i&pr"ve the arti(le: "r dis(uss the issue "n thetalk page1 (June 2012)

Nehru "isit to =urope in %E* pro"ed to #e the watershed in his political and economic thinkin/- NehruIs real interest in )ar<ism and his socialist pattern of thou/ht stem from that tour- 3is su#seCuent so;ourns in prison ena#led him to study )ar<ism in more depth- Interested in its ideas #ut repelled #y some of its methods, he could ne"er #rin/ himself to accept 5arl )ar<Is writin/s as re"ealed scripture- Het from then on, the yardstick of his economic thinkin/ remained )ar<ist, ad;usted, where necessary, to Indian conditionsWhen the .on/ress party under Nehru chose to contest elections and accept power under the Federation scheme, 6andhi resi/ned from party mem#ership- 6andhi did not disa/ree with Nehru0s mo"e, #ut felt that if he resi/ned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party0s mem#ership- When the elections followin/ the introduction of pro"incial autonomy (under the /o"ernment of India act %E2) #rou/ht the .on/ress party to power in a ma;ority of the pro"inces, Nehru0s popularity and power was unmatched- 4he )uslim ?ea/ue under )ohammed Ali Jinnah (who was to #ecome the creator of Pakistan) had fared #adly at the polls- Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were the @ritish :a; and .on/ress-

Jinnah statements that the )uslim ?ea/ue was the third and JeCual partnerJ within Indian politics was widely re;ected- Nehru had hoped to ele"ate )aulana ADad as the pre1eminent leaders of Indian )uslims, #ut in this, he was undermined #y 6andhi, who continued to treat Jinnah as the "oice of Indian )uslims-

+edit,$orld

$ar II and %uit India

When World war II started, >iceroy ?inlith/ow had unilaterally declared India a #elli/erent on the side of the @ritain, without consultin/ the elected Indian representati"es- Nehru hurried #ack from a "isit to .hina, announcin/ that, in a conflict #etween democracy and Fascism, Kour sympathies must ine"ita#ly #e on the side of democracy------ I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the stru//le for a new order-L After much deli#eration the .on/ress under Nehru informed the /o"ernment that it would cooperate with the @ritish #ut on certain conditions- First, @ritain must /i"e an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a constituent assem#ly to frame a new constitutionG second, althou/h the Indian armed forces would remain under the @ritish .ommander1in1.hief, Indians must #e included immediately in the central /o"ernment and /i"en a chance to share power and responsi#ility- When Nehru presented ?ord ?inlith/ow with the demands, he chose not to take them seriously- A deadlock was reached- K4he same old /ame is played a/ain,L Nehru wrote #itterly to 6andhi, Kthe #ack/round is the same, the "arious epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must #e the same-L Fn 'E Fcto#er %E%, the .on/ress condemned the >iceroyIs attitude and called upon the .on/ress ministries in the "arious pro"inces to resi/n in protest- @efore this crucial announcement, Nehru ur/ed Jinnah and the )uslim ?ea/ue to ;oin the protest #ut the latter declinedIn )arch %!A Jinnah passed what would come to #e known as the KPakistan :esolution,L declarin/ K)uslims are a nation accordin/ to any definition of a nation, and they must ha"e their homelands, their territory and their 8tate-L 4his state was to #e known as Pakistan, meanin/ K?and of the Pure-L Nehru an/rily declared that Kall the old pro#lems---pale into insi/nificance #efore the latest stand taken #y the )uslim ?ea/ue leader in ?ahore-L ?inlith/ow made Nehru an offer on $ Fcto#er %!A- It stated that 7ominion status for India was the o#;ecti"e of the @ritish /o"ernment- 3owe"er, it referred neither to a date nor method of accomplishment- Fnly Jinnah /ot somethin/ more precise- J4he @ritish would not contemplate transferrin/ power to a .on/ress1 dominated national /o"ernment the authority of which was Ldenied #y lar/e and powerful elements in IndiaIs national life-L In Fcto#er %!A, 6andhi and Nehru, a#andonin/ their ori/inal stand of supportin/ @ritain, decided to launch a limited ci"il diso#edience campai/n in which leadin/ ad"ocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one #y one- Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four yearsI imprisonment- After spendin/ a little more than a year in ;ail, he was released, alon/ with other .on/ress prisoners, three days #efore the #om#in/ of Pearl 3ar#or in 3awaii-

When the Japanese carried their attack throu/h @urma (now )yanmar) to the #orders of India in the sprin/ of %!', the @ritish /o"ernment, faced #y this new military threat, decided to make some o"ertures to India, as Nehru had ori/inally desired- Prime )inister Winston .hurchill dispatched 8ir 8tafford .ripps, a mem#er of the war .a#inet who was known to #e politically close to Nehru and also knew Jinnah, with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional pro#lem- As soon as he arri"ed he disco"ered that India was more deeply di"ided than he had ima/ined- Nehru, ea/er for a compromise, was hopeful- 6andhi was not- Jinnah had continued opposin/ the .on/ress- KPakistan is our only demand,L declared the )uslim ?ea/ue newspaper K7awnL and #y 6od we will ha"e it-L .rippsIs mission failed as 6andhi would accept nothin/ less than independence- :elations #etween Nehru and 6andhi cooled o"er the latters refusal to cooperate with .ripps #ut the two later reconcilled- Fn 2 January %! 6andhi had stated: J8ome say Pandit Nehru and I were estran/ed- It will reCuire much more than difference of opinion to estran/e us- We had differences from the time we #ecame co1workers and yet I ha"e said for some years and say so now that not :a;a;i #ut Jawaharlal will #e my successor-J +E
,

