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Furukawa et al. CT Diagnosis of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia Gastrointestinal Imaging Review

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CT Diagnosis of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia from Various Causes

Akira Furukawa1 Shuzo Kanasaki Naoaki Kono Makoto Wakamiya Toyohiko Tanaka Masashi Takahashi Kiyoshi Murata
Furukawa A, Kanasaki S, Kono N, et al.

OBJECTIVE. Acute mesenteric ischemia can be caused by various conditions such as arterial occlusion, venous occlusion, strangulating obstruction, and hypoperfusion associated with nonocclusive vascular disease, and the CT ndings vary widely depending on the cause and underlying pathophysiology. The aim of this article is to review the CT appearances of acute mesenteric ischemia in various conditions. CONCLUSION. Recognition of characteristic CT appearances and the variations associated with each cause may help in the accurate interpretation of CT in the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia. cute mesenteric ischemia is a life-threatening condition, with a reported mortality rate of 5090% [13], that requires early diagnosis and treatment. Angiography has been the reference standard imaging examination; however, the role of CT in this setting has expanded with the advent of helical CT scanners [39]. In particular, MDCT technology has dramatically improved the performance of CT by allowing rapid volumetric data acquisition to provide increased longitudinal spatial resolution over a large anatomic volume. From the volume data, retrospective thin or thick sections; sagittal, coronal, or curved multiplanar reformatted images; and CT angiograms with 2D or 3D visualization can be obtained. The rapid scanning capability of this technique coupled with IV bolus contrast injection substantially optimizes scan timing to allow both the arterial and venous phases to be imaged. These advantages are helpful in identifying the site, level, and cause of bowel ischemia by showing abnormalities in the bowel wall, mesentery, and mesenteric vessels. With these developments, the ability of CT for diagnosing mesenteric ischemia has recently been reported to have a sensitivity of approximately 90% [3, 10, 11]. It can also provide alternative diagnoses for patients in whom mesenteric ischemia is suspected. Acute mesenteric ischemia can be caused by various conditions such as arterial occlusion, venous occlusion, strangulating obstruc

Keywords: acute mesenteric ischemia, CT, emergency radiology, mesenteric arterial occlusion, mesenteric venous occlusion, nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia, strangulating bowel obstruction DOI:10.2214/AJR.08.1138 Received April 29, 2008; accepted after revision July 22, 2008.
1

tion, and hypoperfusion associated with nonocclusive vascular disease, and the CT ndings vary widely depending on the cause and underlying pathophysiology [15, 9]. CT ndings of acute mesenteric ischemia should be characterized on the basis of the cause. In addition, the severity of bowel ischemia (i.e., supercial mucosal or transmural bowel wall necrosis), the location (i.e., small or large bowel), and the presence and degree of hemorrhage or subsequent superinfections may affect the CT appearance. In this article, current imaging techniques and CT ndings of mesenteric ischemia resulting from various causes are reviewed with their underlying pathophysiology. CT Examination Preparation Oral and rectal administration of contrast material is recommended for accurate CT and assessment of acute bowel ischemia [1]. A variety of contrast materials providing positive, neutral, or negative contrast are available. Whether contrast material is indicated should be carefully considered for patients with bowel obstruction; materials containing barium are contraindicated in patients with bowel leak or perforation. However, in the acute state, particularly in patients with life-threatening conditions, indication of trans oral contrast may not be possible or may not be signicant because of an adynamic ileus preventing contrast material from moving through the intestine.

All authors: Department of Radiology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta Tsukinowa-cho, Otsu, Shiga 520-2192, Japan. Address correspondence to A. Furukawa (akira@belle.shiga-med.ac.jp).

