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Typographical symbols
Contents
Overview
1
Typography 1
General typography
11
Ampersand 11
Asterisk 15
At sign 20
Backslash 26
Bullet 28
Caret 30
Copyright symbol 32
Dagger 34
Ditto mark 37
Greater-than sign 38
Less-than sign 39
Inverted question and exclamation marks 41
Number sign 44
Numero sign 48
Obelus 51
Ordinal indicator 53
Per mil sign 56
Percent sign 58
Pilcrow 61
Prime 63
Registered trademark symbol 66
Section sign 68
Service mark symbol 70
Sound recording copyright symbol 71
Star 72
Tilde 77
Trademark symbol 84
Underscore 85
Vertical bar 87
Currency
90
Currency sign 90
List of currency symbols 92
Enclosed alphanumerics
99
Enclosed alphanumerics 99
Enclosed A 104
Enclosed C 105
Enclosed R 106
Punctuation
107
Apostrophe 107
Brackets 123
Colon 130
Comma 134
Dash 139
Double hyphen 146
Ellipsis 148
Exclamation mark 153
Full stop 158
Guillemets 161
Hyphen 164
Hyphen-minus 169
Interpunct 170
Question mark 174
Quotation mark 178
Quotation mark glyphs 184
Semicolon 187
slash 190
solidus 195
Space 200
Uncommon typography
205
Asterism 205
Because and therefore signs 207
Index 209
Interrobang 211
Irony punctuation 214
Lozenge 216
Slashed zero 218
Tee 221
Tie 222
Up tack 224
Weierstrass p 224
Miscellany
225
Japanese postal mark 225
Japanese typographic symbols 227
Non-English usage of quotation marks 232
References
Article Sources and Contributors 240
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 250
Article Licenses
License 253
1
Overview
Typography
Specimen of Trajan typeface, based on the letterforms of
capitalis monumentalis or Roman square capitals, as used for
the inscription at the base of Trajan's Column from which
the typeface takes its name
Typography (from the Greek words (typos) = form
and (graphe) = writing) is the art and technique of
arranging type in order to make language visible. The
arrangement of type involves the selection of typefaces, point
size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces
between groups of letters (tracking) and adjusting the space
between pairs of letters (kerning). Type design is a closely
related craft, which some consider distinct and others a part of
typography; most typographers do not design typefaces, and
some type designers do not consider themselves
typographers.
[1][2]
In modern times, typography has been put
into motionin film, television and online broadcaststo
add emotion to mass communication.
[3]
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors,
typographers, graphic designers, art directors, comic book
artists, graffiti artists, clerical workers, and anyone else who
arranges type for a product. Until the Digital Age, typography
was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up
typography to new generations of visual designers and lay
users, and David Jury states that "typography is now
something everybody does."
[4]
History
Printing press, 16th century in Germany
Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to
make seals and currency in ancient times. The typographical principle,
the creation of a complete text by reusing identical characters, was first
realized in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan print item from
Crete, Greece, which dates between 1850 and 1600 BC.
[][5][6]
It has
been put forward that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created by
movable type printing,
[7]
but this view has been recently dismissed by
the German typographer Herbert Brekle.
[8]
The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print
artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that
was created by the same technique as the Phaistos disc.
[9]
The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II
(11951204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches.
[10][11]
The same printing
technique can apparently be found in 10th to 12th century Byzantine reliquaries.
[12]
Individual letter tiles where the
words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order were reasonably widespread in medieval
Northern Europe.
[13]
Typography
2
Modern movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, was invented in mid-15th century Germany by the
goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg.
[14]
His type pieces from a lead-based alloy suited printing purposes so well that the
alloy is still used today.
[15]
Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of
letterpunches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts. This technical breakthrough was
instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and printing the world's first book (with movable type) the
Gutenberg Bible.
Typography with movable type was separately invented in 11th-century China. Metal type was first invented in
Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty around 1230. Both hand printing systems, however, were only sporadically used
and discontinued after the introduction of Western lead type and the printing press.
[16]
Scope
In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects of letter design and
application. These include:
typesetting and type design
handwriting and calligraphy
graffiti
inscriptional and architectural lettering
poster design and other large scale lettering such as signage and billboards
business communications and promotional collateral
advertising
wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes)
apparel (clothing)
labels on maps
vehicle instrument panels
kinetic typography in motion picture films and television
as a component of industrial designtype on household appliances, pens and wristwatches, for example
as a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry of E. E. Cummings)
Since digitization, typography has spread to a wider ranger of applications, appearing on web pages, LCD mobile
phone screens, and hand-held video games. The ubiquity of type has led typographers to coin the phrase "Type is
everywhere".
Traditional typography follows four principles: repetition, contrast, proximity, and alignment.
Typography
3
Text typography
A specimen of roman typefaces by William
Caslon
In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable,
coherent, and visually satisfying whole that works invisibly, without
the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with
a minimum of distractions and anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity
and transparency.
Choice of typeface(s) is the primary aspect of text typographyprose
fiction, non-fiction, editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual
and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and
requirements of appropriate typefaces and fonts. For historic material
established text typefaces are frequently chosen according to a scheme
of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with
considerable overlap between historical periods.
Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art
seriffed "text romans" or "book romans" with design values echoing
present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models
such as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who
created the model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond. With
their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted seriffed text fonts
specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability and efficient use of page space. Sans
serif text fonts are often used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text and whole short articles. A current fashion
is to pair sans-serif type for headings with a high-performance seriffed font of matching style for the text of an
article.
Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies, morphology, phonetic
constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography is also subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French
it is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is
not.
Color
In typography, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but also by the
word spacing, leading and depth of the margins.
[17]
Text layout, tone or color of the set text, and the interplay of text
with the white space of the page in combination with other graphic elements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the
subject matter. With printed media typographers are also concerned with binding margins, paper selection and
printing methods when determining the correct color of the page.
Readability and legibility
Legibility is primarily the concern of the typeface designer, to ensure that each individual character or glyph is
unambiguous and distinguishable from all other characters in the font. Legibility is also in part the concern of the
typographer to select a typeface with appropriate clarity of design for the intended use at the intended size. An
example of a well-known design, Brush Script, contains a number of illegible letters since many of the characters
can be easily misread especially if seen out of textual context.
Readability is primarily the concern of the typographer or information designer. It is the intended result of the
complete process of presentation of textual material in order to communicate meaning as unambiguously as possible.
A reader should be assisted in navigating around the information with ease, by optimal inter-letter, inter-word and
Typography
4
particularly inter-line spacing, coupled with appropriate line length and position on the page, careful editorial
chunking and choice of the text architecture of titles, folios, and reference links.
Text typeset in Iowan Old Style roman, italics
and small caps, optimized at approximately
10words per line, typeface sized at 14points on
1.4x leading, with 0.2 points extra tracking.
Extract of an essay by Oscar Wilde The English
Renaissance of Art c.1882.
The two concepts are distinguished by Walter Tracy in Letters of
Credit: these two aspects of a type are
fundamental to its effectiveness. Because the common
meaning of legible is readable there are those even
some professionally involved in typography who think
that the term legibility is all that is needed in any
discussion on the effectiveness of types. But legibility and
readability are separate, though connected aspects of
type. Properly understood the two terms can help to
describe the character and function of type more precisely
than legibility alone. In typography we need to draw
the definition of legibility to mean the quality of
being decipherable and recognisable so that we can say,
for example, that the lowercase h in a particular old style
italic is not legible in small sizes because its in-turned leg
makes it look like the letterb; or a figure3 in a classified
advertisement is too similar to the 8. In display sizes,
legibility ceases to be a serious matter; a character that
causes uncertainty at 8point size is plain enough at
24point.
[18]
Note that the above applies to people with 20/20vision at appropriate reading distance and under optimal lighting.
The analogy of an opticians chart, testing for visual acuity and independent of meaning, is useful to indicate the
scope of the concept of legibility.
In typography if the columns of a newspaper or magazine or the pages of a book can be read for many minutes at
a time without strain or difficulty, then we can say the type has good readability. The term describes the quality of
visual comfort an important requirement in the comprehension of long stretches of text but, paradoxically, not so
important in such things as telephone directories or air-line time-tables, where the reader is not reading continuously
but searching for a single item of information. The difference in the two aspects of visual effectiveness is illustrated
by the familiar argument on the suitability of sans-serif types for text setting. The characters in a particular sans-serif
face may be perfectly legible in themselves, but no one would think of setting a popular novel in it because its
readability is low.
[19]
Legibility refers to perception and readability refers to comprehension.

[19]
Typographers aim to achieve excellence
in both.
"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is simply a
matter of type size. More often however, it is a matter of typeface design. In general typefaces that are true to the
basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.
"However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a less legible
typeface can be made more readable through good design."
[20]
Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and type design.
For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type and italic type, line length, line
spacing, color contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification, straight right hand edge) vs. ranged
left, and whether text is hyphenated.
Typography
5
Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there are often commonalities and
agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, no
one has provided a conclusive answer as to which font, serifed or sans serif, provides the most legibility according to
Alex Poole.
[21]
Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper fonts for people with reading difficulties
such as dyslexia, have continued to be subjects of debate. Websites such as hgredbes.com
[22]
, ban comic sans
[23]
,
UK National Literacy Trust
[24]
, and Mark Simsonson Studio
[25]
have raised debating opinions on the above
subjects and many more each presenting a thorough and well-organized position.
Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness
(that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous studies from the 1930s
to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness
filter.
The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda
Reynolds
[22]
did important work in this area and was one of the centres that revealed the importance of the saccadic
rhythm of eye movement for readabilityin particular, the ability to take in (i.e., recognise the meaning of groups
of) around three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the line required more
than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g. Doubling).
These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design solutions (for
example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces (also called fonts) for
people with visual impairment, and typefaces for highway signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a
key difference.
Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoreticalvarious factors were tested individually or in
combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out in the
absence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape (Bouma)
is very important in readability, and that the theory of parallel letterwise recognition is either wrong, less important,
or not the entire picture.
Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letterwise recognition with regard to how people
actually recognize words when they read, have favored parallel letterwise recognition, which is widely accepted by
cognitive psychologists.
[citation needed]
Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:
[citation needed]
Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably because lower case
letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.
Extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts) increase salience (prominence).
Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible than italic type.
Contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to be important, with black on yellow/cream being
most effective.
Positive images (e.g. black on white) are easier to read than negative or reversed (e.g. white on black). However
even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, for example in some cases of disability. (See UK
National Literacy Trust
[24]
for their findings in this area.)
The upper portions of letters play a stronger part than the lower portions in the recognition process.
Typography
6
Text typeset using LaTeX digital typesetting
software
Readability can also be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing,
or leading that is too tight or too loose. It can be improved when
generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the
eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly
designed fonts and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted can also
result in poor legibility.
Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical
publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical
elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers
in navigating the publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By
formulating a style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively
small collection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within
the publication, and makes consistent use of type sizes, italic, boldface, large and small capital letters, colors, and
other typographic features. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to commission
a type designer to create bespoke (custom tailored) typefaces for their exclusive use.
Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a particular tone or
style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of a variety
of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In
contrast, The New York Times uses a more traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more
columns.
Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines are often set in larger display
typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.
Experimental typography
Experimental typography is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to setting type. Francis Picabia
was a Dada pioneer in the early 20th Century. David Carson is often associated with this movement, particularly for
his work in Ray Gun magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his
abandonment of standards in typesetting practices, layout, and design. Experimental typography places emphasis on
communicating emotion, rather than on legibility.
Typography
7
Display typography
19th century wanted poster for John Wilkes
Booth (the assassin of U.S. President Abraham
Lincoln) printed with lead and woodcut type, and
incorporating photography.
Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there
is less concern for readability and more potential for using type in an
artistic manner. Type is combined with negative space, graphic
elements and pictures, forming relationships and dialog between words
and images.
Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text
typography. Most display typography exploits type at larger sizes,
where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its
emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter.
Display typography encompasses:
posters; book covers;
typographic logos and wordmarks; billboards;
packaging and labeling; on-product typography; calligraphy;
graffiti; inscriptional and architectural lettering;
poster design and other large scale lettering signage;
business communications and promotional collateral; advertising;
wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes),
and kinetic typography in motion pictures and television; vending
machine displays; online and computer screen displays.
Advertising
Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and
advertising. Designers often use typography to set a theme and mood
in an advertisement; for example using bold, large text to convey a particular message to the reader. Type is often
used to draw attention to a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes and images. Today,
typography in advertising often reflects a company's brand. Fonts used in advertisements convey different messages
to the reader, classical fonts are for a strong personality, while more modern fonts are for a cleaner, neutral look.
Bold fonts are used for making statements and attracting attention.
Inscriptional and architectural lettering
A print advertisement for the Encyclopdia
Britannica from a 1913 issue of National
Geographic
The history of inscriptional lettering is intimately tied to the history of
writing, the evolution of letterforms and the craft of the hand. The
widespread use of the computer and various etching and sandblasting
techniques today has made the hand carved monument a rarity, and the
number of letter-carvers left in the USA continues to dwindle.
For monumental lettering to be effective it must be considered
carefully in its context. Proportions of letters need to be altered as their
size and distance from the viewer increases. An expert letterer gains
understanding of these nuances through much practice and observation
of their craft. Letters drawn by hand and for a specific project have the
possibility of being richly specific and profoundly beautiful in the hand of a master. Each can also take up to an hour
to carve,
[citation needed]
so it is no wonder that the automated sandblasting process has become the industry standard.
Typography
8
To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser cut from a computer file and glued to the stone. The sand then
bites a coarse groove or channel into the exposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the computer applications that
create these files and interface with the laser cutter do not have many typefaces available, and often have inferior
versions of typefaces that are available.
[citation needed]
What can now be done in minutes, however, lacks the striking
architecture and geometry of the chisel-cut letter that allows light to play across its distinct interior planes.
[citation
needed]
Notes
[1] Pipes, Alan. Production For Graphic Designers 2nd Edition, Page 40: Prentice Hall Inc 1997
[2] John Berry, Being a Typographer (http:/ / www. creativepro. com/ article/ dot-font-being-a-typographer)
[3] Vas Blagodarskiy, Kinetic Typography and Mass Communications (http:/ / kinetictypography. com/
kinetic-typography-and-mass-communications/ )
[7] [7] Lanciani 1881, p. 416, ;
[9] [9] ; ; ;
[10] [10] ;
[11] Brekle, Herbert E. (2011): Die typographische Herstellungstechnik der Inschriften auf dem silbernen Altaraufsatz im Dom von Cividale
(http:/ / epub. uni-regensburg. de/ 20788/ 6/
Die_typographische_Herstellungstechnik_der_Inschriften_auf_dem_silbernen_Altaraufsatz_im_Dom_von_Cividale. pdf), Regensburg
[12] [12] ;
[13] [13] ;
[14] [14] ; ; ;
[15] Encyclopdia Britannica 2006: "Printing", retrieved November 27, 2006
[16] [16] Ch'on Hye-bong 1993, p. 19
[18] Tracy 1986. 3031
[19] [19] Tracy 1986.31
[20] Craig, J. and Scala, IK. Designing with Type, the Essential Guide to Typography. 5th ed. p.63. Watson Guptil. 2006.
[21] Alexpoole.info (http:/ / www.alexpoole.info/ academic/ literaturereview. html)
[22] [22] Legibility of Type, Linda Reynolds 1988 Baseline 10
References
ASTM International D7298 Standard Test Method of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter
Instrumentation
Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklrung" (http:/ / www.
typeforum. de/ news_332. htm), Gutenberg-Jahrbuch 72: 5863
Brekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine palographisch-typographische
Untersuchung (brief summary) (http:/ / www. typeforum. de/ news_308. htm), Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag
fr Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN3-937527-06-0
Brekle, Herbert E. (2010), "Herstellungstechniken von Inschriften auf rmischen Wasserleitungsrohren aus Blei",
in Hanneforth, Thomas; Fanselow, Gisbert, Language and Logos. Studies in Theoretical and Computational
Linguistics, studia grammatica, 72, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, pp.419437, ISBN978-3-05-004931-1
Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp.1019
Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (version 2.5). Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN
0-88179-133-4. Often referred to simply as "Bringhurst", Elements is widely respected as the current authority on
typographic style for Latin typography. ( excerpts (http:/ / www. aaronsw. com/ 2002/ typographicStyle)).
Well-paired with Tschichold's The Form of the Book, below, from the same publisher.
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN0-521-29955-1
Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 14501800, London:
Verso, ISBN1-85984-108-2
Typography
9
Heller, Steven and Meggs, Philip B. Texts on Type: Critical Writings on Typography (c) 2001, Allworth Press,
Allworth Communications, New York. ISBN 1-58115-082-2. A compilation of over fifty texts on the history,
practice, and aesthetics of type design and typography.
Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN0-7156-2194-7
Hupp, Otto (1906), "Die Prfeninger Weiheinschrift von 1119", Studien aus Kunst und Geschichte, Festschrift fr
Friedrich Schneider, Freiburg i. Br.: Herder
Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (19851991),
Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel, 14, Mnchen, p.213, ISBN978-3-88612-114-4
Lanciani, R.: "Topografia di Roma antica. I commentarii di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti. Silloge
epigrafica aquaria", in: Memorie della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Serie III, Volume IV, Classe di Scienze
Morali, Rom 1881 (Reprint: Quasar publishing house, 1975), pp.215616
Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts",
Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 9397
Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni
con caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto 24: 7580
Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World,
London: Headline Review, ISBN978-0-7472-4504-9
McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of
Toronto Press, ISBN978-0-8020-6041-9
Pace, Pietrantonio (1986), Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino (2nd ed.), Rome: Art Studio S.
Eligio
Tracy, Walter Letters of Credit 1986 Gordon Fraser
Tschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design. Vancouver: Hartley &
Marks. ISBN 978-0-88179-034-4. A comprehensive collection of essays on the typographic art. A more classic
companion to Bringhust, above.
Lexique des rgles typographiques en usage l'Imprimerie nationale, French: Imprimerie nationale, 2002, ISBN
2-7433-0482-0, for French typography.
Swanson, Gunnar Graphic Design and Reading: explorations of an uneasy relationship (c) 2000, Allworth Press,
Allworth Communications, New York. ISBN 1-58115-063-6. The Crystal Goblet, or Printing Should Be Invisible
Beatrice Warde; Improving the Tool Hrant H. Papazian.
Alexander Lawson, Anatomy of a Typeface, first published in 1990, devotes entire chapters to the development
and uses of individual or small groupings of typefaces. ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4
White, Alex W. (1999). Type in Use Effective typography for electronic publishing (version 2.0). W.W. Norton
& Company, Inc. New York. ISBN 0-393-73034-4 (pbk).
Martnez de Sousa, Jos, Manual de estilo de la lengua espaola, 3. ed., Gijn: Trea, 2007. For Spanish
typography.
, Ortografa y ortotipografa del espaol actual, 2. ed., Gijn: Trea, 2008. For Spanish typography.
Mestres, Josep M.; Costa, Joan; Oliva, Mireia; Fit, Ricard. Manual d'estil. La redacci i l'edici de textos. 4a ed.,
rev. i ampl. Vic / Barcelona: Eumo / UB / UPF / Rosa Sensat, 2009. For Catalan typography.
Pujol, J. M., i Sol, Joan: Ortotipografia. Manual de l'author, l'autoeditor i el dissenyador grfic, 2a ed., rev.
Barcelona: Columna, 2000. For Catalan typography.
Gill, Eric (2000) [1931], An Essay on Typography, David R Godine, pp.188, ISBN0-87923-950-6
Typography
10
External links
AIGA typography articles (http:/ / www. aiga. org/ content. cfm/ search?topicAlias=typography) Articles and
interviews relating to typography from AIGA's Voice section.
Decode Unicode (http:/ / www. decodeunicode. org/ ) A wiki with all 98,884 Unicode characters, including full
text search capability.
Type-Culture Academic Resource (http:/ / www. typeculture. com/ academic_resource/ ) Educational resources,
including documentary videos about typography.
Typedesk (http:/ / www. typedesk. com) An online journal of typography and graphic communication.
Typostrate (http:/ / www. typostrate. com) A daily inspiration blog about type and what you can do with it.
Symbols - Comprehensive list of typographical symbols
11
General typography
Ampersand
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& Ampersand Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( )
hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash
(punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space (punctuation)space () ( ) ( ) General
typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ ) backslash ( \ ) Bullet (typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^ ) Dagger
(typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( ) ditto mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation
marksinverted exclamation mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation marksinverted question mark ( ) number
signnumbersign/pound/hash ( # ) numero sign ( - ) obelus ( ) ordinal indicator ( , ) Percent signpercent, per mil
( %, ) basis point ( ) pilcrow ( ) Prime (symbol)prime ( , , ) section sign ( ) tilde ( ~ )
Underscoreunderscore/understrike ( _ ) Vertical barverticalbar/brokenbar/pipe ( , | ) Intellectual propertycopyright
symbol ( ) registered trademark symbolregistered trademark ( ) Service mark symbolservice mark ( ) sound
recording copyright symbolsound recording copyright ( ) Trademark symboltrademark ( ) Currency Currency
(typography)currency (generic) ( ) Currency signcurrency (specific) ( Argentine austral Thai baht Ghana cedi
Cent (currency) Costa Rican coln Brazilian cruzeiro European Currency Unit Dollar sign$ Vietnamese dong
Bangladeshi_taka Greek drachma Euro sign Florin sign French franc Paraguayan guaran Hryvnia sign
Lao kip Turkish lira sign German gold mark Mill (currency) Nigerian naira Spanish peseta Philippine
peso sign Pfennig Pound sign Indian rupee sign Rupee sign Shekel sign Kazakhstani tenge Mongolian
tgrg Won sign Cambodian riel ) Uncommon typographyAsterism (typography)asterism ( ) Index
(typography)index/fist ( ) interrobang ( ) irony punctuation ( ) lozenge ( ) reference mark ( ) Tie
(typography)tie ( ) Related diacriticdiacritical marksList of logic symbolslogic symbolswhitespace characters
Non-English usage of quotation marksnon-English quotation style ( , ) In other scripts Chinese
punctuationHebrew punctuationJapanese punctuationKorean punctuation Wikipedia book Book Category Category
Portal Portal An ampersand (or epershand; "&") is a logogram representing the grammatical conjunctionconjunction
word "and". This symbol is a Typographic ligatureligature of the letters et, Latin for "and". "The Ampersand &
More" with Kory Stamper, part of the "Ask the Editor" video series at Merriam-Webster.comEtymology The word
ampersand is a corruption of the phrase "and (&) List of Latin phrases (P)#per seper se and", meaning "and (the
symbol &) intrinsically (is the word) and". cited in Traditionally, in English-speaking schools when reciting the
alphabet, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself ("A", "I", and, at one point, "O") was preceded by the
Latin expression per se ("by itself").WP:NOTRS Also, it was common practice to add at the end of the alphabet the
"&" sign as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced and. As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in "X, Y,
Z and per se and". This last phrase was routinely slurred to "ampersand" and the term crept into common English
usage by around 1837.WP:NOTRS However, in contrast to the other 26, the ampersand does not represent a speech
sound, although other letters that were dropped from the English alphabet, such as the Old English thorn
Ampersand
12
(letter)thorn, did.Through popular etymology, it has been falsely claimed that Andr-Marie Ampre used the symbol
in his widely read publications, and that people began calling the new shape "Ampre's and".For examples of this
misunderstanding, see Jessie Bedford, Elizabeth Godfrey: English Children in the Olden Time, page 22. Methuen &
co, 1907, p. 22; Harry Alfred Long: Personal and Family Names, page 98. Hamilton, Adams & co, 1883.History
Evolution of the ampersandThe modern ampersand is virtually identical to that of the Carolingian minuscule. The
italic ampersand, to the right, is originally a later et-ligature.Et ligature in Insular scriptSome modern fonts, like
Trebuchet MS or Myriad (typeface)#Myriad WebMyriad Web Pro, employ ampersand characters that are revealing
of its originThe ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century A.D. and the Old Roman cursive, in which the
letters E and T occasionally were written together to form a Typographic ligatureligature (figure 1). In the later and
more flowing New Roman Cursive, ligatures of all kinds were extremely common; figures 2 and 3 from the middle
of 4th century are both examples of how the et-ligature could look in this script. However, during the following
development of the Latin script that led up to the Carolingian minuscule (9th century), while the use of ligatures in
general diminished, the et-ligature continued to be used and gradually became more stylized and less revealing of its
origin (figures 46).Jan Tschichold: "Formenwandlung der et-Zeichen."The modern italic type ampersand is a kind
of et-ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in
Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands. Since the ampersand's roots
go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it. The ampersand
often appeared as a letter at the end of the Latin alphabet, as for example in ByrhtferthByrhtfer's list of letters from
1011. Similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as used by children (in the USA). An
example may be seen in M. B. Moore's 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks. In her 1859 novel Adam
Bede, George Eliot refers to this when she makes Jacob Storey say: "He thought it [Z] had only been put to finish off
th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see."George Eliot: Adam Bede.
Chapter XXI. Online at Project Gutenberg.The ampersand should not be confused with the Tironian notesTironian
"et" (), which is a symbol similar to the numeral 7. Both symbols have their roots in the classical antiquity, and
both signs were used up through the Middle Ages as a representation for the Latin word "et" ("and"). However, while
the ampersand was in origin a common ligature in the everyday script, the Tironian "et" was part of a highly
specialised stenographic shorthand.Writing the ampersandIn everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes
simplified as an or a 3 superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also often shown as an or a 3 with a
vertical line above and below it or a dot above and below it.The + sign is often used in place of an ampersand,
sometimes with an added loop (resembling [voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]).Usage In film credits for stories,
screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of
America to denote when two writers collaborated on a specific script, rather than having rewritten another writer's
work. In screenplays, two authors joined with & collaborated on the script, while two authors joined with and
worked on the script at different times and may not have consulted each other at all. In the latter case, they both
contributed enough significant material to the screenplay to receive credit but did not work together (more than
likely one was hired to rewrite the previous writer's script).In APA style, the ampersand is used when citing sources
in text such as (Jones & Jones, 2005). In the list of references, an ampersand precedes the last author's name when
there is more than one author. (This does not apply to The MLA Style ManualMLA style, which calls for the "and"
to be spelled.) The phrase et cetera ("and so forth"), usually written as etc. can be abbreviated &c. representing the
combination et + c(etera).The ampersand can be used to indicate that the "and" in a listed item is a part of the item's
name and not a separator (e.g. "Rock, pop, rhythm & blues, and hip hop"). Computing Encoding and displayThe
character (computing)character is Unicode U+0026 & ampersand (HTML: & &), this is inherited from the
same value in ASCII. Apart from this, Unicode also has the variants: U+FE60 small ampersand (HTML:
﹠) U+FF06 fullwidth ampersand (HTML: ＆ in block Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms) U+214B
inverted ampersand (HTML: ⅋) On the QWERTY keyboard layout it is Shift+7. It is almost always
available on any keyboard layout, sometimes on Shift+6 or Shift+8. On the AZERTY keyboard layout it is just &.
In URLs, the ampersand must be replaced by %26 when representing a string character to avoid interpretation as a
Ampersand
13
Ampersand#Web standardsURL syntax character. Programming languagesIn the 20th century, following the
development of formal logic, the ampersand became a commonly used logical notation for the binary operator or
sentential connective logical conjunctionAND. This usage was adopted in computing.Many languages with syntax
derived from C (programming language)C, including C++, Perl, and more differentiate between: & for Bitwise
operationbitwise AND. (4 & 2) is zero, (4 & 5) is 4. && for minimal evaluationshort-circuit logical
conjunctionlogical AND. (4 && 2) is true. In C (programming language)C, C++, and Go (programming
language)Go, a prefix "&" is a unary operator denoting the memory addressaddress in memory of the argument, e.g.
&x, &func, &a[3].In C++ and PHP, unary prefix & before a Parameter (computer science)formal parameter of a
Function (programming)function denotes reference (C++)pass-by-reference. In Fortran, the ampersand forces the
compiler to treat two lines as one. This is accomplished by placing an ampersand at the end of the first line and at the
beginning of the second line. In Common Lisp, the ampersand is the prefix for lambda list keywords.Ampersand is
the string concatenation operator in many BASIC programming languageBASIC dialects, AppleScript, Lingo
(programming language)Lingo, HyperTalk, and FileMaker. In Ada (programming language)Ada it applies to all
one-dimensional arrays, not just strings. BASIC-PLUS on the Digital Equipment CorporationDEC PDP-11 uses the
ampersand as a short form of the verb PRINT. Applesoft BASIC used the ampersand as an internal command, not
intended to be used for general programming, that invoked a machine language program in the computer's Read-only
memoryROM. In some versions of BASIC, unary suffix & denotes a variable is of type long, or 32 bits in length.The
ampersand is occasionally used as a prefix to denote a hexadecimal number, such as &FF for decimal 255, for
instance in BBC BASIC. Some other languages, such as the Machine code monitorMonitor built into ROM on the
Commodore 128, used it to indicate octal instead, a convention that spread throughout the Commodore community
and is now used in the VICE emulator. In MySQL the '&' has dual roles. As well as a logical AND, it additionally
serves as the bitwise operator of an intersection between elements. The ampersand character is used as a special
character in at least some versions of the database software originally created in Denmark under the name Navision
(the software has since been acquired by Microsoft). Using this character in either "Text" or "Code" fields could
create difficulties for performing certain tasks in Navision, such as filtering records (either by the user or by
programming). It is also used as described below to indicate shortcuts in menu items and labels. Perl uses the
ampersand as a Sigil (computer programming)sigil to refer to subroutines: In Perl 4 and earlier, it was effectively
required to call user-defined subroutines In Perl 5, it can still be used to modify the way user-defined subroutines are
called In Perl 6, the ampersand Sigil (computer programming)sigil is only used when referring to a subroutine as an
object, never when calling itText markup In SGML, XML, and HTML, the ampersand is used to introduce an SGML
entity. The HTML and XML encoding for the ampersand character is the entity "&" (pronounced Special
Characters"amper-amp"). This creates what is known as the ampersand problem. For instance, when putting URLs or
other material containing ampersands into XML format files such as RSS (file format)RSS files the amp; has to be
added to the & or they are considered not well formed and computers will be unable to read the files correctly.
SGML derived the use from IBM Generalized Markup Language, which was one of many IBM-mainframe
languages to use the ampersand to signal a text substitution, eventually going back to System/360 macro assembly
language.In the plain TeX markup language, the ampersand is used to mark tabstops. The ampersand itself can be
applied in TeX with \&. The Computer Modern fonts replace it with an "E.T." symbol in the cmti#(text italic) fonts,
so it can be entered as {\it\&} in running text when using the default (Computer Modern) fonts.In Microsoft
Windows menus, labels and other captions, the ampersand is used to denote the keyboard shortcut for that option
(Alt keyAlt + that letter, which appears underlined). A double ampersand is needed in order to display a real
ampersand. This convention originated in the first WIN32 api, and is used in Windows Forms, How to: Create
Access Keys for Windows Forms Controls, from msdn.microsoft.com and is also copied into many other tookits on
multiple operating systems. Unix shells Some Unix shells use the ampersand as a metacharacter: Some Unix shells,
like the POSIX standard sh shell, use the ampersand to Job control (Unix)execute a process in the background and to
duplicate file descriptors. In Bash (Unix shell)Bash, the ampersand can separate words, control the command history,
duplicate file descriptors, perform logical operations, control jobs, and participate in Regular expressions.Web
Ampersand
14
standards The generic Uniform Resource LocatorURL (Uniform Resource Locator) syntax allows for a query string
to be appended to a file name in a web address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the question
mark, or query mark, ?, is used to indicate the start of a query string. A query string is usually made up of a number
of different namevalue pairs, each separated by the ampersand symbol, &. For example,
www.example.com/login.php?username=test&password=blank. But see also "Ampersands in URI attribute values".
References External links The Hot Word at Dictionary.com: How ampersand came from a misunderstanding
Asterisk
15
Asterisk
is too wide
* Asterisk Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
, , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( )
hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash
Portal PortalAsterisks used to illustrate a section break in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.An asterisk (*; Late
LatinLate Latin languageLatin: asteriscus, from Greek languageGreek: , asteriskos, "little star")
, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus is a typographical symbol or
glyph. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a star. Computer scientists and mathematicians
often pronounce it as star (as, for example, in the A* search algorithm or C*-algebra), or, more informally, splat. In
English, an asterisk is usually five-pointed in sans-serif typefaces, six-pointed in serif typefaces[citation needed], and
six- or eight-pointed when handwritten. It can be used to censor swear words and vulgar or objectionable text.The
asterisk is derived from the need of the printers of family trees in feudal times for a symbol to indicate date of birth.
The original shape was seven-armed,[citation needed] each arm like a teardrop shooting from the center. In computer
science, the asterisk is commonly used as a wildcard character, or to denote pointer (computer
programming)pointers, repetition, or multiplication. UsageTypography The asterisk is used to call out a footnote,
especially when there is only one on the page. Less commonly, multiple asterisks are used to denote different
footnotes on a page (i.e., *, **, ***). Typically, an asterisk is positioned after a word or phrase and preceding its
accompanying footnote. Three spaced asterisks centered on a page may represent a jump to a different scene or
thought. A group of three asterisks arranged in a triangular formation is called an asterism (typography)asterism.
Asterisk
16
One or more asterisks may be used to bowdlerizationstrike out portions of a word to avoid offending by using the
full form of a profanity (fuckf**k), to preserve anonymity (Peter J***), or to avoid profanation of a holy name,
especially in Jewish usage (GodG*d). Asterisks are sometimes used as an alternative to Bullet
(typography)typographical bullets to indicate items of a list. Asterisks can be used in textual media to represent
*emphasis (typography)emphasis* when bold textbold or italic text is not available (e.g. email). Asterisks can be
used to correct yourself or others. *(replacement) implies that you are making a replacement. LinguisticsHistorical
linguistics In historical linguistics, an asterisk immediately before a word indicates that the word is not directly
attested, but has been linguistic reconstructionreconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material (see also
comparative method). In the following example, the Proto-Germanic word ainlif is a reconstructed form. *ainlif
endleofan elevenA double asterisk indicates a form that would be expected according to rule, but is not actually
found: For the plural, **kubar would be expected, but separate masculine plural akbir and feminine plural
kubrayt are found as irregular forms.Generativist tradition in linguistics In Generative
linguisticsgenerativism, especially syntax, an asterisk in front of a word or phrase indicates that the word or phrase is
grammarungrammatical. wake her up / *wake up her (in Standard American English) An asterisk before a
parenthesis indicates that the lack of the word or phrase inside is ungrammatical, while an asterisk after a parenthesis
indicates that the existence of the word or phrase inside is ungrammatical. go *(to) the station go (*to) home
Ambiguity Since a word marked with an asterisk could mean either "unattested" or "impossible", it is important in
some contexts to distinguish these meanings. In general, authors retain asterisk for "unattested", and prefix , **, or a
superscript "?" for the latter meaning. Music In musical notation the sign indicates when the sustain pedal of the
piano should be lifted. In liturgical music, an asterisk is often used to denote a deliberate pause. ComputingComputer
science In computer science, the asterisk is used in regular expressions to denote zero or more repetitions of a
pattern; this use is also known as the Kleene star or Kleene closure after Stephen Kleene. In the Unified Modeling
Language, the asterisk is used to denote zero to many classes. Computer interfaces In some command line interfaces,
such as the Unix shell and Microsoft's Command Prompt, the asterisk is the wildcard character and stands for any
string (computer science)string of character (computing)characters. This is also known as a wildcard symbol. A
common use of the wildcard is in searching for files on a computer. For instance, if a user wished to find a document
called Document1, search terms such as Doc* and D*ment* would return this file. Document* would also return
any file that begins with Document. In some graphical user interfaces an asterisk is pre- or appended to the current
working document name shown in a window's title bar to indicate that unsaved changes exist. In Windows versions
before XP the asterisk was also used as a mask to hide passwords being entered into a text box; later this was
changed to a Bullet (typography)bullet. In Commodore InternationalCommodore (and related) filesystems, an
asterisk appearing next to a filename in a directory listing denotes an improperly closed file, commonly called a
"splat file." In travel industry Computer reservations systemGlobal Distribution Systems, the asterisk is the display
command to retrieve all or part of a Passenger Name Record. In HTML web forms, an asterisk can be used to denote
required fields. Chat Room etiquette calls on one asterisk to correct a misspelled word that has already been
submitted. For example, one could post lck, then follow it with luck* to correct himself, or if it's someone else that
notices the mistake, they would use *luck. Enclosing a phrase between two asterisks is used to denote an action the
user is "performing", e.g. *pulls out a paper*, although this usage is also common on forums, and less so on most
chat rooms due to /me or similar commands. Hyphens (-action-) and double colon (punctuation)colons (::action::)
are also used for similar purposes. Adding machines and printing calculators Some international models of adding
machines and calculatorprinting calculators use the asterisk to denote the total, or the terminal sum or difference of
an addition or subtraction sequence, respectively, sometimes on the keyboard where the total key is marked with an
asterisk and sometimes a capital T, and on the printout.Programming languages Many programming languages and
calculators use the asterisk as a symbol for multiplication. It also has a number of special meanings in specific
languages, for instance: In some programming languages such as the C (programming language)C, C++, and Go
(programming language)Go programming languages, the asterisk is used to dereference or to declare a pointer
variable. In the Common Lisp programming language, the names of global variables are conventionally set off with
Asterisk
17
asterisks, *LIKE-THIS*. In the Ada (programming language)Ada, Fortran, Perl, Python (programming
language)Python, Ruby (programming language)Ruby programming languages, in some dialects of the Pascal
programming language, and many others, a double asterisk is used to signify exponentiation: 5**3 is 5*5*5 or 125.