6andhi called on the @ritish to lea"e IndiaG Nehru, thou/h reluctant to em#arrass the allied war effort, had no alternati"e #ut to ;oin 6andhi- Followin/ the Muit India resolution passed #y the .on/ress party in @om#ay (now )um#ai) on $ Au/ %!', the entire .on/ress workin/ committee, includin/ 6andhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned- Nehru emer/ed from thisNhis ninth and last detentionNonly on 2 June %!27urin/ the period where all of the .on/ress leadership were in ;ail, the )uslim ?ea/ue under Jinnah /rew in power- In April %!E, the ?ea/ue captured the /o"ernments of @en/al and, a month later, that of the North West Frontier Pro"ince- In none of these pro"inces had the ?ea/ue pre"iously had a ma;ority 1 only the arrest of .on/ress mem#ers made it possi#le- With all the )uslim dominated pro"inces e<cept the Pun;a# under JinnahIs control, the artificial concept of a separate )uslim 8tate was turnin/ into a reality- 3owe"er #y %!!, JinnahIs power and presti/e were on the wane- A /eneral sympathy towards the ;ailed .on/ress leaders was de"elopin/ amon/ )uslims, and much of the #lame for the disastrous @en/al famine of %!E1! durin/ which two million died, had #een laid on the shoulders of the pro"inceIs )uslim ?ea/ue /o"ernment- 4he num#ers at JinnahIs meetin/s, once counted in thousands soon num#ered only a few hundreds- In despair, Jinnah left the political scene for a stay in 5ashmir- 3is presti/e was restored unwittin/ly #y 6andhi, who had #een released from prison on medical /rounds in )ay %!! and had met Jinnah in @om#ay in 8eptem#er- 4here he offered the )uslim leader a ple#iscite in the )uslim areas after the war to see whether they wanted to separate from the rest of India- =ssentially, it was an acceptance of the principle of Pakistan 1 #ut not in so many wordsJinnah demanded that the e<act words #e saidG 6andhi refused and the talks #roke down- Jinnah howe"er had /reatly stren/thened his own position and that of the ?ea/ue- 4he most influential mem#er of .on/ress had #een seen to ne/otiate with him on eCual terms- Fther )uslim leaders, opposed #oth to Jinnah and to the partition of India, lost stren/th-

+edit,Prime

)inister of India ( %!(1*!)

his se(ti"n is incomplete1 Please help t" i&pr"ve the arti(le: "r dis(uss the issue "n thetalk page1 (June 2012)

4een )urti @ha"an, Nehru0s residence as Prime )inister, now a museum in his memory-

Nehru and his collea/ues had #een released as the @ritish .a#inet )ission arri"ed to propose plans for transfer of power-

?ord )ount#atten swears in Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime )inister of free India at the ceremony held at $-EA amI84 on 2 Au/ust %!(

Fnce elected, Nehru headed an interim /o"ernment, which was impaired #y out#reaks of communal "iolence and political disorder, and the opposition of the )uslim ?ea/ue led #y)uhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demandin/ a separate )uslim state of Pakistan- After failed #ids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, accordin/ to a plan released #y the @ritish on E June %!(- 3e took office as the Prime )inister of India on 2 Au/ust, and deli"ered his inau/ural address titled JA 4ryst With 7estinyJ J?on/ years a/o we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pled/e, not wholly or in full measure, #ut "ery su#stantially- At the stroke of the midni/ht hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom- A moment comes, which comes #ut rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an a/e ends, and when the soul of a nation, lon/ suppressed, finds utterance- It is fittin/ that at this solemn moment we take the pled/e of dedication to the ser"ice of India and her people and to the still lar/er cause of humanity-J+E', Fn EA January %!$, Father of the Nation, )ahatma 6andhi was shot while he was walkin/ to a platform from which he was to address a prayer meetin/- 4he assassin, Nathuram 6odse, was a 3indu nationalist with links to the e<tremist 3indu )ahasa#ha, who held 6andhi responsi#le for weakenin/ India #y insistin/ upon a payment to Pakistan- Nehru addressed the nation throu/h radio: +EE,

JFriends and comrades, the li/ht has /one out of our li"es, and there is darkness e"erywhere, and I do not Cuite know what to tell you or how to say it- Fur #elo"ed leader, @apu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more- Perhaps I am wron/ to say thatG ne"ertheless, we will not see him a/ain, as we ha"e seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for ad"ice or seek solace from him, and that is a terri#le #low, not only for me, #ut for millions and millions in this country-JNJawaharlal Nehru0s address to 6andhi+E!, Hasmin 5han ar/ued that 6andhi0s death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state under Nehru and Patel- 4he .on/ress ti/htly controlled the epic pu#lic displays of /rief o"er a two1week period Nthe funeral, mortuary rituals and distri#ution of the martyr0s ashesNas millions participated and hundreds of millions watched- 4he /oal was to assert the power of the /o"ernment, le/itimiDe the .on/ress party0s control and suppress all reli/ious para1military /roups- Nehru and Patel suppressed the :88, the )uslim National 6uards, and the 5haksars, with some 'AA,AAA arrests- 6andhi0s death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and made more understand the need to suppress reli/ious parties durin/ the transition to independence for the Indian people-+E2, In later years there emer/ed a re"isionist school of history which sou/ht to #lame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referrin/ to his hi/hly centralised policies for an independent India in %!(, which Jinnah opposed in fa"our of a more decentralised India-+E*,+E(, 8uch "iews has #een promoted #y the 3indu nationalist @haratiya Janata Party (@JP), which fa"ours a decentraliDed central /o"ernment in India- +E$, In the years followin/ independence, Nehru freCuently turned to his dau/hter Indira to look after him and mana/e his personal affairs- Bnder his leadership, the .on/ress won an o"erwhelmin/ ma;ority in the elections of %2'- Indira mo"ed into Nehru0s official residence to attend to him and #ecame his constant companion in his tra"els across India and the world- Indira would "irtually #ecome Nehru0schief of staff-

Nehru0s study in 4een )urti @ha"an-

+edit,Economic

policies

Nehru presided o"er the introduction of a modified, Indian "ersion of state plannin/ and control o"er the economy- .reatin/ the Plannin/ commission of India, Nehru drew up the firstFi"e1Hear Plan in %2 , which

charted the /o"ernment0s in"estments in industries and a/riculture- Increasin/ #usiness and income ta<es, Nehru en"isa/ed a mi<ed economy in which the /o"ernment would mana/e strate/ic industries such as minin/, electricity and hea"y industries, ser"in/ pu#lic interest and a check to pri"ate enterprise- Nehru pursuedland redistri#ution and launched pro/rammes to #uild irri/ation canals, dams and spread the use of fertiliDers to increase a/ricultural production- 3e also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreadin/ di"erse cotta/e industries and increasin/ efficiency into rural India- While encoura/in/ the construction of lar/e dams (which Nehru called the Jnew temples of IndiaJ), irri/ation works and the /eneration of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India0s pro/ramme to harness nuclear ener/yFor most of Nehru0s term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shorta/es despite pro/ress and increases in a/ricultural production- Nehru0s industrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy :esolution of %2*, encoura/ed the /rowth of di"erse manufacturin/ and hea"y industries, +E%, yet state plannin/, controls and re/ulations #e/an to impair producti"ity, Cuality and profita#ility- Althou/h the Indian economy en;oyed a steady rate of /rowth at '-2O per annum (mocked #y leftist economist :a; 5rishnaas a J3indu rate of /rowthJ), chronic unemployment amidst widespread po"erty continued to pla/ue the population-ff 7- 7- 5osam#i, a well1known )ar<ist historian, criticiDed Nehru in his article for the #our/eoisie class e<ploitation of Nehru0s socialist ideolo/y- Nehru was accused of promotin/ capitalism in the /uise of democratic socialism amon/ other thin/s-+!A,