CME This article is available for CME credit. See www.arrs.org for more information. AJR 2009; 192:408416 0361803X/09/1922408 American Roentgen Ray Society

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CT Diagnosis of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia Luminal contrast material may be useful in relatively stable patients, and neutral contrast material should be used for the correct assessment of bowel enhancement after IV contrast administration [3, 10, 12]. The use of neutral contrast material is also benecial in the formation of multiplanar images and in CT angiography because neutral contrast material does not interfere with image quality [3]. Positive contrast material may be advantageous in assessing patients with ischemic colitis by showing thickened bowel wall and revealing the presence of bowel obstruction or in evaluating patients with a contraindication for IV contrast administration. When contrast material is applied, oral administration of 600750 mL of luminal contrast material 30120 minutes before scanning and rectal administration of 400800 mL of luminal contrast material are used [1, 10]. CT Technique CT images are obtained from the dome of the liver to the level of the perineum to cover the entire course of the intestine. With MDCT scanners, a collimation of 0.52.5 mm and a detector pitch of 1.02.0 are used. Images with a 5- to 7-mm section thickness are usually constructed for image interpretation; however, thinner sections of contiguous 12 mm should also be constructed for multiplanar image reformations and CT angiography. Sagittal images are helpful in assessing the origin of the mesenteric arteries and their variations [10]. Acquisition of both unenhanced and contrast-enhanced CT scans is always necessary. The role of unenhanced CT is to identify vascular calcication, hyperattenuating intravascular clotting, and intramural hemorrhage; the role of contrast-enhanced CT is to identify thrombi in the mesenteric arteries and veins, abnormal enhancement of the bowel wall, and the presence of embolism or infarction of other organs [1]. For contrast-enhanced CT, 100150 mL of iodinated contrast material is administered at a rate of 25 mL/s, and scanning starts with delay times of 30 and 60 seconds for dual acquisition and 40 60 seconds for single acquisition [1, 10, 13]. CT Findings in Acute Bowel Ischemia Acute bowel ischemia provides various morphologic and attenuation abnormalities on CT images in the bowel wall, mesenteric vessels, and mesentery. The lumen of the bowel may dilate when lled with air or uid. These variations depend on the pathogenesis of bowel ischemia as well as the acuteness, duration, site, and extent of the ischemic attack and the state of the collateral circulation. Superimposed bowel wall infection and the presence of perforation may also affect the CT appearances of acute bowel ischemia. In lm interpretation, radiologists should assess the bowel wall, its thickness and attenuation; luminal dilatation; mesenteric vessels; mesentery; and other organs [1, 14, 15]. Bowel Wall Bowel wall thickness Normal bowel ranges from 3 to 5 mm thick depending on the degree of bowel distention [1, 1416]. Bowel wall thickening is not a specic but is the most frequently observed CT nding in mesenteric ischemia and is caused by mural edema, hemorrhage, or superinfection of the ischemic bowel wall [1, 10, 17] (Fig. 1). The degree of thickening is usually less than 1.5 cm, typically 89 mm [10], and is often observed in mesenteric venous occlusion, strangulation, ischemic colitis, and mesenteric arterial occlusion after reperfusion [1, 46, 10]. In exclusively arterial occlusive mesenteric ischemia or infarction, however, the bowel wall becomes thinner rather than thicker because there is no arterial ow and neither mural edema nor hemorrhage occurs. Thinning of the bowel wall or paper-thin wall is caused by volume loss of tissue and vessels in the bowel wall and by loss of intestinal muscular tone [1, 46, 8, 10] (Fig. 2). Bowel wall thickening is not a consistent CT nding in mesenteric ischemia, and the degree of thickening does not correlate with severity [1]. Bowel wall attenuation Bowel wall attenuation should always be assessed on both unenhanced and contrast-enhanced CT images to avoid misinterpretation of high density of the bowel wall as normal positive enhancement on contrast-enhanced CT in cases of intramural hemorrhage. On unenhanced CT images, low attenuation of the bowel wall indicates bowel wall edema, which typically occurs in mesenteric arterial occlusion after reperfusion, mesenteric venous occlusion, strangulation, and ischemic colitis [1, 1416, 18]. High attenuation of the wall is caused by intramural hemorrhage

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Fig. 1 Contrast-enhanced CT image of abdomen in 40-year-old woman with superior mesenteric vein and portal vein thrombosis. Wall thickening of ascending and transverse colon (arrowheads ) is shown. Engorgement of mesenteric veins is also visible.

Fig. 2 Contrast-enhanced CT image of abdomen in 78-year-old man with embolism of superior mesenteric artery. Bowel loops are distended with air and their wall is paper-thin.