In the PerlPerl programming language, the asterisk is used to refer to the typeglob of all variables with a given name.
In the programming languages Ruby programming languageRuby and Python (programming language)Python, * has
two specific uses. First, the unary * operator applied to a list object inside a function call will expand that list into the
arguments of the function call. Second, a parameter preceded by * in the parameter list for a function will result in
any extra positional parameters being aggregated into a tuple (Python) or array data typearray (Ruby), and likewise
in Python a parameter preceded by ** will result in any extra named parameterkeyword parameters being aggregated
into a associative arraydictionary. In the APL (programming language)APL language, the asterisk represents the
Exponential functionexponential and exponentiation functions. In IBM Job Control Language, the asterisk has
various functions, including in-stream data in the DD statement, the default print stream as SYSOUT=*, and as a
self-reference in place of a procedure step name to refer to the same procedure step where it appears. Comments in
computing In the B (programming language)B programming language and languages that borrow syntax from it, like
C (programming language)C, PHP, Java (software platform)Java, or C Sharp (programming language)C#, comments
(parts of the code not intended to be compiled into the program) are marked by an asterisk combined with the slash:
/* Here is a comment. The compiler will ignore it. */ Some Pascal (programming language)Pascal-like programming
languages, for example, Object Pascal, Modula-2, Modula-3, and Oberon (programming language)Oberon, as well as
several other languages including ML (programming language)ML, Mathematica, AppleScript, OCaml, Standard
ML, and Maple (software)Maple, use an asterisk combined with a parenthesis: (* This is a comment. The compiler
will ignore it. *) CSS, while not strictly a programming language, also uses the slash-star comment format. body { /*
This ought to make the text more readable for far-sighted people */ text-size:24pt; } Mathematics The asterisk has
many uses in mathematics. The following list highlights some common uses and is not exhaustive. stand-alone An
arbitrary point in some set. Seen, for example, when computing Riemann sums or when contracting a simply
connected group to the singleton set { }. as a unary operator, denoted in prefix notation The Hodge dual operator
on vector spaces *: A^k \rightarrow A^{n-k}. as a unary operator, written as a subscript The pushforward
(differential) of a smooth map f between two smooth manifolds, denoted f. The complex conjugate of a complex
number (the more common notation is \bar{z}). Complex Conjugate - from Wolfram MathWorld The conjugate
transpose, Hermitian transpose, or adjoint matrix of a Matrix (mathematics)matrix. Hermitian adjoint. The
multiplicative group of a Ring (mathematics)ring, especially when the ring is a Field (mathematics)field. E.g.
\mathbb{C}^* = \mathbb{C}-\{0\}. The dual space of a vector space V, denoted V*. The combination of an indexed
collection of objects into one example, e.g. the combination of all the cohomologycohomology groups Hk(X) into
the cohomology ring H*(X). In statistics, z* and t* are given critical points for z-distributions and t-distributions,
respectively.as a binary operator, in infix notation A notation for an arbitrary binary operator. The free product of
two Group (mathematics)groups. f g is a convolution of f with g.The asterisk is used in all branches of mathematics
to designate a correspondence between two quantities denoted by the same letter one with the asterisk and one
without. Mathematical typography In fine mathematical typography, the Unicode character U+2217 asterisk
operator (in HTML, &lowast;) is available. This character also appeared in the position of the regular asterisk in the
PostScript symbol character set in the Symbol font included with Windows and Macintosh operating systems and
with many printers. It should be used in fine typography for a large asterisk that lines up with the other mathematical
operators.Fluid Mechanics In fluid mechanics, an asterisk in superscript is sometimes used to mean a property at
sonic speed.White, F. M. Fluid Mechanics, Fourth Ed. WCB McGraw Hill.Statistical results In many scientific
publications, the asterisk is employed as a shorthand to denote the statistical significance of results when testing
hypothesishypotheses. When the likelihood that a result occurred by chance alone is below a certain level, one or
more asterisks are displayed. Popular significance levels are 0.05 (*), 0.01 (**), and 0.001 (***). Human geneticsIn
human genetics, * (haplogroup)* is used to denote that someone is a member of a haplogroup and not any of its
subclades (see * (haplogroup)). Telephony On a Touch-Tone telephone keypad, the asterisk (called star, or less
Asterisk
18
commonly, palm or sextile) is one of the two special keys (the other is the number sign (pound sign or hash or, less
commonly, octothorp or square)), and is found to the left of the zero. They are used to navigate menus in
Touch-Tone systems such as Voice mail, or in Vertical service codes.CricketIn cricket, it signifies a total number of
runs scored by a batsman without losing his wicket, e.g. 107* means '107 not out'. When written before a player's
name on a scorecard, it indicates the captain (cricket)captain of the team. It is also used on television when giving a
career statistic during a match. For example, 47* in a number of matches column means that the current game is the
player's 47th. Instant messaging and SMS When Typographical errortypos are made, it is customary to fix the
mistake by sending another message, adding an asterisk to the beginning or end of the fixed line. Sometimes only a
single word is corrected in this way, if it's obvious where the mistake was in the original message. Must be used
before the word like Note (typography)note. Example 1 Tom: hey. how is brownie? Jane: ugh. my stupid xat ran
away again!! Jane: *cat Tom: omg! sorry to hear that :( When the writer wants to explain actions in a kind of
'narrated' style while messaging, verbs are sometimes written between two asterisks, such as "*nods*" or "*shakes
head*". This is known as an "emote". EconomicsIn economics, the use of an asterisk after a letter indicating a
Variable (mathematics)variable such as price, output, or employment indicates that the variable is at its optimal level
(that which is achieved in a perfect market situation). For instance, p* is the price level p when output y is at its
corresponding optimal level of y*.Also in international economics asterisks are commonly used to denote economic
variables in a foreign country. So, for example, "p" is the price of the home good and "p*" is the price of the foreign
good, etc. EducationIn the General Certificate of Secondary EducationGCSE and Advanced Level General
Certificate of EducationA-Level examinations in the United Kingdom and the Primary School Leaving
ExaminationPSLE in Singapore, A* ("A-star") is a special top grade that is distinguished from grade A.In the Hong
Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examination in Hong Kong, 5** (5-star-star) and 5* (5-star) are
two special top grades that are distinguished from Level 5. Level 5** is the highest level a candidate can attain in
HKDSE. GamesCertain categories of character types in role-playing games are called splats, and the game
supplements describing them are called splatbooks. This usage originated with the shorthand "*book" for this type of
supplement to various World of Darkness games, such as Clanbook: Ventrue (for Vampire: The Masquerade) or
Tribebook: Black Furies (for Werewolf: The Apocalypse), and this usage has spread to other games with similar
character-type supplements. For example, Dungeons & Dragons Third Edition has had several lines of splatbooks:
the "X & Y" series including Sword & Fist and Tome & Blood prior to the "3.5" revision, the "Complete X" series
including Complete Warrior and Complete Divine, and the "Races of X" series including Races of Stone and Races
of the Wild.In many MUDs and MOOs, as well as "male", "female", and other more esoteric genders, there is a
gender called "splat", which uses an asterisk to replace the letters that differ in standard English gender pronouns.
For example, h* is used rather than him or her. Also, asterisks are used to signify doing an action, for example,
"*action*"Game show producer Mark Goodson used a six-pointed asterisk as his trademark. It is featured
prominently on many set pieces from The Price Is Right (U.S. game show)The Price Is Right.Scrabble players put an
asterisk after a word to indicate that an illegal play was made.BaseballIn recent years, the asterisk has come into use
on scorecards to denote a "great defensive play." Baseball Almanac - Scoring Baseball: Advanced Symbols
However, off scorecards, it can have the same connotation as in other sports; see below. Competitive sports and
gamesIn colloquial usage, an asterisk is used to indicate that a World recordrecord is somehow tainted by
circumstances, which are putatively explained in a footnote referenced by the asterisk.See e.g. This usage arose after
the 1961 baseball season in which Roger Maris of the New York Yankees broke Babe Ruth's 34-year-old
single-season home run record. Because Ruth had amassed 60 home runs in a season with only 154 games,
compared to Maris's 61 over 162 games, baseball commissioner Ford Frick announced that Maris' accomplishment
would be recorded in the record books with an explanation (often referred to as "an asterisk" in the retelling). In fact,
Major League Baseball had no official record book at the time, but the stigma remained with Maris for many years,
and the concept of a real or figurative asterisk denoting less-than-official records has become widely used in sports
and other competitive endeavors. A 2001 TV movie about Maris' record-breaking season was called 61*
(pronounced sixty-one asterisk) in reference to the controversy.In February 2011 the United States Olympic
Asterisk
19
Committee and the Ad Council launched an Use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport#Anti-Doping
organizations and legislationanti-steroid campaign called "Play Asterisk Free" Facebook.com aimed at teens. The
campaign, whose logo uses a heavy asterisk, first launched in 2008 under the name Don't Be An Asterisk.
Adcouncil.org, Ad Council, August 8, 2008Barry Bonds Fans critical of Barry Bonds, who has been accused of
using performance-enhancing drugs during his baseball career, invoked the asterisk notion during the 2007 season,
as he approached and later broke Hank Aaron's career home run record.See e.g. Opposing fans would often hold up
signs bearing asterisks whenever Bonds came up to bat. After Bonds hit his record-breaking 756th home run on
August 7, 2007, fashion designer and entrepreneur Marc Ecko purchased the home run ball from the fan who caught
it, and ran a poll on his Web site to determine its fate. On September 26, Ecko revealed on NBC's Today (NBC
program)Today show that the ball will be branded with an asterisk and donated to the Baseball Hall of Fame. The
ball, marked with a die-cut asterisk, was finally delivered to the hall on July 2, 2008 after Marc Ecko unconditionally
donated the artifact rather than loaning it to the hall as originally intended. Marketing Asterisks (or other symbols)
are commonly used in advertisements to refer readers to special terms/conditions for a certain statement, commonly
placed below the statement in question. For example: an advertisement for a sale may have an asterisk after the word
"sale" with the date of the sale at the bottom of the advertisement, similar to the way footnotes are used. Religious
textsIn the Geneva Bible and the King James Bible, an asterisk is used to indicate a marginal comment or scripture
reference. In the Leeser Bible, an asterisk is used to mark off the seven subdivisions of the weekly Torah portion. It
is also used to mark the few verses to be repeated by the reader of the Haftara. In American printings of the Book of
Common Prayer, an asterisk is used to divide a verse of a Psalm in two portions for responsive reading. British
printings use a spaced colon (" : ") for the same purpose.Censorship Many companies which deal with slang or
vulgar text might censor such words using an asterisk. This is often done by replacing a vowel with the asterisk.
iTunes UK asterisk censors H*t T**n K****r P****y retrieved 9 April 2012 censorship options retrieved 9 April
2012Encodings The Unicode standard states that the asterisk is distinct from U+066D Arabic five pointed
stararabic five pointed star (HTML: ٭), U+2217 asterisk operator (HTML: ∗ &lowast;), and
U+2731 heavy asterisk (HTML: ✱).The symbols are compared below (the display depends on your
browser's font). Asterisk Asterisk Operator Heavy Asterisk Small Asterisk Full Width Asterisk Open Centre Asterisk
* Low Asterisk Arabic star East Asian reference mark Teardrop-Spoked Asterisk Sixteen Pointed Asterisk
UnicodeDecimalUTF-8HTMLDisplayed AsteriskU+002A*2A* Small AsteriskU+FE61﹡EF
B9 A1 Full Width AsteriskU+FF0A＊EF BC 8A Low AsteriskU+204E⁎E2 81 8E Asterisk
OperatorU+2217∗E2 88 97&lowast; Heavy AsteriskU+2731✱E2 9C B1 Open Centre
AsteriskU+2732✲E2 9C B2 Eight Spoked AsteriskU+2733✳E2 9C B3 Sixteen Pointed
AsteriskU+273A✺E2 9C BA Teardrop-Spoked AsteriskU+273B✻E2 9C BB Open Centre
Teardrop-Spoked AsteriskU+273C✼E2 9C BC Heavy Teardrop-Spoked AsteriskU+273D✽E2 9C
BD Four Teardrop-Spoked AsteriskU+2722✢E2 9C A2 Four Balloon-Spoked
AsteriskU+2723✣E2 9C A3 Heavy Four Balloon-Spoked AsteriskU+2724✤E2 9C A4 Four
Club-Spoked AsteriskU+2725✥E2 9C A5 Heavy Teardrop-Spoked Pinwheel
AsteriskU+2743❃E2 9D 83 Balloon-Spoked AsteriskU+2749❉E2 9D 89 Eight
Teardrop-Spoked Propeller AsteriskU+274A❊E2 9D 8A Heavy Eight Teardrop-Spoked Propeller
AsteriskU+274B❋E2 9D 8B Arabic starU+066D٭D9 AD East Asian reference
markU+203B※E2 80 BB Plane (Unicode)#Supplementary Special-purpose PlaneTag
AsteriskU+E002A󠀪F3 A0 80 AA(N/A) References
At sign
20
At sign
is too wide
@ At sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
Portal PortalThe at sign @ is also commonly called the at symbol, ampersat, apetail or commercial at in
Englishand less commonly a wide range of other terms. "ASCII", The Jargon File (version 4.4.7) "@:
'Commercial at' doesn't sound sexy", Tom Angleberger, The Roanake Times" "New York's Moma claims @ as a
design classic", Jemima Kiss, 28 March 2010, The Observer "The at symbol a la mode." The fact that there is no
single word in English for the symbol has prompted some writers to use the French arobase "Short Cuts", Daniel
Soar, Vol. 31 No. 10 28 May 2009 page 18, London Review of Books or Spanish and Portuguese arrobaor to
coin new words such as asperand, ampersat "....Tim Gowens offered the highly logical "ampersat" ...", 05 February
1996, The Independentbut none of these has achieved wide currency.Originally an accounting and commercial
invoice abbreviation meaning "at the rate of" (e.g. 7 Widget (economics)widgets @ Dollar sign$2 = $14), it was not
included on the keyboard of the earliest commercially successful typewriters, but was on at least one 1889 model
"The @-symbol, part 2 of 2", shadycharacters.co.uk and the very successful Underwood Typewriter
CompanyUnderwood models from the "Underwood No. 5" in 1900 onward. It is now universally included on
computer keyboards. In recent years, its meaning has grown to include the sense of being "located at" or "directed
at", especially in Emailemail addresses and social media, particularly Twitter. The mark is encoded at U+0040 @ At
signcommercial at (HTML: @). HistoryThe @ symbol appears in the Medieval Bulgarian translation of the
At sign
21
Manasses Chronicle (c. 1345). The symbol is used as the initial "a" for the "amin" (amen) formula.Evidence of the
usage of @ to signify French "" (meaning "at") from a 1674 protocol from a SwedenSwedish lower court and
magistrate (Arboga rdhusrtt och magistrat)The Aragonese peopleAragonese historian Jorge Romance located the
appearance of the @ symbol at the "taula de Ariza" registry from 1448, to denote a wheat shipment from Crown of
CastileCastile to the Kingdom of Aragon. There are several theories about the origin of the commercial at character.
The symbol developed as a mercantile shorthand symbol of "each at"the symbol resembling a small "a" inside a
small "e"to distinguish it from the different "at" (symbolized by the mere letter "a") or "per." For example, the cost
of "12 apples @ $1" would be $12, whereas the cost of "12 apples at $1" would be $1a crucial and necessary
distinction.[citation needed] Medieval monks abbreviated the Latin word ad (at, toward, by, about) next to a
numerical digitnumeral. One reason for this abbreviation was that it saved space and ink. Since thousands of pages
of biblical manuscripts were copied onto expensive papyrus or hides, and the words at, toward, by and about
repeated millions of times throughout the ages, a considerable amount of resources could be spared this way. A
theory concerning this graphic puts forward the idea that the form derives from the Latin word ad,Wikipedia:Please
clarify where the d is spelled in capital, and then inversed back over the a in front of it, thus forming a shape that
resembles the @.[citation needed] It was originally an abbreviation of the Greek preposition (transliterated ana),
meaning at the rate of or per.[citation needed] From Norman French "" meaning "at" in the "each" sense, i.e. "2
widget (economics)widgets Pound sign5.50 = 11.00", comes the accountancy shorthand notation in English
peopleEnglish commercial vouchers and ledgers to the 1990s, when the email usage superseded the accountancy
usage. It is also used like this in Modern French and Swedish; in this view, the at-symbol is a stylised form of that
avoids raising the writing hand from the page in drawing the symbol; this compromise between @ and in French
handwriting is found in street market signs.[citation needed]Whatever the origin of the @ symbol, the history of its
usage is more well-known: it has long been used in Spanish languageSpanish and Portuguese languagePortuguese as
an abbreviation of arroba, a unit of weight equivalent to 25 pounds, and derived from the Arabic languageArabic
expression of "a quarter" ( pronounced ar-rub). An Italian academic claims to have traced the @ symbol to the
16th century, in a mercantile document sent by Francesco Lapi from Seville to Rome on May 4, 1536. The document
is about commerce with Francisco PizarroPizarro, in particular the price of an @ of wine in Peru. In Italian, the
symbol was interpreted to mean amphora (anfora). Currently, the word arroba means both the at-symbol and a unit
of weight. In Italian, the symbol represents one amphora, a unit of weight and volume based upon the capacity of the
standard amphora jar, and entered modern meaning and use as "at the rate of" or "at price of" in northern
Europe.Modern usesCommercial In contemporary English usage, @ is a commercial symbol, called at site or at rate
meaning at and at the rate of. It has rarely been used in financial documentsWikipedia:Please clarify or grocers' price
tags, and is not used in standard typography.Robert BringhurstBringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of
Typographic Style (version 2.5), p.272. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4.Since 23 October 2012,
the At-sign is registered as a trade mark by the German Patent and Trade Mark Office DPMA (registration number
302012038338) for @T.E.L.L. While company promoters have claimed that it may from now on be illegal for other
commercial interests to use the At-sign, this only applies to identical or confusingly similar goods Article 5 Trade
Marks Directive, as interpreted in Case C-251/95 Sabel BV v Puma AG [1997] ECR I-6191 and no court, German or
otherwise, has yet ruled on this purported illegality. Contemporary usage A common contemporary use of @ is in
email addresses (transmitted by Simple Mail Transfer ProtocolSMTP), as in jdoe@example.com (the user jdoe
located at site the example.com domain). BBN Technologies' Ray Tomlinson is credited with introducing this usage
in 1971. Who sent the first e-mail? This idea of the symbol representing located at in the form user@host is also seen
in other tools and protocols; for example, the Unix shell command ssh jdoe@example.net tries to establish an secure
Shellssh connection to the computer with the hostname example.net using the username jdoe.On web pages,
organizations often obscure email addresses of their members or employees by omitting the @. This practice, known
as address munging, makes the email addresses less vulnerable to spam programs that scan the internet for them.
Another contemporary use of the @ symbol in American English is adding information about a sporting event.
Opposing sports teams sometimes have their names separated by a v. (for versus). However, the "v." may be
At sign
22
replaced with "@" when also conveying at which team's home field the game will be played. In this case, the away
team is written first.For an example, see: http://www.nfl.com/schedulesOn some online forums without threaded
discussions, @ is used to denote a reply; for instance: "@Jane" to respond to a comment Jane made earlier.
Similarly, in some cases, @ is used for "attention" in email messages originally sent to someone else. For example, if
an email was sent from Catherine to Steve, but in the body of the email, Catherine wants to make Keirsten aware of
something, Catherine will start the line "@Keirsten" to indicate to Keirsten that the following sentence concerns her.
This also helps with mobile email users who cannot see bold or color in email. In microblogging (such as Twitter
and StatusNet-based microblogs), @ before the user name is used to send publicly readable replies (e.g.
"@otheruser: Message text here"). The blog and client software can automatically interpret these as links to the user
in question. This use of the @ symbol was also made available to Facebook users on September 15, 2009. Tag
Friends in Your Status and Posts | Facebook Blog In Internet Relay Chat (IRC), it is often shown before a user's nick
to mark the operator of a channel. @ is also used on many wireless routers/modems, where a solid green @ symbol
indicates the router is connected and a solid amber @ indicates there is a problem. Computer programming @ is
used in various programming languages although there is not a consistent theme to its usage. For example: In
ALGOL 68, the @ symbol is brief form of the at keyword; it is used to change the lower bound of an array. For
example: arrayx[@88] now refers to an array starting at index 88. In C Sharp (programming language)C#, it denotes
"verbatim strings", where no characters are escaped and two double-quote characters represent a single double-quote.
2.4.4.5 String literals, As a prefix it also allows keywords to be used as identifiers. 2.4.2 Identifiers In the ASP.NET
MVC Microsoft ASP.NET Razor view engineRazor template markup syntax, the @ character denotes the start of
code statement blocks or the start of text content. Razor syntax quick reference ASP.NET MVC 3: Razors @: and
<text> syntax In Forth (programming language)Forth, it is used to fetch values from the address on the top of the
stack. The operator is pronounced as "fetch". In Haskell (programming language)Haskell, it is used in so-called
at-patterns. This notation can be used to give aliases to pattern matchingpatterns, making them more readable. In
Java (programming language)Java, it has been used to denote annotations, a kind of metadata, since version 5.0. In
ML (programming language)ML, it denotes list concatenation. In modal logic, specifically when representing
possible worlds, @ is sometimes used as a logical symbol to denote the actual world (the world we are 'at'). In
Objective-C, @ is prefixed to language-specific keywords such as @implementation and to form string literals. In
Pascal (programming language)Pascal, @ is the "address of" operator (it tells the location at which a variable is
found). In Perl, @ prefixes Variable (programming)variables which contain Array data structurearrays. In PHP, it is
used just before an Expression (programming)expression to make the Interpreter (computing)interpreter suppress
errors that would be generated from that expression. PHP: Error Control Operators Manual In Python
(programming language)Python 2.4 and up, it is used to Python syntax and semantics#Decoratorsdecorate a function
(wrap the function in another one at creation time). In Ruby (programming language)Ruby, @ prefixes instance
variables, and @@ prefixes class variables. In Scala (programming language)Scala, it is used to denote annotations
(as in Java), and also to bind names to subpatterns in pattern-matching expressions. In Transact-SQLT-SQL, @
prefixes variables. In several xBase-type programming languages, like DBASE, FoxPro 2FoxPro/Visual FoxPro and
Clipper (programming language)Clipper, it is used to denote position on the screen. For example: @1,1 SAY
"HELLO" to show the word "HELLO" in line 1, column 1. In FoxPro 2FoxPro/Visual FoxPro, it is also used to
indicate explicit Pass by reference#Call by referencepass by reference of variables when calling
Subroutineprocedures or functions (but it is not an Memory addressaddress Operator (programming)operator). In
Windows PowerShell, @ is used to reference Hash Tables. Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese In
Portuguese languagePortuguese and Spanish languageSpanish, as well in other West Iberian languages where many
words end in '-o' when in the masculine Grammatical gendergender and end '-a' in the feminine, @ can be used as a
gender-neutral pronoungender-neutral substitute for the default 'o' ending, which some advocates of gender-neutral
languagegender-neutral language-modification feel indicates implicit linguistic disregard for women. These
languages do not possess a neutral gender and the masculine forms are also used traditionally when referring to
groups of mixed or unknown sex. The at-sign is intended to replace the desinence '-o', including its plural form '-os',
At sign
23
due to the resemblance to a digraph of an inner letter 'a' and an outer letter 'o'. As an example of the @ being used for
gender-inclusive purposes, we can consider the Spanish and Portuguese word amigos. When the word represents not
only male friends, but also female ones, the proponents of a gender-inclusive language replace it with amig@s. In
this sense, amigos would be used only when the writer is sure the group referred to is all-male. Usage of amigas is
the same in traditional and such new forms of communication. Alternative forms for a gender-inclusive at-sign
would be the Slash (punctuation)slash sign (amigos/as) and the Anarchist symbolism#Circle-Acircle-A, (amigs)
maybe as a kind of "bisexual digraph." However (as) is more used, using the male first, and the feminine in brackets,
amigos(as). For more about this, see Satiric misspelling.The Real Academia Espaola disapproves the use of the
at-sign as a letter. DPD 1 edicin, 2 tiradaOther uses and meanings In (especially English) scientific and technical
literature, @ is used to describe the conditions under which data are valid or a measurement has been made. E.g. the
density of saltwater may read d = 1.050 g/cm @ 15C (read "at" for @), density of a gas d = 0,150 g/L @ 20C, 1
bar, or noise of a car 81 dB @ 80km/h (speed). As an abbreviation for alias in articles about missing persons,
obituaries, brief reports - for instance: "John Smith @ Jean Smyth" (a possible abbreviation of List of acronyms and
initialisms: A#AKaka).[citation needed] In chemical formulae, @ is used to denote Chemical formula#Trapped
atomstrapped atoms or molecules. For instance, La@C60 means lanthanum inside a fullerene cage. See article
Endohedral fullerene for details. In Malagasy languageMalagasy, @ is an informal abbreviation for the prepositional
form amin'ny. In genetics, @ is the abbreviation for locus (genetics)locus, as in IGL@ for immunoglobulin lambda
locus. In the Koalib language of Sudan, @ is used as a letter in Arabic languageArabic loanwords. The Unicode
Consortium rejected a proposal to encode it separately as a letter in Unicode, but SIL International uses Private Use
Area code points U+F247 and U+F248 for lowercase and capital versions.Constable, Peter, and Lorna A. Priest
(October 12, 2009) SIL Corporate PUA Assignments 5.2a. SIL International. pp. 59-60. Retrieved on April 12, 2010.
A schwa, as the actual schwa character "" may be difficult to produce on many computers. It is used in this capacity
in the ASCII International Phonetic AlphabetIPA schemes SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum. In leet it may
substitute for the letter "A". It is frequently used in typing and text messaging as an abbreviation for "at". In Portugal
and Brazil, it may be used in typing and text messaging with the meaning "french kiss" (linguado). In online
discourse, @ is used by some Anarchismanarchists as a substitute for the traditional Anarchist
symbolism#Circle-Acircle-A..... Names in other languages In many languages other than English, although most
typewriters included the symbol, the use of @ was less common before email became widespread in the mid-1990s.
Consequently, it is often perceived in those languages as denoting "The Internet", computerization, or modernization
in general. In Afrikaans languageAfrikaans, it is called "aapstert", meaning "monkey tail". Similar to the Dutch use
of the word. In Arabic languageArabic, it is at spelled (using the English pronunciation). In Armenian
languageArmenian, it is "shnik" (!!!!) which means puppy. In Azerbaijani languageAzeri, it is at (using the English
pronunciation). In Basque languageBasque, it is "a bildua" (wrapped a). In Belarusian languageBelarusian, it's called
"crniak" ("helix", "snail") In Bosnian languageBosnian, it is "ludo a" ("crazy a"). In Bulgarian languageBulgarian,
it is called knroa ("klyomba", means nothing else) or ayncko a (maymunsko a "monkey A"), maimunka
(aynka), "little monkey". In Catalan languageCatalan, it is called 'arrova' (which means a unit of measure), or
'ensamada' (because of the similar shape of this food speciality) In Chinese In mainland China, it is quan A (!A),
meaning "circled A / enclosed A" or hua A (!A), meaning "lacy A". Sometimes as xiao laoshu (!!!), meaning "little
mouse". Nowadays, for most of China's youth, it is at (using the English pronunciation). In Taiwan, it is xiao laoshu
(!!!). In Hong Kong and Macau, it is at (using the English pronunciation). In Croatian languageCroatian, it is most
often referred to by the English word at. Informally, it is called a manki, coming from the local pronunciation of the
English word, monkey. Note that the Croatian word for monkey, majmun, is not used to denote @. In Czech
languageCzech, and Slovak languageSlovak, it is called zavinc, which means (rollmops). In Danish
languageDanish, it is snabel-a ("(elephant's) trunk-a"). In Dutch languageDutch, it is called apenstaartje ("(little)
monkey-tail"). In Esperanto, it is called ce-signo ("at" for the email use, with an address pronounced zamenhof ce
esperanto punkto org), po-signo ("each"refers only to the mathematical use) or heliko ("snail"). in Estonian
languageEstonian, it is also called at, meaning "@". In Faroese languageFaroese, it is kurla (sounds "curly"), hj
At sign
24
("at"), tranta and snpil-a ("(elephant's) trunk-a"). In Finnish languageFinnish, it was originally called taksamerkki
("fee sign") or yksikkhinnan merkki ("unit price sign"), but these names are long obsolete and now rarely
understood. Nowadays, it is officially t-merkki, according to the national standardization institute SFS; frequently
also spelled "at-merkki". Other names include kissanhnt, ("cat's tail") and miukumauku ("miaow-meow"). In
French languageFrench, it is now officially the arobase "At last, France has a name for the @ sign", December 9,
2002, iol.co.zaOrthographe fixe par la Commission gnrale de terminologie et de nologie (Journal officiel du 8
dcembre 2002) but also called the arrobase, arrobe or a commercial (though this is most commonly used in
French-speaking Canada, and should normally only be used when quoting prices; it should always be called arobase
or, better yet, arobas when in an email address), and sometimes a dans le rond (a in the circle). Same origin as
Spanish languageSpanish, which could be derived from Arabic languageArabic, ar-roub. In France, it is also
common (especially for the younger generations) to say "at" (using the English word) when spelling out an email
address. In Georgian languageGeorgian, it is "at" (using the English pronunciation), spelled goo(_odgrgojgo
goo). In German languageGerman, it sometimes used to be referred to as Klammeraffe (meaning "spider monkey").
Klammeraffe refers to the similarity of @ to the tail of a monkey grabbing a branch. Lately, it is mostly called at just
like in English In Greek, it is most often referred to as papaki (t), meaning "duckling," due to the similarity it
bears with comic character designs for ducks. In Greenlandic languageGreenlandic, and Inuit language, it is called
aajusaq meaning "a-like" or "something that looks like a" In Hebrew languageHebrew, it is colloquially known as
strudelshtrudel (zc), due to the visual resemblance to a cross-section cut of a strudel. The normative term,
invented by The Academy of the Hebrew Language, is krukhit (rzz), which is a Hebrew word for strudel. In
Hindi, it is "at" (using the English pronunciation). In Hungarian, it is called kukac ("worm, maggot"). In Icelandic
languageIcelandic, it is referred to as "at merki ("the at-sign") or "hj", which is a direct translation of at. In
Indonesian languageIndonesian, it is usually read et. Variations exist especially if verbal communication is very
noisy such as: a bundar/a bulat (meaning "circle A"), a keong ("snail A"), and (very rarely) a monyet ("monkey
A"). In Italian languageItalian, it is chiocciola ("snail") or a commerciale, sometimes at (pronounced more often ['rt],
rarely ['at]) or ad. In Japanese, it is called attomku (!!!!!!, "at mark"). The word is a wasei-eigo, a loan word from
the English language, or Gairaigo, referring to foreign loan words in general. It is sometimes called naruto,
Tokushimanaruto, because of Naruto whirlpools or food (Narutomaki). In Kazakh languageKazakh, it is officially
called aknak ("moon's ear"), sometimes unofficial as n acu ("dog's head"). In Korean languageKorean, it is
called golbaeng-i (!!!; bai top shells), a dialectal form of whelk. In Kyrgyz languageKyrgyz, it is officially called
aunna ("monkey"), sometimes unofficial as coanka ("doggy"), and et (using the English pronunciation). In
Latvian languageLatvian, it is pronounced same as in English, but, since in Latvian [] is written as "e" not "a" (as in
English), it's sometimes written as et. In Lithuanian languageLithuanian, it is eta (equivalent to English at but with
Lithuanian ending) In Luxembourgish languageLuxembourgish it used to be called Afeschwanz (monkey-tail), but
due to widespread use it is now pronounced 'at' like in English. In Macedonian languageMacedonian, it is called
ajynne (pronun. my-moon-cheh, little monkey) In Malay languageMalay, it is called alias when it is used in
name, di when it is used in email. It is also commonly used to abbreviate atau which means or or either. In Morse
Code#Common punctuationMorse Code, it is known as a "commat," consisting of the Morse code for the "A" and
"C" run together as one character: (---). The symbol was added in 2004 for use with email addresses, "The ARRL
Letter", Vol. 23, No. 18, April 30, 2004 the only change since World War I. In Norwegian languageNorwegian, it is
officially called krllalfa ("curly Alpha (letter)alpha" or "alpha twirl"). (The alternate alfakrll is also common, but is
not its official name.) Sometimes Snabel a, @'s Swedish/Danish name, (trunk a, as in elephant's trunk) is used.
Commonly, people will call the letter [t] (as in English), particularly when giving their email address. In Persian
languagePersian, it is at (using the English pronunciation). In The Philippines, at means 'and' in Tagalog
languageTagalog which could be used interchangeably in colloquial abbreviations. Ex: Magluto @ kumain. Cook
and eat. In Portuguese languagePortuguese, it is called 'arroba' (from the Arabic arrub). The word arroba is also used
for a weight measure in Portuguese. While there are regional variations, one arroba is typically considered as
representing approximately 32 pounds, 14.7kg, and both the weight and the symbol are called arroba. In Brazil,
At sign
25
cattle are still priced by the arroba now rounded to 15kg. (This occurs because the same sign was used to represent
the same measure.) In Polish languagePolish, it is called, both officially and commonly malpa (monkey); sometimes
also malpka (little monkey). In Romanian languageRomanian, it is called colloquially (iliterately) Coad de maimu(
(monkey-tail) or "a-rond". The latter is commonly used and it comes from a-Circleround from its shape, but that is
nothing like the mathematical symbol "A-rond" (rounded A). Some even call it "aron". Recommended reading: "at"
or "la".@ on a DVK Soviet computer (c. 1984) In Russian languageRussian, it is most commonly sobaka (coaka)
(dog). The name "dog" has come from Soviet computers DVK where the symbol had a short tail and similarity to a
dog. In Serbian languageSerbian, it is called nyo A / ludo A (crazy A), ajynne / majmunce (little monkey) or
ajyn / majmun (monkey) In Slovak languageSlovak, it is called zavinc (pickled fish roll) In Slovene
languageSlovenian, it is called afna (little monkey) In Spanish languageSpanish-speaking countries it denotes a
pre-metric unit of weight. While there are regional variations in Spain and Mexico it is typically considered to
represent approximately 25 pounds (11.5kg), and both the weight and the symbol are called arroba. It has also been
used as a unit of volume for wine and oil. In Swedish languageSwedish, it is called snabel-a ("(elephant's) trunk-a")
or simply "at" like in the English language. In Swiss German, it is commonly called Affenschwanz ("monkey-tail").