+edit,Land

and agrarian re!orm

Bnder NehruIs leadership, the /o"ernment attempted to de"elop India Cuickly #y em#arkin/ on a/rarian reform and rapid industrialiDation- A successful land reform was introduced that a#olished /iant landholdin/s, #ut efforts to redistri#ute land #y placin/ limits on landownership failed- Attempts to introduce lar/e1scale cooperati"e farmin/ were frustrated #y landownin/ rural elites, who formed the core of the powerful ri/ht1win/ of the .on/ress and had considera#le political support in opposin/ the efforts of Nehru- A/ricultural production e<panded until the early %*As, as additional land was #rou/ht under culti"ation and some irri/ation pro;ects #e/an to ha"e an effect- 4he esta#lishment of a/ricultural uni"ersities, modeled after land1/rant colle/es in the Bnited 8tates, contri#uted to the de"elopment of the economy- 4hese uni"ersities worked with hi/h1yieldin/ "arieties of wheat and rice, initially de"eloped in )e<ico and the Philippines, that in the %*As #e/an the 6reen :e"olution, an effort to di"ersify and increase crop production- At the same time a series of failed monsoons would cause serious food shorta/es despite the steady pro/ress and increase in a/ricultural production- +E%,

+edit,

omestic policies
+his section is empty, 3"u (an help
#y adding t" it1 (June 2012)

+edit,&tates

reorganisation

!ee also* !tates +eorganisation ,ct 4he @ritish Indian =mpire, which included present1day India, Pakistan and @an/ladesh, was di"ided into two types of territories: the Pro"inces of @ritish India, which were /o"erned directly #y @ritish officials responsi#le to the 6o"ernor16eneral of IndiaG and princely states, under the rule of local hereditary rulers who reco/nised @ritish suDerainty in return for local autonomy, in most cases as esta#lished #y treaty- @etween %!( and a#out %2A, the territories of the princely states were politically inte/rated into the Indian Bnion under Nehru and 8ardar Patel- )ost were mer/ed into e<istin/ pro"incesG others were or/anised into new pro"inces, such as :a;putana, 3imachal Pradesh, )adhya @harat, and >indhya Pradesh, made up of multiple princely statesG a few, includin/ )ysore, 3ydera#ad, @hopal, and @ilaspur, #ecame separate pro"inces- 4he 6o"ernment of India Act %E2 remained the constitutional law of India pendin/ adoption of a new .onstitution4he new .onstitution of India, which came into force on '* January %2A, made India a so"erei/n democratic repu#lic- Nehru declared the new repu#lic to #e a JBnion of 8tatesJ- 4he constitution of %2A distin/uished #etween three main types of states: Part A states, which were the former /o"ernors0 pro"inces of @ritish India, were ruled #y an elected /o"ernor and state le/islature- 4he Part @ states were former princely states or /roups of princely states, /o"erned #y a ra;pramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state, and an elected le/islature- 4he ra;pramukh was appointed #y the President of India- 4he Part . states included #oth the former chief commissioners0 pro"inces and some princely states, and each was /o"erned #y a chief commissioner appointed #y the President of India- 4he sole Part 7 state was the Andaman and Nico#ar Islands, which were administered #y a lieutenant /o"ernor appointed #y the central /o"ernmentIn 7ecem#er %2E, Nehru appointed the 8tates :eor/anisation .ommission to prepare for the creation of states on lin/uistic lines- 4his was headed #y Justice FaDal Ali and the commission itself was also known as the FaDal Ali .ommission- 4he efforts of this commission were o"erseen #y 6o"ind @alla#h Pant, who ser"ed as Nehru0s 3ome )inister from 7ecem#er %2!- 4he commission created a report in %22 recommendin/ the reor/anisation of India0s states- Bnder the 8e"enth Amendment, the e<istin/ distinction #etween Part A, Part @, Part ., and Part 7 states was a#olished- 4he distinction #etween Part A and Part @ states was remo"ed, #ecomin/ known simply as JstatesJ- A new type of entity, the union territory, replaced the classification as a Part . or Part 7 state- Nehru stressed commonality amon/ Indians and promoted pan1Indianism- 3e refused to reor/anise states on either reli/ious or ethnic lines- Western scholars ha"e mostly praised Nehru for the inte/ration of the states into a modern repu#lic #ut the act was not accepted uni"ersally in India-

+edit,Education

and social re!orm

Nehru with schoolchildren at the7ur/apur 8teel Plant- 7ur/apur alon/ with:ourkela and @hilai were the three inte/rated steel plants set up under India0s8econd Fi"e1Hear Plan in the late %2As-

Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate ad"ocate of education for India0s children and youth, #elie"in/ it essential for India0s future pro/ress- 3is /o"ernment o"ersaw the esta#lishment of many institutions of hi/her learnin/, includin/ the All India Institute of )edical 8ciences, theIndian Institutes of 4echnolo/y, the Indian Institutes of )ana/ement and the National Institutes of 4echnolo/y- Nehru also outlined a commitment in his fi"e1year plans to /uarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India0s children- For this purpose, Nehru o"ersaw the creation of mass "illa/e enrollment pro/rammes and the construction of thousands of schoolsNehru also launched initiati"es such as the pro"ision of free milk and meals to children in order to fi/ht malnutrition- Adult education centres, "ocational and technical schools were also or/anised for adults, especially in the rural areasBnder Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many chan/es to 3indu law to criminaliDe caste discrimination and increase the le/al ri/hts and social freedoms of women-+!
,+!',+!E,+!!,

A system of reser"ations in /o"ernment

ser"ices and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social ineCualities and disad"anta/es faced #y peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tri#es- Nehru also championed secularism and reli/ious harmony, increasin/ the representation of minorities in /o"ernmentNehru specifically wrote Article !! of the Indian constitution under the 7irecti"e Principles of 8tate Policy which states : 04he 8tate shall endea"our to secure for the citiDens a uniform ci"il code throu/hout the territory of India-0 4he article has formed the #asis of secularism in India-+!2, 3owe"er, Nehru has #een criticiDed for the inconsistent application of the law- )ost nota#ly, Nehru allowed )uslims to keep their personal law in matters relatin/ to marria/e and inheritance- Also in the small state of 6oa, a ci"il code #ased on the old Portu/uese Family ?aws was allowed to continue, and )uslim Personal law was prohi#ited #y Nehru- 4his was the result of the anne<ation of 6oa in %* #y India, when Nehru promised the people that their laws would #e left intact4his has led to accusations of selecti"e secularismWhile Nehru e<empted )uslim law from le/islation and they remained un1reformed, he did pass the 8pecial )arria/e Act in %2!- 4he idea #ehind this act was to /i"e e"eryone in India the a#ility to marry outside the

