PLATETECTONICSandAlfredWegener Introduction Takeahardboiledeggandcrackitsshell.Thethinshellrepresentsthe Earth'scrust,dividedintoplates.Thetheoryofplatetectonicshashadamajor impactonscience.Itrepresentsasignificantscientificrevolution. AlfredWegener18801930 AlfredWegenerwasborninBerlinin1880,wherehis fatherwasaministerwhorananorphanage.Hestudiedin GermanyandAustria,receivinghisPhDinastronomy.Butwhen hefinishedhisPhD,hedroppedastronomytostudymeteorology, thenewscienceofweather. In1910,Wegenernoticedthematchingcoastlinesofthe continentstheylookedonmapsliketheyhadoncefittogether. Hewasnotthefirsttonoticethis,butitwasanideathatwould neverleavehisthoughts.

Healsonoticedthatsimilarfossilswere foundonoppositesidesoftheocean.Hespokeonthistopicin Januaryof1912,puttingforththeideaofcontinentaldrift.

Wegernerpublishedhisideasin1915.Theywerethefirstfocusedandrationalargument forcontinentaldrift,buttheywereverydifferentthantheacceptedbeliefsofthetime.Many scientistsopposedhim,includinghisownfatherinlaw. In1930WegenersailedfromDenmarkastheleaderofamajorexpeditiontoGreenland hisfourthandlast.HecelebratedhisfiftiethbirthdayonNovember1,butshortlyafterwardsthe teamgotseparated,andhewaslostinablizzard.Hisbodywasfoundhalfwaybetweenthetwo camps.Itwasnotuntilalongtimeafterhisdeaththathistheorywasacceptedbythescientific community.

PLATETECTONICSandArthurHolmes Introduction Takeahardboiledeggandcrackitsshell.Thethinshellrepresentsthe Earth'scrust,dividedintoplates.Thetheoryofplatetectonicshashadamajor impactonscience.Itrepresentsasignificantscientificrevolution.

ArthurHolmes18901965 ArthurHolmeswasageologistwhomadetwomajorcontributionstoour understandingofhowtheEarthworks.Hewasthefirstearthscientisttograsp themechanicalmovementofthecontinentsbymantleconvectioncurrents,andhewidely appliedthenewlydevelopedmethodofradioactivedatingofmineralsinthefirstattemptto estimatetheageoftheEarth. ArthurHolmeswasespeciallyinterestedinWegener'stheoryofcontinentaldrift. HolmesbelievedthatWegnerstheoryofcontinentalmovementwascorrect.Holmesbelievedthat mantleundergoesthermalconvection.Theseconvectioncurrentinthemanteloccurbecause asasubstanceisheateditsdensitydecreasesandrisestothesurfaceuntilitiscooledandsinks again.Thisrepeatedheatingandcoolingresultsinacurrentthatcausethecontinentstomove.

ArthurHolmessuggestedthatthesethermalconvectioncurrentswerecausingsome continentalplatestomovetogetherwhileotherswerebeingforcedapart.Themainevidencethat HolmeshadwerefossilrecordsoforganismsfoundinAntarcticathatcouldhaveonlylivedin warmtropicalenvironments.ThisprovedthatAntarcticahadmovedovertimesincethese organismscouldnothavesurvivedinacoldarcticenvironment.Laterinthelate1950sanother scientistcalledHesswouldcollectdatafromtheseafloorthatsupportedthetheoryofconvection currentsinthemantle.Thetheoryofplatetectonics,Earthstectonicplatesmovedueto convectioncurrentsinthemantle,wasnotaccepteduntilthe1960sbyscientist.

PLATETECTONICSandEarthquakesandVolcanoes

Introduction

Takeahardboiledeggandcrackitsshell.Thethinshell representstheEarth'scrust,dividedintoplates.Thetheoryofplate tectonicshashadamajorimpactonscience.Itrepresentsa significantscientificrevolution.

EarthquakesandVolcanoes

Scientistscreatedthemapbelowtoshowwhereallofthe earthquakesandvolcanoeshappenedonearth:

Eachdotonthemaprepresentsanearthquakeorvolcaniceruption.When scientistscreatedthismaptheynoticedapattern.Thedotsseemtodividetheearth intodifferentsections.Theylaterrealizedthatthesedifferentsectionsaretheearths tectonicplates.AplateisasectionoftherockyouterlayerofEarth.Earthsplates moveatdifferentratesandindifferentdirections.Wheretheyrubagainstorgounder oneanothertheycauseearthquakesandvolcanoes. TheRingofFire AchainofvolcanoessurroundsthePacificOcean.Becausethevolcanoes frequentlyeruptinfieryexplosions,theregionisknownastheringoffire.Many earthquakesoccurintheregionaswell.Scientistsnowknowthattheringoffireis locatedontheedgesofthegiantPacificPlate.AsthePacificPlatemovesaround andgrindsintootherplates,itcausesearthquakesandvolcanoes.

PLATETECTONICSandHarryHess Introduction Takeahardboiledeggandcrackitsshell.Thethinshellrepresentsthe

Earth'scrust,dividedintoplates.Thetheoryofplatetectonicshashadamajor impactonscience.Itrepresentsasignificantscientificrevolution. ArthurHolmes18901965 ArthurHolmeswasageologistwhomadetwomajorcontributionstoourunderstandingofhowthe Earthworks.Hewasthefirstearthscientisttograspthemechanicalmovementofthecontinentsby mantleconvectioncurrents,andhewidelyappliedthenewlydevelopedmethodofradioactive datingof mineralsinthefirstattempttoestimatetheageoftheEarth. HarryHess19061969 HarryHesswasinthenavyduringWWIIandhisjobwastomaptheoceanfloor.Later,Hessbecamea geologyprofessoratPrincetonUniversityandin1953hediscoveredavolcanicvalleyrunningalongthe midoceanridgesbasedonthedatahecollectedwhilemappingtheoceanfloor.In1960,Hessusedhis understandingofmidoceanridgestodevelopthetheoryofseafloorspreadingfromventsintherift, wherehotmagmaoozedup.Asthemagmacooleditforcedtheexistingseafloorawayfromtherifton eitherside. MuchofourEarthsrockyinterior(themantle)ofourplanetis hotenoughtoflow,likeacandybarkepttoolonginones pocket.ThesurfaceoftheEarth,however,ischilledbythecold ofspace,andsothefamiliarrocksoftheEarthssurfaceare hardandbrittle.Thecoldouterlayerofourplanet,whichholds togetherasarigidshell,isnotmadeofonesolidpiece. Insteadthisshellisbrokenintomanyseparatepieces,or tectonicplates,thatslidearoundatopthemobileinterior. hetectonicplatesareinmotion.Theyaredrivenbytheflowing mantlebelowandtheirmotionsarecontrolledbyacomplex puzzleofplatecollisionsaroundtheglobe.Therearethree typesofplateplateinteractionsbaseduponrelativemotion: convergent,whereplatescollide,divergent,whereplatesseparate,andtransformmotion,where platessimplyslidepasteachother. SeafloorSpreadingisatypeofdivergentplateboundaries,leadingtothecreationofnewoceanfloor. Astwotectonicplatesslowlyseparate,moltenmaterialrisesupfromwithinthemantletofillthe opening.Inthiswaytheruggedvolcaniclandscapeofamidoceanridgeiscreatedalongtheplate boundary.Hessdiscoveryofseafloorspreadingprovidesevidencetosupportthetheoryofplate tectonics.