CHAPTER ONE

1.0

INTRODUCTION The need for an amplifier arose when signals of higher amplitudes required at

the electronic system. From the definition of an amplifier as a device that receives a signal from present stage transducer or other input source and provide a large version of the signal to some output device or another amplifier stage. These must be a prescribed relationship between the input and output signals, be it voltage or current. Normally the relationship is required to be linear, So that the output signal is widely used in such equipment as radio, high fidelity (HiFi) equipment, television and computers. The amplifier may be required to deliver appreciable output power, from instant to operate loudspeaker system or to feed a transmitter antenna, power amplifier is design to deliver a specific output power into a related load when a suitable signal (like 20Hz to 20kHz) of this is applied to its input. Modern technology favour the use of transistor and integrated circuit (I C) in the construction of audio amplifier and this is fully adopted in this project work. Also, resistance and capacitor coupling is used between two amplifier stages because of its simplicity, good frequency response and low cost. Also, cascading is easily down in this project because transistor in the amplifier stage is operated in the common-emitter configuration. The completed voltage amplifier consists of the preamplifier, the mixer and the tone controls which also serve as the equalizer. The ratio of the output current or voltage power to the corresponding quantity all expressed in the same unit is the gain of the amplifier. Furthermore, amplifiers are necessary in most application because the desired (actual) signal usually too weak to be directly useful. Example is the audio output from a microphone (mw) where the loudspeaker needs a few volt of audio signal. However, with an amplifier a whisper could fill a large room with sound. However, voltage amplifier produce voltage amplification primarily to increase the voltage of input signal, while large signal or power amplifier primarily provides sufficiency power to an output load which could be a speaker or other power device of a few watts (w) to tens of watt.

1.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is important or necessary for an integrated circuit power amplifier to take an input signal and make it stronger or increase its amplitude at the output.

1.2. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The importance of this project is to make it easier for people or audience to hear someone from distance or a specify place that the amplifier can cover so as to make an undisturbed output, to composed primarily of frequencies between 20-20000hz the human range of hearing to a suitable for driving loudspeakers.

1.3

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The aim and objective of this project is to construct a 20 watts amplifier that can amplify the poor of message signal to be transmitted.

1.4

SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT

The scope of this project is to design an amplifier which it will not go beyond 20watt amplifier and make it perfect for almost any home audio where space is limited.

1.5 (i)

DEFINITION OF TERMS Integrated circuit: It permits the construction of completed multistage

amplifier and other linear device on a single silicon clip. (ii) Operational amplifier (Op-Amp): It is used with different forms of feedback

and external circuitry to construct audio amplifiers, modulators integrated, filter etc. (iii) Amplification: It is the production of signal of higher amplitude at the output of an electronic system from small amplitude voltage input signal.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The audio amplifier was invented in the year 1909 by Lee De Forest when he invented the triode Vacuum tube. The triode was a three terminal device with a control grid that can modulate the flow of electrons from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum amplifier was used to the first Am radio. Early audio power amplifier were based on vacuum tubes known as valves and some of and some of their achieved notably high quality e.g the Williamson amplifier of 19471949.Most modern audio amplifiers are based on solid state devices (transistors such as BJTs, FETs, and MOSFETs) but there still some who prefer tube based amplifiers and the valve sound Audio power amplifiers based on transistors become practical with the wide availability of inexpensive transistor in the late 1960s. In early days of electronic, amplifier was achieved by the use of thermionic valves, which telegraph signal before the introduction of diode. In 1948, this actually broadened the scope of the amplifier. In 1947 at the bell telephone laboratories Dr John William and Shockey, Dr John burden and Dr Watter first demonstrated the amplifying action of the first transistor, which was lighter than valves and generates lesser heat and occupied little space. In the mid 1950s, Field Effect Transistor (FET) was discovered and in early 1960s integrated circuit (I C) were developed. 2.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS

Key design parameter for audio power amplifiers are frequency response, gain, noise, and distortion. These are interdependent, increases gain often leads to undesirable increases in noise and distortion while negative feedback actually reduces the gain, it also reduces distortion. Most audio amplifiers are linear amplifiers operating in class AB. Since modern digital device, including CD and DVD players radio receivers and tape decks already provide a flat signal at line level, the preamp is not needed other than as a volume control and source selector. One alternative to a separate preamp is to simply use passive volume and switching controls, sometimes integrated into a power amplifier to form an integrated amplifier.