In Thai languageThai, it is commonly called at like English. In Turkish languageTurkish, it is et (using the English
pronunciation). Also called as gzel a (beautiful a), zel a (special a), salyangoz (snail), ko (ram), kuyruklu a (a
with a tail), engelli a (a with hook) and kulak (ear). In Ukrainian languageUkrainian, it is commonly called et ("at"),
other names being ravlyk (pannnk) (snail), slymachok (cnnanok) (little slug), vukho (nyxo) (ear) and pesyk (necnk)
(little dog). In Urdu languageUrdu, it is called at, identical to the English use of the symbol. In Uzbek
languageUzbek, it is called kuchukcha which means doggy, a direct translation of this term from Russian
languageRussian. In Vietnamese languageVietnamese, it is called a cng (bent a) in the North and a mc (hooked a)
in the South. In Welsh languageWelsh, it is sometimes known as a malwen or malwoden (a snail).Unicode variants
Besides the U+0040 @ commercial at in its regular size, there is also a Unicode character for a small at-sign:
U+FE6B ! small commercial at, located in the Small Font Variants code chart Unicode.org Depending on the font
type this small at-sign can have the size of lower-case letter, but it is often smaller than that. In addition, the
"full-width ASCII variants" Unicode.org code chart has U+FF20 ! fullwidth commercial at. In culture The Museum
of Modern Art admitted the at sign to its architecture and design collection. Author Philip Pullman added the
category of "things that were invented for one purpose, but are used for another" to his "The Museum of
CuriosityMuseum of Curiosity" collection with the @ as an example.John Lloyd (writer)John Lloyd, pledged on QI
(A series)QI series A DVD to support widespread use of the term "Astatine" to refer to the symbol. This name was
chosen as the chemical element astatine has the chemical symbol "At". American R&B singer Usher
(entertainer)Usher used a version of the at sign in his carreer, where the "a" was replaced with the vowel "u" from his
name. Puerto Rican artist Miguelito (artist)Miguelito also uses his version of the at sign where the "a" is replaced by
the letter "m" from his name in his own line of merchandise that includes clothes, school supplies, his studio albums,
etc. A Chinese couple tried to name their son @pronouncing it "ai ta" or "love him"according to the Chinese
State Language Commission. "English invades Chinese language", August 17, 2007", People's Daily Online "Couple
try to name baby @", August 17, 2007, NZ HeraldReferencesExternal links "Daniel Soar on @", London Review of
Books, Vol. 31 No. 10, 28 May 2009 ascii64 the @ book free download (creative commons) by patrik sneyd
foreword by luigi colani (11/2006) A Natural History of the @ Sign The many names of the at sign in various
languages Linguist's view Gender-inclusive use of @ in Portuguese (and in Spanish too): 2 A lngua e o sexo (2
Tongue and Sex), Quartos (quarters) I, II and III, one of the subjects of Controversial Numbers project Where it's At:
names for a common symbol Article at World Wide Words UK Telegraph Article: Chinese parents choose to name
their baby "@"This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1
November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the GNU Free Documentation LicenseGFDL,
version 1.3 or later.
At sign
26
Backslash
is too wide
\ Backslash Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash
( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( )
Portal Portal The backslash (\) is a typographical mark (glyph) used mainly in computing and is the mirror image of
the common slash (punctuation)slash. It is sometimes called a hack, whack, escape characterescape (from C
(programming language)C/UNIX), reverse slash, slosh, backslant, backwhack, and in rare occasions, bash, reverse
slant, and reversed virgule.Macquarie Dictionary (3rd edition) In Unicode, it is encoded at U+005C \ reverse solidus
(HTML: \).HistoryBob Bemer introduced the "\" character into ASCII Mini-Biography of Bob Bemer on
September 18, 1961, "How ASCII Got Its Backslash", Bob Bemer as the result of character frequency studies. In
particular the \ was introduced so that the ALGOL 68#Standard dyadic operators with associated prioritiesALGOL
boolean operators Logical conjunctiont (AND) and Logical disjunctionv (OR) could be composed in ASCII as "/\"
and "\/" respectively. Both these operators were included in early versions of the C (programming language)C
programming language supplied with Unix V6, Unix V7 and more currently BSD 2.11.Usage In many programming
languages such as C (programming language)C and Perl and in Unix scripting languages, the backslash is used to
indicate that the character following it should be treated specially (if it would otherwise be treated normally), or
Backslash
27
normally (if it would otherwise be treated specially). It is thus an escape character. In various regular expression
languages it acts as a switch, changing subsequent literal characters into metacharacters and vice versa. The
backslash is used similarly in the TeX typesetting system and in Rich Text FormatRTF files to begin markup tags. In
Haskell (programming language)Haskell, the backslash is used both to introduce special characters and to introduce
anonymous functionlambda functions (since it is a reasonable approximation in ASCII of the Greek letter lambda,
t).[citation needed] In the context of line-oriented text, especially source code for some programming languages, it is
often used at the end of a line to indicate that the trailing newline character should be ignored, so that the following
line is treated as if it were part of the current line. In this context it may be called a "continuation". The GNU make
(software)make manual says, "We split each long line into two lines using backslash-newline; this is like using one
long line, but is easier to read." GNU 'make' manualThe Microsoft core Windows API can accept either the
backslash or slash to separate directory and file components of a path (computing)path, but the Microsoft convention
is to use a backslash, and Application programming interfaceAPIs that return paths use backslashes. MS-DOS 2.0,
released 1983, copied the hierarchical file system from Unix and thus used the forward slash, but (possibly on the
insistence of IBM) added the backslash to allow paths to be typed into the command shell while retaining
compatibility with MS-DOS 1.0 and CP/M where the slash was the command-line option indicator (i.e. as in typing
"dir/w" to give the "wide" option to the "dir" command). Why is the DOS path character "\"? Although the command
shell was the only part of MS-DOS that required this, the use of backslash in filenames was propagated to most other
parts of the user interface. Today, although the underlying operating system still supports either character, many
Windows programs and sub-systems do not accept the slash as a path delimiter, or may misinterpret it if it is used as
such. Some programs will only accept forward slashes if the path is placed in Quotation markdouble-quotes. The
failure of Microsoft's security features to recognize unexpected-direction slashes in local and internet paths, while
other parts of the operating system still act upon them, has led to some serious lapses in security. Resources that
should not be available have been accessed with paths using particular mixes, such as
http://example.net/secure\private.aspx.In the Japanese languageJapanese encodings ISO 646 (a 7-bit code based on
ASCII), JIS X 0201 (an 8-bit code), and Shift JIS (a multi-byte encoding which is 8-bit for ASCII), the code point
0x5C that would be used for backslash in ASCII is instead rendered as a yen mark (), while in Korean
languageKorean encoding, it is drawn as a Won signwon currency symbol (). Computer programs still treat the
code as a backslash in these environments, causing confusion, especially in MS-DOS filenames. When is a backslash
not a backslash? Due to extensive use of the backslash code point to represent the yen mark, even today some
Unicode fonts like MS Mincho render the backslash character as a , so the Unicode characters 00A5 () and 005C
(\) look identical when these fonts are selected. Several other ISO 646 versions also replace backslash with
characters like (German, Swedish), (Danish, Norwegian), (French) and (Spanish), although these seem not
to have caused such widespread problems.[citation needed]In mathematics, a backslash-like symbol is used for the
complement (set theory)set difference.In some dialects of the BASIC programming language, the backslash is used
as an operator symbol to indicate Integer (computer science)integer Division (mathematics)division.In MATLAB
and GNU Octave the backslash is used for left Matrix divisionmatrix divide, while the slash is for right matrix
divide.In PHP version 5.3 and higher, the backslash is used to indicate a namespace.References External links
Osterman, Larry (2005-06-24). Why is the DOS path character "\"? Retrieved from
http://blogs.msdn.com/larryosterman/archive/2005/06/24/432386.aspx. Bob Bemer, How ASCII got its backslash
Backslash Definition by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)
Bullet
28
Bullet
is too wide
Bullet - white bullet triangular bullet bullet operator Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, )
Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full
stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( ,
, '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space
(punctuation)space () ( ) ( ) General typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ ) backslash ( \ ) Bullet
(typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^ ) Dagger (typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( ) ditto mark ( )
Inverted question and exclamation marksinverted exclamation mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation
marksinverted question mark ( ) number signnumbersign/pound/hash ( # ) numero sign ( - ) obelus ( ) ordinal
indicator ( , ) Percent signpercent, per mil ( %, ) basis point ( ) pilcrow ( ) Prime (symbol)prime ( , , )
section sign ( ) tilde ( ~ ) Underscoreunderscore/understrike ( _ ) Vertical barverticalbar/brokenbar/pipe ( , | )
Intellectual propertycopyright symbol ( ) registered trademark symbolregistered trademark ( ) Service mark
symbolservice mark ( ) sound recording copyright symbolsound recording copyright ( ) Trademark
symboltrademark ( ) Currency Currency (typography)currency (generic) ( ) Currency signcurrency (specific) (
Argentine austral Thai baht Ghana cedi Cent (currency) Costa Rican coln Brazilian cruzeiro European
Currency Unit Dollar sign$ Vietnamese dong Bangladeshi_taka Greek drachma Euro sign Florin sign
French franc Paraguayan guaran Hryvnia sign Lao kip Turkish lira sign German gold mark Mill
(currency) Nigerian naira Spanish peseta Philippine peso sign Pfennig Pound sign Indian rupee sign
Rupee sign Shekel sign Kazakhstani tenge Mongolian tgrg Won sign Cambodian riel ) Uncommon
typographyAsterism (typography)asterism ( ) Index (typography)index/fist ( ) interrobang ( ) irony
punctuation ( ) lozenge ( ) reference mark ( ) Tie (typography)tie ( ) Related diacriticdiacritical marksList of
logic symbolslogic symbolswhitespace characters Non-English usage of quotation marksnon-English quotation style
( , ) In other scripts Chinese punctuationHebrew punctuationJapanese punctuationKorean punctuation
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal In typography, a bullet ( ) is a typographical symbol or
glyph used to introduce items in a list. For example:Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 It is likely that the name originated from
the resemblance of the traditional circular bullet symbol () to an actual bullet. The bullet symbol may take any of a
variety of shapes, such as circular, square, diamond, arrow, etc., and typical word processor software offer a wide
selection of shapes and colours. Several regular symbols are conventionally used in ASCII-only text or another
environments where bullet characters are not available, such as * (asterisk), - (hyphen), . (Full stopperiod), and even
o (lowercase O). Of course, when writing by hand, bullets may be drawn in any style.Usage Bullets are most often
used in technical writing, reference works, notes and presentations. Example:Where are bullets most often used?
Technical writing Reference works Notes Presentations An alternative method is to use a numbered list. Bullet
points Bulleted items known as "bullet points" may be short phrases, single sentences, or of paragraph length.
Bulleted items are not usually terminated with a full stop if they are not complete sentences, although it is not rare to
terminate every item except the last one with a semicolon, and terminate the last item with a full stop. It is correct to
terminate a bullet point with a full stop if the text within that item consists of one 'full' sentence or more. Computer
encoding and keyboard entry The standard circular bullet symbol () is at Unicode code point U+2022. As an
Character entity referenceHTML entity, it may be entered as •, •, or • Unicode also defines a
Bullet
29
U+2023 triangular bullet, a U+25E6 white bullet, a U+2043 - hyphen bullet, as well as a U+2219 - bullet infix
notationoperator for use in mathematical notation primarily as a dot product instead of interpunct. However,
semantic websemantics normally requires that bulleted items be achieved with the appropriate use of the <li> tag
inside an unordered list (<ul>). Such lists may be denoted with leading asterisks in Wiki markupWikipedia markup
as well as in many other wikis.In the Windows-1252 and several other Windows code pages, the standard circular
bullet character is at 149 (decimal). To input this Alt codesAlt code in Microsoft WindowsWindows, press and hold
Alt+0149 on the numeric keypad). The bullet symbol is also generated by Alt+7 in graphic user interfaceGUI
applications, but Alt+7 in a Windows text user interfacetext interface (such as a Win32 console application) it
generates ! (the bell character). Also, it can be confused with bullet symbol in code page 437 and other OEM code
pages (see #In historical systems section). On Mac OS X, pressing ! Opt+8 inserts a bullet, while pressing Shift+!
Opt+9 inserts the similar interpunct(). GTK+ applications on Linux support the Unicode inputISO
14755-conformant hex Unicode input system; hold Ctrl+ Shift while tapping U, then type 2022 and press . Enter to
insert a or hold Ctrl+ Shift while tapping U, then type B7 and press . Enter to insert a midpoint. In historical
systems Glyphs "", "" and their reversed variants "", "B" became available in text mode since early IBM PCs
with MDACGAEGA graphic adapters, because built-in VGA-compatible text mode#Fontsscreen fonts contained
such forms at code points 710. These were not true character (computing)characters though, because such points
belong to C0 control codes range and, therefore, these glyphs required a special way to be placed on the screen; see
code page 437 for discussion. Prior to the widespread use of word processors, bullets were often denoted either by a
lower-case o filed-in with ink or by asterisks (*), and several word processors automatically convert asterisks to
bullets if used at the start of line. This notation was inherited by wiki engines. Others forms of use The bullet is often
used for separating menu items, usually in the footer menu. It's common, for example, to see it in latest website
designs and in many WordPress themes. It's also used by text editors, like Microsoft Word, to create lists. In HTML,
if configured by CSS, the bullet is the icon used in "<li>" tag. References Clair, Kate (1999, Digitized 2007-12-20 by
University of Michigan Libraries). A Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History, Techniques, and Artistry. Wiley,
1999. p.Wikipedia:Citing sources. International Standard Book NumberISBN0-471-29237-0, ISBN
978-0-471-29237-1. Retrieved 2008-11-12.Boulton, Mark (2005-04-18). "Five simple steps to better typography -
Part 2: Hanging punctuation". Journal. Mark Boulton, typography designer. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
Caret
30
Caret
is too wide
^ ASCII caret(circumflex accent) , Unicode caret Caret insertion point Fullwidth formFullwidth circumflex
accent Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( ,
, , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( )
Portal PortalCaret (pron.: /'krt/) is an inverted V-shaped grapheme. Specifically, caret commonly refers to the
spacing character^ in ASCII (at code point 5Ehexadecimalhex) and other character sets that may also be called a
hat, control, uparrow, or less frequently Chevron (insignia)chevron, xor sign, to the [Exponentiationpower of], fang,
shark (or shark-fin), pointer (in Pascal (programming language)Pascal), or wedge. Officially, this character is
referred to as circumflex accent in both ASCII and Unicode terminology (because of its historical use in overstrike),
whereas caret refers to a similar but lowered Unicode character: U+2038 , caret. Additionally, there is another
lowered variant with a stroke: U+2041 caret insertion point.The caret and circumflex are not to be confused with
other chevron-shaped characters, such as U+028C turned vlatin letter turned v or U+2227 t logical and, which
may occasionally be called carets too.OriginsProofreading markThe caret was originally used, and continues to be,
in handwritten form as a proofreading mark to indicate where a punctuation mark, word, or phrase should be inserted
in a document. The term comes from the Latin caret, "it lacks", from carre, "to lack; to be separated from; to be free
from". The caret symbol is written below the line of text for a line-level punctuation mark such as a comma, or above
the line as an inverted caret (cf.U+02C7 caron) for a higher character such as an apostrophe; the material to be
inserted may be placed inside the caret, in the margin, or above the line.Circumflex accentA raised variant of the
Caret
31
symbol can be found on some typewriters, where it is used to denote a circumflex in some languages, such as French
languageFrench and Portuguese languagePortuguese. It is typically a dead key, which does not cause the carriage to
advance and thus allows the following letter to strike the same spot (below the circumflex) on the paper. As regards
computer systems, the original 1963 version of the ASCII standard reserved the code point 5Ehex for an Arrow
(symbol)up-arrow(). However, the 1965 List of Ecma standardsECMA-6 standard replaced the up-arrow with a
circumflex(^), which was applicable as a diacritic as well, and two years later, the second revision of ASCII
followed suit. As the early mainframe computermainframes and minicomputers largely used teleprinters as output
devices, it was possible to print the circumflex above a letter when needed. With the proliferation of monochrome
monitormonitors, however, this was seen insufficient, and precomposed characters, with the diacritic included, were
instead introduced into appended character sets, such as Latin-1. The original circumflex character was left for other
purposes, and as it did not need to fit above a letter anymore, it became larger in appearance.Other usesProgramming
languagesThe caret has many uses in programming languages. It can signify exponentiation, the bitwise XOR
operator, string concatenation, and control characters in caret notation, among other uses. In regular expressions, the
caret is used to mark the beginning of a string, or the beginning of a line within that string (depending on the regular
expression dialect and specified options); if it begins a character class, it indicates that the inverse of the class is to
be matched. Pascal (programming language)Pascal uses the caret when dereferencing pointer (computer
programming)pointers. In C++/CLI the only type of pointer is C++ pointer, and the .NET reference types are
accessed through a "handle", with the new syntax ClassName^ instead of ClassName*. This new construct is
especially helpful when managed and standard C++ code is mixed; it clarifies which objects are under .NET
automatic garbage collection and which objects the programmer must remember to explicitly destroy. In
development for Apple's Mac OS X and iOS, carets are used to create Blocks (C language extension)blocks, and to
denote block types. Surrogate symbol for superscript and exponentiationIn mathematics, the caret can signify
exponentiation (3^5 for 3^5), where the usual Subscript and superscriptsuperscript is not readily usable (as on some
graphing calculators). The caret is also now used to indicate a superscript in TeX typesetting. As Isaac Asimov
described it in his 1974 "Skewered" essay (on Skewes' number), "I make the exponent a figure of normal size and it
is as though it is being held up by a lever, and its added weight when its size grows bends the lever down."Isaac
Asimov (1974), "Skewered", Of Matters Great and Small, Doubleday (publisher)Doubleday, International Standard
Book NumberISBN 978-0385022255 The use of the caret for exponentiation can be traced back to ALGOL
60,[citation needed] which expressed the exponentiation operator as an upward-pointing arrow, intended to evoke
the superscript notation common in mathematics. The upward-pointing arrow is now used as a form of
Tetrationiterated exponentiation in Knuth's up-arrow notation. Escape characterThe command-line interpreter,
cmd.exe, of Windows family of operating systems uses the caret (^) to escape characterescape reserved characters.
Example: C:\> ECHO Show greater than: ^> pipe: ^| less than: ^< caret: ^^ and ^%TMP^% and ^& Show greater
than: > pipe: | less than: < caret: ^ and %TMP% and & Ordinal indicatorIn Italian languageItalian, the caret is
sometimes used in a similar manner to the ordinal indicator, most noticeably on tickets from Trenitalia, the primary
operator of trains within Italy, and RomeRome's ATAC public transit system. On Trenitalia tickets, the travel class is
often written as 1^ or 2^, meaning First class travelfirst class or second class respectively. This is due to the lack of
the Ordinal indicator#Italian, Portuguese and Spanishordinal indicator (-o) used in Italian in the ASCII set. Signature
tagIn social network services such as Twitter, a caret placed before a word is used to tag that word as an individual's
signature within a group account. This differentiates an individual's contribution from a group-authored contribution.
Upwards-pointing arrowIn internet forums, social networking sites such as Facebook, or in online chats, a caret or a
series of carets may be used beneath or after the post of one user by another user. In this usage, the caret ^ represents
an upwards-pointing arrow meaning for readers, Posting styleposters or the original poster (OP) to see the above
line/post, and in addition to the arrow usage, can also mean that the user who posted the ^ agrees with the above
post. References
Caret
32
Copyright symbol
is too wide
Copyright symbol Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( ,
) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( )
Portal Portal The copyright symbol, or copyright sign, designated by (a circled capital letter "C"), is the symbol
used in copyright notices for works other than sound recordings (which are indicated with the Sound recording
copyright symbol symbol). The use of the symbol is described in United States copyright law,17 U.S.C. and,
internationally, by the Universal Copyright Convention.Universal Copyright Convention, Article III, 1. (Paris text,
July 24, 1971.) The C stands for copyright.History The copyright symbol was introduced in the United States
Copyright Act of 1909, section 18.Copyright Act of 1909, 18.The copyright notice required by the U.S. Copyright
Acts used to be a prescribed, lengthy formula: "Entered according to act of Congress, in the year , by A.B., in
the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington." In general, this notice had to appear on the copyrighted work
itself, but in the case of a "work of the fine arts", such as a painting, it could instead be inscribed "on the face of the
substance on which [the work of art] shall be mounted".Copyright Act of 1870, 97. The Copyright Act was
amended in 1874 to allow a much shortened notice: "Copyright, 18, by A.B."1874 Amendment to the
Copyright Act of 1870, 1.The Copyright Act of 1909 was meant to be a complete rewrite and overhaul of existing
Copyright symbol
33
copyright law. As originally proposed in the draft of the bill, copyright protection required putting the word
"copyright" or a sanctioned abbreviation on the work of art itself, also for paintings, the argument being that the
frame was detachable. In conference sessions among copyright stakeholders on the proposed bill, conducted in 1905
and 1906, representatives of artist organizations objected to this requirement, wishing to put no more on the work
itself than the artist's name. As a compromise, the possibility was created to add a relatively unintrusive mark, the
capital letter C within a circle, to appear on the work itself next to the artist's name, indicating the existence of a
more elaborate copyright notice elsewhere that was still to be allowed to be placed on the mounting. Indeed, the
version of the bill that was submitted to Congress in 1906, compiled by the Copyright Commission under the
direction of the Librarian of Congress, Herbert Putnam, contained a provision that a special copyright symbol, the
letter C inclosed within a circle, could be used instead of the word "copyright" or the abbreviation "copr.", but only
for a limited category of copyrightable works, including works of art but not ordinary books or periodicals. The
formulation of the 1909 Act was left unchanged when it was incorporated in 1946 as title 17 of the United States
Code; when that title was amended in 1954, the symbol was allowed as an alternative to "Copyright" or "Copr." in
all copyright notices.Public Law 743August 31, 1954. 68 United States Statutes at LargeStat. 102.Prior symbols
indicating a work's copyright status are seen in Scottish almanacs of the 1670s; books included a printed copy of the
local coat-of-arms to indicate their authenticity.In countries party to the Berne Convention for the Protection of
Literary and Artistic Works, including the modern-day U.S., a copyright notice is not required to be displayed in
order for copyright to be established; rather, the creation of the work automatically establishes copyright.US
copyright notice In the United States, the copyright notice consists of: the symbol, or the word "Copyright" or
abbreviation "Copr."; the year of first publication of the copyrighted work; and an identification of the owner of the
copyright, either by name, abbreviation, or other designation by which it is generally known. e.g. 2011 John Smith
The notice was once required in order to receive copyright protection in the United States, but in countries respecting
the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic WorksBerne convention this is no longer the case.
The United States joined the Berne Convention in 1989.Digital representation Because the symbol has long been
unavailable on typewriters and ASCII-based computer systems, it has been common to approximate this symbol with
the characters (C).The character is mapped in Unicode as U+00A9 copyright sign (HTML: ©
©).http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0080.pdf Unicode also has U+24B8 circled latin capital letter c
(HTML: Ⓒ) and U+24D2 circled latin small letter c (HTML:
ⓒ).http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2460.pdf They are sometimes used as a substitute copyright symbol
where the actual copyright symbol is not available in the font or in the character set, for example, in some Korean
code pages. On Microsoft WindowsWindows it may be entered by holding the Alt while typing the numbers 0 1 6 9
on the numeric keypad. It can be entered on a Apple MacMac by holding the Option key and then pressing the "g"
key. On Linux, it can be obtained with the <compose key> O C ComposeKey sequence. Related symbols The sound
recording copyright symbol is the symbol (the capital letter P enclosed by a circle), and is used to designate
copyright in a sound recording. The copyleft symbol is a backwards capital letter C in a circle (copyright symbol
mirrored). Because it is unavailable on Unicode, it can be approximated with character U+2184 latin small letter
reversed c between parentheses () or, if supported by the application, by combining it with the character U+20DD
combining enclosing circle . It has no legal meaning. Additional ISBN 978-3-540-74830-4. See , page 29. The
registered trademark symbol is the symbol (the capital letter R enclosed by a circle), and is used in some
jurisdictions to designate a trademark that has been registered in an official office of record (such as the U.S. Patent
and Trademark Office in the United States). The non-obligatory symbol used in a mask work protection notice is
(capital letter M enclosed in a circle.) In Japan, is used too.[citation needed]References
Copyright symbol
34
Dagger
is too wide
Dagger and double dagger Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : )
comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . )
guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; )
Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space (punctuation)space () ( ) ( )
General typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ ) backslash ( \ ) Bullet (typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^
) Dagger (typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( ) ditto mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation
Portal PortalA dagger, or obelisk, U+2020 dagger (HTML: † &dagger;), is a typographical symbol or
glyph. The term "obelisk" derives from Greek t (obeliskos), which means "little obelus"; from Ancient
Greek: t (obelusobelos) meaning "roasting spit". It was originally represented by the symbol and was first
used by the Ancient Greek scholars as critical marks in manuscripts.A double dagger or diesis, U+2021 double
dagger (HTML: ‡ &Dagger;), is a variant with two handles. Neither should be confused with the Christian
cross symbol.History The dagger symbol originated from a variant of the obelus (plural: obeli), originally depicted
by a plain line (-) or a line with one or two dots (). It represented an iron roasting spit, a dart, or the sharp end of a
javelin, symbolizing the skewering or cutting out of dubious matter.Three variants of obelus glyphs. The obelus is
believed to have been invented by the Homeric scholarshipHomeric scholar Zenodotus as one of a system of
editorial symbols. They were used to mark questionable or corrupt words or passages in manuscripts of the Homeric
epics. The system was further refined by his student Aristophanes of Byzantium, who first introduced the asterisk
and used a symbol resembling a for an obelus; and finally by Aristophanes' student, in turn, Aristarchus, from
Dagger
35
whom they earned the name of 'Aristarchian symbols'.While the asterisk (asteriscus) was used for corrective
additions, the obelus was used for corrective deletions of invalid reconstructions. It was used when non-attested
words are reconstructed for the sake of argument only, implying that the author did not believe such a word or word
form had ever existed. Some scholars used the obelus and various other critical symbols, in conjunction with a
second symbol known as the metobelos ("end of obelus"), variously represented as two vertically arranged dots, a
-like symbol, a mallet-like symbol, or a diagonal slash (with or without one or two dots). They were used to
indicate the end of a marked passage.It was used much in the same way by later scholars to mark differences
between various translations or versions of the Bible and other manuscripts. The early Christian Alexandrian scholar
Origen (c. 184 253 AD) used it as a method of indicating differences between different versions of the Old
Testament in his Hexapla. Epiphanius of Salamis (ca. 310320 403) used both a horizontal slash or hook (with or
without dots) and an upright and slightly slanting dagger to represent an obelus. JeromeSt. Jerome (c. 347 420)
used a simple horizontal slash for an obelus, but only for passages in the Old Testament. He describes the use of the
asterisk and the dagger as: "an asterisk makes a light shine, the obelisk cuts and pierces."Isidore of Seville (c. 560
636 AD) described the use of the symbol as follows: "The obelus is appended to words or phrases uselessly repeated,
or else where the passage involves a false reading, so that, like the arrow, it lays low the superfluous and makes the
errors disappear... The obelus accompanied by points is used when we do not know whether a passage should be
suppressed or not."Medieval scribes used the symbols extensively for critical markings of manuscripts. In addition to
this, the dagger was also used in notations in early Christianity, to indicate a minor intermediate pause in the
chanting of Psalms, equivalent to the quaver rest notation. It is also used to indicate a breath mark when reciting,
along with the asterisk, it is thus frequently seen beside a comma.In the 16th century, the printer and scholar Robert
Estienne (also known as Stephanus in Latin and Stephens in English) used it to mark differences in the words or
passages between different printed versions of the Greek New Testament (Textus Receptus).The obelus was also
occasionally used as a mathematical symbol for subtraction. It was first used as a symbol for Division
(mathematics)division by the Swiss peopleSwiss mathematician Johann Rahn in his book Teutsche Algebra in 1659.
This gave rise to the modern mathematical symbol .Due to the variations as to the different uses of the different
forms of obeli, there is some controversy as to which symbols can actually be considered obeli. The lemniscus ()
and its variant, the hypolemniscus, is sometimes considered to be different from other obeli. And obeli may have
referred strictly only to the horizontal slash and the dagger symbols.Modern usage The dagger is usually used to
indicate a footnote, in the same way an asterisk is. The dagger is only used for a second footnote when an asterisk is
already used. A third footnote employs the double dagger. Additional footnotes are somewhat inconsistent and
represented by a variety of symbols, e.g., parallels (||) and the pilcrow (), some of which were nonexistent in early
modern typography. Partly because of this, superscript numeral systemnumerals have increasingly been used in
modern literature in the place of these symbols, especially when several footnotes are required. Some texts use
asterisks and daggers alongside superscripts, using the former for per-page footnotes and the latter for endnotes. The
dagger is also used to indicate death, extinction, or obsolescence. The asterisk and the dagger, when placed beside
years, are used to indicate year of birth and year of death respectively. When placed immediately before or after a
person's name, it indicates that the person is deceased. In this usage, it is referred to as the "death dagger". In the
Oxford English Dictionary, the dagger symbol is used to indicate an obsolete word.The dagger () should not be
confused with the Christian cross (, U+271D), the character "Box drawing charactersbox drawings light vertical and
horizontal" (, U+253C), or Cultural, political, and religious symbols in Unicodeother cross symbols. The double
dagger should not be confused with the alveolar click ([tenuis palatal click], U+01C2), the Cross of Lorraine (,
U+2628), or the patriarchal cross (, U+2626). In mathematics and, more often, physics, a dagger is used to denote
the Hermitian adjoint of an operator; for example, A denotes the adjoint of A. This notation is sometimes replaced
with an asterisk, especially in Mathematics. An operator is said to be Hermitian if A = A.In textual criticism and in
some editions of works written before the invention of printing, daggers are used to enclose text that is believed not
to be original.In biology, the dagger next to a taxon name indicates that the taxon is Extinctionextinct.In cataloging,
a double dagger is used to delimit MARC_standardsMARC subfields. In chess notation, the dagger may be suffixed
Dagger
36
to a move to signify the move resulted in a check, and a double dagger is used to denote checkmate. This is a stylistic
variation on the more common '+' (plus sign) for a check and '#' (octothorpe) for checkmate. In chemistry, the double
dagger is used in chemical kinetics to indicate a transition state species. In psychological statistics the dagger is used
to indicate that a difference between two figures is not significant to a p<0.05 level, however is still considered a
"trend" or worthy of note. Commonly this will be used for a p-value between 0.1 and 0.05. On a cricket scorecard or
team list, the dagger indicates the team's wicket-keeper.In military history, a dagger is often placed next to the name
of a commander who is killed in action.[citation needed]The asteroid 37 Fides, the last asteroid to be assigned an
Astronomical symbolsastronomical symbol before the practice faded, was assigned the dagger. In philology, the
dagger indicates an obsolete form of a word or phrase.In the early printings of the King James Bible a dagger is used
to indicate a literal translation of a word or phrase is to be found in the margin. When used the margin begins with an
abbreviation (Heb. Gk. Chald. Lat.) for the original language. In the Geneva Bible a double dagger is used to
indicate a literal translation of a word or phrase is to be found in the margin. When used the margin begins with an
abbreviation (Heb. Gk. Chald. Lat.) for the original language. Dagger and double-dagger symbols in a variety of
fonts, showing the differences between stylized and non-stylized characters. Fonts from left to right: DejaVu Serif,
Times New Roman, LTC Remington Typewriter, Garamond, and Old English Text MTWhile daggers are freely
used in English-language texts, they are often avoided in other languages because of their similarity to the Christian
cross. In German languageGerman, for example, daggers are commonly employed only to indicate a person's death
or the extinction of a word, language, species or the like. References
Ditto mark
37
Ditto mark
is too wide
Ditto mark Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalThe ditto mark () is a typographytypographic symbol indicating that the word(s) or figure(s) above it
are to be repeated. For example:Black pens, box of twenty ..... 2.10Blue..... 2.35In Unicode, it is
encoded at U+3003 ditto mark (HTML: 〃), in block CJK Symbols and Punctuation. In practice, however,
closing double quotation marks () or straight double quotation marks (") are often used instead. The abbreviation
do. is also used.The word ditto comes from the Tuscan language, where it is the past participle of the verb dire (to
say), with the meaning of said, as in the locution the said story. The first recorded use of ditto with this meaning
in English occurs in 1625. Definition at The Free Dictionary Early evidence of ditto marks can be seen on a
cuneiform tablet of the Neo-Assyrian period (934 608 BC) where two vertical marks are used in a table of
synonyms to repeat text, and File:Library of Ashurbanipal synonym list tablet.jpg while in China the corresponding
mark is two horizontal lines (); see iteration mark.An advertisement from 1833. The second item on the list can be
read as "Prime American Pork, in barrels", while the third is "Prime American Pork, in Half barrels".References
Ditto mark
38
Greater-than sign
Computing
The greater-than sign (>) is an original ASCII character (hex 3E, decimal 62).
Angle brackets
The greater-than sign is used for an approximation of the closing angle bracket (). ASCII does not have (angular
brackets).
Programming language
BASIC and C-family languages, (including Java and C++) use the operator > to mean "greater than". In Lisp-family
languages, > is a function used to mean "greater than". In Coldfusion and Fortran, operator .GT. means "greater
than". It basically means this sign > is greater than and this sign < is less than.
Double greater-than sign
The double greater-than sign (>>) is used for an approximation of the much greater than sign (). ASCII does not
have the much greater-than sign.
The double greater-than sign (>>) is also used for an approximation of the closing guillemet (). ASCII does not
have guillemets.
In Java, C, and C++, the operator >> is the right-shift operator. In C++ it is also used to get input from a stream,
similar to the C functions getchar and fgets.
Greater-than sign plus equals sign
The greater-than sign plus the equals sign (>=) is used for an approximation of the greater than or equal to sign ().
ASCII does not have greater-than-or-equal-to sign.
In BASIC, Lisp-family languages, and C-family languages (including Java and C++), operator >= means "greater
than or equal to".
In Fortran, operator .GE. means "greater than or equal to".
Example: 5 > 2 means 5 is greater than 2. 6 < 9 means 6 is less than 9.
Greater-than sign
39
Shell scripts
In Bourne shell (and many other shells), greater-than sign is used to redirect output to a file. Greater-than plus
ampersand (>&) is used to redirect to a file descriptor.
Spaceship operator
Greater-than sign is used in the spaceship operator.
HTML
In HTML (and SGML and XML), the greater-than sign is used at the end of tags. The greater-than sign may be
included with >.
Electronic mail
The greater-than sign is used to denote quotations in the e-mail and newsgroup formats, and this has been taken into
use also in forums.
Less-than sign
The less-than sign is a sign of inequality.
Computing
The less-than sign (<) is an original ASCII character (hex 3C, decimal 60).
Angle brackets
The less-than sign is used for an approximation of the opening angle bracket (). ASCII does not have angle
brackets.
Programming language
In BASIC, Lisp-family languages, and C-family languages (including Java and C++), operator < means "less than".
In Coldfusion, operator .lt. means "less than".
In Fortran, operator .LT. means "less than"; later versions allow <.
In Bourne shell, operator -lt means "less than".
Double less-than sign
The double less-than sign (<<) is used for an approximation of the much-less-than sign (). ASCII does not have
much-less-than sign.
The double less-than sign (<<) is used for an approximation of the opening guillemet (). ASCII does not have
guillemets.
In Bash, Perl, and Ruby, operator <<EOF (where "EOF" is an arbitrary string, but commonly "EOF" denoting "end
of file") is used to denote the beginning of a here document.
In C and C++, operator << represents a binary left shift.
In C++, operator <<, when applied on an output stream, acts as insertion operator and performs an output operation
on the stream.
Less-than sign
40
Triple less-than sign
In PHP, operator <<<OUTPUT is used to denote the beginning of a heredoc statement (where OUTPUT is an
arbitrary named variable.)
Less-than sign plus equals sign
The less-than sign plus the equals sign (<=) is used for an approximation of the less-than-or-equal-to sign (). ASCII
does not have less-than-or-equal-to sign.
In BASIC, Lisp-family languages, and C-family languages (including Java and C++), operator <= means "less than
or equal to".
In Fortran, operator .LE. means "less than or equal to".
In Bourne shell and Windows PowerShell, operator -le means "less than or equal to".
Shell scripts
In Bourne shell (and many other shells), less-than sign is used to redirect input from a file. Less-than plus ampersand
(<&) is used to redirect from a file descriptor.
Spaceship operator
Less-than sign is used in the spaceship operator.
HTML
In HTML (and SGML and XML), the less-than sign is used at the beginning of tags. The less-than sign may be
included with <. The less-than-or-equal-to sign may be included with ≤.