personal law under a ci"il marria/e- As usual the law applied to all of India, e<cept Jammu and 5ashmir (a/ain leadin/ to accusations of selecti"e secularism)- In many respects, the act was almost identical to the 3indu )arria/e Act of %22, which /i"es some idea as to how seculariDed the law re/ardin/ 3indus had #ecome- 4he 8pecial )arria/e Act allowed )uslims to marry under it and there#y retain the protections, /enerally #eneficial to )uslim women, that could not #e found in the personal law- Bnder the act poly/amy was ille/al, and inheritance and succession would #e /o"erned #y the Indian 8uccession Act, rather than the respecti"e )uslim Personal ?aw- 7i"orce also would #e /o"erned #y the secular law, and maintenance of a di"orced wife would #e alon/ the lines set down in the ci"il lawNehru led the faction of the .on/ress party which promoted 3indi as the li/ua1franca of the Indian nation- After an e<hausti"e and di"isi"e de#ate with the non13indi speakers, 3indi was adopted as the official lan/ua/e of India in %2A with =n/lish continuin/ as an associate official lan/ua/e for a period of fifteen years, after which 3indi would #ecome the sole official lan/ua/e- =fforts #y the Indian 6o"ernment to make 3indi the sole official lan/ua/e after %*2 were not accepta#le to many non13indi Indian states, who wanted the continued use of =n/lish- 4he 7ra"ida )unnetra 5aDha/am (7)5), a descendant of 7ra"idar 5aDha/am, led the opposition to 3indi- 4o allay their fears, Nehru enacted the Ffficial ?an/ua/es Act in %*E to ensure the continuin/ use of =n/lish #eyond %*2- 4he te<t of the Act did not satisfy the 7)5 and increased their skepticism that his assurances mi/ht not #e honoured #y future administrations- 4he issue was resol"ed durin/ the premiership of ?al @ahadur 8hastri, who under /reat pressure from Nehru0s dau/hter, Indira 6andhi, was made to /i"e assurances that =n/lish would continue to #e used as the official lan/ua/e as lon/ the non13indi speakin/ states wanted- 4he Ffficial ?an/ua/es Act was e"entually amended in %*( #y the .on/ress 6o"ernment headed #y Indira 6andhi to /uarantee the indefinite use of 3indi and =n/lish as official lan/ua/es- 4his effecti"ely ensured the current J"irtual indefinite policy of #ilin/ualismJ of the Indian :epu#lic-

+edit,National

security and !oreign policy

!ee also* +ole of India in %on&,ligned -ovement Nehru led newly independent India from %!( to %*!, durin/ its first years of freedom from @ritish rule- @oth the Bnited 8tates and the8o"iet Bnion competed to make India an ally throu/hout the .old War- Nehru also maintained /ood relations with the @ritish =mpire- Bnder the ?ondon 7eclaration, India a/reed that, when it #ecame a repu#lic in January %2A, it would ;oin the .ommonwealth of Nations and accept the @ritish monarch as a Jsym#ol of the free association of its independent mem#er nations and as such the 3ead of the .ommonwealthJ- 4he other nations of the .ommonwealth reco/nised India0s continuin/ mem#ership of the association- 4he reaction #ack home was fa"oura#leG only the far1left and the far1ri/ht criticiDed Nehru0s decisionFn the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a stron/ supporter of the Bnited Nations3e pioneered the policy ofnon1ali/nment and co1founded the Non1Ali/ned )o"ement of nations professin/

neutrality #etween the ri"al #locs of nations led #y the B-8- and the B-8-8-:- :eco/nisin/ the People0s :epu#lic of .hina soon after its foundin/ (while most of the Western #loc continued relations with the :epu#lic of .hina), Nehru ar/ued for its inclusion in the Bnited Nations and refused to #rand the .hinese as the a//ressors in their conflict with 5orea-+!*, 3e sou/ht to esta#lish warm and friendly relations with .hina in %2A, and hoped to act as an intermediary to #rid/e the /ulf and tensions #etween the communist states and the Western #locNehru had promised in %!$ to hold a ple#iscite in 5ashmir under the auspices of the BN- 5ashmir was a disputed territory #etween India and Pakistan, the two ha"in/ /one to war with each other o"er the state in %!$- 3owe"er, as Pakistan failed to pull #ack troops in accordance with the BN resolution and as Nehru /rew increasin/ly wary of the BN, he declined to hold a ple#iscite in %2E- 3is policies on 5ashmir and the inte/eration of the state into India was freCuently defended in front of the Bnited Nations #y his aide, 5rishna )enon, a #rilliant diplomat who earned a reputation in India for his passionate speechesNehru, while a pacifist, was not #lind to the political and /eo1strate/ic reality of India in %!(- While layin/ the foundation stone of the National 7efence Academy (India) in %!%, he stated: JWe, who for /enerations had talked a#out and attempted in e"erythin/ a peaceful way and practiced non1"iolence, should now #e, in a sense, /lorifyin/ our army, na"y and air force- It means a lot- 4hou/h it is odd, yet it simply reflects the oddness of life- 4hou/h life is lo/ical, we ha"e to face all contin/encies, and unless we are prepared to face them, we will /o under- 4here was no /reater prince of peace and apostle of non1"iolence than )ahatma 6andhi, the Father of the Nation, whom we ha"e lost, #ut yet, he said it was #etter to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away- We cannot li"e carefree assumin/ that we are safe- 3uman nature is such- We cannot take the risks and risk our hard1won freedom- We ha"e to #e prepared with all modern defense methods and a well1 eCuipped army, na"y and air force-J+!(,+!$, Nehru en"isioned the de"elopin/ of nuclear weapons and esta#lished the Atomic =ner/y .ommission of India (A=.) in %!$-+!%, Nehru also called 7r- 3omi J- @ha#ha, a nuclear physicist, who was entrusted with complete authority o"er all nuclear related affairs and pro/rams and answered only to Nehru himself- +!%, Indian nuclear policy was set #y unwritten personal understandin/ #etween Nehru and @ha#ha- +!%, Nehru famously said to @ha#ha, JProfessor Bhabha ta$e care of Physics, leave international relation to me J-+!%, From the outset in %!$, Nehru had hi/h am#ition to de"elop this pro/ram to stand a/ainst the industrialiDed states and the #asis of this pro/ram was to esta#lish an Indian nuclear weapons capa#ility as part of India0s re/ional superiority to other 8outh1Asian states, most particularly Pakistan- +!%, Nehru also told @ha#ha, later it was told #y @ha#ha to :a;a :ammanna that, JWe must have the capability. We should first prove ourselves and then tal$ of #andhi, non&violence and a world without nuclear weapons-+!%, J