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Fig. 3 CT image of lower abdomen in patient with strangulating obstruction. Bowel wall of involved segment is thickened and shows increased density (circle ) indicating hemorrhagic infarction. Involved mesentery shows high attenuation. (Reprinted with permission from [32])

Fig. 4 Contrast-enhanced coronal CT image of pelvis in patient with strangulating obstruction. Bowel wall of involved loop shows target appearance (arrow ).

and hemorrhagic infarction [1, 1416, 18] (Fig. 3). On contrast-enhanced CT, a highly specic but not sensitive nding for acute mesenteric ischemia is absent or diminished contrast enhancement of the bowel wall [1, 6, 19]. A halo or target appearance is also indicative of mesenteric ischemia, representing hyperemia and hyperperfusion associated with surrounding mural edema, and can be seen in arterial occlusion after reperfusion, nonocclusive and venoocclusive bowel ische mia, strangulation, and ischemic colitis [1, 1416, 20] (Fig. 4). Although it seems paradoxical, hyperenhancement of the bowel wall caused by hyperemia (mesenteric venous occlusion), hyperperfusion (reperfusion after arterial occlusive or nonocclusive bowel ischemia), or prolonged enhancement due to reduction of arterial perfusion and venous outow (strangulating bowel obstruction, nonocclusive bowel ischemia, shock bowel) may be observed in cases of mesenteric ischemia [1, 10] (Fig. 5). Pneumatosis intestinalis can be indicated when CT depicts air in the bowel wall (Fig. 6). In the setting of mesenteric ischemia, pneumatosis often indicates transmural infarction, particularly if it is associated with portomesenteric venous gas [1, 10, 2123]. Dilatation of the Bowel Lumen The bowel lumen is often dilated because of interruption of normal bowel peristalsis (adynamic ileus) [1, 10]. Fluid distention of

Fig. 5 Contrastenhanced CT image of lower abdomen obtained at equilibrium phase in patient with strangulating obstruction. Prominent mural enhancement of affected bowel segment (arrowhead ) is shown, which indicates presence of bowel ischemia. (Reprinted with permission from [32])

the bowel loops occurs by increased intestinal secretions, typically in venoocclusive ischemia and strangulating bowel obstruction. In exclusive arterial occlusion, the bowel seldom contains a large amount of luminal uid [5]. Mesenteric Vessels In most cases, emboli or thrombi in the mesenteric arteries and veins are clearly shown on contrast-enhanced CT images (Figs. 7 and 8); CT angiography may be helpful in seeing them [11]. Engorgement of the mesenteric veins caused by congestion of venous outow is typically seen in venoocclusive bowel ischemia or strangulating bowel obstruction [1, 4, 5] (Fig. 8).

Mesentery Mesenteric fat stranding and ascites appear with transudation of uid in the mesentery or the peritoneal cavity caused by elevation of mesenteric venous pressure, which is commonly seen in strangulating bowel obstruction and venoocclusive bowel ischemia [1, 4, 5]. It is also frequently seen in ischemic colitis because of superinfection of ischemic colonic segments. Therefore, mesenteric fat stranding in these conditions can appear without bowel infarction and has limited value in estimating the severity of bowel ischemia. On the other hand, in patients with arterial occlusive mesenteric ischemia, be cause the CT nding of fat stranding is almost

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CT Diagnosis of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia

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A
Fig. 6 56-year-old man with mesenteric infarction. AC, Contrast-enhanced CT images of upper ( A ), mid (B), and lower (C) abdomen show gas in portal venous branches ( A ), gas in mesenteric veins (circle , B), and gas in bowel wall (arrowheads , C).