Inverted question and exclamation marks
41
is too wide
Inverted question markInverted exclamation mark Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
(punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull
stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( , , '', "" )
semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalInverted question () and exclamation marks () are
punctuation marks used to begin interrogative and exclamatory sentences (or clauses), respectively, in written
Spanish languageSpanish and sometimes also in languages which have cultural ties with Spanish, such as in older
standards of Galician languageGalician (now it is optional and not recommended) or Catalan languageCatalan. They
can also be combined in several ways to express the combination of a question and surprise or disbelief. The initial
marks are normally mirrored at the end of the sentence or clause by the common marks (?, !) used in most other
languages. Unlike the ending marks, which are fully above the line in a sentence, the () and () are placed about
halfway below the line. Inverted marks were originally recommended by the Real Academia Espaola (Spanish
Royal Academy) in 1754, and adopted gradually over the next century. On computers, inverted marks are supported
by various standards, including ISO/IEC 8859-1ISO-8859-1, Unicode, and SGML entityHTML. They can be entered
directly on keyboards designed for Spanish-speaking countries, or via alternative methods on other keyboards. Usage
The inverted question mark () is a punctuation mark written before the first letter of an interrogative sentence or
clause to indicate that a question follows. It is an inverted form of the standard symbol "?" recognized by speakers of
languages written with the Latin alphabet. In most languages, a single question mark is used, and only at the end of
an interrogative sentence: "How old are you?" This was once true of the Spanish languages. The inverted question
42
mark was adopted long after the Real Academia's decision, published in the second edition of La ortografa de la
Real Academia (The Orthography of the Royal Academy) in 1754 recommending it as the symbol indicating the
beginning of a question in written SpanishCuntos aos tienes? ("How old are you?"). The Real Academia also
ordered the same inverted-symbol system for statements of exclamation, using the symbols "" and "!". This helps to
recognize questions and exclamations in long sentences. "Do you like summer?" and "You like summer." are
translated respectively as "Te gusta el verano?" and "Te gusta el verano." (There is no difference between the
wording of a question and a statement in Spanish as there is in English.) These new rules were slowly adopted; there
exist nineteenth-century books in which the writer does not use either opening symbol, neither the "" nor the "". In
sentences that are both declarative and interrogative, the clause that asks a question is isolated with the
starting-symbol inverted question mark, for example: En el caso de que no puedas ir con ellos, quieres ir con
nosotros? (In case you cannot go with them, would you like to go with us?) Some writers omit the inverted question
mark in the case of a short unambiguous question such as: Quin viene? ("Who comes?"). This is the criterion in
Catalan languageCatalan. Certain Catalan-language authorities, such as Joan Sol, insist that both the opening and
closing question marks be used for clarity. Some Spanish-language writers, among them Nobel laureate Pablo
Neruda, refuse to use the inverted question mark.Pablo Neruda, , (June 2008). ISBN 978-956-16-0169-7. p. It is
common in Internet chat rooms and instant messaging now to use only the single "?" as an ending symbol for a
question, since it saves typing timeusing most keyboards, it is easier to type the closing symbol than the opening,
inverted symbol. Multiple closing symbols are used for emphasis: Por qu dices eso??, instead of the standard Por
qu dices eso? ("Why do you say that?"). Some may also use the ending symbol for both beginning and ending,
giving ?Por qu dices eso? Given the informal setting, this might be unimportant; however, teachers see this as a
problem, fearing and claiming that contemporary young people are inappropriately and incorrectly extending the
practice to academic homework and essays [citation needed]. (See Internet linguistics#Educational
perspectiveInternet linguistics: Educational perspective.)Unspoken uncertainty is expressed in writing (informal
notes, comics) with ?, and surprise with !, but single interrogative ? and exclamatory ! symbols are used.Mixtures
of question marks and exclamation points Although it has now become rare, it is correct usage in Spanish to begin a
sentence with an opening inverted exclamation mark ("") and end it with a question mark ("?"), or vice-versa, for
statements that are questions but also have a clear sense of exclamation or surprise such as: Y t quin te crees que
eres? ("Who do you think you are?!"). Normally, the four signs are used, always with one type in the outer side and
the other in the inner side (nested)(Y t quin te crees que eres!?, Y t quin te crees que eres?! Real Academia
EspaolaRAE's Diccionario Panhispnico de Dudas ) Unicode 5.1 also includes "" (U+2E18 INVERTED
INTERROBANG), which combines both in one glyph. Computer usage Encodings "" and "" are both located
within the Unicode Common block, and are both inherited from ISO-8859-1. "" has Unicode codepoint U+00A1
(decimal entity reference ¡) and HTML named entity reference ¡. "" has Unicode codepoint U+00BF
(decimal entity reference ¿) and has HTML named entity reference ¿. In both cases, the "i" in the
named entity reference is an initialism for "inverted". Character entity references in HTML 4, W3C. Input methods
The character is accessible using AltGr+1 on a modern US-International keyboard. It is also available using a
standard US keyboard by switching to the US-International keyboard layout."" is available in all keyboard layouts
for Spanish-speaking countries. Users of English (US) keyboards under Microsoft Windows can obtain the inverted
question mark "" using the Alt codeAlt code method by holding down the Alt key and pressing 0191, 6824, or 168
on the number pad and the inverted exclamation mark "" with number pad code 0161 or 173. In Microsoft Word,
the inverted question and exclamation marks can be typed by holding down the Ctrl, Alt, and shift keys while typing
a normal question or exclamation mark, or by typing either mark at the start of the sentence whilst in the Spanish
language mode. Windows users with a US keyboard layout are able to switch to the US-International layout. Among
other changes, this converts the "Alt" key to the right of the space bar into the "Alt-Gr" (graphics) key. (The left Alt
key remains unchanged.) When the Right-Alt key is held down and other keys are pressed, the combination produces
other characters not found on the standard US keyboard. For instance, the keystroke Right-Alt-1 produces an
inverted exclamation mark, while Right-Alt-/ yields the inverted question mark. On the Mac OS X platform (or when
43
using the "US International"/us-intl keyboard layout on Windows and Linux), "" and "" can be entered by pressing
Alt (option) + 1 and Shift + Alt (option) + / respectively. With a compose key, for example, <LEFT SHIFT> +
<RIGHT CTRL>, they can be entered by pressing the compose key and ! or ? twice. In LaTeX documents, the "" is
written as ?` (question mark, backtick), and "" as !` (exclamation point, backtick). References
Number sign
44
Number sign
is too wide
# Number sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalNumber sign is a name for the symbol #, which is used for a variety of purposes, including the
designation of a number (for example, "#1" stands for "number one"). The symbol is defined in Unicode as U+0023
# number sign (HTML: # as in ASCII).In Commonwealth English, the symbol is usually called the hash and the
corresponding telephone key is called the hash key. In American English, the symbol is usually called the pound sign
(outside the US, this term often describes instead the pound signBritish currency symbol "") and the telephone key
is called the pound key. In Canadian English, this key is most frequently called the pound key, in reference to
telephone buttons, [citation needed] but in technology is always referred to as hash.In many parts of the world,
including most of the Commonwealth nations, Russia, and most of Europe, number sign refers to the Numero
signnumero sign (-).The symbol is easily confused with the musical symbol called sharp (music)sharp (). In both
symbols, there are two pairs of parallel lines. The key difference is that the number sign has true horizontal strokes
while the sharp sign has two slanted parallel lines which must rise from left to right, in order to avoid being confused
with the musical staff lines. Both signs may have true vertical lines; however, they are compulsory in the sharp sign,
but optional in the number sign (#) depending on typeface or handwriting style.Origin and usage and naming
conventions in North America Mainstream use in the US is as follows: when it precedes a number, it is read as
"number", as in "a #2 pencil" (spoken aloud as: "a number-two pencil"). A theory claims that back in early 1900, the
Number sign
45
Teletype Corporation was the first to use # to mean "number".Historically, the pound name derives from a series of
abbreviations for Pound (mass)pound, the unit of weight. At first "lb." was used; however, printers later designed a
font containing a special symbol of an "lb" with a line through the verticals so that the lowercase letter "l" would not
be mistaken for the numeral "1". Unicode character U+2114 l b bar symbol (HTML: ℔) is a cursive
development of this symbol. Ultimately, the symbol was reduced for clarity as an overlay of two horizontal strokes
"=" across two forward-slash-like strokes "//".Wikipedia:Verifiability Keith Gordon Irwin, in The Romance of
Writing, p.125, says "The Italian libbra (from the old Latin word libra, 'balance') represented a weight almost
exactly equal to the avoirdupois pound of England. The Italian abbreviation of lb with a line drawn across the letters
[] was used for both weights.In Canada the symbol is commonly called the number sign. Major
telephone-equipment manufacturers, such as Nortel, have an option in their programming to denote Canadian
English, which in turn instructs the system to say "number sign" to callers instead of "pound sign".Usage in the
United Kingdom and Ireland In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the symbol is most often called the hash. It is never
used to denote pounds weight (lb is commonly used for this) or pounds sterling (where "" is used). It is never called
the "pound sign", because that term is understood to mean the currency symbol "Pound sign", for pound sterling or
(formerly) Irish pound.The use of "#" as an abbreviation for "number" is rare in Britain and Ireland. Where
Americans might write "Symphony #5", the British and Irish are more likely to write "Symphony No. 5". To add to
the confusion between "" and "#", in BS 4730 (the UK national variant of the ISO/IEC 646 character set), 0x23
represents "" whereas in ASCII (the US variant), it represents "#". It was thus common, when systems were
incorrectly configured, for "" to be displayed as "#" and vice versa. Other names in English The symbol has many
other names (and uses) in English: Comment sign Taken from its use in many shell scripts and some programming
languages (such as Python) to start comment (computer programming)comments. Cross In China, non-native English
speakers often refer to the number sign as "cross". It is said as jng in Chinese, as it looks like the Chinese character
for water well (""). Hex Common usage in Singapore and Malaysia, as spoken by many recorded telephone
directory-assistance menus: 'Please enter your phone number followed by the hex key'. The term 'hex' is discouraged
in Singapore in favour of 'hash'. Wikipedia:Please clarify Octothorp, octothorpe, octathorp, octatherp Used by Bell
Labs engineers by 1968. Lauren Asplund says that he and a colleague were the source of octothorp at AT&T
engineering in New York in 1964. The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, 1991, has a long article that
is consistent with Doug Kerr's essay, in that it says "octotherp" was the original spelling, and that the word arose in
the 1960s among telephone engineers as a joke. The first appearance of "octothorp" in a US patent is in a 1973 filing
which also refers to the six-pointed asterisk () used on telephone buttons as a "sextile". U.S. Patent No. 3,920,296,
Google Patent SearchSharp (music)Sharp Resemblance to the glyph used in music notation, UnicodeU+266F (). So
called in the name of the Microsoft programming languages C Sharp (programming language)C# and F Sharp
(programming language)F#. However Microsoft says "It's not the 'hash' (or pound) symbol as most people believe.
It's actually supposed to be the musical sharp symbol. However, because the sharp symbol is not present on the
standard keyboard, it's easier to type the hash ('#') symbol. The name of the language is, of course, pronounced 'see
sharp'." Frequently Asked Questions about C# According to the ECMA-334 C# Language Specification, section 6,
Acronyms and abbreviations, the name of the language is written "C#" ("LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C (U+0043)
followed by the NUMBER SIGN # (U+0023)") and pronounced "C Sharp". Ecma-international.comSpace Used by
editors to denote where space should be inserted in a galley proof. This can mean a line space (the space between
two adjacent lines denoted by line # in the margin), a hair space (the space between two letters in a word, denoted by
hr #) a word space, or letter space (the space between two words on a line, two letter spaces being ##) Em spaceEm-
and En spaceen-spaces (being the length of a letter m and n, respectively) are denoted by a square-shaped em- or
en-quad character ( and , respectively).[citation needed] Square Occasionally used in the UK (e.g. sometimes in
BT GroupBT publications and automatic messages) especially during the Prestel era, when the symbol was a page
address delimiter. The International Telecommunications Union specification E.161ITU-T E.161 3.2.2 states: "The #
is to be known as a 'square' or the most commonly used equivalent term in other languages." Others crosshatch,
(garden) fence, mesh, flash, grid, pig-pen, tictactoe, scratch (mark), (garden) gate, hak, oof, rake, sink, corridor,
Number sign
46
crunch, punch mark.http://ss64.com/bash/syntax-pronounce.htmlIn mathematicsIn set theory, #S is the cardinality of
the set (mathematics)set S. That is, for a set S = \{s_1,s_2,s_3, \dots , s_n\}, #S = n.In topology, where A and B are
manifolds, A#B is the manifolds' connected sum. In knot theory (a branch of topology), where A and B are knots,
A#B is the knots' knot sum.In number theory, n# is the primorial of n.In computing In many scripting languages and
data file formats, especially ones that originated on Unix, the # introduces a comment (computer
programming)comment that goes to the end of the line. The combination #! at the start of an executable file is a
"Shebang (Unix)shebang" or "hash-bang", used to tell the operating system which program to use to run the script
(see magic number (programming)magic number). This combination was chosen so it would be a comment in the
scripting languages.#! is the symbol of the CrunchBang Linux distribution. In the Perl programming language, # is
used as a modifier to array syntax to return the index number of the last element in the array, e.g., @array's last
element is at $array[$#array]. The number of elements in @array is $#array + 1, since Perl arrays default to using
zero based indices. If the array has not been defined, the return is also undefined. If the array is defined but has not
had any elements assigned to it, e.g., @array = (); then $#array returns 1. See the section on Perl language
structure#Array functionsArray functions in the Perl language structure article. In the C preprocessor (and the C++
preprocessor, and other syntactically C-like languages), # is used to start a preprocessor directive. Inside macros
(after #define) it is used for various purposes, including the double pound sign ## used for token concatenation. In
Unix shells, # is placed by convention at the end of a command-line interface#Command promptcommand prompt to
denote that the user is working as Superuserroot.# is used in a Uniform Resource LocatorURL of a webpage or other
resource to introduce a "fragment identifier" an id which defines a position within that resource. For example, in
the URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_sign#In_computing the portion after the # (In_computing) is the
fragment identifier, in this case denoting that the display should be moved to show the tag marked by ... in the HTML "Introduction to HTML", W3C RecommendationInternet Relay Chat:
on (IRC) servers, # precedes the name of every IRC#Channelschannel that is available across an entire IRC network.
In blogs, # is sometimes used to denote a permalink for that particular weblog entry. On social networking sites such
as Twitter, # is used to denote a Tag (metadata)metadata tag, or hashtag. In lightweight markup languages, such as
wikitext, # is often used to introduce numbered list items. In OCaml, # is the operator used to call a method. In
Common Lisp Lispworks.com and Scheme (programming language)Scheme, # is the prefix for certain syntax with
special meaning. In Standard ML, #, when prefixed to a field name, becomes a projection function (function to
access the field of a record or tuple); also, # prefixes a string literal to turn it into a character literal. In Mathematica
syntax, #, when used as a variable, becomes a pure function (a placeholder that is mapped to any variable meeting
the conditions). In LaTeX, #, when prefixing a number, references an arguments for a user defined command. For
instance \newcommand{\code}[1]{\texttt{#1}}. In Javadoc, Oracle.com # is used with the @see tag to introduce or
separate a field, constructor, or method member from its containing class.Other usesPress releases: the notation
"###" denotes "end", i.e. that there is no further copy to come.[citation needed]Chess notation: # after a move
denotes checkmate, being easier to type than the traditional . Scrabble: Putting a number sign after a word indicates
that the word is found in the British word lists, but not the Official Tournament and Club Word ListNorth American
lists. Prescription drug delimiter: in some countries, such as Norway or Poland, # is used as a delimiter between
different drugs on medical prescriptions. Copy writing and editing: technical writers often use three hash signs
("###") as a marker in text where more content will be added or there are errors to be corrected. Mining: in
underground mining, the hash sign is sometimes used as a shorthand for "seam (geology)seam" or "Shaft
miningshaft". An example would be "4#", which would mean "four shaft" or "four seam" depending on the
context.[citation needed] Medical shorthand: # is often used as medical shorthand for "bone fracturefracture".
Glossary of Medical Devices and Procedures: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Definitions In linguistic phonetics, #
denotes a word boundary. For instance, /d/ -> [t] / _# means that /d/ becomes [t] when it is the last segment in a word
(i.e. when it appears before a word boundary). In linguistic syntax, # before an example sentence denotes that the
sentence is semantically ill-formed, though grammatically well-formed. For instance, "#The toothbrush is pregnant"
is a grammatical sentence, but the meaning is odd. In Teletext and Digital Video BroadcastingDVB Subtitle
Number sign
47
(captioning)subtitles in the UK, the # symbol is used to mark text that is sung either by a character or heard in
background music. e.g. # For he's a jolly good fellow #Unicode In Unicode, several # characters are assigned:
U+0023 # number sign (HTML: # Other Character name aliasaccepted names in Unicode are: pound sign, hash,
crosshatch, octothorpe) U+FE5F small number sign (HTML: ﹟) U+FF03 fullwidth number sign (HTML:
＃) U+E0023 tag number sign (HTML: 󠀣) In other languages or scripts: U+0600 Arabic
alphabetarabic number sign (HTML: ؀) U+0BFA ! Tamil scripttamil number sign (HTML: ௺)
U+110BD Kaithikaithi number sign (HTML: 𑂽) Related characters, the Sharp (music)sharp sign in musical
notation: U+266F Sharp (music)music sharp sign (HTML: ♯) U+1D12A ! musical symbol double sharp
(HTML: 𝄪) U+1D130 ! musical symbol sharp up (HTML: 𝄰) U+1D131 ! musical symbol sharp
down (HTML: 𝄱) U+1D132 ! musical symbol quarter tone sharp (HTML: 𝄲) On keyboards On
the standard US keyboardUS keyboard layout, the # symbol is Shift+3. On standard UK and some European
keyboards, the same keystrokes produce the Pound signpound currency symbol (), and # is moved to a separate key
above the right shift. On UK Mac keyboards, # is generated by ! Opt+3, whereas on European Mac keyboards, the #
can be found above the right shift key. References
Numero sign
48
Numero sign
is too wide
- Numero sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalThe numero sign or numero symbol, - (also represented as N, No, or No.) is a Typographytypographic
abbreviation of the word number indicating ordinal numeration, especially in names and titles. For example, with the
numero sign, the written long-form of the address "Number 22 Acacia Avenue" is shortened to "- 22 Acacia
Avenue", yet both forms are spoken long. Typographically, the numero sign combines the upper-case Latin letter N
with a usually superscript lower-case letter o, sometimes underlined, resembling the masculine ordinal indicator. In
Unicode, the character is U+2116 - numero sign (HTML: №).The Oxford English Dictionary derives the
numero sign from Latin numero, the Ablative caseablative form of numerus ("number", with the ablative denotations
of: "to the number, by the number, with the number"). In Romance languages, the numero sign is understood as an
abbreviation of the word for "number", e.g. Italian numero, French numro, and Spanish, Portuguese and Galician
nmero.http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nox?view=ukUsages The numero sign, despite its widespread usage
internationally, is not a standard alphabetic symbol in virtually any European languages. For example in English
LanguageEnglish, the abbreviation "No." of "numero" is often used in place of the word "number". In US English
the number sign, "number sign#", is frequently used instead. In German LanguageGerman, the abbreviation for
Nummer is "Nr." (with full stop), whereas in Finnish languageFinnish the abbreviation for numero is "nro" or
somewhat archaic "n:o" (to distinguish it from a plain no, which is an exclamation roughly corresponding to the
Numero sign
49
English well in "Oh, well" or "Well, let's see").French The numero symbol is not in common use in France and does
not appear on a standard AZERTY keyboard. Instead, the French Imprimerie nationale recommends the use of the
form "no" (an "n" followed by a superscript lowercase "o"). The plural form "nos" can also be used. In practice, the
"o" is often replaced by the degree symbol (), which is visually similar to the superscript "o" and is easily accessibly
on an AZERTY keyboard. Use of the similar ordinal indicator (), used in some other European languages, is not
advised in French..Spanish The numero sign is not a typographic symbol character, but the word nmero (number)
abbreviated per the Spanish typographic convention of superior letters letras voladas (flying letters) and voladitas
(little flying letters) wherein the final letter(s) of the abbreviated word are written as underlined lower-case
superscripts: no and No (singular), nos and Nos (plural), which is in the same fashion as other flying letters like Fco
for Francisco; Ma for Mara; fdo for firmado (signed). The substitutive form 'No.' is not used because that might be
confused for the Spanish word no. Acceptable alternatives in case no other typographic option is available are: Nro.,
nro. or nm. (the dots are part of the abbreviation). The numero sign also indicates an ordinal number, 1o primero
(first), 2o segundo (second), 3o tercero (third), and so on. The also used for the feminine ordinal numbers:
"primera" 1, "segunda 2, tercera 3, etc.Portuguese Portuguese orthographic rules don't allow the usage of -,
because, as it is an abbreviation, it is necessary to place a period before the superscript O: 'n.o' and not 'no' (plural:
n.os). It is, however, a common mistake, and even newspapers and media often write 'no' or even 'no.'. Another
reason why - is not acceptable, is that nmero (number) is not spelled with capital N, and so, its abbreviated form
follows the same rule. As in Spanish, 'no.' is an unacceptable, ambiguous usage that might be confused for no (a
contraction of em (in) and o (the), the masculine singular definite article). The ordinal indicators are also used to
indicate the gender of a title: Prof.a = professor'a' (female teacher/professor), in contrast to Prof. In fact, there is no
limit for which words may be abbreviated this way. For example: Ex.mo for Excelentssimo (an honorific), L.da for
Limitada (Ltd.), Sr.a for Senhora (Ms.), etc. Traditionally, it should be underlined, however, due to the fact that
many fonts don't display the symbol in such way, this usage is slowly disappearing.Italian Typographic conventions
for abbreviations are like those of Spanish, but superscripts are rarely used, except in the numero sign. The sign is
usually replaced with the abbreviations "n." or "n", the latter comprising the ordinal symbol. Similar superscript is
also used for primo 1 and prima 1, secondo 2 and seconda 2, terzo 3 and terza 3, etc.Russian Although the letter
"N" is not in the Russian alphabetCyrillic alphabet, the numero sign is typeset in Russian languageRussian
publishing, and is available on Russian alphabet#Keyboard layoutRussian computer and typewriter keyboards.
Typing the symbol On typewriters and computers that do not support this symbol, it is acceptable and commonplace
to replace it with the trigraph (orthography)trigraph "No." (letter "N", letter "o", and a period (full stop)). On
typewriters and computers that support the degree symbol or (preferably) masculine ordinal indicator, a digraph
(orthography)digraph starting with "N", such as "Ndegree symbol" or "Nordinal indicator", may suffice as a
substitute for the numero sign, but only if it is to be presented exclusively within visual media, in a typeface and
sizing that results in a passable approximation of the numero sign. Such digraphs are inappropriate for representing
the numero sign in computer data, in general. On Russian Alphabet#Keyboard layoutRussian computer keyboard
layout, the - is available and often located on the 3 key. In Mac OS X, the character can be typed using "U.S.
Extended" and "Irish Extended" keyboard layouts by typing Shift+! Option+;. In X11 systems with a compose key,
the character can be typed using Compose, Shift+N, O. Alternatively
Unicode_input#In_X11_.28Linux_and_other_Unix_variants.29standard XIM style can be used: Ctrl + Shift + u, 2,
1, 1, 6, . Enter. In HTML, the numero sign (if it cannot be entered directly) may be represented by № or
№. Technical considerationsThe Unicode Standard states:. U+2116 NUMERO SIGN is provided both for
Cyrillic use, where it looks like [semi-cursive "N" followed by raised, underlined small "o"], and for compatibility
with Asian standards, where it looks like [angular "N" followed by raised, underlined small "o", followed by a
period]. Instead of using a special symbol, French practice is to use an "N" or an "n", according to context,
followed by a superscript small letter "o" (No or no; plural Nos or nos). Legacy data encoded in ISO/IEC 8859-1
(Latin-1) or other 8-bit character encodingcharacter sets may also have represented the numero sign by a sequence of
"N" followed by the degree symboldegree sign (U+00B0 degree sign). Implementations working with legacy data
Numero sign
50
should be aware of such alternative representations for the numero sign when converting data. ReferencesExternal
links Unicode Letterlike Symbols code chart
Obelus
51
Obelus
is too wide
Obelus Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
Portal Portal An obelus (symbol: , plural: obeli) is a symbol consisting of a short horizontal line with a dot above
and below. It is mainly used to represent the mathematical operation of Division (mathematics)division. It is
therefore commonly called the division sign.History The word "obelus" comes from t, the Greek
languageGreek word for a sharpened stick, spit, or pointed pillar. This is the same root as that of the word "obelisk".
Originally this sign (or a plain line) was obelismused in ancient manuscripts to mark passages that were suspected of
being corrupted or spurious. The obelus, invented by Aristarchus to mark suspected passages in Homer, is frequent
in manuscripts of the Gospel to mark just those sections, like the Pericope in John, which modern editors reject. The
first corrector of , probably the contemporary otuc, was at pains to enclose in brackets and mark with dots
for deletion two famous passages in Luke written by the original scribe which, being absent from B W 579 and the
Egyptian versions, we infer were not accepted in the text at that time dominant in Alexandria, viz. the incident of the
"Bloody Sweat" in Gethsemane (Lk.xxi.43 f.) and the saying "Father forgive them" (Lk.xi.34).Burnett Hillman
Streeter, The Four Gospels, London, Macmillan, 1924 The Aristarchus referred to was presumably Aristarchus of
Samothrace.The obelus was first used as a symbol for division in 1659 in the algebra book Teutsche Algebra by
Johann Rahn. Some think that John Pell, who edited the book, may have been responsible for this use of the symbol.
The obelus had been used by some writers to represent subtraction, and that usage continued in some parts of Europe
Obelus
52
(including Norway and, until fairly recently, Denmark). Unicode has a related character, `, called "commercial
minus sign", located at U+2052 (HTML ⁒).Plus and minuses. The obelus or division sign used as a
variant of the minus sign in an excerpt from an official Norwegian trading statement form called Nringsoppgave
1 for the taxation year 2010.Uses The obelus is occasionally used in Polish language typography to represent ranges
(such as the range 110). As of 2007, it was also used to indicate a range in Italian languageItalian documents (for
example, 40% 50% would indicate 40 percent to 50 percent).[citation needed]The obelus is primarily used as a
symbol for division (as on a calculator) and as an operator in elementary arithmetic. Division is also signified in
other ways usually as a fraction (mathematics)fraction: by writing the operands one above the other and separated
by a line, or on the same line separated by a Solidus (punctuation)solidus or Slash (punctuation)slash. In Denmark,
the obelus is sometimes used as the mathematical symbol for "Subtraction".[citation needed]In many
non-Anglophone countries, the colon (punctuation)colon is used as a division sign: a divided by b is written as a :
b, and this is widely used to indicate a ratio.[citation needed]In Microsoft Windows, the obelus is produced with Alt
keyAlt+0247 on the number pad or by pressing Alt Gr, Shift keyShift and the "+ =" key. In Mac OS, it is produced
with Option keyOption + / (Option + slash). On UNIX-based systems using GNU ScreenScreen or X with a
Compose key enabled, it can be produced by composing : (colon) and - (minus), though this is locale- and
setting-dependent. It may also be input by Unicode code-point on GTK-based applications by pressing Control +
Shift + U, followed by the codepoint in hexadecimal (F7) and terminated by return. In the Unicode character set, the
obelus is known as the division sign and has the code point U+00F7. In HTML, it can be Character encodings in
HTMLencoded as ÷ or ÷ (at List of XML and HTML character entity referencesHTML level 3.2), or
as ÷. In LaTeX, the obelus is obtained by \div. NotesExternal links Jeff Miller: Earliest Uses of Various
Mathematical Symbols Michael Quinion: Where our arithmetic symbols come from
Ordinal indicator
53
Ordinal indicator
is too wide
Ordinal indicator(masculine) Ordinal indicator(feminine) Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {},
) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal In written languages, an ordinal indicator is a sign adjacent to
a numeral denoting that it is an Ordinal number (linguistics)ordinal number, rather than a Names of numbers in
English#Cardinal numberscardinal number. The exact sign used varies in different languages.UsageEnglish -st is
used with numbers ending in 1 (e.g. 1st, pronounced first)-nd is used with numbers ending in 2 (e.g. 92nd,
pronounced ninety-second)-rd is used with numbers ending in 3 (e.g. 33rd, pronounced thirty-third) As an exception
to the above rules, all the "teen" numbers ending with 11, 12 or 13 use -th (e.g. 11th, pronounced eleventh, 112th,
pronounced one hundred [and] twelfth)-th is used for all other numbers (e.g. 9th, pronounced ninth).In the 19th
century, under French influence, these indicators were often written as superscripts (e.g. 2nd, 34th), especially in
British English. During most of the 20th century, formatting them on the baseline was favored. The 16th edition of
The Chicago Manual of Style states: "The letters in ordinal numbers should not appear as superscripts (e.g., 122nd
not 122nd)", as do the Bluebook and style guides by the Council of Science Editors, Microsoft Manual of Style for
Technical PublicationsMicrosoft, and Yahoo!. Two problems are that superscripts are used "most often in citations"
and are "tiny and hard to read". Some word processors format ordinal indicators as superscripts by default (e.g.
Microsoft Word.). Style guide author Jack Lynch (Rutgers UniversityRutgers) recommends turning off automatic
superscripting of ordinals in MS Word, because "no professionally printed books use superscripts."French The
Ordinal indicator
54
suffixes -er (e.g. 1er premier), -re (e.g. 1re premire), and -e (e.g. 2e deuxime). These indicators use
superscript formatting whenever it is available. Alternatively, the suffix -me is a common mistake in place of -e
(e.g. 2me deuxime).Dutch Unlike other Germanic languages, Dutch is similar to English in this respect: the
French layout with -e used to be popular, but Dutch orthographythe recent spelling changes now prescribe the suffix
-e. Optionally -ste and -de may be used, but this is more complex and nowadays less used:[citation needed]
1ste(eerste), 2de(tweede), 4de(vierde), 20ste(twintigste), etc.Croatian, Czech, Danish, Estonian, Faroese, German,
Hungarian, Icelandic, Latvian, Norwegian, Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Serbian, Turkish A period or full stop is written
after the numeral. The same usage, apparently borrowed from German,Reindl, Donald F. 2009. "Kranjska je nasa
spraha: Historical German-Slovenian Language Contact." In: Stolz, Christel (ed.), Unsere sprachlichen Nachbarn in
Europa: Die Kontaktbeziehungen zwischen Deutsch und seinen Grenznachbarn, pp. 103114. Bochum:
Universittsverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, p. 110. is now a standard in Polish languagePolish, where it replaced the
superscript of the last phoneme (following complex declension and gender patterns, e.g., 1szy, 7ma, 24te, 100ny).
Galician, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish The suffixes -o and -a are appended to the numeral depending on whether
the number's grammatical gender is masculine or feminine respectively. As with French, these signs are preferably
superscripted but, in contrast, they are often underlined as well. Some character sets provide characters specifically
for use as ordinal indicators in these languages: and (in Unicode U+00BA and U+00AA.). The masculine ordinal
indicator U+00BA () is often confused with the degree sign U+00B0 (), which looks very similar in many fonts
and is available on Keyboard layout#ItalianItalian and Keyboard layout#SpanishSpanish keyboard layout. The
degree sign is a uniform circle and is never underlined, while the letter o may be oval or elliptical and have a varying
stroke width. The letter o may also be underlined.In Spanish, using the two final letters of the word as it is spelled is
not allowed,. except in the cases of primer (an apocope of primero) before singular masculine nouns, which is not
abbreviated as 1.o but as 1.er. And the same happens with tercer (an apocope of tercero) before singular masculine
nouns, which is not abbreviated as 3.o but as 3.er. With compound ordinals ending in "primer" or "tercer", the same
applies. For instance, "twenty-first" is vigsimo primer before a masculine noun, and its abbreviation is 21.er. Since
none of these words should be shortened before feminine nouns, their correct forms for those cases are primera and
tercera. These can be represented as 1.a and 3.a. (Note that, as with other abbreviations in Spanish, the ordinals
require a fullstop, which is placed before the superscript letter(s).)Irish Numerals from 3 up form their ordinals
uniformly by adding the suffix -: 3, 4, 5, etc. When the ordinal is written out, the suffix adheres to the spelling
restrictions imposed by the Irish phonologybroad/slender difference in consonants and is written -i after slender
consonants; but when written as numbers, only the suffix itself (-) is written. In the case of 4 (ceathair), the final
syllable is Syncope (phonetics)syncopated before the suffix, and in the case of 9 (naoi), 20 (fiche), and 1000 (mle),
the final vowel is assimilated into the suffix.Most multiples of ten end in a vowel in their cardinal form and form
their ordinal form by adding the suffix to their genitive singular form, which ends in -d; this is not reflected in
writing. Exceptions are 20 (fiche) and 40 (daichead), both of whom form their ordinals by adding the suffix directly
to the cardinal (fichi and daichead).The numbers 1 (aon) and 2 (d) both have two separate ordinals: one regularly
formed by adding - (aon, d), and one Suppletionsuppletive form (cad, dara). The regular forms are restricted in
their usage to actual numeric contexts, when counting. The latter are also used in counting, especially cad, but are
used in broader, more abstract senses of 'first' and 'second' (or 'other'). In their broader senses, cad and dara are not
written as 1 and 2, though 1 and 2 may in a numeric context be read aloud as cad and dara (e.g., an 21 l may
be read as an t-aon l is fiche or as an chad l is fiche). Cardinal Ordinal 1 a haon aon (1) or cad 2 a d d
(2) or dara 3 a tr tr (3) 4 a ceathair ceathr (4) 5 a cig cigi (5) 6 a s s (6) 7 a seacht seacht (7) 8 a
hocht ocht (8) 9 a naoi nao (9) 10 a deich deichi (10) 20 fiche fichi (20) 30 triocha triochad (30) 40
daichead daichead (40) 50 caoga caogad (50) 60 seasca seascad (60) 70 seacht seachtd (70) 80 ocht
ochtd (80) 90 ncha nchad (90) 100 cad cad (100) 1000 mle mli (1000) Catalan The rule is to follow
the number with the last letter in the singular and the last two letters in the plural.. Most numbers follow the pattern
exemplified by vint "20" (20 m sg, 20a f sg, 20ns m pl, 20es f pl), but the first few ordinals are irregular, affecting
the abbreviations of the masculine forms. Superscripting is nonstandard.Russian Example of ordinal indicator in
Ordinal indicator
55
Russian, 1913One or two letters of the spelled-out numeral are appended to it (either after a hyphen or, rarely, in
superscript). The rule is to take the minimal number of letters that include at least one consonant phoneme.
Examples: 2-y nopoy /ftrromu/, 2-n nopan /ftrraja/, 2- nopo /ftrroj/ (note that in the second example the
vowel letter n represents two phonemes, one of which (/j/) is consonant).Finnish When the numeral is followed by its
Head (linguistics)head noun (which indicates the grammatical case of the ordinal), it is sufficient to write a period or
full stop after the numeral: Pdyin kilpailussa 2. sijalle 'In the competition, I finished in 2nd place'. However, if the
head noun is omitted, the ordinal indicator takes the form of a morphology (linguistics)morphological suffix, which
is attached to the numeral with a colon (punctuation)colon. In the nominative case, the suffix is -nen for 1 and 2, and
-s for larger numerals: Min olin 2:nen, ja veljeni oli 3:s 'I came 2nd, and my brother came 3rd'. This is derived from
the endings of the spelled-out ordinals: ensimminen, toinen, kolmas, neljs, viides, kuudes, seitsems, etc.The
system becomes rather complicated when the ordinal needs to be inflected, as the ordinal suffix is adjusted according
to the case ending: 3:s (nominative case, which has no ending), 3:nnen (genitive case with ending -n), 3:tta (partitive
case with ending -ta), 3:nnessa (inessive case with ending -ssa), 3:nteen (illative case with ending -en), etc. Even
native speakers sometimes find it difficult to exactly identify the ordinal suffix, as its borders with the word stem and
the case ending may appear blurred. In such cases it may be preferable to write the ordinal as a word (i.e., entirely
with letter (alphabet)letters) instead and particularly 2:nen is rare even in the nominative case, as it is not
significantly shorter than if written as a word (toinen).Swedish The general rule is that :a (for 1 and 2) or :e (for all
other numbers, except 101:a, 42:a, et cetera) is appended to the numeral. When indicating dates, suffixes are never
used. Examples: "1:a klass" (first (i.e. business) class), "3:e utgvan" (third edition), but "6 november". Furthermore,
suffixes can be left out if the number obviously is an ordinal number, example: "3 utg." (3rd ed). Using a full stop as
an ordinal indicator is considered archaismarchaic, but still occurs in military contexts. Example: "5. komp" (5th
company). Similar conventions Some languages use superior letters as a typographic convention for abbreviations
that aren't related to ordinal numbers the letters o and a may be among those used, but they don't indicate ordinals:
Spanish uses the indicator letters in some abbreviations, such as V. B. for visto bueno ("approved"); n. for nmero,
number; and M. for Mara (given name)Mara, a Spanish name frequently used in compounds like Jos MaraJos
M.. In Portuguese, the underlined "" and "" are used with many abbreviations, and should be preceded by a period.
In fact, there is no limit for which words may be abbreviated this way. Sometimes, other letters are also written
before the "" or "". For example: Ex.mo for Excelentssimo (an honorific), L.da for Limitada (Ltd.), Sr.a for
Senhora (Ms.), etc. English has borrowed the "No." abbreviation from the Romance languages word numero
(according to the Oxford English DictionaryOED, the term is from the Latin numero, which is the ablative form of
the word numerus ("number"). Similar forms exist as the word for "number" is derived in other Romance languages:
numero in Italian, numro in French, and nmero in Spanish and Portuguese), applying it as an abbreviation for the
English word "number". This is sometimes written as "N", with the superscript o optionally underlined; see numero
sign.Use of the ordinal-indicating Unicode characters for these kinds of abbreviations is a matter of preference, but
can be misleading; the "" in "N", for example, is not intended to indicate ordinality at all. In UnicodeU+00AA
feminine ordinal indicator (HTML: ª ª) U+00BA masculine ordinal indicator (HTML: º
º) ReferencesExternal links "number words" (in Dutch), Woordenlqst.