Jawaharlal Nehru (ri/ht) with )uhammad Ali @o/ra, Prime )inister of Pakistan (left), durin/ his %2E "isit to 5arachi

Nehru was hailed #y many for workin/ to defuse /lo#al tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons after the 5orean war ( %2A& %2E)-+2A, 3e commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear e<plosions, and campai/ned ceaselessly for the a#olition of what he called Jthese fri/htful en/ines of destruction-J 3e also had pra/matic reasons for promotin/ de1nuclearisation, fearin/ that a nuclear arms race would lead to o"er1 militarisation that would #e unafforda#le for de"elopin/ countries such as his own- +2
,

Nehru ordered the arrest of the 5ashmiri politician 8heikh A#dullah in %2E, whom he had pre"iously supported #ut now suspected of har#ourin/ separatist am#itionsG @akshi 6hulam )ohammad replaced himIn %2! Nehru si/ned with .hina the Fi"e Principles of Peaceful .oe<istence, known in India as the Panchsheel (from the 8anskrit words, panch:fi"e, sheel:"irtues), a set of principles to /o"ern relations #etween the two states- 4heir first formal codification in treaty form was in an a/reement #etween .hina and India in %2!- 4hey were enunciated in the pream#le to the JA/reement (with e<chan/e of notes) on trade and intercourse #etween 4i#et :e/ion of .hina and IndiaJ, which was si/ned at Pekin/ on '% April %2!Ne/otiations took place in 7elhi from 7ecem#er %2E to April %2! #etween the 7ele/ation of the P:. 6o"ernment and the 7ele/ation of the Indian 6o"ernment on the relations #etween the two countries with respect to the disputed territories of Aksai .hin and 8outh 4i#et- 4he treaty was disre/ared in the %*As, #ut in the %(As, the Fi"e Principles a/ain came to #e seen as important in 8ino1Indian relations, and more /enerally as norms of relations #etween states- 4hey #ecame widely reco/niDed and accepted throu/hout the re/ion durin/ the premiership of Indira 6andhi and the E year rule of the Janata Party ( %((& %$A)-+2', In %2* Nehru had criticised the ;oint in"asion of the 8ueD .anal #y the @ritish, French and Israelis- 4he role of Nehru, #oth as Indian Prime minister and a leader of the Non Ali/ned )o"ement was si/nificantG he tried to #e e"en1handed #etween the two sides, while denouncin/ =den and co1sponsors of the a//ression "i/orouslyNehru had a powerful ally in the B8 president 7wi/ht =isenhower who, if relati"ely silent pu#licly, went to the e<tent of usin/ AmericaIs clout in the I)F to make @ritain and France #ack down- 4he episode /reatly raised the presti/e of Nehru and India amon/st the third world nations- 7urin/ the 8ueD crisis, Nehru0s ri/ht hand man, )enon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant 6amal Nasser to compromise with the West, and was instrumental in mo"in/ Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser mi/ht pro"e willin/ to compromise-

In %2(, )enon was instructed to deli"er an unprecedented ei/ht1hour speech defendin/ IndiaIs stand on 5ashmirG to date, the speech is the lon/est e"er deli"ered in the Bnited Nations 8ecurity .ouncil, co"erin/ fi"e hours of the (*'nd meetin/ on the 'E of January, and two hours and forty1ei/ht minutes on the '!th, reportedly concludin/ with )enon0s collapse on the 8ecurity .ouncil floor- 7urin/ the fili#uster, Nehru mo"ed swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in 5ashmir (then under /reat unrest)- )enon0s passionate defense of Indian so"erei/nty in 5ashmir enlar/ed his #ase of support in India, and led to the Indian press temporarily du##in/ him the 03ero of 5ashmir0- Nehru was then at the peak of his popularity in IndiaG the only (minor) criticism came from the far1ri/ht-+2E,+2!, 4he B8A had hoped to court Nehru after its inter"ention in fa"our of Nasser durin/ the 8ueD crisis- 3owe"er, cold war suspicions and the American distrust of Nehru"ian socialism cooled relations #etween India and the B-8-, which suspected Nehru of tacitly supportin/ the 8o"iet Bnion- Nehru maintained /ood relations with @ritain e"en after the 8ueD .risis- Nehru accepted the ar#itration of the B5 and World @ank, si/nin/ the Indus Water 4reaty in %*A with Pakistani ruler Ayu# 5han to resol"e lon/1standin/ disputes a#out sharin/ the resources of the ma;or ri"ers of the Pun;a# re/ion-

5rishna )enon, routinely referred to #y western pu#lications as JNehru0s ="il 6eniusJ- 3e was descri#ed as the second most powerful man in India #y 4ime ma/aDine and others-

Althou/h the Pancha 8ila (Fi"e Principles of Peaceful .oe<istence) was the #asis of the %2! 8ino1Indian #order treaty, in later years, Nehru0s forei/n policy suffered throu/h increasin/ .hinese asserti"eness o"er #order disputes and Nehru0s decision to /rant political asylum to the !th 7alai ?ama- After years of failed ne/otiations, Nehru authoriDed theIndian Army to li#erate 6oa in %* from Portu/uese occupation, and then he formally anne<ed it to India- It increased his popularity in India, #ut he was criticiDed #y the communist oppposition in India for the use of military force- 4he use of military force a/ainst Portu/al earned him /oodwill