B uid, gas, or both; however, the bowel seldom contains a large amount of uid. Contrast enhancement of the involved bowel is absent or diminished [15, 9, 10] (Fig. 9). Pneumatosis can typically be observed in cases with transmural infarction with or without associated portomesenteric venous gas. In cases with reperfusion or rich collaterals, the involved bowel segments may thicken and show the halo or target pattern of contrast enhancement [1, 4, 9] (Fig. 10). Coexisting embolism of other organs may also be observed on contrast-enhanced CT, which supports the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia (Fig. 11). The diagnosis of acute mesenteric arterial occlusion is usually made based on a combination of the CT ndings described earlier. The diagnostic performance of CT for mesenteric ischemia conned to mesenteric arterial occlusion has not been ascertained, to our knowledge; however, the diagnostic performance of CT for primary mesenteric is chemia, including arterial and venous occlusive and nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia, has been reported as 6496% in sensitivity and 92100% in specicity [6, 11]. In the case of each CT nding, a lack of focal bowel wall enhancement and the presence of pneumatosis intestinalis are relatively sensitive (sensitivity, 42%) and highly specic (specicity, 97100%) [11]. Findings of defects or occlusion of the mesenteric arteries or veins and gas in the mesenteric or portal veins or in the mesenteric arteries are less sensitive (1215%) but are highly specic (94100%) [11]. Findings of bowel wall thickening and mesenteric stranding are relatively high in sensitivity (8588%) but are less specic (6172%) [11].

C exclusively present with transmural infarction, this nding can be helpful in estimating the severity of bowel ischemia [1, 4, 5]. Bowel Ischemia and Infarction in Various Conditions Bowel ischemia and infarction can be caused by various conditions such as mesenteric arterial occlusion, mesenteric venous occlusion, strangulating bowel obstruction, and hypoperfusion associated with nonocclusive vascular disease. The clinical features and typical CT appearances of each condition are summarized in Table 1. Acute Mesenteric Arterial Occlusion Acute mesenteric arterial occlusion is typically caused by a thromboembolism associated with cardiovascular problems followed by arterial thrombosis, which accounts for 6075% (arterial embolism, 4050%; arterial thrombosis, 2030%) of all acute bowel ischemia cases [13, 2426]. Most emboli wedge at branching points around or distal to the middle colic artery, whereas thrombosis typically occurs at or near the origin of the mesenteric arteries [3]. Although the severity may vary, bowel ischemia is typically followed by infarction, perforation, and peritonitis unless reperfusion occurs. On contrast-enhanced CT images, emboli and thrombi can be seen as defects in the superior mesenteric artery and its branches [2, 10] (Figs. 7 and 9). The diameter of the superior mesenteric artery is often larger than that of the superior mesenteric vein. The thickness of the bowel wall of the involved segments is the same as or thinner than that of the healthy segments unless reperfusion occurs [1, 4, 9]. The lumen of the bowel may be lled with

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Fig. 7 Contrast-enhanced CT image in patient with embolism of superior mesenteric artery shows defect (arrowhead ) in superior mesenteric artery.

Fig. 8 Contrast-enhanced CT image in 40-year-old man (same patient as Fig. 2) with superior mesenteric vein thrombosis shows defect in superior mesenteric vein (arrowhead ). Distal branches of vein are engorged.

Venous Occlusion Thrombosis of the mesenteric vein can be primary or secondary to portal hypertension or infection or can be associated with various hypercoagulopathy states [1, 2, 20, 27]. Mesenteric venous obstruction does not typically lead to severe bowel ischemia; however, thrombosis of the mesenteric vein, particularly at a distal level, may cause bowel infarction and accounts for 510% of acute bowel ischemia. Impairment of venous drainage causes elevation of the hydrostatic pressure, which leads to extravascular leakage of

plasma, RBCs, or both into the bowel wall, mesentery, and peritoneal cavity. The bowel loops are typically prominently dilated [1, 3, 26]. Impairment of venous drainage may also compromise the arterial blood ow and cause bowel ischemia and infarction. On contrast-enhanced CT, thrombus in the mesenteric and portal veins is usually visible, and mesenteric venous obstruction can be conrmed by CT in more than 90% of cases [2830] (Fig. 12). Engorgement of the mesenteric veins is also observed. Fat stranding in the mesentery and ascites are common

ndings. The bowel wall is prominently thickened with absent or diminished enhancement, hyperenhancement, or a halo or target pattern of contrast enhancement [15, 7, 28]. Absent or diminished contrast enhancement of the bowel wall usually indicates transmural infarction, particularly when it is associated with pneumatosis and portomesenteric venous gas [2830]. On the contrary, the degree of bowel wall thickening, mesenteric fat stranding, or ascites does not correlate with the severity of ischemic bowel damage [28].