Per mil sign
56
Per mil sign
is too wide
Per mil Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash
Portal PortalA per mil, per mille, or per mill (permil or permille) (Latin, literally meaning 'for (every) thousand') is a
tenth of a percent or one part per thousand. It is written with U+2030 per mille sign (HTML: ‰ &permil;)
(Windows: ALT+0137), which looks like a percent sign (%) with an extra zero at the end. It can be seen as a stylized
form of the three zeros in the denominator although it originates from an alteration of the percent sign.A railroad
distance sign in the Czech Republic with a 20 grade (slope)grade, which equates to 2% The term is so rarely used
in English that major dictionaries do not agree on the spelling or pronunciation (even within one kind of English) and
often do not list the other variants or do not even have an entry (for example Longman, and Macmillan). The term is
very common in most other languages, for example in expressing blood alcohol content, which is usually expressed
in percentagepercent in English-speaking countries. A per mil is defined as: 1 = 103= 11000 = 0.001 = 0.1% 1%
= 10 A per mil should not be confused with Parts per millionppm (commonly pronounced "parts per million"). A
measurement in ppm means parts per million, and has as its denominator 1,000,000 and not 1,000.Examples
Examples of common use include: legal limits of BAC by volumeblood-alcohol content for driving a road vehicle in
some countries: for example: 0.5 or 0.2. seawater salinity: for example: "the average salinity is 35". tunnel
and railway Grade (slope)gradients (in some countries) birth ratebirth and death rates baseball batting averages
(colloquially) property taxation rates: the Property taxmillage rate (United StatesU.S.) or mill rate (Canada)
Per mil sign
57
expressing stable isotopestable-isotope ratios - for example: "o13C was measured at 3.5" expressing costs for
print and online advertisements which are commonly sold at cost per mille (CPM); this is the common unit for all
banner and display advertising frequently used by email service providers to denominate the cost for 1,000 emails
delivered as a cost per mille (CPM) Related unitsPercentage pointPercentagePercent (%) 1 part in 100 Basis point
() 1 part in 10,000 Parts-per notationReferences
Percent sign
58
Percent sign
is too wide
% Percent sign Per mille Per ten thousand Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalThe percent sign (%) is the symbol used to indicate a
percentage (that the preceding number is divided by one hundred).Related signs include the permille (per thousand)
sign and the Basis pointpermyriad (per ten thousand) sign (also known as a basis point), which indicate that a
number is divided by one thousand or ten thousand respectively. Higher proportions use parts-per notation. Correct
style Spacing There is no consensus as to whether or not to include a space between the number and percent sign in
English. Many authorities linguistic prescriptionprescribe that there should be a space, whilst others advise against it.
The brochure of the International System of Units declares in chapter 5: a space separates the number and the
symbol %. The ISO 31-0 standard also specifies a space. This is in accordance with the general rule of adding a
non-breaking space between a numerical value and its corresponding unit of measurement. However, style
guidessuch as the Chicago Manual of Stylecommonly prescribe to write the number and percent sign without
any space in between.In some languages, however, there are specific rules of spacing in front of the percent sign. In
Czech languageCzech, for example, the percent sign is spaced if the number is used as a noun, while no space is
inserted if the number is used as an adjective (e.g. a 50% increase). In Finnish languageFinnish, the percent sign is
always spaced, and a Finnish language noun casescase suffix can be attached to it using the Colon
(punctuation)colon (e.g. 50 %:n kasvu 'an increase of 50%').[citation needed] In French languageFrench, the percent
Percent sign
59
sign is also always spaced because the percent is considered as a unit.[citation needed] In traditional Russian
typography there is a set rule to space it by 3 pt but it is not that common in Russia today.[citation needed] In
Chinese languageChinese the percent sign is almost never spaced, probably because Chinese does not use spaces to
separate characters or words at all.[citation needed] According to the Swedish Language Council, the percent sign
should be preceded by a space in Swedish languageSwedish.Usage in text It is often recommended that the percent
sign is only used in tables and other places with space restrictions. In running text, it should be spelled out as percent
or per cent (often in newspapers). For example, not "Sales increased by 24% over 2006", but rather "Sales increased
by 24 percent over 2006". American Economic Review: Style Guide UNC Pharmacy style guide University of
Colorado style guideEvolution Prior to 1425 there is no evidence of a special symbol being used for percentage. The
Italian languageItalian term per cento, "for a hundred", was used as well as several different abbreviations (e.g. "per
100", "p 100", "p cento", etc.). Examples of this can be seen in the 1339 arithmetic text (author unknown) depicted
below. The letter p with its shaft crossed by a horizontal or diagonal strike conventionally stood for per, por, par, or
pur in Mediaeval and Renaissance
palaeography.http://inkunabeln.ub.uni-koeln.de/vdibProduction/handapparat/nachs_w/cappelli/cappelli.html - See
the letter p.1339 arithmetic text in Rara Arithmetica pg. 437At some point a scribe of some sort used the
abbreviation "pc" with a tiny loop or circle (depicting the ending -o used in Italian numeration for primo, secondo,
etc.) This appears in some additional pages of a 1425 text which were probably added around 1435. This is shown
below (source, Rara Arithmetica pg. 440).1425 arithmetic text in Rara Arithmetica pg. 440The "pc" with a loop
eventually evolved into a horizontal fraction sign by 1650 (see below for an example in a 1684 text) and thereafter
lost the "per".1684 arithmetic text in Rara Arithmetica pg. 441In 1925 D.E. Smith wrote, "The Solidus
(punctuation)solidus form (Poor Richard font) is modern." in Dover reprint of 1958, ISBN 0-486-20430-8Usage
Encodings The Unicode code points are U+0025 % percent sign (HTML: %), U+2030 per mille sign
(HTML: ‰ &permil;) and U+2031 per ten thousand sign (HTML: ‱ a.k.a. basis point) There is
also U+066A ! arabic percent sign (HTML: ٪), which has the circles replaced by square dots set on edge. The
ASCII code for the percent character (computing)character is 37, or 0x25 in hexadecimal. In computers Names for
the percent sign include percent sign (in ITU-T), Modulo operationmod, grapes (in Hacker (programmer
subculture)hacker jargon), and the humorous double-oh-seven (in INTERCAL). In computing, the percent character
(computing)character is also used for the modulo operation in programming languages that derive their syntax from
the C (programming language)C programming language, which in turn acquired this usage from the earlier B
(programming language)B.In the textual representation of Uniform Resource IdentifierURIs, a % immediately
followed by a 2-digit hexadecimal number denotes an octet specifying (part of) a character that might otherwise not
be allowed in URIs (see percent-encoding). In SQL, the percent sign is a wildcard character in "LIKE" expressions,
for example SELECT * FROM table WHERE fullname LIKE 'Lisa %' will fetch all records whose names start with
"Lisa " In TeX (and therefore also in LaTeX) and PostScript, a % denotes a line comment (computing)comment. In
BASIC, a trailing % after a variable name marks it as an integer. In Perl % is the Sigil (computer programming)sigil
for Hash tablehashes. In many programming languages' string formatting operations (performed by functions such as
printf), the percent sign denotes parts of the template string that will be replaced with arguments. In Python
(programming language)Python and Ruby (programming language)Ruby the percent sign is also used as the string
formatting operator.In the command processors COMMAND.COM (DOS) and CMD.EXE (OS/2 and Windows),
%1, %2,... stand for the first, second,... parameters of a batch file. %0 stands for the specification of the batch file
itself as typed on the command line. The % sign is also used similarly in the FOR command. %VAR1% represents
the value of an environment variable named VAR1. Thus: set PATH=c:\;%PATH% sets a new value for PATH, that
being the old value preceded by "c:\;". Because these uses give the percent sign special meaning, the sequence %%
(two percent signs) is used to represent a literal percent sign, so that: set PATH=c:\;%%PATH%% would set PATH
to the literal value "c:\;%PATH%". In the C Shell, % is part of the default Command-line interface#Command
promptcommand prompt. In linguistics In linguistics, the percent sign is prepended to an example String (computer
science)string to show that it is judged well-formed by some speakers and ill-formed by others. This may be due to
Percent sign
60
differences in dialect or even individual idiolects. This is similar to the asterisk to mark ill-formed strings, the
question mark to mark strings where well-formedness is unclear, and the number sign to mark strings that are
syntactically well-formed but semantically nonsensical. Notes ReferencesSmith, D.E. (1898), Rara Arithmetica: a
catalogue of the arithmetics written before MDCI, with description of those in the library of George Arthur Plimpton
of New York, Boston: GinnSmith, D.E. (1925), History of Mathematics, Boston: Ginn
Pilcrow
61
Pilcrow
is too wide
Pilcrow Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
Portal Portal The pilcrow (), also called the paragraph mark, paragraph sign, paraph, alinea (Latin: a line, "off the
line"), or blind P, is a typographical glyphcharacter for individual paragraphs. It is present in Unicode as U+00B6
pilcrow sign (HTML: ¶ ¶).The pilcrow can be used as an indent for separate paragraphs or to designate a
new paragraph in one long piece of copy, as Eric Gill did in his 1930s book, An Essay on Typography. The pilcrow
was used in the Middle Ages to mark a new train of thought, before the convention of physically discrete paragraphs
was commonplace.The pilcrow is usually drawn similar to a lowercase q reaching from descender to Ascender
(typography)ascender height; the loop can be filled or unfilled. It may also be drawn with the bowl stretching further
downwards, resembling a backwards D; this is more often seen in older printing. History and etymologyPossible
development from capitulum to contemporary paragraph symbolAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the
word pilcrow "apparently" originated in English languageEnglish as an unattested version of the French
languageFrench pelagraphe, a corruption of paragraph; the earliest reference is c.1440. The Oxford Universal
Dictionary says it may be from "pulled [plucked] crow," based on its appearance.In form, the pilcrow is understood
to have originated as a letter C, for capitulum, "chapter" in Latin. This C was the paraph symbol that replaced in the
function of marking off paragraphs the Greek-style paragraphos, and other symbols including the section sign.
Moreover, the paraph also could be marked with a full-height sign similar to (cents) or with a double Slash
Pilcrow
62
(punctuation)slash, originally symbols indicating a note from the scribe to the rubricationrubricator.Contemporary
use The pilcrow is used in desktop publishing software such as desktop word processors and page layout programs to
mark the presence of a carriage return control character at the end of a paragraph. It is also used as the icon
(computing)icon on a class of toolbar button which shows or hides the pilcrow and similar "hidden characters",
including tab keytabs, Whitespace (computer science)whitespace, and page breaks. In typing programs, it is used to
mark a return that one needs to type. In legal writing, it is used whenever one must Legal citationcite a specific
paragraph within pleadings, law review articles, statutes, or other legal documents and materials. In academic
writing, it is sometimes used as an in-text referencing tool to make reference to a specific paragraph from a
document that does not contain page numbers. It is most commonly used[citation needed] to refer to a paragraph in
an HTML page, allowing the reader to find where that particular idea or statistic was sourced. Convention states that
the pilcrow sign followed by a number indicates the paragraph number from the top of the page. It is rarely used
when citing books or journal articles. In proofreading, it is used to indicate that one paragraph should be split into
two or more separate paragraphs; the pilcrow is inserted at the point at which a new paragraph should begin. In some
high-church Anglican and Episcopal Church (United States)Episcopal churches, it is used in the printed order of
service to indicate that instructions follow; these indicate when the local churchcongregation should stand, sit, and
kneel, who participates in various portions of the service, and similar information. King's College, Cambridge uses
this convention in the service booklet for the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols. Online, it is used in some blogs
and wikis to denote permalinks (cf. Purple Numbers). The pilcrow may be used to indicate a footnote. It is the sixth
in a series of footnote symbols beginning with the asterisk.Typing Character In Unicode, the Character
(computing)character is U+00B6 pilcrow sign (HTML: ¶ ¶). Mac OS: ! Option keyOpt+7Vim (text
editor)Vim, in insert mode: Ctrl keyCtrl+K, PI Microsoft WindowsWindows Alt code: Alt keyAlt+0182 (on numeric
keypad). Depending on the font used, this character will have varied appearance, and in some cases, may be replaced
by an alternate glyph entirely. X Window System, with a compose key: Compose, Shift+P, Shift+P Mobile
devices, including tablets, may require additional software (e.g. Cymbol for iPad). Tools may be required to easily
generate a pilcrow, or other special characters. This may be done via direct button or using a unicode conversion.
Paragraph signs in non-Latin writing systems In Chinese languageChinese, the traditional paragraph sign (rendered
as !) is a thin circle about the same size as a Chinese character. This same mark also serves as a zero character, as a
Style (fiction)stylistic variation of the Chinese languageChinese character for zero. As a paragraph sign, this mark
only appears in older books, commonly found in the Chinese Union Version of the Bible. Its current use is generally
as a zero character. However, it can also be found in some editions of King James Version Bibles and the Book of
Mormon.[citation needed]In Thai languageThai, the character U+0E5B Khomutthai character khomut can be
used to mark the end of a chapter (books)chapter or document. In Sanskrit and other Indian languages text blocks
used to be written in stanzas. Two bars || represented Pilcrow. Reversed and ornamental pilcrow Apart from U+00B6
pilcrow sign (182decimal), Unicode also defines U+204B j reversed pilcrow sign (8267decimal) and U+2761
curved stem paragraph sign ornament (10081decimal) ReferencesExternal links Pilcrow definition at the
Dictionary.com website
Prime
63
Prime
is too wide
Prime Double prime Triple prime Combining prime Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, )
Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The prime symbol (), double prime symbol (), and triple
prime symbol (), etc., are used to designate several different units, and for various other purposes in mathematics,
the sciences, linguistics and music. The prime symbol should not be confused with the apostrophe, single quotation
mark, acute accent or grave accent; the double prime should not be confused with the double quotation mark, the
ditto mark, or the Modifier letter double apostropheletter double apostrophe.Designation of units The prime symbol
() is commonly used to represent foot (length)feet (ft), arcminutearcminutes (am) and minuteminutes (min).
However, for convenience, a (') (Quotation marksingle quote mark) is commonly used. The double prime ()
represents inchinches (in), arcsecondarcseconds (as) and secondseconds (s). However, for convenience, a (")
(Quotation markdouble quote mark) is commonly used. Thus, 35 could mean 3feet and 5inches (of length), or 3
minutes and 5 seconds (of time). As an angular measurement, 3530 means 3 degree (angle)degrees, 5 Minute of
arcarcminutes and 30 arcseconds. The triple prime () in watchmaking represents a ligne. It is also occasionally
found in 17th- and 18th-century astronomical works to denote \tfrac{1}{60} of a second of arc.e.g., in Use in
mathematics, statistics, and science In mathematics, the prime is generally used to generate more variable names for
things which are similar, without resorting to subscripts x generally means something related to or derived from x.
For example, if a point is represented by the Cartesian coordinates (x, y), then that point rotated, translated or
Prime
64
reflected might be represented as (x, y). The prime symbol is not related to prime numbers. Usually, the meaning of
x is defined when it is first used, but sometimes its meaning is assumed to be understood: A derivative or derived
function: f(x) and f(x) are the first and second derivatives of f(x) with respect to x. Similarly, if y = f(x) then y and
y are the first and second derivatives of y with respect to x. (Other notation exists.)Set (mathematics)Set
complement (set theory)complement: A is the complement of the set A (other notation exists) The negation of an
Event (probability theory)event in probability theory: Pr(A) = 1 Pr(A) (other notation exists) The result of a
Transformation (mathematics)transformation: Tx = x The transpose of a matrix. The prime is said to "decorate" the
letter to which it applies. The same convention is adopted in functional programming, particularly in Haskell
(programming language)Haskell. In physics, the prime is used to denote variables after an event. For example, vA
would indicate the velocity of object A after an event. It is also commonly used in relativity: The event at (x, y, z, t)
in Inertial frame of referenceframe S has coordinates (x, y, z, t) in frame S.In chemistry, it is used to distinguish
between different functional groups connected to an atom in a molecule, such as R and R, representing different
alkyl groups in an organic compound. The carbonyl carbon in proteins is denoted as C, which distinguishes it from
the other Protein#Biochemistrybackbone carbon, the Alpha and beta carbonalpha carbon, which is denoted as C. In
molecular biology, the prime is used to denote the positions of carbon on a ring of deoxyribose or ribose. The prime
distinguishes places on these two chemicals, rather than places on other parts of DNA or RNA, like phosphate
groups or nucleic acids. Thus, when indicating the direction of movement of an enzyme along a string of DNA,
biologists will say that it moves from the 5 end to the 3 end, because these carbons are hanging from the ends of the
molecule. Prime can also be used to indicate which position a molecule has attached to, such as "5-monophosphate".
Use in linguistics The prime can be used in the transliteration of some languages, such as Slavic languagesSlavic
languages, to denote palatalization. Prime and double prime are used to transliterate Cyrillic Soft signyeri (the soft
sign, r) and yer (the hard sign, ).Originally, X-bar theory used a bar over syntactic units to indicate bar-levels in
syntactic structure, generally rendered as an overbar. While easy to write, the bar notation proved difficult to typeset,
leading to the adoption of the prime symbol to indicate a bar. (Despite the lack of bar, the unit would still be read as
"X bar," as opposed to "X prime.") With contemporary development of typesetting software such as LaTeX,
typesetting bars is considerably simpler; nevertheless, both prime and bar markups are accepted usages. Some X-bar
notations use a double-prime (standing in for a double-bar) to indicate a phrasal level, indicated in most notations by
"XP". Use in Rubik's Cube notation In Rubik's Cube#Move notationRubik's Cube move notation the prime is used to
invert moves or move sequences. (e.g. L means "turn the left face 90 degrees clockwise", whereas L' means "turn the
left face 90 degrees anti-clockwise".)Use in musicPrime, double prime and triple prime The prime symbol is used in
combination with lower case letters in the Helmholtz pitch notation system to distinguish notes in different octaves
from middle C upwards. Thus c represents the C below middle C, c represents middle C, c represents the C in the
octave above middle C, and c the C in the octave two octaves above middle C. A combination of upper case letters
and sub-prime symbols is used to represent notes in lower octaves. Thus C represents the C below the bass stave,
while C represents the C in the octave below that. In some musical scores, the double prime () is used to indicate a
length of time in seconds. It is used over a fermata denoting a long note or rest. History The name "prime" is
something of a metonymy. Through the early part of the 20th century, the notation x was read as "x prime" not
because it was an x followed by a "prime symbol", but because it was the first in the series that continued with x ("x
second") and x ("x third"). It was only later, in the 1950s and 1960s, that the term "prime" began to be applied to
the apostrophe-like symbol itself. Although it is now more common to pronounce x and x as "x double prime" and
"x triple prime", these are still sometimes pronounced in the old manner as "x second" and "x third".[citation
needed]Representations Prime, double prime and triple prime Unicode and HTML representations of the prime and
related symbols are as follows. CharacterUnicodeHTML entityPrime () U+2032 ′Double prime ()
U+2033 ″Triple prime () U+2034 Quadruple prime () U+2057 Modifier letter prime () U+02B9
Modifier letter double prime ()U+02BA The "modifier letter prime" and "modifier letter double prime"
characters are intended for linguistic purposes, such as the indication of Stress (linguistics)stress or the transliteration
of certain Cyrillic characters. When the character set used does not include the prime or double prime character (e.g.,
Prime
65
ISO 8859-1 is commonly assumed on IRC)[citation needed], they are often respectively approximated by normal or
Italic typeitalic apostrophes and quotation marks. In LaTeX math mode, f' (f with an apostrophe) is rendered as f'\,\!.
Furthermore, LaTeX provides an oversized prime symbol, \prime (\prime) for use in subscripts. For example,
f_\prime^\prime appears as f_\prime^\prime. ReferencesExternal links Unicode General Punctuation code chart
Unicode Spacing Modifier Letters code chart
Registered trademark symbol
66
is too wide
Registered trademark symbol Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( :
) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . )
Portal Portal The registered trademark symbol, designated by (the circled capital letter "R"), is a symbol used to
provide notice that the preceding mark is a trademark or service mark that has been registered with a national
trademark office. UK IPO, one example of a national trade mark office In some countries it is against the law to use
the registered trademark symbol for a mark that is not officially registered in any country.Trademarks not officially
registered are instead marked with the trademark symbol , while unregistered service marks are marked with the
service mark symbol . The proper manner to display these symbols is immediately following the mark, and is
commonly in superscript style but is not legally required. Computer usageThe registered trademark symbol. The
registered trademark character has a standardized representation in most computer systems. It is mapped in Unicode
as U+00AE registered sign (HTML: ® ®).http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0080.pdf The registered
trademark symbol is distinct, in computer representation, from the similar character U+24C7 ! circled latin capital
letter r (enclosed R) Because the symbol has not commonly been available on typewriters and ASCII-based
computer systems, it has been common to approximate this symbol with the characters (R) (or (r)); for example, the
Python (programming language)Python programming language Trademark Usage Policy advocates this usage.PSF
Trademark Usage Policy. http://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/ "The first or most prominent mention of a Python
trademark should be immediately followed by a symbol for registered trademark: "" or "(r)"." However, these
67
forms do not have legal force.[citation needed] Example of legal equivalents are the phrase "Registered, U.S. Patent
and Trademark Office", which may be abbreviated to "Reg U.S. Pat & TM Off.",Gregory H. Guillot. A Guide to
Proper Trademark Use. 1995-2007. http://www.ggmark.com/guide.html in the U.S., and the letters "RTM" in the
UK.Typing characterWindows Alt keycodesWindows Alt code: Alt keyAlt + 0174 (on numeric keypad). Linux:
either AltGr + R or Compose key, O, R. Mac OS: Option keyOption + R.
Keyboard_layout#US-InternationalUS-International keyboard layout and
Keyboard_layout#UK-InternationalUK-International keyboard layout: AltGr keyAltGr+R. Emacs: C-x 8 R. HTML:
® or ® or ®. LaTeX: \textsuperscript{\textregistered} in math or text mode. Related symbols The
trademark symbol , used for unregistered trademarks The similar copyright symbol, . The similar sound
recording copyright symbol, . The similar Orthodox Union hechsher symbol, featuring a U instead of an R in the
circle.ReferencesExternal links The Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List
Section sign
68
Section sign
is too wide
Section sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalThe section sign (, Unicode U+00A7, HTML entity §) is a typographical character used mainly to
refer to a particular Section (documents)section of a document, such as a legal code. It is also called "double S",
"sectional symbol", signum sectionis. It is frequently used along with the pilcrow (), or paragraph sign. When
duplicated, as , it is read as the plural "sections" ( 1321), much as "pp." (pages) is the plural of "Page
(paper)p." (short for the Latin pagina). The likely origin of the section sign is the Typographical ligaturedigraph
formed by the combination of two S'es (from the Latin signum sectionis).Like the Dagger (typography)dagger ()
and Dagger (typography)double dagger (), it is also sometimes used to link to a footnote where the asterisk (*) is
already in use on a given page; however, these usages are declining in favor of numbered footnotes, usually linked
by a superscripted and/or square bracketed number. Typing character In Unicode, it is encoded U+00A7 section
sign (HTML: § §) Emacs: C-x 8 S HTML: §Mac OS CSA (Canadian French) Keyboard layout: !
Option keyOpt+ Shift keyShift+SMac OS U.S. Keyboard layout: ! Opt+5. U.S. Extended Keyboard layout: !
Opt+6Mac OS U.K. Keyboard layout: key. iPhone 123 hold following key until alternative is displayed & TeX:
\SKeyboard_layout#US-InternationalUS-International keyboard layout and
Keyboard_layout#UK-InternationalUK-International keyboard layout: AltGr keyAltGr+ Shift+SUbuntu (operating
system)Ubuntu alternative to US/UK keyboard option: AltGr keyAltGr+ Shift release OS; Ctrl+ Shift+UA7.
Section sign
69
EnterVim (text editor)Vim, in insert mode: Ctrl keyCtrl+K, SE; Ctrl+V, 167 Microsoft WindowsWindows AZERTY
keyboard: key (obtained as Shift+!). Microsoft WindowsWindows Alt code: Alt keyAlt+0167; Alt+21;
Alt+31509 (on numeric keypad) How do I add a section sign, or other special characters? | Center for
Computer-Assisted Legal
Instructionhttp://publique.rdc.puc-rio.br/rdc/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?infoid=219&sid=2X Window System, with
a compose key: Compose+S+O, or Compose+!+SX Window System, without a compose key: Ctrl+
Shift+U00A7Other uses A modified version of the section sign is used in the Maxis games SimCity 3 and later and
The Sims series, as the symbol of the in-game currency, the simoleon. The symbol is used like the $ sign to denote
the US dollar. Simoleon - The Sims WikiThe sections symbol is used to denote chapters and sections in David Foster
Wallace's novel The Pale King, left unfinished with his death in 2008, which deals heavily with the labor and lives of
American IRS workers.The section symbol is used in the 2012 computer game XCOM: Enemy Unknown as a
nationality-neutral currency symbol.The section symbol is used by horse racing rating service Timeform to denote a
horse is unreliable. Timeform Ratings symbols and abbreviations Such a horse is usually referred to as a "squiggle
horse". References
Service mark symbol
70
Service mark symbol
is too wide
Service mark symbol Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : )
comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . )
Portal Portal The service mark symbol, designated by (the letters SM written in superscript style), is a symbol
commonly used in the United States to provide notice that the preceding mark is a service mark. This symbol has
some legal force, and is typically used for service marks not yet registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office; registered service marks are instead marked with the same symbol used for registered trademarks, the
registered trademark symbol . The proper manner to display the symbol is immediately following the mark in
superscript style.The character is mapped in Unicode as U+2120 service mark (HTML:
℠).http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdfhttp://alanvallis.wordpress.com/special-html-characters/
Unlike the similar trademark symbol, there is no simple built-in way to type the service mark symbol on Microsoft
Windows or Macintosh systems though it is easily created on GNU/LinuxLinux systems by hitting Compose, then s
and finally m. Related symbols The registered trademark symbol U+00AE Registered trademark symbolregistered
sign (HTML: ® ®), used for registered service marks. The similar symbol, U+2122 trademark
symboltrade mark sign (HTML: ™ ™), featuring the letters TM instead of SM.References
Service mark symbol
71
Sound recording copyright symbol
is too wide
Sound recording copyright symbol Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The sound recording copyright symbol, represented by the
graphic symbol (a circled capital letter P), is the copyright symbol used to provide notice of copyright in a sound
recording (phonogram) embodied in a phonorecord (LPs, audiotapes, cassettes, compact discs, etc.). U.S. Copyright
Office Circular 3 The use of the symbol originated in United States copyright lawAct of Oct. 15, 1971, Pub. L. No.
92-140, 85 Stat. 391, 1(c), now codified at 17 U.S.C. and is specified internationally in the Convention for the
Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms. Convention for the
Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms, done at Geneva,
October 19, 1971, Article 5The P stands for phonogram, the legal term used in most English-speaking countries to
refer to works known in U.S. copyright law as "sound recordings". Statement of Marybeth Peters, United States
Register of Copyrights, before the Subcommittee on Courts, the Internet, and Intellectual Property, Committee on the
Judiciary (July 31, 2007)A sound recording has a separate copyright that is distinct from that of the underlying work
(usually a musical work, expressible in musical notation and written lyrics), if any. The sound recording copyright
Sound recording copyright symbol
72
notice is a copyright for just the sound itself, and will not apply to any other rendition or version, even if performed
by the same artist(s). In the U.S., the sound recording copyright notice, which may only be affixed to a phonorecord,
consists of three elements: the symbol; the year of first publication of the sound recording; and an identification of
the owner of the copyright, either by name, abbreviation or other designation by which it is generally known. The
identification can be omitted if the owner is the sound recording's producer, and the producer is identified on
associated packaging.The symbol in Unicode is U+2117 sound recording copyright (HTML: ℗), with the
alternative names "published" and "phonorecord sign". It closely resembles U+24C5 ! circled latin capital letter p
(HTML: Ⓟ) and U+24DF ! circled latin small letter p (HTML: ⓟ)References
Star
*
In typography, a star is any of several glyphs with a number of points arrayed within an imaginary circle.
Four points
Name Character Codepoint
black four-pointed star
U+2726
white four-pointed star
U+2727
Five points
See also Five-pointed star
Star
73
Arabic star (5, 6 or 8 points)
U+066D
star equals
U+225B
star operator
U+22C6
APL functional symbol circle star
U+235F
APL functional symbol star diaeresis
U+2363
black star
U+2605
white star
U+2606
star and crescent
C
U+262A
outlined white star
U+269D
stress outlined white star
U+2729
circled white star
U+272A
Star
74
open center black star
U+272B
black center white star
U+272C
outlined black star
U+272D
heavy outlined black star
U+272E
pinwheel star
U+272F
shadowed white star
U+2730
white medium star
U+2B50
black small star
U+2B51
white small star
U+2B52
GLOWING STAR
!
U+1F31F
SHOOTING STAR
!
U+1F320
See also:
mullet (heraldry)
pentagram
Star
75
Six points
star of David
U+2721
six-pointed black star
U+2736
SLAVONIC ASTERISK
U+A673
SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT
!
U+1F52F
See also:
Seal of Solomon
Seven points
Commonwealth Star
Eight points
flower punctuation mark
U+2055
eight-pointed black star
U+2734
eight-pointed pinwheel star
U+2735
eight-pointed rectilinear black star
U+2737
heavy eight-pointed rectilinear black star
U+2738
Star
76
circled open center eight-pointed star
U+2742
See also:
Rub el Hizb
Twelve points
twelve-pointed black star
U+2739
See also:
Blue Sky with a White Sun
Tilde
77
Tilde
is too wide
~ Tilde - Small tilde infix notationTilde operatorcombining characterCombining tildePunctuationapostrophe ( '
) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . )
exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark (
? ) quotation marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers
interpunct ( ) Space (punctuation)space () ( ) ( ) General typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ )
backslash ( \ ) Bullet (typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^ ) Dagger (typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( )
ditto mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation marksinverted exclamation mark ( ) Inverted question and
exclamation marksinverted question mark ( ) number signnumbersign/pound/hash ( # ) numero sign ( - ) obelus (
) ordinal indicator ( , ) Percent signpercent, per mil ( %, ) basis point ( ) pilcrow ( ) Prime
(symbol)prime ( , , ) section sign ( ) tilde ( ~ ) Underscoreunderscore/understrike ( _ ) Vertical
barverticalbar/brokenbar/pipe ( , | ) Intellectual propertycopyright symbol ( ) registered trademark
symbolregistered trademark ( ) Service mark symbolservice mark ( ) sound recording copyright symbolsound
recording copyright ( ) Trademark symboltrademark ( ) Currency Currency (typography)currency (generic) (
) Currency signcurrency (specific) ( Argentine austral Thai baht Ghana cedi Cent (currency) Costa Rican
coln Brazilian cruzeiro European Currency Unit Dollar sign$ Vietnamese dong Bangladeshi_taka Greek
drachma Euro sign Florin sign French franc Paraguayan guaran Hryvnia sign Lao kip Turkish lira sign
German gold mark Mill (currency) Nigerian naira Spanish peseta Philippine peso sign Pfennig Pound
sign Indian rupee sign Rupee sign Shekel sign Kazakhstani tenge Mongolian tgrg Won sign
Cambodian riel ) Uncommon typographyAsterism (typography)asterism ( ) Index (typography)index/fist ( )
interrobang ( ) irony punctuation ( ) lozenge ( ) reference mark ( ) Tie (typography)tie ( ) Related
diacriticdiacritical marksList of logic symbolslogic symbolswhitespace characters Non-English usage of quotation
marksnon-English quotation style ( , ) In other scripts Chinese punctuationHebrew punctuationJapanese
punctuationKorean punctuation Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The tilde (pron.: /'tild/,
pron.: /'tildi/; or ~ ) is a grapheme with several uses. The name of the character comes from Portuguese
languagePortuguese and Spanish languageSpanish, from the Latin titulus meaning "title" or "superscription", though
the term "tilde" has evolved and now has a different meaning in linguistics.It was originally written over a letter as a
mark of abbreviation, but has since acquired a number of other uses as a diacritic mark or a character in its own
right. These are encoded in Unicode at U+0303 combining tilde and U+007E ~ tilde (as a spacing character), and
there are #Similar charactersadditional similar characters for different roles. In lexicography, the latter kind of tilde
and the swung dash (-) are used in dictionaries to indicate the omission of the entry word. WordNet Search
3.0Common use This symbol (in English) sometimes means approximation"approximately", such as: "~30 minutes
ago" meaning "approximately 30 minutes ago". It can mean "similar to", including "of the same order of magnitude
as", such as: x ~ y" meaning that x and y are of the same order of magnitude. Another approximation symbol is ~,
meaning "approximately equal to."Diacritical use In some languages, the tilde is used as a diacritical mark ( )
placed over a Letter (alphabet)letter to indicate a change in pronunciation, such as nasalization.Pitch It was first used
in the Greek diacriticspolytonic orthography of Ancient Greek, as a variant of the circumflex, representing a rise in
pitch accentpitch followed by a return to standard pitch. AbbreviationCarta marina showing Finnish economy, with
Tilde
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the captions Hic fabricantur naves and Hic fabricantur Bombard (weapon)bombarde abbreviated Later, it was used to
make scribal abbreviationabbreviations in medieval Latin languageLatin documents. When an n or m followed a
vowel, it was often omitted, and a tilde (i.e., a small n) was placed over the preceding vowel to indicate the missing
letter; this is the origin of the use of tilde to indicate nasalization. (Compare Umlaut (diacritic)#Umlautthe
development of the umlaut as an abbreviation of e.) The practice of using the tilde over a vowel to indicate
omission of an n or m continued in printed books in French languageFrench as a means of reducing text length
until the 17th century. It was also used in Portuguese languagePortuguese, Catalan languageCatalan and Spanish
languageSpanish. The tilde was also used occasionally to make other abbreviations, such as over the letter q ("q")
to signify the word que ("that").Nasalization It is also as a small n that the tilde originated when written above
other letters, marking a Latin languageLatin n which had been elisionelided in old Galician-Portuguese. In modern
Portuguese languagePortuguese it indicates nasalization of the base vowel: mo "hand", from Lat. manu-; razes
"reasons", from Lat. rationes. This usage has been adopted in the orthographies of several Indigenous languages of
the Americasnative languages of South America, such as Guarani languageGuarani and Nheengatu, as well as in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and many other phonetic alphabets. For example, [lj:] is the IPA transcription
of the pronunciation of the French place-name Lyon.In Breton languageBreton, the symbol after a vowel means
that the letter n serves only to give the vowel a nasalised pronunciation, without being itself pronounced, as it
normally is. For example an gives the pronunciation [n] whereas a gives []. Palatal n The tilded n (, )
developed from the digraph nn in Spanish. In this language, is considered a separate letter called ee
(IPA:['ee]), rather than a letter-diacritic combination; it is placed in Spanish dictionaries between the letters n and
o. In addition, the word tilde can refer to any diacritic in this language; for example, the acute accent in Jos is also
called a tilde in Spanish. Current languages in which the tilded n () is used for the palatal nasal consonant //
include:Asturian languageAsturianBasque languageBasqueChamorro languageFilipino languageFilipinoGalician
languageGalicianGuaran languageGuaranMapudungunPapiamentoQuechua languagesQuechuaSpanish
languageSpanishTetum languageTetumTone In Vietnamese languageVietnamese, a tilde over a vowel represents a
dipping tone (linguistics)tone (ng).International Phonetic Alphabet In phonetics, a tilde is used as a diacritic either
placed above a letter, below it or superimposed onto the middle of it (see IPA diacriticsInternational Phonetic
Alphabet Diacritics): A tilde above a letter indicates nasalization, e.g. [], [v]. A tilde superimposed onto the
middle of a letter indicates velarization or pharyngealization, e.g. [l], [z]. If no precomposed unicode character exists,
the unicode character 'COMBINING TILDE OVERLAY' (U+0334) "" can be used to generate one. A tilde below a
letter indicates Creaky voicelaryngealisation, e.g. [d]. If no precomposed unicode character exists, the unicode
character 'COMBINING TILDE BELOW' (U+0330) "" can be used to generate one. Letter extension In Estonian
languageEstonian, the symbol stands for the close-mid back unrounded vowel, and it is considered an
independent letter. Other uses Some languages and alphabets use the tilde for other purposes: Arabic
languageArabic: A symbol resembling the tilde (Arabic diacritics#Maddahmadda) is used over the letter to
become , denoting a long /a:/ sound ([2:]). Guaran languageGuaran: The tilded G (note that G/g with tilde is
not available as a precomposed glyph in Unicode) stands for the velar nasal consonant. Also, the tilded y (Y)
stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel [i]. Unicode has a combining charactercombining vertical tilde
character, (U+033E). It is used to indicate tone accentmiddle tone in linguistic transcription of certain dialects of
the Lithuanian languageLithuanian Standards Board (LST), proposal for a zigazag diacritic. and for transliteration of
the Cyrillic palatalization sign, (U+0484).[citation needed]Precomposed Unicode characters The following
characters using the tilde as a diacritic exist as precomposed Unicode characters: Character Code point Name
U+00C3 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH TILDE U+00D1 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N WITH TILDE
U+00D5 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE U+00E3 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH TILDE
U+00F1 LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH TILDE U+00F5 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE
U+0128 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE U+0129 LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE
U+0168 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE U+0169 u LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE
U+019F O LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+022C LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O
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79
WITH TILDE AND MACRON U+022D LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND MACRON U+026B l
LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D6C b LATIN SMALL LETTER B WITH MIDDLE
TILDE U+1D6D d LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D6E f LATIN SMALL LETTER F
WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D6F m LATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D70 n LATIN
SMALL LETTER N WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D71 p LATIN SMALL LETTER P WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D72 r LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D73 i LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH
FISHHOOK AND MIDDLE TILDE U+1D74 s LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D75 t
LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH MIDDLE TILDE U+1D76 z LATIN SMALL LETTER Z WITH MIDDLE
TILDE U+1E1A E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E1B LATIN SMALL LETTER E
WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E2C [ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E2D [ LATIN
SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E4C LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND
ACUTE U+1E4D LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND ACUTE U+1E4E LATIN CAPITAL
LETTER O WITH TILDE AND DIAERESIS U+1E4F LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND
DIAERESIS U+1E74 U LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E75 LATIN SMALL
LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW U+1E78 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE
U+1E79 u LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE U+1E7C V LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V
WITH TILDE U+1E7D v LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH TILDE U+1EAA LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A
WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE U+1EAB LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EB4 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH BREVE AND TILDE U+1EB5 LATIN SMALL LETTER A
WITH BREVE AND TILDE U+1EBC E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE U+1EBD LATIN SMALL
LETTER E WITH TILDE U+1EC4 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE U+1EC5
LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE U+1ED6 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O
WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE U+1ED7 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EE0 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH HORN AND TILDE U+1EE1 LATIN SMALL LETTER O
WITH HORN AND TILDE U+1EEE LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE U+1EEF
LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE U+1EF8 Y LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y WITH TILDE
U+1EF9 LATIN SMALL LETTER Y WITH TILDE U+2C62 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L WITH MIDDLE
TILDE Similar characters There are a number of Unicode characters similar to the tilde. Character Code point Name
Comments ~ U+007E TILDE Same as keyboard tilde. In-line. U+02DC SMALL TILDE Raised but quite small.