amon/st the ri/ht1win/ and far1ri/ht /roups- 3owe"er, this /oodwill was to #e lost with India0s tactical defeat in the %*' war with .hinaFrom %2%, in a process that accelerated in %* , Nehru adopted the JForward PolicyJ of settin/ up military outposts in disputed areas of the 8ino1Indian #order, includin/ in !E outposts in territory not pre"iously controlled #y India-+22, .hina attacked some of these outposts, and thus the 8ino1Indian War #e/an, which India technically lost, #ut .hina /ained no territory as it withdrew to pre1war lines due to a 8o"iet "eto- 4he war e<posed the weaknesses of India0s military, and Nehru was widely criticised for his /o"ernment0s insufficient attention to defence- In response, Nehru sacked the defence minister 5rishna )enon and sou/ht B-8- military aid- Nehru0s impro"ed relations with B8A under John F- 5ennedy pro"ed useful durin/ the war, as in %*', President of Pakistan (then closely ali/ned with the Americans) Ayu# 5han was made to /uarantee his neutrality in re/ards to India, who was threatened #y Jcommunist a//ression from :ed .hina-J +2*, 4he Indian relationship with the 8o"iet Bnion, criticiDed #y ri/ht1win/ /roups supportin/ free1market policies was also seemin/ly "alidated- Nehru would continue to maintain his commitment to the non1ali/ned mo"ement despite calls from some to settle down on one permanent ally4he aftermath of the war saw sweepin/ chan/es in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future, and placed pressure on Nehru, who was seen as responsi#le for failin/ to anticipate the .hinese attack on India- Bnder American ad"ice (#y American en"oy John 5enneth 6al#raith who made and ran American policy on the war as all other top policy makers in B8A were a#sor#ed in coincident .u#an )issile .risis) Nehru refrained, not accordin/ to the #est choices a"aila#le, from usin/ the Indian air force to #eat #ack the .hinese ad"ances- 4he .IA later re"ealed that at that time the .hinese had neither the fuel nor runways lon/ enou/h for usin/ their air force effecti"ely in 4i#et- Indians in /eneral #ecame hi/hly sceptical of .hina and its military- )any Indians "iew the war as a #etrayal of India0s attempts at esta#lishin/ a lon/1standin/ peace with .hina and started to Cuestion Nehru0s usa/e of the term J3indi1.hini #hai1#haiJ (meanin/ JIndians and .hinese are #rothersJ)- 4he war also put an end to Nehru0s earlier hopes that India and .hina would form a stron/ Asian A<is to counteract the increasin/ influence of the .old War #loc superpowers- +2(, 4he unpreparedness of the army was #lamed on 7efence )inister )enon, who Jresi/nedJ his /o"ernment post to allow for someone who mi/ht modernise India0s military further- India0s policy of weaponisation "ia indi/enous sources and self1sufficiency #e/an in earnest under Nehru, completed #y his dau/hter Indira 6andhi, who later led India to a crushin/ military "ictory o"er ri"al Pakistan in %( - 4oward the end of the war India had increased her support for 4i#etan refu/ees and re"olutionaries, some of them ha"in/ settled in India, as they were fi/htin/ the same common enemy in the re/ion- Nehru ordered the raisin/ of an elite Indian1 trained J4i#etan Armed ForceJ composed of 4i#etan refu/ees, which ser"ed with distinction in future wars a/ainst Pakistan in %*2 and %( -+2$,

7urin/ the conflict, Nehru wrote two desperate letters to B-8- President John F- 5ennedy, reCuestin/ ' sCuadrons of fi/hter ;ets and a modern radar system- 4hese ;ets were seen as necessary to #eef up Indian air stren/th so that air to air com#at could #e initiated safely from the Indian perspecti"e (#om#in/ troops was seen as unwise for fear of .hinese retaliatory action)- Nehru also asked that these aircraft #e manned #y American pilots until Indian airmen were trained to replace them- 4hese reCuests were re;ected #y the 5ennedy Administration (which was in"ol"ed in the .u#an )issile .risis durin/ most of the 8ino1Indian War), leadin/ to a cool down in Indo1B8 relations- Accordin/ to former Indian diplomat 6 Parthasarathy, Jonly after we /ot nothin/ from the B8 did arms supplies from the 8o"iet Bnion to India commence-J +2%,

+edit,Final

years and the rise o! Indira 'andhi

Nehru with Ashoke 5umar 8en, 8- :adhakrishnan and @idhan .handra :oy

Nehru had led the .on/ress to a ma;or "ictory in the %2( elections, #ut his /o"ernment was facin/ risin/ pro#lems and criticism- 7isillusioned #y alle/ed intra1party corruption and #ickerin/, Nehru contemplated resi/nin/ #ut continued to ser"e- 4he election of his dau/hter Indira as .on/ress President in %2% aroused criticism for alle/ed nepotism, althou/h actually Nehru had disappro"ed of her election, partly #ecause he considered it smacked of JdynastismJG he said, indeed it was Jwholly undemocratic and an undesira#le thin/J, and refused her a position in his ca#inet- +*A, Indira herself was at lo//erheads with her father o"er policyG most nota#ly, she used his oft1stated personal deference to the .on/ress Workin/ .ommittee to push throu/h the dismissal of the .ommunist Party of India /o"ernment in the state of 5erala, o"er his own o#;ections-+*A, Nehru #e/an to #e freCuently em#arrassed #y her ruthlessness and disre/ard for parliamentary tradition, and was JhurtJ #y what he saw as an asserti"eness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father-+!,

In the %*' elections, Nehru led the .on/ress to "ictory yet with a diminished ma;ority- .ommunist and socialist parties were the main #eneficiaries althou/h some ri/ht win/ /roups like @haratiya Jana 8an/h also did well-

Prime )inister Nehru talks with Bnited Nations 6eneral Assem#ly President :omulo (Fcto#er %!%)-

Nehru lyin/ in state, %*!-

Nehru0s health #e/an declinin/ steadily after %*', and he spent months recuperatin/ in 5ashmir throu/h %*E- 8ome historians attri#ute this dramatic decline to his surprise and cha/rin o"er the 8ino1Indian War, which he percei"ed as a #etrayal of trust- +* , Bpon his return from 5ashmir in )ay %*!, Nehru suffered a stroke and later aheart attack- 3e was Jtaken ill in early hoursJ of '( )ay %*! and died in Jearly afternoonJ on same day, and his death was announced to ?ok 8a#ha at !AA local timeG cause of death is #elie"ed to #e heart attack-+*', Nehru was cremated in accordance with 3indu rites at the8hanti"ana on the #anks of the Hamuna :i"er, witnessed #y hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of 7elhi and the cremation /roundsNehru, the man and politician made such a powerful imprint on India that his death on '( )ay %*!, left India with no clear political heir to his leadership (althou/h his dau/hter was widely e<pected to succeed him #efore she turned it down in fa"our of 8hastri)- Indian newspapers repeated Nehru0s own words of the time of 6andhi0s assassination: J4he li/ht has /one out of our li"es and there is darkness e"erywhere-J

+edit,?e/acy

@ust of Nehru at Aldwych, ?ondon

As India0s first Prime minister and e<ternal affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a ma;or role in shapin/ modern India0s /o"ernment and political culture alon/ with sound forei/n policy- 3e is praised for creatin/ a system pro"idin/ uni"ersal primary education+citation needed,, reachin/ children in the farthest corners of rural IndiaNehru0s education policy is also credited for the de"elopment of world1class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of )edical 8ciences,+*E, Indian Institutes of 4echnolo/y,+*!,and the Indian Institutes of )ana/ementD,ehru 4as a great &an111 ,ehru gave t" =ndians an i&age "$ the&selves that = d"nEt think "thers &ight have su((eeded in d"ing1D Sir =saiah %erlin>65?