2.3

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IN AMPLIFIER DESIGN

For some years following the introduction of solid state amplifier, their perceive sound did not have the excellent audio quality of best value amplifiers. This led audiophiles to believe that valve sound had an intrinsic quality due to the vacuum tube technology itself. In 1972, Matti Otala demonstrated the origin of a previous unobserved form of distortion transient intermodulation distortion (TIM), also called slew rate distortion.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0.

COMPONENT ANALYSIS

3.1

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The process of amplification can be explained with the following simple block diagram illustrating the input device (microphone), pre-amplifier, power amplifier and output device (speaker).

Power supply

Input selector

Volume control

Power Amps

Speaker

FIG3.1BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUDIO AMPLIFIER

3.2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

The operational amplifier is a direct couple high gain amplifier which uses feedback to control its performance characteristics. Internally, it Consist Of Several Transistor Amplifier Connected in Series. Externally, it is represented by symbol shown in fig.3.1

Vp

Vi
Vn

FIG 3.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 5

The operational amplifier is widely popular withanalogue circuit designer because of its newly ideal characteristic. The operational amplifier is capable of amplifying, controlling or generating any sinusoidal or non sinusoidal wave form over frequencies Form D.C to many mega hertz (MHZ). All classical computational functions are possible such as additional, subtraction, multiplication, division, interpretation and differentiation. It is useful for numerical application in control system, regulating system; signal processing, instrumentation and analogue computers. Functionally, as shown in FIG.3.2, the operational amplifier contains one output terminal which is controlled by two input terminals. If a positive voltage is applied to the positive inputs, the operational amplifier output will go to positive. Likewise, a positive voltage on a negative input will cause the operational output to go to negative. A simplifier model of the operational amplifier is shown in FIG 3.3 below it indicates that an operational amplifier can be represented by a voltage source which is controlled by two floating terminators. AV (Vp-Vn)
Vp

Vn_

FIG.3.3 SIMPLIFIER MODEL OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER. The two inputs are labelled positive and negative or non-inverting and inverting. The positive (non-inverting) is in phase with the output while the negative (inverting) is 180 degree out of phase with the output. By connecting the resistor to the operational amplifier shown in FIG 3.4.bellow, where we have the basic non-inverting amplifier circuit. The basic inverting amplifier is shown in FIG 3.5.

FIG.3.4 NON-INVERTING Both inputs to the operational amplifier can be used simultaneously for different amplifier circuit.

FIG.3.5 INVERTING

3.3

POWER SUPPLY UNIT.

The power unit is the stage at which the A.C input supply voltage is needed to power the amplifier circuit by stepping it down from high voltage to low voltage suitable for use and electronics. Most of the electronic devices and circuits require a D.C source for their operation. Dry cell and batteries are one form of D.C source. They have the advantage of being portable and ripple free. However, their voltages are 7

low, they need frequent replacement and expensive as compared to conventional D.C power supplies, it is advantage to convert this alternating voltage (usually 220Vrms) into D.C voltage (usually small in Value).This process of converting A.C voltage into D.C voltage is called RECTIFICATION, and is accomplished with the help of: (i) (ii) (iii) Rectifier Filter and Voltage regulator circuit.

These element put together constitute D.C power supply.

3.4

TRANSFORMER A transformer is an electrical device which is used in stepping up or stepping

down of voltage or current and for isolation purposes. It has no moving part and is highly efficient. It uses the principle of electromagnetic induction and consists of two coils which are laminated from each other by means of lamination sheet of high permeable steel to prevent direct electrical contact. The two coils are primary coil which is at the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side of the transformer. When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding pulsating flux moving from positive maximum to negative maximum in every cycle is setup. This pulsating flux induced e.m.f in the secondary windings. Transformer usually step-up or step-down voltage depending on the ratio of the primary windings to that of secondary windings. If the primary windings are more than the secondary windings, then it is step down transformer, but if the secondary windings are more than the primary windings, it is step up transformer. This is given by the equation of transformer ratio as:

Where, NP =number of turn of coil in primary side NS=number of turn of coil in secondary side. EP=e.m.f in the primary side ES=e m f induced in the secondary side of transformer. However, the primary coil is connected to the A.C mains supply of (240V, 50Hzor 220V, 60Hz) and the secondary coil as the output to another main circuit.