U+0303 COMBINING TILDE U+034A COMBINING NOT TILDE ABOVE Raised, small, with slash through.
U+0330 COMBINING TILDE BELOW Used in International Phonetic AlphabetIPA to indicate creaky voice
U+0334 COMBINING TILDE OVERLAY Used in IPA to indicate velarization or pharyngealization U+0598
HEBREW ACCENT ZARQAHebrew cantillation mark U+05AE HEBREW ACCENT ZINOR Hebrew
cantillation mark U+1DC9 COMBINING ACUTE-GRAVE-ACUTE Used in IPA as a tone (linguistics)tone
mark - U+2053 SWUNG DASH - U+223C TILDE OPERATOR Used in mathematics. In-line. Ends not curved as
much. U+223D REVERSED TILDE In some fonts it is the tilde's simple mirror image; others extend the tips to
resemble a U+223F SINE WAVE ~ U+2248 ALMOST EQUAL TO U+301C WAVE DASH Used in
Japanese punctuation#Wave dashJapanese punctuation U+3030 WAVY DASH U+FE4B WAVY OVERLINE
U+FE4F WAVY LOW LINE U+FF5E FULLWIDTH TILDE 50% wider. In-line. Ends not curved much. ASCII
tilde (U+007E) Serif: ~ Sans-serif: ~ Monospace: ~ A tilde between two em dashesin three font
families Raised tilde from a dot matrix printer Most modern proportional fonts align plain spacing characterspacing
tilde at the same level as dashes, or only slightly upper. This distinguish it from small tilde, which is always raised.
But in some monospace fonts, especially used in text user interfaces, ASCII tilde character is raised too. This
apparently is a legacy of typewriters, where pairs of similar spacing and combining characters relied on one glyph.
Even in line printers' age character repertoires were often not large enough to distinguish between plain tilde, small
tilde and combining tilde. Overprinting of a letter by the tilde was a working method of combining
charactercombining a letter. Punctuation The swung dash (~) is used in various ways in punctuation: Range In some
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languages (though not English), a tilde-like wavy dash may be used as punctuation (instead of an unspaced hyphen
or en-dash) between two numbers, to indicate a Interval (mathematics)range rather than subtraction or a hyphenated
number (such as a part number or model number). For example, 12~15 means "12 to 15", ~3 means "up to three" and
100~ means "100 and greater". Japanese (language)Japanese and other East Asian languages almost always use this
convention, but it is often done for clarity in some other languages as well. Chinese languageChinese uses the wavy
dash and full-width em dash interchangeably for this purpose. In English, the tilde is often used to express ranges
and model numbers in electronics but rarely in formal grammar or type-set documents, as a wavy dash preceding a
number sometimes represents an approximation (see the Mathematics section, below). JapaneseThe wave dash (!
nami dasshu) is used for various purposes in Japanese, including to denote ranges of numbers, in place of dashes or
brackets, and to indicate origin. The wave dash is also used to separate a title and a subtitle in the same line, as a
Colon (punctuation)colon is used in English.When used in conversations via email or instant messenger it may be
used as a sarcasm mark or, in East Asia, as an extension of the final syllable to produce the same effect as
"whyyyyyy" with "why". Used at the end of a word or sentence in text communications, it often denotes something
said in a sing-song or playful voice, or similar to the use in instant messengers and email, depending on context. In
some contexts, the tilde represents a lustful or exhausted sigh: "Hello there~". Unicode and Shift JIS encoding of
wave dashCorrect JIS wave dash.Incorrect Unicode wave dash. In practice the full-width tilde ( zenkaku
chiruda), Unicode U+FF5E, is often used instead of the wave dash (! nami dasshu), Unicode U+301C, because
the Shift JIS code for the wave dash, 0x8160, which is supposed to be mapped to U+301C, Shift_JIS-2004 (JIS X
0213:2004 Appendix 1) vs Unicode mapping table Shift-JIS to Unicode is not mapped to U+301C but mapped to
U+FF5E in code page 932 (Microsoft's code page for Japanese), a widely used extension of Shift JIS, in order to
avoid the shape definition error in Unicode: the wave dash glyph in JIS/Shift JIS is identical to the Unicode reference
glyph for U+FF5E,http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFF00.pdf while the reference glyph for
U+301Chttp://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U3000.pdf was incorrectly turned upside down when Unicode imported
the JIS wave dash. In other platforms such as Mac OS and Mac OS X, 0x8160 is correctly mapped to U+301C. It is
generally difficult, if not impossible, for Windows users in Japan to type U+301C, especially in legacy, non-Unicode
applications.Nevertheless, the Japanese wave dash is still formally mapped to U+301C as of JIS X 0213. Those two
code points have the identical or very similar glyph in several fonts, reducing the confusion and
incompatibility.Mathematics In mathematics, the tilde operator (Unicode U+223C), sometimes called "twiddle", is
often used to denote an equivalence relation between two objects. Thus "x ~ y" means "x is equivalence
relationequivalent to y". It is a weaker statement than stating that x equality (mathematics)equals y. The expression
"x ~ y" is sometimes read aloud as "x twiddles y", perhaps as an analogue to the verbal expression of "x = y". In the
1800s x ~ y could also mean | x y | (the absolute value of x y).[citation needed]The tilde can indicate
approximate equality in a variety of ways. It can be used to denote the asymptotic analysisasymptotic equality of two
functions. For example, f (x) ~ g(x), means that limx f( x) g(x) = 1. A tilde is also used to indicate
"approximately equal to" (e.g. 1.902 ~= 2). This usage probably developed as a typed alternative to the libra symbol
used for the same purpose in written mathematics, which is an equal sign with the upper bar replaced by a bar with
an upward hump, bump, or loop in the middle (~) or, sometimes, a tilde (=). The symbol "~" is also used for this
purpose. Similarly, a tilde can be used on its own between two expressions (e.g. a ~ 0.1) to state that the two are of
the same order of magnitude.A tilde in front of a single quantity can mean "approximately" or "about". In statistics
and probability theory, ~ means "is distributed as". See random variable. A tilde placed on top of a variable is
sometimes used to represent the median of that variable. A tilde can also be used to represent geometric Similarity
(geometry)similarity, for example: AABC ~ ADEF (meaning "triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF"). A triple
tilde (>) is often used to show congruence (geometry)congruence, an equivalence relation in geometry.All of the
above usages are in-line tildes, not raised. The tilde is also used as a modifier for symbols. The symbol "\tilde{f}" is
often pronounced "eff twiddle" or, particularly in American English, "eff wiggle". This can be used to denote the
Fourier transform of f, or a lift (mathematics)lift of f, and can have a variety of other meanings depending on the
context.A tilde placed below a letter in mathematics can represent a Euclidean vectorvector quantity. Logic In
Tilde
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written mathematical logic, the tilde represents negation: "~p" means "not p", where "p" is a proposition. Modern use
has been replacing the tilde with the negation symbol () for this purpose, to avoid confusion with equivalence
relations.Physics Often in physics, one can consider an equilibrium solution to an equation, and then a perturbation
to that equilibrium. For the variables in the original equation (for instance X) a substitution X\to x+\tilde{x} can be
made, where x is the equilibrium part and \tilde{x} is the perturbed part. Economics For relations involving
preference, economists sometimes use the tilde to represent indifference between two or more bundles of goods. For
example, to say that a consumer is indifferent between bundles x and y, an economist would write x ~ y.Electronics
It can approximate the sine wave symbol (, UnicodeU+223F), which is used in electronics to indicate alternating
current, in place of +, , or ! for direct current. ComputingDirectories and URLs On Unix-like operating systems
(including BSD, GNU/Linux and Mac OS X), tilde often indicates the current user's home directory: for example, if
the current user's home directory is /home/bloggsj, then cd, cd ~, cd /home/bloggsj or cd $HOME are equivalent.
This practice derives from the Lear-Siegler ADM-3A terminal in common use during the 1970s, which happened to
have the tilde symbol and the word "Home" (for moving the cursor to the upper left) on the same key.[citation
needed] When prepended to a particular username, the tilde indicates that user's home directory (e.g., ~janedoe for
the home directory of user janedoe, such as /home/janedoe)."Tilde expansion." The GNU C Library Manual.
Retrieved 4 July 2010. http://www.gnu.org/s/libc/manual/html_node/Tilde-Expansion.htmlUsed in Uniform
Resource LocatorURLs on the World Wide Web, it often denotes a personal website on a Unix-based server. For
example, http://www.example.com/~johndoe/ might be the personal web site of John Doe. This mimics the Unix
shell usage of the tilde. However, when accessed from the web, file access is usually directed to a subdirectory in the
user's home directory, such as /home/username/public_html or /home/username/www."Apache Module
mod_userdir." Apache HTTP Server Documentation, Version 2.0. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.0/mod/mod_userdir.htmlIn URLs, the characters Percent-encoding%7E (or %7e) may
substitute for tilde if an input device lacks a tilde key. RFC3986 Thus, http://www.example.com/~johndoe/ and
http://www.example.com/%7Ejohndoe/ will behave in the same manner. Computer languages The tilde is used in the
AWK programming language as part of the pattern match operators for regular expressions: variable ~ /regex/
returns true if the variable is matched. variable !~ /regex/ returns false if the variable is matched. A variant of this,
with the plain tilde replaced with =~, was adopted in Perl, and this semi-standardization has led to the use of these
operators in other programming languages, such as Ruby programming languageRuby or the SQL variant of the
database PostgreSQL. In APL (programming language)APL and MATLAB, tilde represents the monadic logical
function NOT. In the C (programming language)C, C++ and C Sharp (programming language)C# programming
languages, the tilde character is used as bitwise NOT Operators in C and C++operator, following the notation in
logic (an ! causes a logical NOT, instead). In C++ and C#, the tilde is also used as the first character in a Class
(computer science)class's method (computer science)method name (where the rest of the name must be the same
name as the class) to indicate a destructor (computer science)destructor a special method which is called at the end
of the Object lifetimeobject's life. In the Cascading Style SheetsCSS stylesheet language, the tilde is used for the
indirect adjacent combinator as part of a selector. In the D programming language, the tilde is used as an Array data
structurearray concatenation operator, as well as to indicate an object destructor and binary not operator. Tilde
operator can be overloaded for user types, and binary tilde operator is mostly used to merging two objects, or adding
some objects to set of objects. It was introduced because plus operator can have different meaning in many
situations. For example what to do with "120" + "14" ? Is this a string "134" (addition of two numbers), or "12014"
(concatenation of strings) or something else? D disallows + operator for arrays (and strings), and provides separate
operator for concatenation (similarly PHP programming language solved this problem by using dot operator for
concatenation, and + for number addition, which will also work on strings containing numbers). In Eiffel
(programming language)Eiffel, the tilde is used for object comparison. If a and b denote objects, the boolean
expression a ~ b has value true if and only if these objects are equal, as defined by the applicable version of the
library routine is_equal, which by default denotes field-by-field object equality but can be redefined in any class to
support a specific notion of equality. If a and b are references, the object equality expression a ~ b is to be contrasted
Tilde
82
with a = b which denotes reference equality. Unlike the call a.is_equal (b), the expression a ~ b is type
safetytype-safe even in the presence of Covariance and contravariance (computer science)covariance.In the Groovy
(programming language)Groovy programming language the tilde character is used as an operator mapped to the
bitwiseNegate() method. "Groovy operator overloading overview" Given a String the method will produce a
java.util.regex.Pattern. Given an integer it will negate the integer bitwise like in different C variants. =~ and ==~ can
in Groovy be used to match a regular expression. "Groovy Regular Expression User Guide" "Groovy RegExp
FAQ"In Haskell (programming language)Haskell, the tilde is used in type constraints to indicate type equality.
"Haskell Wiki: Type Families" Also, in pattern-matching, the tilde is used to indicate a lazy pattern match. "Haskell
Wiki: Lazy Pattern Match"In the Inform programming language, the tilde is used to indicate a quotation mark inside
a quoted string. In "text mode" of the LaTeX typesetting language a tilde diacritic can be obtained using, e.g., \~{n},
yielding "". A stand-alone tilde can be obtained by using \textasciitilde or \string~. In "math mode" a tilde diacritic
can be written as, e.g., \tilde{x}. For a wider tilde \widetilde can be used. The \sim command produce a tilde-like
binary relation symbol that is often used in mathematical expressions, and the double-tilde is obtained with \approx.
The url package also supports entering tildes directly, e.g., \url{http://server/~name}. In both text and math mode, a
tilde on its own (~) renders a white space with no line breaking. In Mediawiki syntax, four tildes are used as a
shortcut for a user's signature. In Common Lisp, the tilde is used as the prefix for format specifiers in format strings.
In Max/MSP, a tilde is used to denote objects that process at the computer's sampling rate, i.e. mainly those that deal
with sound. In Standard ML, the tilde is used as the prefix for negative numbers and as the unary negation operator.
In OCaml, the tilde is used to specify the label for a labeled parameter. In Microsoft's SQL Server
Transact-SQLTransact-SQL (T-SQL) language, the tilde is a unary Bitwise NOT#NOTBitwise NOT operator.
Backup filenames The dominant Unix convention for naming backup copies of files is appending a tilde to the
original file name. It originated with the Emacs text editor[citation needed] and was adopted by many other editors
and some command-line tools. Emacs also introduced an elaborate numbered backup scheme, with files named
filename.~1~, filename.~2~ and so on. It didn't catch on, probably because version control software does this
better.[citation needed]Microsoft filenames The tilde was part of Microsoft's filename mangling scheme when it
developed the File Allocation TableFAT file system. This upgrade introduced long filenames to Microsoft Windows,
and permitted additional characters (such as the space) to be part of filenames, which were prohibited in previous
versions. Programs written prior to this development could only access filenames in the so-called 8.3 formatthe
filenames consisted of a maximum of eight alphanumeric characters, followed by a period, followed by three more
alphanumeric characters. In order to permit these legacy programs to access files in the FAT file system, each file
had to be given two namesone long, more descriptive one, and one that conformed to the 8.3 format. This was
accomplished with a name-mangling scheme in which the first six characters of the filename are followed by a tilde
and a digit. For example, "Program Files" might become "PROGRA~1". Also, the tilde symbol is used to prefix
hidden temporary files that are created when a document is opened in Windows. For example, when a document
"Document1.doc" is opened in Word, a file called "~$cument1.doc" is created in the same directory. This file
contains information about which user has the file open, to prevent multiple users from attempting to change a
document at the same time. Games In many games, the tilde key (on U.S. English keyboards) is used to open the
Console (video game CLI)console. This is true for games such as Half-Life (video game)Half-Life, Halo: Combat
EvolvedHalo CE, Quake (video game)Quake, Half-Life 2, Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix, Unreal,
Counter-Strike, Crysis, The Elder Scrolls III: MorrowindMorrowind, The Elder Scrolls IV: OblivionOblivion, The
Elder Scrolls V: SkyrimSkyrim, Fallout: New Vegas, Fallout 3, RuneScape, and others based on the Quake engine or
Source (game engine)Source engine.It is sometimes used in rogue-likeRogue-like games to represent water or
snakes. Other uses Computer programmers use the tilde in various ways and sometimes call the symbol (as opposed
to the diacritic) a squiggle, squiggly, or twiddle. According to the Jargon File, other synonyms sometimes used in
programming include not, approx, wiggle, enyay (after ee) and (humorously) sqiggle (/'skiql/).In Perl 6, "~~" is
used instead of "=~". Juggling notation In the juggling notation system Beatmap, tilde can be added to either "hand"
in a pair of fields to say "cross the arms with this hand on top". Mills Mess is thus represented as
Tilde
83
(~2x,1)(1,2x)(2x,~1)*.Keyboards Where a tilde is on the keyboard depends on the computer's language settings
according to the following chart. On many keyboards it is primarily available through a dead key that makes it
possible to produce a variety of precomposed characters with the diacritic.[citation needed] In that case, a single tilde
can typically be inserted with the dead key followed by the space bar, or alternatively by striking the dead key twice
in a row. To insert a tilde with the dead key, it is often necessary to simultaneously hold down the Alt Gr key. On the
keyboard layouts that include an Alt Gr key, it typically takes the place of the right-hand Alt key. With a Macintosh
either of the Alt/Option keyOption keys function similarly.In the US and European Windows systems, the Alt code
for a single tilde is 126. KeyboardInsert a single tilde (~)Insert a precomposed character with tilde (e.g. ) Arabic
(Saudi) Shift+`.Croatian languageCroatianAlt Gr+1Danish languageDanishAlt Gr+ followed by SpaceAlt Gr+
followed by the relevant letter Dvorak Simplified KeyboardDvorakAlt Gr+= followed by Space, or Alt Gr+ Shift+'
followed by SpaceAlt Gr+= followed by the relevant letter, or Alt Gr+ Shift+' followed by the relevant letter
English languageEnglish (Australia) Shift+Ènglish (Canada) Shift+Ènglish (United KingdomUK)
Shift+#English (United StatesUS) Shift+`Ctrl+~ followed by the relevant letter Faroese languageFaroeseAlt Gr+
followed by SpaceAlt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter Finnish languageFinnishAlt Gr+ followed by Space, or
Alt Gr+Alt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter French languageFrench (Canada) Alt Gr+ followed by Space, or
Alt Gr+Alt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter French (France) Alt Gr+ followed by Space, or Alt Gr+Alt
Gr+ followed by the relevant letter French (Switzerland) Alt Gr+^ followed by Space, or Alt Gr+^Âlt Gr+^
followed by the relevant letter German languageGerman (Germany) Alt Gr++German (Switzerland) Alt Gr+^
followed by Space, or Alt Gr+^Âlt Gr+^ followed by the relevant letter Hebrew (Israel) Shift+~Ctrl+ Shift+~
followed by the relevant letter Hindi (India) Alt Gr+ Shift+ the key to the left of 1Hungarian languageHungarianAlt
Gr+1Icelandic languageIcelandicAlt Gr+' (the same key as ?) Italian languageItalianAlt+5 (on Mac OS X) Alt Gr+
(on Linux) Norwegian languageNorwegianAlt Gr+ followed by Space, or Alt Gr+. On Mac: ! Option+=
Command+ followed by Space. Alt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter. On Mac: ! Option+= Command+
followed by the relevant letter. Polish languagePolish Shift+` followed by Space, or Shift+``The dead key is not
generally used for inserting characters with tilde; when followed by {a|c|e|l|n|o|s|x|z}, it results in {a|c||l|n||s|z|z}
instead. Portuguese languagePortuguese~ followed by Space~ followed by the relevant letter Slovak
languageSlovakAlt Gr+1Spanish languageSpanish (Spain) Alt Gr+4 followed by Space, or Alt Gr+44Alt Gr+4
followed by the relevant letter Spanish languageSpanish (Latin America) Alt Gr++Swedish languageSwedishAlt
Gr+ followed by Space, or Alt Gr+Alt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter Turkish languageTurkishAlt Gr+
followed by Space, or Alt Gr+Alt Gr+ followed by the relevant letter References External links Diacritics Project
Keyboard Help: Learn to create accent marks and other diacritics on a computerThe ISO basic Latin
alphabetAAaBBbCCcDDdEEeFFfGGgHHhIIiJJjKKkLLlMMmNNnOOoPPpQQqRRrSSsTTtUUuVVvWWwXXxYYyZZzLetters
using tilde sign( ) EE PPp u VVv YYRelatedLatin-derived
alphabetDerivationsDiacritics History of the Latin alphabetHistoryISO/IEC 646List of Latin-script lettersList of
lettersRoman numeralsNumeralsPalaeographyPunctuationLatin script in UnicodeUnicode
Trademark symbol
84
Trademark symbol
is too wide
Trademark symbol Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma (
, ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( )
Portal Portal The Trademark Symbol, in Unicode U+2122 trade mark sign (HTML: ™
™),http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf Character entity references in HTML 4 is a symbol used to
indicate an assertion that the preceding mark is a trademark.Use of the symbolUse of the symbol indicates an
assertion that a word, image, or other sign is a trademark; it does not indicate registration. Registered trademarks are
indicated using the registered trademark symbol (), and in some jurisdictions it is unlawful or illegal to use the
symbol with a mark which has not been registered. How to use the and TM SymbolTrademarks versus service
marksThere is a specific symbol (Service mark symbol) to indicate the assertion of a Service Mark (a trademark
for the provision of services). The Service Mark Symbol is less commonly used than the Trademark Symbol,
especially outside of the United States. Entering the symbol On Windows systems, a superscript trademark symbol
can be input using Alt codes, by holding Alt while typing the numbers 0 1 5 3 on the numeric keypad, finally
releasing Alt. In the X Window System, it can be input by pressing Compose, then T and finally M. On GNOME
systems, it can be input by pressing Ctrl + Shift + U + 2 1 2 2. On Macintosh systems, it can be input with ! Opt+2.
In LaTeX, \texttrademark is used in text or math mode. Apple's iOS keyboards support the symbol in iOS 5 and
above. The service mark symbol has a similar function and denotation. References
Trademark symbol
85
Underscore
is too wide
_ Underscore Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The underscore [ _ ] (also called understrike, underbar, low line, underdash, underline, lower part of z
or low dash) is a character that originally appeared on the typewriter and was primarily used to underline words. To
produce an underlined word, the word was typed, the typewriter carriage was moved back to the beginning of the
word, and the word was overtyped with the underscore character.This character is sometimes used to create visual
spacing within a sequence of characters, where a whitespace character is not permitted, e.g., in computer filenames,
e-mail addresses, and in World Wide Web Uniform Resource LocatorURLs. Some computer applications will
automatically underline text surrounded by underscores: _underlined_ will render underlined. It is often used in
ASCII-only media (E-mail, IRC, Instant Messaging) for this purpose. When the underscore is used for emphasis in
this fashion, it is usually interpreted as indicating that the enclosed text is underlined or italicized (as opposed to
bold, which is indicated by *asterisks*).The underscore is not the same character as the dash (punctuation)dash
character, although one convention for text news wires is to use an underscore when an em-dash or en-dash is
desired, or when other non-standard characters such as bullet (typography)bullets would be appropriate. A series of
Underscore
86
underscores (like [ _________ ]) may be used to create a blank to be filled in on a form. It is also sometimes used to
create a horizontal line, if no other method is available; hyphens and dashes are often used for a similar purpose. The
ASCII value of this character is 95. On the standard US or UK 101/102 computer keyboard it shares a key with the
hyphen on the top row, to the right of the 0 (number)0 key. DiacriticThe underscore is used as a diacritic mark,
"combining low line", in some African languages (some languages using the Orthography of Gabon languages or
Rapidolangue in Gabon, Izere languageIzere in Nigeria) and Native American languages (Shoshoni
languageShoshoni). Not to be confused is the combining macron below. Usage in computing Origins in identifiers In
computer programprograms of any significant size, there is a need for descriptive (hence multi-word) identifiers, like
"previous balance" or "end of file". However, spaces are not typically permitted inside identifiers, as they are treated
as delimiters between tokens. Writing the words together as in "endoffile" is not satisfactory because the names often
become unreadable. Therefore, the programming language COBOL allowed a hyphen ("-") to be used between
words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE". LISP also allowed the hyphen in names, treating the
subtraction operator as an identifier. Most programming languages, however, interpret the hyphen as a subtraction
operator and do not allow the character in identifier names. The common punched card character sets of the early
1960s had no lower-case letters and no special character that would be adequate as a word separator in identifiers.
IBM's EBCDIC character coding system, introduced in 1964 at the same time as the IBM System/360 computer
series, uses 8 bits per byte. A modest increase in the character set size over earlier character sets added a few
punctuation characters, including the underscore, which IBM referred to as the break character, but not lower case
(later editions of EBCDIC added lower case). IBM's report on NPL (the early name of what is now called PL/I)
leaves the character set undefined, but specifically mentions the break character, and gives RATE_OF_PAY as an
example identifier. By 1967, the underscore had spread to ASCII, replacing the similarly shaped left-arrow character
() previously residing at code point 95 (5F hex) in ASCII-1963 (see also: Peripheral Interchange ProgramPIP). C
(programming language)C, developed at Bell Labs in the early 1970s, allowed the underscore as an alphabetic
character.Use in other languages Ruby (programming language)Ruby and Perl use $_ as a special variable
(programming)variable described as the default input and pattern matching space any output defaults to that
variable, and may be omitted. In Perl, @_ is a special array (programming)array variable that holds the Parameter
(computer programming)arguments to a function (programming)function. In some languages with pattern matching,
such as Standard ML, OCaml, and Haskell (programming language)Haskell, the pattern _ matches any value, but
does not perform data bindingbinding. In the interactive Python (programming language)Python interpreter, the
special variable _ holds the result of the previous evaluation. References
Vertical bar
87
Vertical bar
is too wide
| Vertical bar ( ' #Solid vertical bar vs broken barBroken
bar#MathematicsMagnitudedivisibilityDividesPunctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The vertical bar (|) is a character with various uses in
mathematics, where it can be used to represent absolute value, among others; in computing and programming and in
general typography, as a divider not unlike the interpunct. It may be called by various other names including the
polon, pipe (by the Unix community, referring to the Pipeline (Unix)I/O pipeline construct), Sheffer stroke (by
computer or mathematical History of logiclogicians), verti-bar, vbar, stick, vertical line, vertical slash, or bar, think
colon, poley, or divider line.[citation needed]UsageMathematics The vertical bar is used as a table of mathematical
symbolsmathematical symbol in absolute value: |x|, read "the absolute value of x".norm (mathematics)norms:
\|(x_1,x_2)\|, read "the norm of x subscriptsub one, x sub two"; though Unicode also provides a special double
vertical line symbol U+2016: (x(Parallel (geometry)Parallelism in geometry, where AB \parallel CD indicates that
the line AB is parallel to the line CD. set-builder notation: \{x|x<2\}, read "the set of x such that x is less than two".
Often a colon (punctuation)colon ':' is used instead of a vertical bar.cardinality: |S|, read "the cardinality of the set
S".conditional probability: P(X|Y), read "the probability of X given Y".divisibility: a | b, read "a divides b", though
Unicode also provides special divides and does not divide symbols (U+2223 and U+2224: ', ) the Sheffer stroke
in logic: a|b, read "a nand b".distance: distance p|ab notes the shortest distance between dot p to line ab, so p|ab is
Vertical bar
88
perpendicular to line ab. evaluate (subscript notation): f(x)|_{x=4}, read "f of x, evaluated at x equals 4" (see
subscripts at Wikibooks)Restriction (mathematics)restriction: f|_{A}: A \to F denotes a restriction of function f
where it is defined over a domain which is a superset of A. Sometimes a vertical bar following a function, with sub-
and super-script limits 'a' and 'b' is used when evaluating definite integrals to mean 'f(x) from a to b', or 'f(b)-f(a)'.
Physics The vertical bar is used in bra-ket notation in quantum physics. Examples: |\psi\rangle The quantum
mechanical state "\psi". \langle\psi| The dual spacedual state corresponding to the state above.
\langle\psi|\rho\rangle The inner product of states \psi and \rho. ComputingPipe A pipe (Unix)pipe is an
inter-process communication mechanism originating in Unix which allows the output (standard out and, optionally,
standard error) of one process to be used as input (standard in) to another. In this way, a series of commands can be
"piped" together, giving users the ability to quickly perform complex multi-stage processing from the command line
or as part of a Unix shell script ("bash file"). In most Unix shells (command interpreters), this is represented by the
vertical bar character. For example: egrep -i 'blair' filename.log | More_(command)#Unixmorewhere the output from
the "egrep" process is piped to the "more" process. The same "pipe" feature is also found in later versions of DOS
and Microsoft Windows. Disjunction In many programming languages, the vertical bar is used to designate the
Logical disjunctionlogic operation or, either Bitwise operationbitwise or or Boolean datatypelogical or.Specifically,
in C (programming language)C and other languages following C syntax conventions, such as C++, Perl, Java
(programming language)Java and C Sharp (programming language)C#, (a | b) denotes a Bitwise
operation#ORbitwise or; whilst a double vertical bar (a || b) denotes a (Minimal evaluationshort-circuited) logical
disjunctionlogical or. In regular expression syntax, the vertical bar again indicates logical or. For example: the Unix
command grep -E 'foo|bar' matches lines containing 'foo' or 'bar'.Concatenation In PL/I and certain Programming
language dialectdialects of SQL, the operator "||" denotes string (computer science)string concatenation. Delimiter
Although not as common as commas or tabs, the vertical bar can be used as a delimiter in a flat file. Examples of a
pipe-delimited standard data format are LEDES 1998B and HL7. It is frequently used because vertical bar is
typically uncommon in the data itself. Similarly, the vertical bar may see use as a delimiter for regular expression
operations (e.g. in sed). This is useful when the regular expression contains instances of the more common forward
slash (/) delimiter; using a vertical bar eliminates the need to escape all instances of the forward slash. Backus-Naur
form In Backus-Naur form, an expression consists of sequences of symbols and/or sequences separated by '|',
indicating a choice, the whole being a possible substitution for the symbol on the left.<personal-name> ::= <name> |
<initial> Concurrency operator In calculi of communicating processes (like pi-calculus), the vertical bar is used to
indicate that processes execute in parallel. Modular arithmetic In APL (programming_language)APL, it is the
modulo function (called residue in APL) when between two operands. Absolute Value In APL
(programming_language)APL, it is the absolute value function when before a single operand. List
comprehensionsThe vertical bar is used for list comprehensions in some functional languages, e. g. Haskell
(programming language)Haskell and Erlang (programming language)Erlang. Compare #Mathematicsset-builder
notation. Phonetics and orthography In the Khoisan languages and the International Phonetic Alphabet, the vertical
bar is used to write the dental click (|). A double vertical bar is used to write the alveolar lateral click (|). Since these
are technically letters, they have their own Unicode code points in the Latin Extended-B range: U+01C0 for the
single bar and U+01C1 for the double bar. Longer single and double vertical bars are used to mark Prosody
(linguistics)prosodic boundaries in the IPA. BiblesIn the Geneva Bible and early printings of the King James
Version, the double vertical bar is used to indicate that an alternative translation is to be found in the margin.
Whenever it is used, the marginal note begins with the conjunction "Or". In later printings of the King James
Version, the double vertical bar may be used to indicate that a comment is to be found in the margin. EncodingThe
vertical bar ("|") is at position 124 (decimal) in the ASCII character set. Solid vertical bar vs broken bar The code
point 124 (7C hexadecimal) is occupied by a broken bar in a dot matrix printer of late 1980s, which apparently lacks
a solid vertical bar. Due to this, broken bar is also used for line drawing charactersvertical line typographic
approximationapproximation; a full picture (3,1362,624 pixels) is here. The broken bar () in computing was
historically an allograph of the vertical bar and was perceived so before a broad implementation of extended ASCII
Vertical bar
89
character sets (namely, ISO/IEC 8859 series), which did distinguish both. Since 1990s, it is considered a separate
character, not a part of ASCII, and also termed "parted rule" in Unicode documentation. But in the text mode fonts,
as well as in other text user interfaceTUI applications on DOS, Microsoft WindowsWindows and Unix-like systems,
the glyph used for the vertical bar may look exactly like a broken bar. This is no longer the case on Windows 7.Due
to historical confusion between the two, computer keyboards and displays may not clearly or consistently
differentiate them. The typical keyboard layout used in the United Kingdom features separate keys for vertical bar
and broken bar; however, typically on Microsoft WindowsWindows PCs the vertical bar key produces a broken-bar
symbol. Some keyboard drivers map the broken bar key to the vertical bar, and the vertical bar key, shared with the
grave accent (`), generates the broken bar when pressed in combination with AltGr. The broken bar has hardly any
practical application and does not appear to have any clearly identified uses distinct from the vertical bar. In
non-computing use for example in mathematics, physics and general typography the broken bar is not an
acceptable substitute for the vertical bar. Aforementioned usages in computing rely on the character
(computing)abstract character with code point 124 (0x7C) in ASCII (or ASCII compatible code page) and do not
depend on visual rendering, which actually may be a broken bar in some environments. Some variants of the
EBCDIC family of code pages such as EBCDIC 500 had distinguished broken bar from a solid vertical bar.[citation
needed]In common character maps Vertical bar ('|') Broken bar ('') ASCIIBroken bar is not considered a part of
ASCII since early 1990sdecimal (base-10): 124hexadecimal (base-16): 7C ISO/IEC 8859-1hexadecimal: 7C
hexadecimal: A6 UnicodeU+007C U+00A6 EBCDIC (EBCDIC 500CCSID 500 variant) hexadecimal: BB
hexadecimal: A6 Shift-JIS Men-Ku-Ten 1-01-35 HTML | ¦ or ¦ Additional related Unicode
characters: Double vertical line ('('): U+2016 Latin letter dental click (|): U+01C0 Latin letter lateral click (|):
U+01C1 Symbol 'divides' ('): U+2223 Various Box-drawing characters at U+2500 to U+257F In text processing In
LaTeX, the vertical bar can be used as delimiter in TeX#math_modemathematical mode. The sequence \| creates a
double vertical line (a | b \| c is set as a | b \| c). This has different spacing from \mid and \parallel, which are
Relational_operatorrelational operators: a \mid b \parallel c is set as a \mid b \parallel c. In LaTeX text mode, the
vertical bar produces an em dash (), or you can use the \textbar command instead. The vertical bar is also used as
special character in other Lightweight markup languages, notably Wikipedia's own Wikitext. References
90
Currency
Currency sign
is too wide
Currency sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The currency sign () is a character (symbol)character used to denote a currency when the symbol for
the particular currency is unavailable. It is particularly common in place of symbols, such as that of the Coln
(currency)Coln (), that are absent from most character sets and fonts. It can be described as a circle the size of a
lowercase character with four short radiating arms at 45 (NE), 135 (SE), 225, (SW) and 315 (NW). It is slightly
raised above the baseline (typography)baseline. It is represented in Unicode as U+00A4 currency sign (HTML:
¤ ¤). The currency sign was once a part of the Mac OS Roman character set, but Apple changed the
symbol at that code point to the euro sign () in Mac OS 8#Mac OS 8.5Mac OS 8.5. In non-Unicode Microsoft
WindowsWindows character sets, the euro sign was introduced as a new code point. In the Unicode character set,
each of the two symbols has its own unique code point across all platforms. The symbol is available on some
keyboard layouts, for example Keyboard layout#FrenchFrench, Keyboard layout#DanishDanish, Keyboard
layout#NorwegianNorwegian, Keyboard layout#SwedishSwedish and Keyboard layout#FinnishFinnish keyboards.