TABLE 1: Clinical Features and Typical CT Findings of Mesenteric Ischemia in Various Conditions
Characteristic Incidence Presentation Risk factors Arterial Occlusion 6070% of PMI Acute Arrhythmia, myocardial infarction, valve disease, atherosclerosisa, prolonged hypotensiona Thinning, no change, or thickening with reperfusion Not characteristic Diminished, absent, target appearance or high with reperfusion Not apparent Defect or defects in arteries, arterial occlusion, SMA > SMV in diameter Not hazy until mesenteric infarction occurs Venous Occlusion 510% of PMI Subacute Portal hypertension, venous hypercoagulopathy, right-sided heart failure Thickening Low with edema; high with hemorrhage Diminished, absent, target appearance, or increased Moderate to prominent Defect or defects in veins, venous engorgement Hazy with ascites Acute Previous abdominal surgery, internal and external hernia, intestinal malrotation Thickening Low with edema; high with hemorrhage Diminished, absent, target appearance, or increased Prominent (lled with uid) No defect, venous engorgement Strangulation 10% of SBO Nonocclusion 20% of PMI Acute or subacute Hypovolemia, hypotension, low cardiac output, digoxin, -adrenergic agonists No change or thickening with reperfusion Not characteristic Diminished, absent, heterogeneous in distribution Not apparent No defect, arterial constriction Not hazy until mesenteric infarction occurs

Bowel wall Attenuation of bowel wall on unenhanced CT Enhancement of bowel wall on contrast-enhanced CT Bowel dilatation Mesenteric vessels

Mesentery

Hazy with ascites, whirl sign [44], or spoke wheel sign [45]

NotePMI = primary mesenteric ischemia (i.e., arterial or venous occlusive or nonocclusive bowel ischemia), SBO = small-bowel obstruction, SMA = superior mesenteric artery, SMV = superior mesenteric vein. a A risk factor for thrombosis.

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A
Fig. 971-year-old woman with superior mesenteric artery embolism. A, Contrast-enhanced CT image obtained cephalad to B shows defect in superior mesenteric artery (arrowhead ). B, Contrast-enhanced CT image shows that mural enhancement is absent at most intestinal loops.

Fig. 10 Contrast-enhanced CT image in 83-year-old woman with superior mesenteric artery embolism after reperfusion. Mural thickening of intestine (circle ) is visible, showing target appearance.

Fig. 11 Contrast-enhanced CT image in 74-year-old man with superior mesenteric artery embolism shows defect (arrowhead ) in superior mesenteric artery. In addition, contrast enhancement of right kidney (arrow ) is absent, which indicates embolism of right renal artery.

A
Fig. 12 46-year-old man with superior mesenteric vein thrombosis. A, Contrast-enhanced CT image obtained cephalad to B shows thrombi in superior mesenteric vein (arrowhead ) and splenic vein (arrow ). B, Contrast-enhanced CT image shows engorgement of mesenteric veins (arrowhead ) and mural thickening of intestine. Ascites is present.

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Fig. 13 Illustration of closed-loop obstruction. Closed-loop obstruction is unique form of mechanical bowel obstruction in which two points of intestine along its course are obstructed at single site. Arrowhead shows site of obstruction. C = closed loop, P = proximal loop, D = distal loop.

Fig. 14 Example of closed-loop obstruction. Axial MR image in 52-year-old woman shows site of obstruction (arrowhead ), closed loop (C), proximal loop (P), and distal loop (D).

Strangulating Obstruction: Closed-Loop Bowel Obstruction Strangulating obstruction is a mechanical bowel obstruction associated with bowel ischemia that is seen in approximately 10% of patients with small-bowel obstruction [31, 32]. Strangulating obstruction is almost exclusively associated with a closed-loop ob-

struction (Figs. 13 and 14), which is caused most often by an adhesive band and occasionally by an internal or external hernia. A closed-loop obstruction tends to involve the mesentery and mesenteric vessels and is prone to produce a volvulus. Typically, strangulation in a closed-loop bowel obstruction is caused initially by impairment of venous

outow followed by arterial ischemia because the arterial pressure is higher than the venous pressure. Congestion or hemorrhage in the bowel wall and mesentery occurs, and the affected bowel loops are distended and lled with uid. On CT, a closed-loop obstruction is identied by a unique conguration of C- or U-

Fig. 15 Contrast-enhanced CT image shows closed-loop obstruction at right lower abdomen. Distended loops are seen lled with uid and mesentery is converging toward site of obstruction (circle ). Bowel wall is slightly thickened and density of mesentery is increased. (Reprinted with permission from [31])

Fig. 16 Contrast-enhanced coronal CT image shows closed-loop obstruction at lower abdomen. Distended loops are seen around their mesentery. Contrast enhancement is absent at bowel loops on right-hand side (arrowheads ) and attached mesentery shows increased density, which indicates mesenteric ischemia.