In addition, Nehru0s stance as an unfailin/ nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality amon/ Indians while still appreciatin/ re/ional di"ersities- 4his pro"ed particularly important as post1Independence differences surfaced since @ritish withdrawal from the su#continent prompted re/ional leaders to no lon/er relate to one another as allies a/ainst a common ad"ersary- While differences of culture and, especially, lan/ua/e threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru esta#lished pro/rams such as the National @ook 4rust and the National ?iterary Academy which promoted the translation of re/ional literatures #etween lan/ua/es and also or/aniDed the transfer of materials #etween re/ions- In pursuit of a sin/le, unified India, Nehru warned, JInte/rate or perish-J+**,

+edit,"ommemoration

Nehru distri#utes sweets amon/ children at Non/poh, )e/halaya

Jawaharlal Nehru on a %$% B88:commemorati"e stamp-

In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru en;oyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship- 3is #irthday, ! No"em#er, is cele#rated in India as Baal .ivas (J.hildren0s 7ayJ) in reco/nition of his lifelon/ passion and work for the welfare, education and de"elopment of children and youn/ people- .hildren across India remem#er him as (hacha %ehru (Bncle Nehru)- Nehru remains a popular sym#ol of the .on/ress Party which freCuently cele#rates his memory- .on/ress leaders and acti"ists often emulate his style of clothin/, especially the #andhi cap and the JNehru JacketJ, and his mannerisms- Nehru0s ideals and policies continue to shape the.on/ress Party0s manifesto and core political philosophy- An emotional attachment to his le/acy was instrumental in the rise of his dau/hter Indira to leadership of the .on/ress Partyand the national /o"ernment-

Nehru0s personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to #e considered formal wear in North India todayG aside from lendin/ his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru ;acket is named in his honour due to his preference for that styleNumerous pu#lic institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru0s memory- 4he Jawaharlal Nehru Bni"ersity in 7elhi is amon/ the most presti/ious uni"ersities in India- 4he Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of )um#ai is a modern port and dock desi/ned to handle a hu/e car/o and traffic load- Nehru0s residence in 7elhi is preser"ed as the4een )urti 3ouse now has Nehru )emorial )useum and ?i#rary, and one of fi"e Nehru Planetariums that were set in )um#ai, 7elhi, @an/alore, Allaha#ad and Pune- 4he comple< also houses the offices of the 0Jawaharlal Nehru )emorial Fund0, esta#lished in %*! under the .hairmanship of 7r 8- :adhakrishnan, then President of India- 4he foundation also /i"es away the presti/ious 0Jawaharlal Nehru )emorial Fellowship0, esta#lished in %*$-+*(, 4he Nehru family homes at Anand @ha"an and 8wara; @ha"an are also preser"ed to commemorate Nehru and his family0s le/acy-

+edit,In

popular culture

)any documentaries a#out Nehru0s life ha"e #een produced- 3e has also #een portrayed in fictionalised films4he canonical performance is pro#a#ly that of :oshan 8eth, who played him three times: in :ichard Atten#orou/h0s %$' film #andhi, 8hyam @ene/al0s %$$ tele"ision series Bharat /$ 0hoj, #ased on Nehru0s The .iscovery of India, and in a 'AA( 4> film entitled The 1ast .ays of the +aj-+*$, In 5etan )ehta0s film !ardar, Nehru was portrayed #y @en;amin 6ilani- 6irish 5arnad0s historical play, Tughla2 ( %*') is an alle/ory a#out the Nehru"ian era- It was sta/ed #y =#rahim AlkaDi with National 8chool of 7rama :epertory at Purana Mila, 7elhi in %(As and later at the Festi"al of India, ?ondon in %$'- +*%,+(A,

+edit,Writin/s
Nehru was a prolific writer in =n/lish and wrote a num#er of #ooks, such as The .iscovery of India, #limpses of World 3istory, and his auto#io/raphy, Toward 4reedom.

+edit,Awards
In %22 Nehru was awarded @harat :atna, India0s hi/hest ci"ilian honour-+(
,

+edit,8ee

also

6limpses of World 3istory written #y Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru National 8olar )ission ?etters from a Father to 3is 7au/hter a collection of letters written #y Jawaharlal Nehru to his dau/hter Indira-

?ist of political families Nehru ;acket 4he 7isco"ery of India written #y Jawaharlal Nehru 4ryst with destiny the historic speech made #y Jawaharlal Nehru, considered in modern India to #e a landmark oration that captures the essence of the triumphant culmination of the hundred1year Indian freedom stru//le a/ainst the @ritish =mpire in India-

+edit,:eferences
'( J4he )ontreal 6aDetteJ- 6oo/le News Archi"e- % June %*!- p- !( :amachandra 6uha ('E 8eptem#er 'AAE)- JInter1faith 3armony: Where Nehru and 6andhi )eet 4imes of IndiaJ-The Times "f IndiaE( In Jawaharlal Nehru0s auto#io/raphy, ,n ,utobiography( %E*), and in the ?ast Will P 4estament of Jawaharlal Nehru, in!elected Wor$s of 5awaharlal %ehru, 'nd series, "ol- '*, p- * ', !Q a b )arlay, :ossG .lark 7- Neher ( %%%)- Patriots and Tyrants* Ten ,sian 1eaders- :owman P ?ittlefield- p- E*$- I8@N A1$!(*1$!!'1E2*($%A( )oraes 'AA$, p- ' A( )oraes 'AA$, p- !( )oraes 'AA$, p- '%( )oraes 'AA$, p- !E( )oraes 'AA$, p- !(( JNehru1=dwina were in lo"e: =dwina0s dau/hterJ- The Indian / press- 2 July 'AA(:etrie"ed ' )ay 'A A'E!( In Jawaharlal Nehru0s auto#io/raphy, ,n ,utobiography( %E*) p/- E!( In Jawaharlal Nehru0s auto#io/raphy, ,n ,utobiography( %E*) p/- EE( )oraes 'AA$, p- 2!Q a b JJawaharlal Nehru 1 a chronolo/ical accountJ- :etrie"ed 'E June 'A '-

2*($%-

( In Jawaharlal Nehru0s auto#io/raphy, ,n ,utobiography( %E*) p/- E2( )oraes 'AA$, p2-

( )oraes 'AA$, p- ((Q a b )oraes 'AA$, p- '**( .opland, Ian ( %%(), 4he Princes of India in the =nd/ame of =mpire, % (& %!(, .am#rid/e, =n/land: .am#rid/e Bni"ersity Press, I8@N A12' 12( (%1A p/- '2$-

'A-

( ?um#y, =-W-:- ( %2!), 4he 4ransfer of Power in India, %!2& %!(, ?ondon: 6eor/e Allen and Bnwin p- ''$

' '''E'A A '!'2-

( :a;mohan 6andhi, Patel* , 1ife, pp- ( , A8IN: @AAA*=HMAA ( 7eclaration of independence ( 6andhi, 6opalkrishna- J4he 6reat 7andi )arch N ei/hty years afterJ, The 3indu, 2 April