Currency sign
91
History The symbol was first encoded for computers in 1972, as a replacement for the dollar sign in ISO 646national
variants (ISO 646) of ASCII and the International Reference Variant. It was proposed by Italy Character histories -
notes on some Ascii code positions to allow an alternative to encoding the dollar sign. When ISO 8859 was
standardized, it was placed at 0xA4 in the Latin, Arabic and Hebrew character sets. There was not room for it in the
ISO/IEC 8859-5Cyrillic set, and it was not included in all later added Latin sets. In particular, ISO/IEC 8859-15Latin
9 replaces it with the euro sign. In Soviet computer systems (usually using some variant of KOI8-R character set)
this symbol was placed at the code point used by the dollar sign in ASCII. Context dependent meaning Even when it
is appropriately used, it has an inherent ambiguous meaning; 12.50 can be interpreted as 12.5 units of some
currency, but the currency itself is unknown, and can only be determined by information outside the use of the
character in itself.More likely, this sign was intended to mark the position of the national currency symbol into the
ISO 646national variants of ASCII (7-bit, 95 printable characters available), where a specific national body was
reluctant to accept the dollar sign ($) as a kind of "universal sign" to denote "currency" or "money". The currency
sign should then be replaced by the appropriate glyph, depending on audience (, , , etc.). But somehow, the
neutral currency sign () was to be used as a printable symbol in itself, and this usage was sufficient extended in the
years of the first drafts of ISO 8859 to include it.[citation needed]Using one and the same code point for different
national currency symbols can be problematic in international communication. If, for example, an amount of 100 is
written in an e-mail or on a website, and the software does not make sure that the same character set is used at both
ends, it could be interpreted e.g. as 100, which is a much lower value than 100. (To put this into perspective, as of
January 2013, 100 is worth approximately 0.70.) Other usages Alternative separator in Comma-separated
valuesCSV files Delete sign when typing on paper for later Optical character recognitionOCR processing means
delete previous character means delete previous word (i.e. back to previous space character) : delete entire line
In Microsoft Word, the currency sign is used to indicate the end of a table cell in some viewing modes. On the Xbox
360, the currency sign becomes the Microsoft Points symbol when entered. In some versions of BASIC (notably in
Soviet versions and ABC80ABC BASIC), the currency sign was used for string variables instead of the dollar sign.
It was located on the keyboard and the character set table at the same position in many national keyboards (like
Scandinavian) and eq versions of 7-bit ISO/IEC 646 ASCII, as the dollar sign is in US-ASCII. References
List of currency symbols
92
A currency sign is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currency's name, especially in reference to amounts of
money. They typically employ the first letter or character of the currency, sometimes with minor changes such as
ligatures or overlaid vertical or horizontal bars. Today, ISO 4217 codes are used instead of currency signs for most
official purposes,
[citation needed]
though currency signs may be in common use in many other contexts. Few currencies
in the world have no shorthand symbol at all.
Although many former currency signs were rendered obsolete by the adoption of the euro, having a new and unique
currency sign implementation of which requires the adoption of new unicode and type formats has now
become a status symbol for international currencies. The European Commission considers part of the success of the
euro was the global recognition of the euro sign . In 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the
ligature it shared with neighboring countries.
[1]
It finalized its new currency symbol, ( ) on 15 July 2010. It is a
blend of the Latin letter 'R' with the Devanagari letter "".
Usage
When writing currency amounts the location of the sign varies by currency. Many currencies, especially in Latin
America and the English-speaking world, place it before the amount (e.g., R$50.00); many others place it after the
amount (e.g., 50.00 S); and the Cape Verdean escudo, like the former Portuguese escudo and French franc, placed
its sign in the decimal position (i.e., 20$00).
[2]
The decimal separator also follows local countries' standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an
interpunct as the decimal point on price stickers (e.g., 552), although not in print. Commas (e.g., 5,00 ) or
decimal points (e.g., R$50.00) are common separators used in other countries. See decimal separator for information
on international standards.
93
Design
Official dimensions of the euro sign.
Dimensions of the sign in a selection of type
faces.
Older currency signs have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies. The dollar and peso signs originated from
the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira signs evolved from an L
standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new signs have
symbolism closer to their adopter. The added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability.
[]
The new
Indian rupee symbol, , is a stylized combination of Latin and Devanagari letters.
There are also other considerations, such as the perception of the business community
[citation needed]
and how the sign
is rendered on computers. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated and keyboards
need to be altered or shortcuts added to type the icon. The EU was criticized for not considering how the euro sign
would need to be customized to work in different fonts.
[1]
The original design was also exceptionally wide. These
two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width.
List of presently-circulating currency signs
Symbol Uses Notes
Generic currency sign Used when the correct sign is not

available
Afghan afghani
Ar
Malagasy ariary
[3]
Thai baht
BTC/B
Bitcoin
B/.
Panamanian balboa
Br
Ethiopian birr
Belarusian ruble
Bs.
Venezuelan bolvar
Bolivian boliviano
Bolvar sometimes Bs.F.
Bs.F.
Venezuelan bolvar variant Usually Bs.
GH
Ghana cedi
94
cent, centavo, &c. A centesimal subdivision of

currencies such as the US dollar, the
Canadian dollar, and the Mexican
peso. (See article.)
See also c
c
cent &c. variant Preferred by currencies such as the
Australian, New Zealand, South
African cents; the West African CFA
centime; and the divisions of the
euro.
See also
ct
Lithuanian centas A centesimal division of the litas
Ch.
Bhutanese chhertum A centesimal division of the ngultrum.
Costa Rican coln Also used for the former Salvadoran

coln, which was discontinued in
2001 in favor of the US dollar, but
remains accepted as legal tender.
D
Gambian dalasi
en
Macedonian denar Latin form: DEN
Algerian dinar Latin form: DA

..
Bahraini dinar Latin form: BD
.
Iraqi dinar
JD
Jordanian dinar
.
Kuwaiti dinar Latin form: K.D.
.
Libyan dinar Latin form: LD
Serbian dinar Latin form: din.

.
Tunisian dinar Latin form: DT
..
Moroccan dirham Latin forms: DH or Dhs
.
United Arab Emirates dirham Latin forms: DH or Dhs
Db
So Tom and Prncipe dobra
$
Australian (A$), Bahamian (B$), Barbadian (Bds$), Belizean (BZ$), Bermudian (BD$), Brunei
(B$), Canadian (CA$), Cayman Islands (CI$), East Caribbean (EC$), Fiji (FJ$), Guyanese
(G$),
[4]
Hong Kong (HK$/ / ), Jamaican (J$), Kiribati, Liberian (L$ or LD$), Namibian (N$),
New Zealand (NZ$), Singaporean (S$), Soloman Islands (SI$), Surinamese (SRD), Taiwanese
(NT$/ / ), Trinidad and Tobago (TT$), Tuvaluan, United States (US$), and Zimbabwean (Z$)
dollars
Argentine, Chilean (CLP$), Colombian (COL$), Cuban ($MN), Cuban convertible (CUC$),
Dominican (RD$), Mexican (Mex$), and Uruguayan ($U) pesos
Nicaraguan crdoba (C$)
Brazilian real (R$)
Tongan paanga
May appear with either one or two
bars, both of which currently share
the same unicode space.
Kiribati and Tuvalu's dollars are
pegged 1:1 with the Australian
dollar.
Brunei's dollar is pegged 1:1 with the
Singaporean dollar.
See also MOP$ and WS$
-
Vietnamese dng
Armenian dram
95
Esc
Cape Verdean escudo Also the double-barred dollar sign
(cifro):
European euro In addition to the members of the

eurozone, the Vatican, San Marino,
and Monaco have been granted
issuing rights for coinage but not
banknotes.
Aruban florin (Afl.)

[5]
Netherlands Antillean guilder (NA)
Ft
Hungarian forint
FBu
Burundian franc
FCFA
Central African CFA franc
Also CFA
[6]
Pegged 1:1 with West African CFA
franc
Comorian (CF), Congolese (CF), Djiboutian (Fdj/DF), Guinean (FG/G) and Swiss (S) francs Also F and Fr.
FRw
Rwandan franc
[7]
Possibly also RF
[8]
and R
[9]
CFA
West African CFA franc Pegged 1:1 with Central African CFA
franc
G
Haitian gourde
gr
Polish grosz A centesimal division of the zoty
Paraguayan guaran
Or
h
Czech halr A centesimal division of the koruna
Ukrainian hryvnia
Lao kip Or N
Kc
Czech koruna
kr
Danish (Dkr) and Norwegian krones
Swedish krona
Faroese and Icelandic (kr) krna
Faroese krna pegged 1:1 with
Danish krone,
":-" is used as an alternative sign for
the Swedish krona
kn
Croatian kuna
MK
Malawian kwacha
ZK
Zambian kwacha
Kz
Angolan kwanza
K
Myanma kyat
Papua New Guinean kina
Georgian lari
Ls
Latvian lats
L
Albanian lek
Honduran lempira
Also used as the currency sign for the
Lesotho one-loti and the Swazi
one-lilangeni note
Also uncommonly used for the pound
sign
96
Le
Sierra Leonean leone
E
Swazi lilangeni Sign based on the plural form
"emalangeni.
" The one-lilageni note employs the
currency sign L
lp
Croatian lipa A centesimal division of the kuna.
Turkish lira
Lt
Lithuanian litas
M
Lesotho loti Sign based on plural form "maloti.
" The one-loti note employs the
currency sign L
Azerbaijani manat Also m. and man.
KM
Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark Latin form: KM
MT
Mozambican metical
[10]
Also MTn
Mill, mil, &.c An uncommon millesimal subdivision

of US dollars and other currencies.
(See article.)
Nfk
Eritrean nakfa
Also Nfa
[6]
Nigerian naira
Nu.
Bhutanese ngultrum
UM
Mauritanian ouguiya
[11]
MOP$
Macanese pataca Also and
Philippine peso Also P, PhP, and P
British, Falkland Islands (FK), Gibraltar, Lebanese (LL), Manx, St. Helena, Sudanese and Syrian
(LS) pounds
Also and L
..
Egyptian pound Latin: L.E. Rarely E or E
P
Botswana pula
Q
Guatemalan quetzal
q
Albanian qindark A centesimal division of the lek.
Pt.
Egyptian qirsh A centesimal division of the Egyptian
pound.
R
South African rand Also sometimes Russian &c. rubles
R$
Brazilian real Also the double-barred dollar sign:
Iranian rial Script for "rial," a currency name

also used by other nations.
..
Omani rial
.
Qatari riyal Latin: QR
.
Saudi riyal Latin: SR. Also:
97
Cambodian riel
RM
Malaysian ringgit
p.
British &c. pennies
Transnistrian ruble
The penny is now a centesimal
division of the pound.
Rf.
Maldivian rufiyaa Also MRf. and .~
(
)
Indian rupee Unicode:
Mauritian,
[12]
Nepalese
[13]
(N/.), Pakistani and Sri Lankan (SLRs/o) rupees
SRe
Seychellois rupee
[14]
Also SR
Rp
Indonesian rupiah
s
Latvian santms A centesimal division of the lats.
Israeli new shekel

Ksh
Kenyan shilling Also KSh
Sh.So.
Somali shilling
[15]
USh
Ugandan shilling
S/.
Peruvian nuevo sol
SDR
Special drawing rights
nn
Bulgarian lev
co
Kyrgyzstani som
Bangladeshi Taka Also Tk

WS$
Samoan tl Sign based on previous name "West
Samoan tala."
Also T and ST.
See also $
Kazakhstani tenge Unicode:
Mongolian tgrg
VT
Vanuatu vatu
[16]
North Korean and South Korean won
Japanese yen ( / )
Chinese Renminbi yuan ( / )
Used with one and two crossbars.
is also used in reference to the
Macanese pataca and Hong Kong and
Taiwanese dollars.
zl
Polish zloty
98
List of historic currency signs
Argentine austral sign
Cr$ Brazilian cruzeiro sign
pfennig sign of the German Mark (1875-1923) and the German Reichsmark (1923-1948)
DM East German Deutsche Mark (east) sign (1948-1964)
DM West German and united German Deutsche Mark (west) sign (1948-2001)
Greek drachma sign
ECU sign (not widely used, and now historical; replaced by the euro)
Dutch gulden sign, currently used in the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba
franc sign, formerly used in France and other countries
lira sign, formerly used in Italy, San Marino and Vatican City, and sometimes in Malta
Lm Maltese lira sign
Kcs Czechoslovak koruna sign
M East German Mark der DDR sign (1968-1990)
German Mark sign (1875-1923)
MDN East German Mark der Deutschen Notenbank sign (1964-1968)
mk Finnish markka sign
$ Portuguese escudo sign (cifro)
Spanish peseta sign
German reichsmark sign (1923-1948)
Sk Slovak koruna
Livre tournois sign, used in medieval France.
Notes
[1] Westcott, K. (2009) India seeks rupee status symbol (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ magazine/ 7923825. stm), BBC 10 March
2009, accessed 1 September 2009
[2] Banco de Cabo Verde. " Moedas (http:/ / www.bcv.cv/ vPT/ Notas e Moedas/ Moedas/ Paginas/ Moedas. aspx)." Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[3] Banky Foiben'i Madagasikara (http:/ / www.banque-centrale. mg/ ). Accessed 24 Feb 2011.
[4] [4] [www.bankofguyana.org.gy Bank of Guyana]. Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[5] Centrale Bank van Aruba. About Us - A Brief History of the Bank (http:/ / www. cbaruba. org/ cba/ getPage.
do?page=ABOUT_US_HISTORY)." Accessed 23 Feb 2011.
[6] Forexforums.com. " Currency symbol finder (http:/ / forexforums. com/ currency-symbol-finder/ )." Accessed 24 Feb 2011.
[7] National Bank of Rwanda. " Legal tender (http:/ / www. bnr. rw/ currency/ legaltender. aspx)." Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[8] University of British Columbia: Saunders School of Business. " Currencies of the World (http:/ / fx. sauder. ubc. ca/ currency_table. html)."
Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[9] Lonely Planet. " Rwanda (http:/ / www.lonelyplanet. com/ rwanda)." Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[10] Banco de Moambique (http:/ / www. bancomoc.mz/ ). Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[11] Banque Centrale de Mauritanie (http:/ / www.bcm. mr/ Pages/ accueil. aspx). Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[12] Bank of Mauritius (http:/ / bom. intnet.mu/ ). Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[13] Nepal Rastra Bank (http:/ / nrb.org.np). Accessed 24 Feb 2011.
[14] Central Bank of Seychelles (http:/ / www. cbs.sc/ ). Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
[15] Central Bank of Somalia (http:/ / somalbanca. org/ ). Accessed 24 Feb 2011.
[16] The Reserve Bank of Vanuatu. " Current Banknotes and Coins in Circulation (http:/ / www. rbv. gov. vu/ index. php?option=com_content&
view=article& id=220& Itemid=74& lang=en)." Accessed 25 Feb 2011.
References
99
An enclosed alphanumeric or circled alphanumeric (for example, ) is a typographical symbol of an alphanumeric
within a circle. The meaning of "enclosed" may also be extended to "bracketed", like in , and other not-closed
enclosures.
In Unicode there are two blocks for these characters:
Enclosed Alphanumerics (U+2460U+24FF), encoded in the Basic Multilingual Plane
[1]
Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement (U+1F100U+1F1FF), encoded in the Supplementary Multilingual
Plane.
[2]
As of Unicode 6.0, the Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement block also contains the set of Regional Indicator
Symbols.
Purpose
Many of these characters were originally intended for use as bullets for lists.
[3]
The parenthesized forms are
historically based on typewriter approximations of the circled versions.
[3]
Although these roles have been supplanted
by styles and other markup in "rich text" contexts, the characters are included in The Unicode standard "for
interoperability with the legacy East Asian character sets and for the occasional text context where such symbols
otherwise occur."
[3]
The Unicode Standard considers these characters to be distinct from characters which are similar
in form but specialized in purpose, such as the circled C, P or R characters which are defined as copyright and
trademark symbols.
[3]
Unicode encodings
U+2460
U+2470
U+2480
U+2490
U+24A0
U+24B0 ! " #
U+24C0 $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2
U+24D0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B
U+24E0 C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R
U+24F0 S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b
100
UTF-8 (hexadecimal) encoding and Unicode names
character value UTF-8encoding
Unicode character name
[1]
Unicode 1.0 character name (deprecated)
1 e2 91 a0 CIRCLED DIGIT ONE
2 e2 91 a1 CIRCLED DIGIT TWO
3 e2 91 a2 CIRCLED DIGIT THREE
4 e2 91 a3 CIRCLED DIGIT FOUR
5 e2 91 a4 CIRCLED DIGIT FIVE
6 e2 91 a5 CIRCLED DIGIT SIX
7 e2 91 a6 CIRCLED DIGIT SEVEN
8 e2 91 a7 CIRCLED DIGIT EIGHT
9 e2 91 a8 CIRCLED DIGIT NINE
10 e2 91 a9 CIRCLED NUMBER TEN
11 e2 91 aa CIRCLED NUMBER ELEVEN
12 e2 91 ab CIRCLED NUMBER TWELVE
13 e2 91 ac CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTEEN
14 e2 91 ad CIRCLED NUMBER FOURTEEN
15 e2 91 ae CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTEEN
16 e2 91 af CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTEEN
17 e2 91 b0 CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTEEN
18 e2 91 b1 CIRCLED NUMBER EIGHTEEN
19 e2 91 b2 CIRCLED NUMBER NINETEEN
20 e2 91 b3 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY
A e2 92 b6 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A
B e2 92 b7 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B
C e2 92 b8 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C
D e2 92 b9 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D
E e2 92 ba CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E
F e2 92 bb CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F
G e2 92 bc CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G
! H e2 92 bd CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H
" I e2 92 be CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I
# J e2 92 bf CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J
$ K e2 93 80 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K
% L e2 93 81 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L
& M e2 93 82 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M
' N e2 93 83 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N
( O e2 93 84 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O
) P e2 93 85 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P
101
* Q e2 93 86 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q
+ R e2 93 87 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R
, S e2 93 88 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S
T e2 93 89 CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T
- U e2 93 8a CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U
. V e2 93 8b CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V
/ W e2 93 8c CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W
0 X e2 93 8d CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X
1 Y e2 93 8e CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y
2 Z e2 93 8f CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z
3 a e2 93 90 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER A
4 b e2 93 91 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER B
5 c e2 93 92 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER C
6 d e2 93 93 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER D
7 e e2 93 94 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER E
8 f e2 93 95 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER F
9 g e2 93 96 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER G
: h e2 93 97 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER H
; i e2 93 98 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER I
< j e2 93 99 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER J
= k e2 93 9a CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER K
> l e2 93 9b CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER L
? m e2 93 9c CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER M
@ n e2 93 9d CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER N
A o e2 93 9e CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER O
B p e2 93 9f CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER P
C q e2 93 a0 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER Q
D r e2 93 a1 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER R
E s e2 93 a2 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER S
F t e2 93 a3 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER T
G u e2 93 a4 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER U
H v e2 93 a5 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER V
I w e2 93 a6 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER W
J x e2 93 a7 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER X
K y e2 93 a8 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER Y
L z e2 93 a9 CIRCLED LATIN SMALL LETTER Z
M 0 e2 93 aa CIRCLED DIGIT ZERO
N 11 e2 93 ab NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER ELEVEN
O 12 e2 93 ac NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER TWELVE
102
P 13 e2 93 ad NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTEEN
Q 14 e2 93 ae NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER FOURTEEN
R 15 e2 93 af NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTEEN
S 16 e2 93 b0 NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTEEN
T 17 e2 93 b1 NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTEEN
U 18 e2 93 b2 NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER EIGHTEEN
V 19 e2 93 b3 NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER NINETEEN
W 20 e2 93 b4 NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY
X 1 e2 93 b5 DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT ONE
Y 2 e2 93 b6 DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT TWO
Z 3 e2 93 b7 DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT THREE
[ 4 e2 93 b8 DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT FOUR
\ 5 e2 93 b9 DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT FIVE
] 6 e2 93 ba DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT SIX
^ 7 e2 93 bb DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT SEVEN
_ 8 e2 93 bc DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT EIGHT
` 9 e2 93 bd DOUBLE CIRCLED DIGIT NINE
a 10 e2 93 be DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER TEN
b 0 e2 93 bf NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT ZERO
c 1 e2 9d b6 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT ONE INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT ONE
d 2 e2 9d b7 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT TWO INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT TWO
e 3 e2 9d b8 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT THREE INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT THREE
f 4 e2 9d b9 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT FOUR INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT FOUR
g 5 e2 9d ba DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT FIVE INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT FIVE
h 6 e2 9d bb DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT SIX INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT SIX
i 7 e2 9d bc DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT SEVEN INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT SEVEN
j 8 e2 9d bd DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT EIGHT INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT EIGHT
k 9 e2 9d be DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED DIGIT NINE INVERSE CIRCLED DIGIT NINE
l 10 e2 9d bf DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED NUMBER TEN INVERSE CIRCLED NUMBER TEN
m 1 e2 9e 80 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ONE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ONE
n 2 e2 9e 81 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT TWO CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT TWO
o 3 e2 9e 82 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT THREE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT THREE
p 4 e2 9e 83 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT FOUR CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT FOUR
q 5 e2 9e 84 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT FIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT FIVE
r 6 e2 9e 85 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT SIX CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT SIX
s 7 e2 9e 86 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT SEVEN CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT SEVEN
t 8 e2 9e 87 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT EIGHT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT EIGHT
u 9 e2 9e 88 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT NINE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT NINE
v 10 e2 9e 89 DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF NUMBER TEN CIRCLED SANS-SERIF NUMBER TEN
103
w 1 e2 9e 8a DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
ONE
INVERSE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
ONE
x 2 e2 9e 8b DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
TWO
TWO
y 3 e2 9e 8c DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
THREE
THREE
z 4 e2 9e 8d DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
FOUR
FOUR
{ 5 e2 9e 8e DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
FIVE
FIVE
| 6 e2 9e 8f DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
SIX
INVERSE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT SIX
} 7 e2 9e 90 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
SEVEN
SEVEN
~ 8 e2 9e 91 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
EIGHT
EIGHT
9 e2 9e 92 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT
NINE
NINE
10 e2 9e 93 DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF
NUMBER TEN
INVERSE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF NUMBER
TEN
! 21 e3 89 91 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY ONE
! 22 e3 89 92 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY TWO
! 23 e3 89 93 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY THREE
! 24 e3 89 94 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY FOUR
! 25 e3 89 95 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY FIVE
! 26 e3 89 96 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY SIX
! 27 e3 89 97 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY SEVEN
! 28 e3 89 98 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY EIGHT
! 29 e3 89 99 CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY NINE
! 30 e3 89 9a CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY
! 31 e3 89 9b CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY ONE
! 32 e3 89 9c CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY TWO
! 33 e3 89 9d CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY THREE
! 34 e3 89 9e CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY FOUR
! 35 e3 89 9f CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY FIVE
! 36 e3 8a b1 CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY SIX
! 37 e3 8a b2 CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY SEVEN
! 38 e3 8a b3 CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY EIGHT
! 39 e3 8a b4 CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTY NINE
! 40 e3 8a b5 CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY
! 41 e3 8a b6 CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY ONE
! 42 e3 8a b7 CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY TWO
! 43 e3 8a b8 CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY THREE
104
! 44 e3 8a b9 CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY FOUR
! 45 e3 8a ba CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY FIVE
! 46 e3 8a bb CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY SIX
! 47 e3 8a bc CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY SEVEN
! 48 e3 8a bd CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY EIGHT
! 49 e3 8a be CIRCLED NUMBER FORTY NINE
! 50 e3 8a bf CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY
References
[1] Unicode chart U+2460 (pdf) (http:/ / www.unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U2460. pdf)
[2] Unicode chart U+1F100 (pdf) (http:/ / www.unicode.org/ charts/ PDF/ U1F100. pdf)
[3] The Unicode Standard, 6.0.1
Enclosed A
The circle-A,
commonly used as a
symbol for
anarchism.
Enclosed A or circled Latin A (, ) is a typographical symbol. It is an "A" within a circle,
and it occurs alongside many other enclosed alphanumerics.
Uses
United States military
The shoulder sleeve
insignia of the United
States Third Army.
An A within a circle was adopted as a symbol by the United States Third Army (now the
United States Army Central) in the early 20th century.
Anarchism
The symbol might be most recognized as an icon used by many people who identify or
sympathize with anarchism. Despite the militaristic use noted above, by the dawn of the 21st
century the enclosed A had largely supplanted the traditional Black Flag as the most-used
symbol of that body of thought. Peter Marshall an author, philosopher and BBC television
producer wrote that it represented the idea (as advanced by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and other
anarchist theorists) that "Anarchy is Order"; early incarnations of the anarchist icon were expressed with an
unenclosed A (Anarchy) superimposed over the O (Order) before evolving into the more formal form used
modernly.
[1]
Enclosed A
105
Encodings
The symbols are encoded in Unicode at
U+24B6 circled latin capital letter a (HTML: Ⓐ UTF-8 encoding: e2 92 b6 )
U+24D0 3 circled latin small letter a (HTML: ⓐ UTF-8 encoding: e2 93 90 ).
References
[1] [1] Marshall, Peter. Demanding the Impossible. Fontana, London. 1993. p. 558
Enclosed C
Enclosed C or circled Latin C ( or 5) is a typographical symbol. As one of many enclosed alphanumerics, the
symbol is a "C" within a circle.
Enclosed C should not be confused with the copyright symbol (), which is also a capital letter "C" within a circle.
Encodings
The capitalized symbol () can be generated with the unicode encoding "U+24B8" and the UTF-8 (hex.) encoding
"e2 92 b8".
The lower case symbol (5) can be generated with the unicode encoding "U+24D2" and the UTF-8 (hex.) encoding
"e2 93 92". By contrast, the copyright symbol uses unicode encoding "U+00A9".
Enclosed R
106
Enclosed R
is too wide
!! Enclosed R Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalEnclosed R or circled Latin R (! or !) is a Typographytypographical symbol. As one of many enclosed
alphanumerics, the symbol is an "R" within a circle, but should not be confused with the registered trademark
symbol (), which is also an "R" within a circle.Encodings The symbols can be generated with the unicode
definitions U+24C7 ! circled latin capital letter r (HTML: Ⓡ) and U+24E1 ! circled latin small letter r
(HTML: ⓡ)
107
Punctuation
Apostrophe
is too wide
Apostrophe ' Typewriter apostrophe Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The apostrophe ( although often rendered as ') is a
punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritic mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet or certain other
alphabets. In English, it serves three purposes:Quirk, Geenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, p985, Longman, London & New York, ISBN 0-582-51734-6, p 1636 The marking of the
omission of one or more letters (as in the Contraction (grammar)contraction of do not to dont). The marking of
possessive case (as in the cats whiskers). The marking by some as plural of written items that are not words
established in English orthography (as in P's and Q's). (This is considered incorrect by others; see #Use in forming
certain pluralsUse in forming certain plurals. The use of the apostrophe to form plurals of proper words, as in
apples, bananas, etc., is universally considered incorrect.)According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED),
apostrophe comes ultimately from Greek languageGreek j [o] (h apstrophos [prosoida],
[the accent of] turning away, or elision), through Latin languageLatin and French languageFrench."The English
Apostrophe
108
form apostrophe is due to its adoption via French and its current pronunciation as four syllables is due to a confusion
with the rhetorical device apostrophe (figure of speech)apostroph" (W. S. Allen, Vox Graeca. The pronunciation of
classical Greek, 3rd edition, 1988. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.100, note13).The apostrophe looks
the same as a quotation mark glyphsclosing single quotation mark, although they have different meanings. The
apostrophe also looks similar to, but is not the same as the prime symbol (), which is used to indicate measurement
in feet or arcminutes, as well as for various mathematical purposes, and the òkina (`), which represents a glottal
stop in Polynesian languages. Such incorrect substitutes as (acute) and ` (grave) are not uncommon in
unprofessional texts, where an ambiguous treatment of the apostrophe in digital typesetting (as
#Computingexplained below) is a major factor of this confusion. English language usageHistorical developmentThe
apostrophe was introduced into English in the 16th century in imitation of French practice.French practice
Introduced by Geoffroy Tory (1529), the apostrophe was used in place of a vowel letter to indicate Elision in the
French languageelision (as in lheure in place of la heure). It was frequently used in place of a final e (which was still
pronounced at the time) when it was elided before a vowel, as in un heure. Modern French orthography has restored
the spelling une heure.Alfred Ewert, The French Language, 1933, Faber & Faber, London, p 119Early English
practice From the 16th century, following French practice, the apostrophe was used when a vowel letter was omitted
either because of incidental elision (Im for I am) or because the letter no longer represented a sound (lovd for
loved). English spelling retained many inflections that were not pronounced as syllables, notably verb endings (-est,
-eth, -es, -ed) and the noun ending -es, which marked either plurals or possessives (also known as Genitive
casegenitives; see #Possessive apostrophePossessive apostrophe, below). So apostrophe followed by s was often
used to mark a plural, especially when the noun was a loan word (and especially a word ending in a, as in the two
commas).StandardisationThe use of elision has continued to the present day, but significant changes have been
made to the possessive casepossessive and plural uses. By the 18th century, apostrophe + s was regularly used for all
possessive casepossessive Grammatical numbersingular forms, even when the letter e was not omitted (as in the
gates height). This was regarded as representing the Old English genitive singular inflection -es. The plural use was
greatly reduced, but a need was felt to mark possessive casepossessive plural. The solution was to use an apostrophe
after the plural s (as in girls dresses). However, this was not universally accepted until the mid-19th
century.Possessive apostropheThe apostrophe is used to indicate Possession (linguistics)possession. This convention
distinguishes possessive singular forms (Bernadettes, flowers, glasss, ones) from simple plural forms (Bernadettes,
flowers, glasses, ones), and both of those from possessive plural forms (Bernadettes', flowers', glasses', ones'). For
singulars, the modern possessive or genitive inflection is a survival from Old English grammar#Nounscertain
genitive inflections in Old English, and the apostrophe originally marked the loss of the old e (for example, lambes
became lambs).General principles for the possessive apostropheSummary of rules for most situationsPossessive
personal pronouns, serving as either noun-equivalents or adjective-equivalents, do not use an apostrophe, even when
they end in s. The complete list of those ending in the letter s or the corresponding sound /s/ or /z/ but not taking an
apostrophe is ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, and whose.Other pronouns, singular nouns not ending in s, and plural
nouns not ending in s all take s in the possessive: e.g., someones, a cats toys, womens.Plural nouns already ending
in s take only an apostrophe after the pre-existing s when the possessive is formed: e.g., three cats toys.Basic rule
(singular nouns)For most singular nouns the ending 's is added; e.g., the cats whiskers. If a singular noun ends with
an s-sound (spelt with -s, -se, for example), practice varies as to whether to add 's or the apostrophe alone. A widely
accepted practice is to follow whichever spoken form is judged better: the boss's shoes, Mrs Jones' hat (or Mrs
Jones's hat, if that spoken form is preferred). In many cases, both spoken and written forms differ between writers.
(See details #Singular nouns ending with an s or z soundbelow.)Basic rule (plural nouns) When the noun is a
normal plural, with an added s, no extra s is added in the possessive; so the neighbours' garden (where there is more
than one neighbour) is correct rather than the neighbours's garden. If the plural is not one that is formed by adding s,
an s is added for the possessive, after the apostrophe: children's hats, women's hairdresser, some people's eyes (but
compare some peoples' recent emergence into nationhood, where peoples is meant as the plural of the singular
people). These principles are universally accepted. A few English nouns have plurals that are not spelled with a final
Apostrophe
109
s but nevertheless end in an /s/ or a /z/ sound: mice (plural of mouse; also in compounds like dormouse, titmouse),
dice (when used as the plural of die), pence (a plural of penny, with compounds like sixpence that now tend to be
taken as singulars). In the absence of specific exceptional treatment in style guides, the possessives of these plurals
are formed by adding an apostrophe and an s in the standard way: seven titmice's tails were found, the dice's last fall
was a seven, his few pence's value was not enough to buy bread. These would often be rephrased, where possible:
the last fall of the dice was a seven.Pease as an old plural of pea is indeterminate: Lentils' and pease'[s] use in such
dishes was optional. Nouns borrowed from French ending in -eau, -eu, -au, or -ou sometimes have alternative plurals
that retain the French -x: beaux or beaus; bureaux or bureaus; adieux or adieus; fabliaux or fabliaus; choux or chous.
The x in these plurals is often pronounced. If it is, then (in the absence of specific rulings from style guides) the
plural possessives are formed with an apostrophe alone: the beaux' [or beaus'] appearance at the ball; the bureaux' [or
bureaus'] responses differed. If the x is not pronounced, then in the absence of special rulings the plurals are formed
with an apostrophe followed by an s: the beaux's appearance; the bureaux's responses; their adieux's effect was that
everyone wept. See also #Nouns ending with silent "s", "x", or "z"Nouns ending with silent "s", "x" or "z", below,
and attached notes.Basic rule (compound nouns) Compound nouns have their singular possessives formed with an
apostrophe and an added s, in accordance with the rules given above: the Attorney-General's husband; the Lord
Warden of the Cinque Ports' prerogative; this Minister for Justice's intervention; her father-in-law's new wife. In
such examples, the plurals are formed with an s that does not occur at the end: e.g., attorneys-general. A problem
therefore arises with the possessive plurals of these compounds. Sources that rule on the matter appear to favour the
following forms, in which there is both an s added to form the plural, and a separate s added for the possessive: the
attorneys-general's husbands; successive Ministers for Justice's interventions; their fathers-in-law's new wives.Style
Guide, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics; The United States Government Printing Office Style
Manual 2000; The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), 5.25: "The possessive of a multiword compound noun is
formed by adding the appropriate ending to the last word {parents-in-law's message}." Because these constructions
stretch the resources of punctuation beyond comfort, in practice they are normally reworded: interventions by
successive Ministers for Justice.CMOS, 7.25: "If plural compounds pose problems, opt for of. ... the professions of
both my daughters-in-law." Is the English Possessive ''''' Truly a Right-Hand Phenomenon?Joint and separate
possession A distinction is made between joint possession (Jason and Sues e-mails: the e-mails of both Jason and
Sue), and separate possession (Jasons and Sues e-mails: both the e-mails of Jason and the e-mails of Sue). Style
guides differ only in how much detail they provide concerning these.The Chicago Manual of Style, 5.27; New Harts
Rules, 4.2, p.64; Gregg Reference Manual, 642. Their consensus is that if possession is joint, only the last
possessor has possessive inflection; in separate possession all the possessors have possessive inflection. If, however,
any of the possessors is indicated by a pronoun, then for both joint and separate possession all of the possessors have
possessive inflection (his and her e-mails; his, her, and Antheas e-mails; Jasons and her e-mails; His and Sues
e-mails; His and Sues wedding; His and Sues weddings).Note that in cases of joint possession, the above rule does
not distinguish between a situation in which only one or more jointly possessed items perform a grammatical role
and a situation in which both one or more such items and a non-possessing entity independently perform that role.