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CT Diagnosis of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia

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Fig. 17 Contrast-enhanced CT image ( A ) of pelvis in 69-year-old man with nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia. Contrast enhancement is prominently diminished or absent at distal ileal loops (arrowheads ). Bowel wall thickening is not present. After reperfusion, bowel loops show prominent wall thickening with appearance of target sign (B).

shaped distended loops with the mesenteric vessels converging toward the site of obstruction (Figs. 1416). The obstructed site of the closed loops can be located by following the course of the distended bowel loops [3135]. The affected bowel is lled almost exclusively with only uid and no gas. The affected mesentery typically shows a fan shape. In cases with strangulation, the bowel wall is thickened and shows absent or diminished enhancement, hyperenhancement, or a halo or target pattern of enhancement on contrastenhanced CT examination. The affected mesentery shows inltration and stranding associated with engorged mesenteric veins. Ascites is also observed [3135]. CT performance in diagnosing strangulation is reported as 83100% in sensitivity, 6193% in specicity, 7288% in positive predictive value, and 93100% in negative predictive value [3639], although a relatively low sensitivity of 51.9% has been reported recently [40]. The diagnosis of strangulation is based on the characteristic ndings described earlier or their combination. Among those ndings, absent or diminished bowel wall enhancement and inltration of the affected mesentery are highly specic. The small-bowel feces sign is also reported as a useful nding indicating the presence of strangulation [40]. Hypoperfusion Associated with Nonocclusive Vascular Disease Bowel ischemia and infarction can occur with a reduction of mesenteric blood supply

without vascular occlusion, which is called nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia or infarction. This type of bowel ischemia accounts for 2030% of all acute mesenteric ischemia or infarction cases, with mortality rates from 30% to 93% [3, 41, 42]. A reduction of the mesenteric blood supply is the result of mesenteric arterial vasoconstriction on reex to hypotension or administration or abuse of digitalis, ergotamine, vasopressin or other vasoconstrictive agents, amphetamine, and cocaine [3, 7, 41, 42]. Ischemic injury may range from reversible supercial damage localized to the watershed areas to a more severe form that extends to the entire bowel. Hypoperfusion results in increased vascular permeability that leads to extravascular leakage of plasma, RBCs, or both into the bowel wall, mesentery, and peritoneal cavity. Shock bowel is a variation of nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia caused by hypotensive shock induced by blunt abdominal trauma [3, 43]. Ischemic colitis and obstructive colitis are considered similar disease entities [1, 4, 5]. On CT, the bowel wall of the involved segments may be normal or thickened (Fig. 17). The pattern of enhancement is variable as absent or diminished enhancement, increased enhancement, or halo or target type of enhancement [1, 4, 5]. Fat stranding of the mesentery and ascites are visible. Among various conditions of mesenteric ischemia, nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia is the most difcult condition to diagnose on CT, and angiography is often required for correct and condent diagnosis [42].

Conclusion An accurate and early diagnosis is essential for the appropriate and successful treatment of patients with acute mesenteric ischemia to improve their prognoses. With the advances in CT technology, CT has realized a high diagnostic performance and become an essential diagnostic tool in this clinical setting. For a correct diagnosis, a technically appropriate CT examination and proper interpretation of images are mandatory. Because acute mesenteric ischemia can be caused by various conditions, the CT ndings vary widely, depending on the cause and underlying patho physiology and the presence of associated complications. Recognition of the characteristic CT appearances and variations of each cause may help in the accurate interpretation of CT in the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia. Acknowledgments We thank Tsutomu Sakamoto, Katsumi Hayakawa, and Masato Fujita for their in struction and assistance with the manuscript. References
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