FIG.3.6 TRANSFORMER SYMBOL

3.5. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER Electronic devices circuit require a D.C source for their operation. Dry cells and batteries are one form of D.C source. Since the most convenient source of power is the domestic A.C supply. It is advantageous to convert this alternating voltage (usually 220-240V), to A.C voltage. The process of converting A.C voltage into D.C voltage is called RECTIFICATION. This full wave rectifier consists of an A.C input, a transformer, diode, and filter. The transformer of the solid state electronic device and circuit fed by the D.C power supply.

FIG 3.7.FULL WAVE RECTIFIER When input A.C supply is on the transformer secondary end becomes positive and negative alternative.

3.6

SMOOTHING CIRCUIT

The vary D.C output voltage from a rectifier circuit can be used to change a battery but must be smothered to obtain the steady D.C required by the electronic gadgets or equipments. The simplest way to smooth on output is to connect a large capacitor called a RESERVOIR CAPACITOR across its value on a frequency of 50Hz supply many ranges from 100 to 10,000 depending on the current and smoothing needed. The waveform of the smoother output voltage Vo for half wave rectification is shown as a solid line in figure bellow. The corresponding half-cycle of A.C during which the diode (D) conducts are drawn dashed. The small variation in the smoothed D.C is called the ripple voltage. It has the same frequency as the A.C supply and causes MAIN TUNE The smoothing action of capacitor (C) is explained thus. During the half-cycle of A.C when (D) is forward biased. There is a current pulse which charges up capacitor (C) steps the load (R) supplied with current by partly discharging through it, while its occurs, the output p.d Vo falls until the next pulse of the rectified current top up the charge on (C). It does this near the peak of the half cycle and so far every half of each cycle to the load current is supplied by (C) acting as a reservoir of charge. The ripple voltage in a full wave rectifier circuit is smaller resulting in smoothing.

10

FIG3.8 SMOOTHING CIRCUIT WAVE FORM

3.7

STABILITY

The stability of a system is a measure of the senility of a network to variation in its parameters. In any amplifier employing a transistor, the collector (IC) is sensitive to; (i) (ii) (iii) B; since beta increases with increase in temperature. Base emitter voltage VBE: VBE decreases by about 7.5mw per degree Celsius. Icon (reverse saturation current); this double in value for every 10 degree increase in temperature. These three points caused the bias point in drift from the designed point of operation. A stability factors is defined for the three parameters affecting bias stability. For voltage divider configuration, the stability are given

3.8. TRANSISTOR A transistor is a three layer semiconductor devices consisting of either two N type or one P type layer of materials or two P and one N type layers of materials. The former is called an NPN-transistor, while the latter is called a PNP transistor. Both are shown with symbols in Fig 3.9, where the three semiconductor layers (regions) are collector, base and emitter.

11

(a) NPN transistor

(b) PNP transistor FIG3.9 BI-POLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR There are three normal operating states for BJT and this depends upon the bias conductor applied to the two PN-junctions.

12

The state is when the transistor is in its ON-state, OFF-state and amplifying state. For amplifying state, base, and emitter junction must be forward biased and base collector junction must be reversed biased.

3.9. POWER AMPLIFIER An amplifier main purpose is to take weak signal and make it strong enough to drive a speaker. Power amplifiers get necessary energy for amplification of input signal from A.C wall outlet to which it is connected. If the amplifier were perfect, all of the energy the amplifier took from A.C outlet would be converted to output useful (to the speaker). However, no amplifier is 100% efficient so some of the energy from the wall outlet is wasted. The vast majority of energy wasted by amplifier shows up in the form of heat.

3.9.1. PRINCIPLE OPERATION The purpose is to receive a small electrical signal and enlarge or amplify it.The operation of an amplifier circuit is base on the fact that the arrangement requires dual power supplies. The amplifier circuit is power with 18V filtered D.C i. e. 9V at the (+Ve) positive and 9V at the (-Ve) negative supply. The negative feedback tends to stabilize also frequency response; this is called a non p-inverting configuration of Op-amplifier. The differences of the input voltage pin and the feedback network voltage is differential input to the Op-amplifier. This differential voltage is amplified by the open loop gain of the Op-amplifier and produces an output voltage. The potential differences between point A and B when the potentiometer is adjusted will be coupled through a capacitor C to non-inverting input. During the negative (-ve) half cycle Q1 conduct while Q2 cuts off presenting an high impedance, the voltage is again build across loads but now inverting because the circuit is complementary and that is why it is push-pull amplifier so that it give exact replica of the input.