( Fisher, )ar/aret W- (June %*()- JIndia0s Jawaharlal Nehru p- E*$( Johnson, :ichard ?- ('AA2)- 6andhi0s =<periments With 4ruth: =ssential Writin/s @y And A#out )ahatma 6andhi- p- E(

'*'('$-

( )oraes 'AA$, p- %*( )oraes 'AA$, p- 'E!1'E$( JForty18econd Amendment to the .onstitutionJ- )inistry of ?aw and Justice of India- '$ Au/ust %(*- :etrie"ed * June 'A '-

'%EAE E'EEE!-

( )oraes 'AA$, p- '%( JErd Fi"e Hear Plan (.hapter )J- 6o"ernment of India- :etrie"ed * June 'A '( !cience 6 culture, 7olume 89- Indian 8cience News Association- %*!( Nehru, Jawaharlal ($ Au/ust 'AA*)- JWikisourceJ (P3P)- :etrie"ed $ Au/ust 'AA*( Nehru0s address on 6andhi0s death- :etrie"ed on 2 )arch 'AA(( Jain, %%*- P/ !21!(-

E2E*E(E$E%-

( Hasmin 5han ('A ( 4hapar, 5aran ( ( Au/ust 'AA%)- J6andhi, Jinnah #oth failed: JaswantJ- i#nli"e-in-com( JAfter Ad"ani, Jaswant turns Jinnah admirerJ- 4he =conomic 4imes- ( Au/ust 'AA%( JWalk 4he 4alk with Jaswant 8in/hJ- :etrie"ed 'E Au/ust 'AA%Q a b Farmer, @- 3- ( %%E)- ,n Introduction to !outh ,sia- :outled/e- p- 'A- I8@N A1! 21 A2*%21A-

!A! -

( 4he @our/eoisie .omes of A/e in India- )ar<ists-or/- :etrie"ed on ! No"em#er 'A

( 8om, :e#a ( %%!1A')- JJawaharlal Nehru and the 3indu .ode: A >ictory of 8ym#ol o"er 8u#stanceRJ- -odern ,sian !tudies )* ( ): *2& %!- doi: A- A (98AA'*(!%SAAA (E'-J84F: E '%'2-

!'-

( @asu, 8rimati ('AA2)- !he (omes to Ta$e 3er +ights* Indian Women, Property, and Propriety- 8BNH Press- p- E- I8@N $ 1$*(A*1!%1*- J4he 3indu .ode @ill was "isualised #y Am#edkar and Nehru as the fla/ship of modernisation and a radical re"ision of 3indu law---it is widely re/arded as dramatic #enchmark le/islation /i"in/ 3indu women eCuita#le if not superior entitlements as le/al su#;ects-J

!E-

( 5ulke, 3ermannG 7ietmar :othermund ('AA!)- , 3istory of India- :outled/ep- E'$- I8@N A1! 21E'% %1 - JFne su#;ect that particularly interested Nehru was the reform of 3indu law, particularly with re/ard to the ri/hts of 3indu women---J

!!-

( For#es, 6eraldineG 6eraldine 3ancock For#es, 6ordon Johnson ( %%%)- Women in -odern India- .am#rid/e Bni"ersity Press- peCuita#le ad;ustment of 3indu law----J 2- I8@N A12' 1*2E((1A- JIt is our #irthri/ht to demand

!2!*-

( 8e#astian =rckelG India and the =uropean Bnion 1 4wo )odels of Inte/ration p- '$ ( :o#ert 8herrod ( % January %*E)- JNehru:4he 6reat Awakenin/J- The !aturday /vening Post )+, ('): *A&*(-

!(-

( Indian =<press, * Fcto#er %!% at Pune at the time of lyin/ of the foundation stone of National 7efence Academy (India)-

!$-

( )ahatma 6andhi0s rele"ant Cuotes, J)y non1"iolence does not admit of runnin/ away from dan/er and lea"in/ dear ones unprotected- @etween "iolence and cowardly fli/ht, I can only prefer

"iolence to cowardice- Non1"iolence is the summit of #ra"ery-J JI do #elie"e that, where there is only a choice #etween cowardice and "iolence, I would ad"ise "iolence-J JI would rather ha"e India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should in a cowardly manner #ecome or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour-J & All )en Are @rothers ?ife and 4hou/hts of )ahatma 6andhi as told in his own words- BN=8.F- p/- $2 & A$!%Q a b c d e f 8u#let, .arrie- J7r- 3omi Jehan/ir @ha#haJ-%uclearweaponarchive.ord- http:99nuclearweaponarchi"e-or/- :etrie"ed $ Au/ust 'A 2A( @hatia, >inod ( %$%)- 5awaharlal %ehru, as !cholars of !ocialist (ountries !ee 3im Panchsheel Pu#lishers- p- E 2 ( 7ua, @- 7-G James )anor ( %%!)- %ehru to the %ineties* The (hanging "ffice of Prime -inister in India- .- 3urst P .o- Pu#lishers- pp- ! , '* - I8@N 1$2A*21 $A1%2'( 4he full te<t of this a/reement (which entered into force on E June %2!) is in :nited %ations Treaty !eries, "ol- '%%, Bnited Nations, New Hork, %2$, pp- 2(1$ - A"aila#le athttp:99treaties-un-or/9doc9pu#lication9unts9"olumeO'A'%%9"'%%-pdf 2E2!( A short history of lon/ speeches @@. News, '2 8ep 'AA% (http:99www-ier-ro9documente9r;eaT"ol(TnoE9:J=AT>ol(TNoET.anT8elfT7eterminationT8ol" eTtheT5ashmirT7ispute-pdf 222*2(2$2%( Noorani, A-6- JPerse"erance in peace processJ, 4rontline, '% Au/ust 'AAE( JAsia: =ndin/ the 8uspenseJ- Time- ( 8eptem#er %*2( .hina0s 7ecision for War with India in %*' #y John W- 6ar"er ( .hushi 6an/druk J.hushi 6an/druk: 3istoryJ, .hushi6an/druk-Fr/ ( JJawaharlal Nehru pleaded for B8 help a/ainst .hina in %*'J- The Times "f India- * No"em#er 'A A*AQ a b Frank, 5atherine ('AA')- Indira* The 1ife of Indira %ehru #andhi- 3ou/hton )ifflin @ooksp- '2A- I8@N A1E%21(EA%(1S* ( =m#ree, Ainslie 4-, ed- ( %$$)- /ncyclopedia of ,sian 3istory-+- New Hork: .harles 8cri#ner0s 8ons- pp- %$& AA- I8@N A1*$!1 $$%%1*-

*'-

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