13

3.9.2

CIRCUIT LAYOUT

14

3.9.3 BILL OF MATERIALS

S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

COMPS R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 IC Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 C1 C2 D1 D2 SPK

TYPE

VALUE 220ohms 220ohms 47killoohms 47killoomhs 33killoohms 33killoohms 39killoohms 2.2killoohms 100ohms 100omhs

QUATITY 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

PRICE 50 50 40 40 50 50 100 50 100 100 300 200 150 80 100 150 100 400 400 50 40 400 100 300 50

RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR

INTEGRATED CCTJRC4558 TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR CAPACITOR CAPACITOR DIODE DIODE SPEAKER A73 C945 BD244C CD110 BF871 M8306 1000uf 1000uf IN1401 IN539 4ohms, 8watt B50k

VAR. VARIABLE R T SW

TRANSFORMER 12V SWITCH On/Off

TOTAL=3450

15

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0

CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING

4.1

CONSTRUCTION This chapter presents general information concerning the construction,

physical appearance and functions of the major components of the Audio Amplifier. It describes various layouts, arrangement of the components and also the guideline to be used during the construction. The construction of this project involves the use of various components such as resistors, capacitors, integrated circuit etc. Each component was tested before insertion on a bread board for testing.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CASING The casing was made of plastic instead of wooded material; this is to prevent from risk of fire outbreak in case of any short-circuiting. The plastic was shaped to form a rectangular closure while sides were performed to provide ventilation for the component inside.

4.3

ASSEMBLING OF COMPONENTS

The various components were assembled and soldered one by one using soldering iron and lead. At the end 20watt audio amplifier ready to be tested.

4.4

TESTING

The first part of the construction process involved the measurement and testing of the actual characteristics and respective value of the component used and comparing this with theoretical details. These following test were carried out with multi meter, testing for continuity of resistor, diode, capacitor, transistor, and transformer.etc.

4.5

RESULT

Each stage was tested and they give approximate expectations. A signal of low amplifier applied to the input gives on amplified output when connected to the loudspeaker as expected.

16

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1

CONCLUSION

The design and construction of 20-watt audio amplifier was indeed an interesting experience for us, more so when we had pre-knowledge of practical works. The amplifier can be put to use in lecture rooms where the number of students is large and the voice of the lectures is not audible enough for those sitting at the back to benefit from what the lecture is saying. The construction of the audio amplifier by the students will save cost of purchase of a similar audio amplifier from the market, since the both will be serving the same purpose. However, it must be noted that in the construction, there were some lapses due to inexperience which may make the contract audio amplifier to efficiency to one constructed by professionals. be bit less in

5.2

RECOMMENDATION

In order to gain better sound quality cable should be employed to transfer signals from one point to another. In other words, it is the means of improving the stability of power supply. The department should assist the final year student by building a laboratory where students can construct their project, so that this will prepare them in facing the challenges ahead of them in engineering field.

17

REFERENCES Ajayi O,(2005).Electronics III unpublished Electronics, hand-out Department of Electrical engineering, Federal Polytechnic ilaro, Ogun state, Nigeria. Omolola,S.A, (2005). Easy approach to control Engineer system adex production ilaroOgun state, pp.13. TherajaB.L,Theraja A.K,(2003).A textbook of Electrical technologychand andCompany Ltd, New Delhi pg 2229-2230, 2258-2259. R .S. Sedha, (2002). A textbook of Applied Electronics S.chand and company Ltd, New Delhi http://cyrusaudio.com/product-archive/amps/i-intergrated-amplifierallversions:cyrus audio:productarchive:cyrus one. Audio power amplifier design, peter baxandall, wireless world magazine, Feb 1979. Circuit design modifications for minimizing transient intermodulation distort ion in audio amplifier,MattiOtala, Journey of audio engineering society,vol20#5, June 1972.

18

19