Although verb number suffices in some cases ("Jason and Sues dog has porphyria.") and context suffices in others
("Jason and Sues e-mails rarely exceed 200 characters in length."), number and grammatical position often prevent a
resolution of ambiguity: Where multiple items are possessed and context is not dispositiveWikipedia:Please clarify, a
rule forbidding distribution of the possessive merely shifts ambiguity: suppose that Jason and Sue had one or more
children who died in a car crash and that none of Jason's children by anyone other than Sue were killed. Under a rule
forbidding distribution of the joint possessive, writing "Jason and Sues children died in the crash" (rather than
"Jasons and Sues children") eliminates the implication that Jason lost children of whom Sue was not the mother, but
it introduces ambiguity as to whether Jason himself was killed.Moreover, if only one item is possessed, the rule
against distribution of the joint possessive introduces ambiguity (unless the context (language use)context happens to
resolve it): when read in light of a rule requiring distribution, the sentence "Jason and Sues dog died after being hit
by a bus" makes clearWikipedia:Cleanup that the dog belonged to Sue alone and that Jason survived or was not
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involved, whereas a rule prohibiting distribution forces ambiguity as to both whether Jason (co-)owned the dog and
whether he was killed.With other punctuation; compounds with pronouns If the word or compound includes, or even
ends with, a punctuation mark, an apostrophe and an s are still added in the usual way: "Westward Ho!s railway
station"; "Awaye!s Paulette Whitten recorded Bob Wilsons story";This example is quoted from www.abc.net.au;
see The Chicago Manual of Style, 7.18. Washington, D.C.'s museums,This example is quoted from The Gregg
Reference Manual, 10th edition, 2005, paragraph 641. assuming that the prevailing style requires full stops in D.C. If
the word or compound already includes a possessive apostrophe, a double possessive results: Toms sisters careers;
the head of marketings husbands preference; the Fox huntingmaster of foxhounds best dogs death. Many style
guides, while allowing that these constructions are possible, advise rephrasing: the head of marketings husband
prefers that .... If an original apostrophe, or apostrophe with s, occurs at the end, it is left by itself to do double duty:
Our employees are better paid than McDonalds employees; Standard & Poors indexes are widely used: the fixed
forms of McDonald's and Standard & Poor's already include possessive apostrophes. For similar cases involving
geographical names, see #Possessives in geographic namesbelow. Similarly, the possessives of all phrases whose
wording is fixed are formed in the same way: "Us and Them (song)Us and Them"s inclusion on the album The Dark
Side of the MoonYou Am Is latest CD The 69'ers drummer, Tom Callaghan (only the second apostrophe is
possessive) His 'n' Hers first track is called "Joyriders".This is correct even though the possessive word hers is
usually spelled without an apostrophe; see below in this section; His n Herss first track is theoretically possible but
unlikely unless an extra sibilant is actually pronounced after hers.Was She (novel)She's success greater, or King
Solomon's MinesKing Solomons Mines's?Most sources are against continuing the italics used in such titles to the
apostrophe and the s.For complications with foreign phrases and titles, see #Nouns ending with silent "s", "x", or
"z"below. Time, money, and similar An apostrophe is used in time and money references, among others, in
constructions such as one hours respite, two weeks holiday (optional apostrophe), a dollars worth, five pounds
worth (optional apostrophe), one miles drive from here. This is like an ordinary possessive use. For example, one
hours respite means a respite of one hour (exactly as the cats whiskers means the whiskers of the cat). Exceptions
are accounted for in the same way: three months pregnant (in modern usage, one says neither pregnant of three
months, nor one month()s pregnant).Possessive pronouns and adjectives No apostrophe is used in the following
possessive pronouns and adjectives: yours, his, hers, ours, its, theirs, and whose.The possessive of it was originally
its, and many people continue to write it this way, though the apostrophe was dropped in the early 1800s and
authorities are now unanimous that its can be only a contraction of it is or it has. Online Etymology DictionarySee
for example New Hart's Rules. Not one of the other sources listed on this page supports the use of its as a possessive
form of it. For example, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson used its as a possessive in his instructions dated 20 June
1803 to Lewis for his preparations for his great expedition.Frank Bergon,"The Journals of Lewis & Clark",(Penguin,
New York, 1989, pages xxiv foll.All other possessive pronouns ending in s do take an apostrophe: ones; everyones;
somebodys, nobody elses, etc. With plural forms, the apostrophe follows the s, as with nouns: the others husbands
(but compare They all looked at each others husbands, in which both each and other are singular).Importance for
disambiguation Each of these four phrases (listed in Steven Pinkers The Language Instinct) has a distinct
meaning:My sisters friends investments (the investments belonging to a friend of my sister)My sisters friends
investments (the investments belonging to several friends of my sister)My sisters friends investments (the
investments belonging to a friend of several of my sisters)My sisters friends investments (the investments
belonging to several friends of several of my sisters)Kingsley Amis, on being challenged to produce a sentence
whose meaning depended on a possessive apostrophe, came up with: Those things over there are my husbands.
(Those things over there belong to my husband.)Those things over there are my husbands. (Those things over there
belong to several husbands of mine.)Those things over there are my husbands. (I'm married to those men over there.)
Courier Mail, Little things that matterSingular nouns ending with an s or z sound This subsection deals with
singular nouns pronounced with a sibilant sound at the end: /s/ or /z/. The spelling of these ends with -s, -se, -z, -ze,
-ce, -x, or -xe.Many respected authorities recommend that practically all singular nouns, including those ending with
a sibilant sound, have possessive forms with an extra s after the apostrophe so that the spelling reflects the
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111
underlying pronunciation. Examples include Oxford University Press, the MLA style manualModern Language
Association, the BBC and The Economist. Oxford Dictionaries: "With personal names that end in -s: add an
apostrophe plus s when you would naturally pronounce an extra s if you said the word out loud"; MLA Style
Manual, 2nd edition, 1998, 3.4.7e: "To form the possessive of any singular proper noun, add an apostrophe and an
s"; : "Grammarians (such as Hart, Fowler, Swan and Lynne Truss) and other authorities, such as the Guardian and
Economist styleguides, agree that the -'s form should follow all singular nouns, regardless of whether they end in an
-s or not."; The Economist's Style Guide; The Elements of Style makes the same rule, with only sketchily presented
exceptions. Such authorities demand possessive singulars like these: Senator Jones's umbrella; Tony Adams's friend.
Rules that modify or extend the standard principle have included the following: If the singular possessive is difficult
or awkward to pronounce with an added sibilant, do not add an extra s; these exceptions are supported by The
Guardian, The Guardian's Style Guide. Yahoo! Style Guide,: "For most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s
(s) to the end of the word... For names that end with an eez sound, use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive.
Examples: "Ramses wife," "Hercules muscles," "According to Joness review, the computers graphics card is its
Achilles heel." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English LanguageThe American Heritage Book of English
Usage. The American Heritage Book of English Usage. 8. Word Formation b. Forming Possessives. Such sources
permit possessive singulars like these: Socrates' later suggestion; or Achilles' heel if that is how the pronunciation is
intended. Classical, biblical, and similar names ending in a sibilant, especially if they are polysyllabic, do not take an
added s in the possessive; among sources giving exceptions of this kind are The Times The Times Online Style
Guide. and The Elements of Style, which make general stipulations, and Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt
University's Style Guide. which mentions only Moses and Jesus. As a particular case, Jesus' is very commonly
written instead of Jesus's even by people who would otherwise add 's in, for example, James's or Chris's. Jesus' is
referred to as "an accepted liturgical archaism" in Hart's Rules.However, some contemporary writers still follow the
older practice of omitting the extra s in all cases ending with a sibilant, but usually not when written -x or
-xe.According to this older system, possessives of names ending in "-x" or "-xe" were usually spelled without a final
"s" even when an /s/ or /z/ was pronounced at the end (e.g. "Alex' brother" instead of "Alex's brother"), but the
possessives of nouns (e.g. "the fox's fur") were usually spelled as today with a final "s". Some contemporary
authorities such as the Associated Press Stylebook Punctuation | Style Guide | CSU Branding Standards Guide | CSU
and The Chicago Manual of Style recommend or allow the practice of omitting the extra "s" in all words ending with
an "s", but not in words ending with other sibilants ("z" and "x").The Chicago Manual of Style's text: 7.23 An
alternative practice. Those uncomfortable with the rules, exceptions, and options outlined above may prefer the
system, formerly more common, of simply omitting the possessive s on all words ending in s hence "Dylan
Thomas' poetry," "Maria Callas' singing," and "that business' main concern." Though easy to apply, that usage
disregards pronunciation and thus seems unnatural to many. The 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style still
recommended the traditional practice, which included providing for several exceptions to accommodate spoken
usage such as the omission of the extra s after a polysyllabic word ending in a sibilant. The 16th edition of CMOS no
longer recommends omitting the extra "s". Chicago Style Q&A: Possessives and AttributivesSimilar examples of
notable names ending in an s that are often given a possessive apostrophe with no additional s include Dickens and
Williams. There is often a policy of leaving off the additional s on any such name, but this can prove problematic
when specific names are contradictory (for example, St James' ParkSt James Park in Newcastle upon
TyneNewcastle [the football ground] and the area of St. James's Park in London). For more details on practice with
geographic names, see the relevant section Apostrophe#Possessives in geographic namesbelow.Some writers like to
reflect standard spoken practice in cases like these with sake: for convenience sake, for goodness sake, for
appearance sake, for compromise sake, etc. This punctuation is preferred in major style guides. Others prefer to add
's: for convenience's sake.. The Chicago Manual of Style, 7.22: "For...sake expressions traditionally omit the s when
the noun ends in an s or an s sound." Oxford Style Manual, 5.2.1: "Use an apostrophe alone after singular nouns
ending in an s or z sound and combined with sake: for goodness' sake". Still others prefer to omit the apostrophe
when there is an s sound before sake: for morality's sake, but for convenience sake."Practice varies widely in for
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112
conscience' sake and for goodness' sake, and the use of an apostrophe in them must be regarded as optional" The
New Fowler's Modern English Usage, ed. Burchfield, RW, 3rd edition, 1996, entry for "sake", p.686.The Supreme
Court of the United States is split on whether a possessive singular noun that ends with s should always have an
additional s after the apostrophe, sometimes have an additional s after the apostrophe (for instance, based on whether
the final sound of the original word is pronounced /s/ or /z/), or never have an additional s after the apostrophe. The
informal majority view (54, based on past writings of the justices) has favoured the additional s, but a strong
minority disagrees.Starble, Jonathan M. (9 October 2006). Gimme an S: The Robert Court splits over grammar.
Legal Times Last accessed 17 December 2011.Nouns ending with silent s, x or z The English possessive of French
nouns ending in a silent s, x, or z is rendered differently by different authorities. Some people prefer Descartes' and
Dumas', while others insist on Descartes's and Dumas's.[citation needed] Certainly a sibilant is pronounced in these
cases; the question addressed here is whether s needs to be added. Similar examples with x or z: Sauce Prigueux's
main ingredient is truffle; His pince-nez's loss went unnoticed; "Verreaux('s) eagle, a large, predominantly black
eagle, Aquila verreauxi,..." (OED, entry for "Verreaux", with silent x; see Verreaux's eagle); in each of these some
writers might omit the added s. The same principles and residual uncertainties apply with "naturalised" English
words, like Illinois and Arkansas.In February 2007 Arkansas historian Parker Westbrook successfully petitioned
State Representative Steve Harrelson to settle once and for all that the correct possessive should not be
ArkansasUNIQ-nowiki-1-5e88e20e36e9e582-QINU but Arkansas's ( Arkansas House to argue over apostrophes).
Arkansas's Apostrophe Act came into law in March 2007 (ABC News [USA], 6 March 2007).For possessive plurals
of words ending in silent x, z or s, the few authorities that address the issue at all typically call for an added s and
suggest that the apostrophe precede the s: The Loucheuxs homeland is in the Yukon; Compare the two Dumass
literary achievements.An apparent exception is The Complete Stylist, Sheridan Baker, 2nd edition 1972, p.165:
"...citizens' rights, the Joneses possessions, and similarly The Beaux Stratagem." But in fact the x in beaux, as in
other such plurals in English, is often already pronounced (see a note to #Basic rule (plural nouns)Basic rule (plural
nouns), above); The Beaux Stratagem, the title of a play by George Farquhar (1707), originally lacked the
apostrophe (see the title page of a 1752 edition); and it is complicated by the following s in stratagem. Some modern
editions add the apostrophe (some with an s also), some omit it; and some make a compound with a hyphen: The
Beaux-Stratagem. Farquhar himself used the apostrophe elsewhere in the standard ways, for both omission and
possession. The possessive of a cited French title with a silent plural ending is uncertain: Trois femmess long and
complicated publication history,Jacqueline Letzter, Intellectual Tacking: Questions of Education in the Works of
Isabelle de Charrire, Rodopi, 1998, p.123. but "Les noces' singular effect was 'exotic primitive'..." (with nearby
sibilants -ce- in noces and s- in singular).Elizabeth A. McAlister, Rara!: Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti
and Its Diaspora, University of California Press, 2002, p.196. Compare treatment of other titles, #With other
punctuation; compounds with pronounsabove.Guides typically seek a principle that will yield uniformity, even for
foreign words that fit awkwardly with standard English punctuation. Possessives in geographic names Place names
in the United States do not use the possessive apostrophe on federal maps and signs. The United States Board on
Geographic Names, which has responsibility for formal naming of municipalities and geographic features, has
deprecated the use of possessive apostrophes since 1890 so as not to show ownership of the place. U.S. Board on
Geographic Names: FAQs Only five names of natural features in the U.S. are officially spelled with a genitive
apostrophe (one example being Martha's Vineyard).Cavella, C, and Kernodle, RA, " How the Past Affects the
Future: the Story of the Apostrophe " On the other hand, the United Kingdom has Bishop's Stortford, Bishop's Castle
and King's Lynn (among many others) but St Albans, St Andrews and St Helens, MerseysideSt Helens. These names
were mainly fixed in form many years before grammatical rules were fully standardised. While Newcastle United
F.C.Newcastle United play association footballfootball at a stadium previously called St James' Park, and Exeter
City at St James Park, ExeterSt James Park, London has a St James's Park (this whole area of London is named after
the parish of St James's Church, Piccadilly St James's Church Piccadilly website). The special circumstances of the
latter case may be this: the customary pronunciation of this place name is reflected in the addition of an extra -s;
since usage is firmly against a doubling of the final -s without an apostrophe, this place name has an apostrophe.
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113
This could be regarded by some people as an example of a double genitive: it refers to the park of the parish of St
James.Omission of the apostrophe in geographical names is becoming standard in some English-speaking countries,
including Australia."The apostrophe has been dropped from most Australian place-names and street names: Connells
Point; Wilsons Promontory; Browns Lane." The Penguin Working Words: an Australian Guide to Modern English
Usage, Penguin, 1993, p.41. Modern usage has been influenced by considerations of technological convenience
including the economy of typewriter ribbons and films, and similar computer character "disallowance" which tend to
ignore traditional canons of correctness.E.g., under Naming conventions in Active Directory for computers, domains,
sites, and OUs at Microsoft Support Practice in the United Kingdom and Canada is not so uniform.The Cambridge
Guide to English Usage, Ed. Peters, P, 2004, p.43.Possessives in names of organizations Sometimes the apostrophe
is omitted in the names of clubs, societies, and other organizations, even though the standard principles seem to
require it: Country Women's Association, but International Aviation Womens Association; International Aviation
Womens Association Magistrates' Court of Victoria,Spelled both with and without the apostrophe at the court's own
home page; but spelled with the apostrophe in Victorian legislation, such as Magistrates' Court Act, 1989. but
Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union. Usage is variable and inconsistent. Style guides typically advise
consulting an official source for the standard form of the name (as one would do if uncertain about other aspects of
the spelling of the name); some tend towards greater prescriptiveness, for or against such an apostrophe.Gregg
Reference Manual, 10th edition, 2003, distinguishes between what it calls possessive and descriptive forms, and uses
this distinction in analyzing the problem. From paragraph628: "a.Do not mistake a descriptive form ending in s for
a possessive form[:] sales effort (sales describes the kind of effort)... b.Some cases can be difficult to distinguish. Is
it the girls basketball team or the girls' basketball team? Try substituting an irregular plural like women. You would
not say the women basketball team; you would say the women's basketball team. By analogy, the girls' basketball
team is correct" [italics given exactly as in original, including following punctuation]. (However in this case the
phrase in question is not part of the name: the words are not capitalised!) And then this principle is applied to
organizations at paragraph640, where examples are given, including the non-conforming Childrens Hospital, (in Los
Angeles): "The names of many organizations, products, and publications contain words that could be considered
either possessive or descriptive terms... c. In all cases follow the organization's preference when known." As the case
of womens shows, it is not possible to analyze these forms simply as non-possessive plurals, since women is the only
correct plural form of woman.Possessives in business names Where a business name is based on a family name it
should in theory take an apostrophe, but many leave it out (contrast Sainsbury's with Harrods). In recent times there
has been an increasing tendency to drop the apostrophe. Names based on a first name are more likely to take an
apostrophe, but this is not always the case (contrast Joe's Crab Shack with Ralphs). Some business names may
inadvertently spell a different name if the name with an s at the end is also a name, such as Parson. A small activist
group called the Apostrophe Protection Society Apostrophe Protection Society's website. has campaigned for large
retailers such as Harrods, Currys, and Selfridges to reinstate their missing punctuation. A spokesperson for Barclays
PLC stated, "It has just disappeared over the years. Barclays is no longer associated with the family name." Times
Online: Harrods told to put its apostrophe back. Further confusion can be caused by businesses whose names look as
if they should be pronounced differently without an apostrophe, such as Paulos Circus, and other companies that
leave the apostrophe out of their logos but include it in written text, such as Waterstone's and Cadwalader's.
Apostrophe showing omission An apostrophe is commonly used to indicate omitted characters, normally letters: It is
used in contraction (grammar)contractions, such as can't from cannot, it's from it is or it has, and I'll from I will or I
shall.In reports of very informal speech UNIQ-nowiki-2-5e88e20e36e9e582-QINUs may sometimes represent
does: "Where's that come from?" It is used in abbreviations, as gov't for government. It may indicate omitted
numbers where the spoken form is also capable of omissions, as '70s for 1970s representing seventies for
nineteen-seventies. In modern usage, apostrophes are generally omitted when letters are removed from the start of a
word, particularly for a compound word. For example, it is not common to write 'bus (for omnibus), 'phone
(telephone), 'net (Internet). However, if the shortening is unusual, dialectal or archaic, the apostrophe may still be
used to mark it (e.g., 'bout for about, 'less for unless, 'twas for it was). Sometimes a misunderstanding of the original
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114
form of a word results in an incorrect contraction. A common example: 'til for until, though till is in fact the original
form, and until is derived from it. The spelling fo'c's'le, contracted from the nautical term forecastle, is unusual for
having three apostrophes. The spelling bo's'n's (from boatswain's), as in Bo's'n's Mate, also has three apostrophes,
two showing omission and one possession. Fo'c's'le may also take a possessive s as in the fo'c's'le's timbers
giving four apostrophes in one word.SOED gives fo'c's'le as the only shortened form of forecastle, though others are
shown in OED. SOED gives bo's'n as one spelling of bosun, itself a variant of boatswain. It is sometimes used when
the normal form of an inflection seems awkward or unnatural; for example, KO'd rather than KOed (where KO is
used as a verb meaning "to knock out"); "a spare pince-nez'd man" (cited in OED, entry for "pince-nez"; pince-nezed
is also in citations). In certain colloquial contexts, an apostrophe's function as possessive or contractive can depend
on other punctuation. We rehearsed for Friday's opening night. (We rehearsed for the opening night on Friday.)We
rehearsed because Friday's opening night. (We rehearsed because Friday is opening night. "Friday's" here is a
contraction of "Friday is.")Eye dialects use apostrophes in creating the effect of a non-standard pronunciation. Use in
forming certain plurals An apostrophe is used by some writers to form a English pluralplural for abbreviations,
acronyms, and symbols where adding just s rather than 's may leave things ambiguous or inelegant. Some specific
cases: It is generally regarded as desirable to use apostrophes to show plurals of single lower-case letters, such as be
sure to dot your i's and cross your t's. Some style guides would prefer to use a change of font: dot your is and cross
your ts.[citation needed] Some style guides rule that upper case letters need no apostrophe (I got three As in my
exams) except when there is a risk of misreading, such as at the start of a sentence: A's are the highest marks
achievable in these exams. For groups of years, the apostrophe at the end is unnecessary, since there is no possibility
of misreading. For this reason, some style guides prefer 1960s to 1960's (although the latter is noted by at least one
source as acceptable in American usage but not in British), Guide to Punctuation, Larry Trask, University of Sussex:
"American usage, however, does put an apostrophe here: (A) This research was carried out in 1970s." and 90s or '90s
to 90's or '90's. The apostrophe is sometimes used in forming the plural of numbers (for example, 1000's of years);
however, as with groups of years, it is unnecessary because there is no possibility of misreading. Most sources are
against this usage; an alternative is to write out the numbers as words. The apostrophe is often used in plurals of
symbols. Again, since there can be no misreading, this is often regarded as unnecessary, That page has too many &s
and #s on it,[citation needed] but this has been deprecated as confusing to the eye.Use in non-English names Names
that are not strictly native to English sometimes have an apostrophe substituted to represent other characters (see also
#As a mark of elisionAs a mark of elision, below). Anglicised versions of Irish surnames often contain an apostrophe
after an O, for example O'Doole. Some Scots languageScottish and Irish nameIrish surnames use an apostrophe after
an M, for example M'Gregor. The apostrophe here may be seen as marking a contraction where the prefix Mc or
Irish surname prefixesMac would normally appear. (In earlier and meticulous current usage, the symbol is actually
a kind of reversed apostrophe that is sometimes called a turned comma, which eventually came to be written as the
letter c, whose shape is similar.)Use in transliteration In Transliterationtransliterated foreign words, an apostrophe
may be used to separate letters or syllables that otherwise would likely be interpreted incorrectly. For example: in the
Arabic (language)Arabic word mus'haf, a transliteration of ...., the syllables are as in mushaf, not mushafin the
Japanese name Shin'ichi, the apostrophe shows that the pronunciation is shinichi (hiragana !!!!), where the letters n
(!) and i (!) are separate mora (linguistics)moras, rather than shinichi (!!!).in the Chinese Pinyin romanization,
when two hanzi are combined to form one word, if the resulting Pinyin representation can be mis-interpreted they
should be separated by an apostrophe. For example, ! (xin) !! (x'n). Furthermore, an apostrophe may be used to
indicate a glottal stop in transliterations. For example: in the Arabic word Qur'an, a common transliteration of (part
of) _. al-qur'n, the apostrophe corresponds to the diacritic maddah over the 'alif, one of the letters in the Arabic
alphabetRather than the apostrophe is sometimes used to indicate a voiced pharyngeal fricative as it sounds and
looks like the glottal stop to most English speakers. For example: in the Arabic word Ka'aba for ~>. al-kabah, the
apostrophe corresponds to the Arabic letter Ayin#Arabic Aynayn.Non-standard English use Failure to observe
standard use of the apostrophe is widespread and frequently criticised as incorrect,Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots &
Leaves. p.41, pp.4854. Half of Britons struggle with the apostrophe, The Daily Telegraph, 11 November 2008
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often generating heated debate. The British founder of the Apostrophe Protection Society earned a 2001 Ig
NobelIgNobel prize for "efforts to protect, promote and defend the differences between plural and possessive". "In
praise of apostrophes", BBC News, 5 October 2001 A 2004 report by OCR (examination board)OCR, a British
examination board, stated that "the inaccurate use of the apostrophe is so widespread as to be almost universal".
'Fatal floors' in exam scripts, BBC News, 3 November 2004 A 2008 survey found that nearly half of the UK adults
polled were unable to use the apostrophe correctly. Superfluous apostrophes ("greengrocers' apostrophes") Sign to
Green Craigs housing developmentApostrophes used in a non-standard manner to form noun plurals are known as
greengrocers' apostrophes or grocers' apostrophes, often called (spelled) greengrocer's apostrophes Word Spy -
greengrocers' apostrophe and grocer's apostrophes. They are sometimes humorously called greengrocers
apostrophe's, rogue apostrophes, or idiot's apostrophes (a literal translation of the German word Deppenapostroph,
which criticises the misapplication of apostrophes in Denglisch). The practice, once common and acceptable (see
#Historical developmentHistorical development), comes from the identical sound of the plural and possessive
casepossessive forms of most English nouns. It is often criticised as a form of hypercorrection coming from a
widespread ignorance of the proper use of the apostrophe or of punctuation in general. Lynne Truss, author of Eats,
Shoots & Leaves, points out that before the 19th century, it was standard orthography to use the apostrophe to form a
plural of a foreign-sounding word that ended in a vowel (e. g., banana's, folio's, logo's, quarto's, pasta's, ouzo's) to
clarify pronunciation. Truss says this usage is no longer considered proper in formal writing.Truss, Lynne. Eats,
Shoots & Leaves. pp.6365.The term is believed to have been coined in the middle of the 20th century by a teacher
of languages working in Liverpool, at a time when such mistakes were common in the handwritten signs and
advertisements of greengrocers (e. g., Apple's shilling1/- a pound, Orange's 1/6pennyd a pound). Some have argued
that its use in mass communication by employees of well-known companies has led to the less literate assuming it to
be correct and adopting the habit themselves.The same use of apostrophe before noun plural -s forms is sometimes
made by non-native speakers of English. For example, in Dutch, the apostrophe is inserted before the s when
pluralising most words ending in a vowel or y for example, baby's (English babies) and radio's (English "radios").
This often produces so-called "Dunglish" errors when carried over into English. Hyperforeignism has been
formalised in some pseudo-anglicisms. For example, the French word pin's (from English pin) is used (with the
apostrophe in both singular and plural) for collectable lapel pins. Similarly, there is an Andorran football club called
FC Rnger's (after such British clubs as Rangers F.C.), a Japanese dance group called Super Monkey's, and a
Japanese pop punk band called the Titan Go King's. Titan Go King's, at nippop.com.Omission There is a tendency to
drop apostrophes in many commonly used names such as Lytham St AnnesSt Annes, St Johns Lane,A search on
www.multimpap.com for "St Johns Lane" in the UK, with or without apostrophe, finds the apostrophe omitted in 5
instances out of 25 and so on. In 2009, a resident in Royal Tunbridge Wells was accused of vandalism after he
painted apostrophes on road signs that had spelt St John's Close as St Johns Close.Fernandez, Colin, 'Punctuation
hero' branded a vandal for painting apostrophes on street signs, The Daily Mail, accessed 19 August 2009UK
supermarket chain Tesco omits the mark where standard practice would require it. Signs in Tesco advertise (among
other items) "mens magazines", "girls toys", "kids books" and "womens shoes". In his book Bryson's Dictionary of
Troublesome WordsTroublesome Words, author Bill Bryson lambasts Tesco for this, stating that "the mistake is
inexcusable, and those who make it are linguistic Neanderthals."Bill Bryson, "Troublesome Words," Penguin,
second edition 1987, p.177Advocates of greater or lesser useA sign diverting passengers to a temporary taxi rank at
Leeds railway station, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, with the extraneous apostrophe crossed out by an unknown
Copy editingcopy editor.George Bernard Shaw, a proponent of English spelling reform on phonetic principles,
argued that the apostrophe was mostly redundant. He did not use it for spelling cant, hes, etc. in many of his
writings. He did however allow I'm and it's. W. W. Norton & Company Hubert Selby, Jr. used a slash instead of an
apostrophe mark for contractions and did not use an apostrophe at all for possessives. Lewis Carroll made greater use
of apostrophes, and frequently used sha'n't, with an apostrophe in place of the elided "ll" as well as the more usual
"o". The apostrophe [citation needed] These authors' usages have not become widespread.Other misuses The British
pop group Hear'Say famously made unconventional use of an apostrophe in its name. Truss comments that "the
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naming of Hear'Say in 2001 was [...] a significant milestone on the road to punctuation anarchy".Eats, Shoots &
Leaves. Dexys Midnight Runners, on the other hand, omit the apostrophe (though "dexys" can be understood as a
plural form of "dexy", rather than a possessive form). An apostrophe wrongly thought to be misused in popular
culture occurs in the name of Liverpudlian rock band The La's. This apostrophe is often thought to be a mistake; but
in fact it marks omission of the letter d. The name comes from the Scouse slang for "The Lads".Criticism Over the
years, the use of apostrophes has been criticized. George Bernard Shaw called them "uncouth bacilli". In his book
American Speech, linguist Steven Byington stated of the apostrophe that "the language would be none the worse for
its abolition." Adrian Room in his English Journal article "Axing the Apostrophe" argued that apostrophes are
unnecessary and context will resolve any ambiguity. In a letter to the English Journal, Peter Brodie stated that
apostrophes are "largely decorative...[and] rarely clarify meaning". Dr. John C. Wells, Emeritus Professor of
Phonetics at University College London, says the apostrophe is "a waste of time". Peter Buck, guitarist of R.E.M.
claimed, "We all hate apostrophes. There's never been a good rock album that's had an apostrophe in the
title."Non-English useAs a mark of elision In many languages, especially European languages, the apostrophe is
used to indicate the elision of one or more sounds, as in English. In Afrikaans the apostrophe is used to show that
letters have been omitted from words. The most common use is in the indefinite article 'n, which is a contraction of
een meaning "one" (the number). As the initial e is omitted and cannot be capitalised, if a sentence begins with 'n the
second word in the sentence is capitalised. For example: 'n Boom is groen, "A tree is green". In addition, the
apostrophe is used for plurals and diminutives where the root ends with certain vowels, e.g. foto's, taxi's, Lulu's,
Lulu'tjie, garage's etc. In Danish languageDanish, apostrophes are sometimes seen on Advertisingcommercial
materials. One might commonly see Ta' mig med ("Take me with [you]") next to a stand with advertisement leaflets;
that would be written Tag mig med in standard orthography. As in German, the apostrophe must not be used to
indicate the possessive, except when there is already an s present in the base form, as in Lukas' bog. In Dutch
languageDutch, the apostrophe is used to indicate omitted characters. For example, the indefinite article een can be
shortened to 'n, and the definite article het shortened to 't. When this happens in the first word of a sentence, the
second word of the sentence is capitalised. In general, this way of using the apostrophe is considered non-standard,
except in 's morgens, 's middags, 's avonds, 's nachts (for des morgens, des middags, des avonds, des nachts: "at
morning, at afternoon, at evening, at night"). In addition, the apostrophe is used for plurals where the singulars end
with certain vowels, e.g. foto's, taxi's; and for the genitive of proper names ending with these vowels, e.g. Anna's,
Otto's. These are in fact elided vowels; use of the apostrophe prevents spellings like fotoos and Annaas. In
Esperanto, the Fundamento de EsperantoFundamento limits the elision mark to the definite article l' (from la) and
singular nominative nouns (kor' from koro, "heart"). This is mostly confined to poetry. Idiomatic phrases such as
dank' al (from (kun) danko al, "thanks to") and del' (from de la, "of the") are nonetheless frequent. In-word elision is
usually marked with a hyphen, as in D-ro (from doktoro, "Dr"). Some early guides used and advocated the use of
apostrophes between word parts, to aid recognition of such compound words as gitar'ist'o, "guitarist". In Catalan
languageCatalan, French languageFrench, Italian languageItalian, Ligurian (Romance language)Ligurian and
Occitan languageOccitan word sequences such as coup d'tat(coup) d'tat, Matre d(matre) d'htel (often shortened
to matre d', when used in English), L'Aquila and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat the final vowel in the first word (de "of",
la "the", etc.) is elided because the word that follows it starts with a vowel or a Hmute h. Similarly, French has qu'il
instead of que il ("that he"), c'est instead of ce est ("it is or it's"), and so on. Catalan, French, Italian and Occitan
surnames sometimes contain apostrophes of elision, e.g. d'Alembert, D'Angelo. French feminine singular possessive
adjectives do not undergo elision, but change to the masculine form instead: ma preceding glise becomes mon
glise ("my church").In early French such elisions did occur: m'espe (ma+espe, modern French mon pe: "my
sword"), s'enfance (sa+enfance, son enfance: "his or her childhood"). But the only modern survivals of this elision
with apostrophe are m'amie and m'amour, as archaic and idiomatic alternatives to mon amie and mon amour ("my
[female] friend", "my love"); forms without the apostrophe also used: mamie or ma mie, mamour. In modern
Norwegian (language)Norwegian, the apostrophe marks that a word has been contracted, such as "hakke" from "har
ikke" (have/has not). Unlike English and French, such elisions are not accepted as part of standard orthography but
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are used to create a more "oral style" in writing. The apostrophe is also used to mark the genitive for words that end
in an -s sound: words ending in -s, -x, and -z, some speakers also including words ending in the sound []. As
Norwegian doesn't form the plural with -s, there is no need to distinguish between an -s forming the possessive and
the -s forming the plural. Therefore we have "mann" (man) and "manns" (man's), without apostrophe, but "los"
(naval pilot) and "los" (naval pilot's). Indicating the possessive for former American Presidents George Bush, whose
names end in [], could be written as both Bushs (simply adding an -s to the name) and Bush (adding an apostrophe
to the end of the name). In Portuguese languagePortuguese the apostrophe is also used in some few combinations
such as caixa-d'gua ("water tower"), galinha-d'angola ("Helmeted Guineafowl"), pau-d'alho ("Gallesia
integrifolia"), etc. Portuguese has many contractions between prepositions and articles or pronouns (like na for en +
a), but these are written without an apostrophe. Portuguese uses a grave accent to indicate an unstressed a has been
elided with a following stressed one, so one writes (and says) quela hora instead of a aquela hora. Modern Spanish
no longer uses the apostrophe to indicate elision in standard writing, although it can sometimes be found in older
poetry for that purpose.Examples include Nuestras vidas son los ros / que van a dar en la mar, / qu'es el morir.
meaning "Our lives are the rivers / that flow to give to the sea, / which is death." (from Coplas de Don Jorge
Manrique por la muerte de su padre, 1477) and ... qu me ha de aprovechar ver la pintura / d'aquel que con las alas
derretidas ...? meaning "... what could it help me to see the painting of that one with the melted wings ...?" (from the
12th sonnet of Garcilazo de la Vega, c. 15001536). Instead Spanish writes out the spoken elision in full (de enero,
mi hijo) except for the contraction del for de + el, which uses no apostrophe. Spanish also switches to the masculine
article immediately before a feminine noun beginning with a stressed a instead of writing (or saying) an elision: un
guila blanca, el guila blanca, and el agua pura but una/la blanca guila and la pura agua. This reflects the origin of
the Spanish definite articles from the Latin demonstratives ille/illa/illum. Although forms with an apostrophe
indicating elision, especially m'ijo and mi'ija for mi hijo and mi hija, can be found in informal writing, this is
considered nonstandard. In Swedish (language)Swedish, the apostrophe marks an elision, such as "p sta'n", short for
"p staden" ("in the city"), to make the text more similar to the spoken language. This is relaxed style, fairly rarely
used, and would not be used by traditional newspapers in political articles, but could be used in entertainment related
articles and similar. The formal way to denote elision in Swedish is by using colon, e.g. S:t Erik for Sankt Erik which
is rarely spelled out in full. The apostrophe must not be used to indicate the possessive except - although not
mandatory - when there is already an s, x or z present in the base form, as in Lukas' bok. German usage is very
similar: an apostrophe is used almost exclusively to indicate omitted letters. It must not be used for plurals or most of
the possessive forms (The only exception being the possessive cases of names ending in an s-sound as in Max Vater,
or "to prevent ambiguities" in all other possessive cases of names as Andreas Blumenladen. The latter use is
discouraged, while being formally correct); although both usages are widespread, they are deemed incorrect. The
German equivalent of greengrocers' apostrophes would be the derogatory Deppenapostroph ("idiots' apostrophe"
(See the article Apostrophitis in German Wikipedia). In modern printings of Ancient Greek, apostrophes are also
used to mark elision. Certain Ancient Greek words that end in short vowels elide when the next word starts with a
vowel. For example, many Ancient Greek authors would write o tt (d'llos) for o tt (d llos) and
(r' ou) for (ra ou). Initialisms in Hebrew are denoted with a geresh, often typed as an apostrophe. A double
geresh (), known by the plural form gershayim, is used to denote acronyms; it is inserted before (i.e., to the right of)
the last letter of the acronym. In Irish, the past tense of verbs beginning with an F or vowel begins with d' (elision of
do), for example do oscail becomes d'oscail ("opened") and do fhill becomes d'fhill ("returned"). The copula is is
often elided to 's, and do ("to"), mo ("my") etc. are elided before f and vowels. In LugandaGanda, when a word
ending with a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the first word is elisionelided
and the initial vowel of the second word vowel lengthlengthened in compensation. When the first word is a
monosyllable, this elision is represented in the orthography with an apostrophe: in taata w'abaana "the father of the
children", wa ("of") becomesw'; in y'ani? ("who is it?"), ye ("who") becomesy'. But the final vowel of a
polysyllable is always written, even if it is elided in speech: omusajja oyo ("this man"), not *omusajj'oyo, because
omusajja ("man") is a polysyllable.Welsh languageWelsh uses the apostrophe to mark elision of the definite article
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yr ("the") following a vowel (a, e, i, o, u, y, w in Welsh), such as i'r t "to the house". It is also used with the particle
yn, such as with mae hi'n "she is".As a glottal stopOther languages and transliteration systems use the apostrophe or
some similar mark to indicate a glottal stop, sometimes considering it a letter of the alphabet: In Vro languageVro,
the apostrophe is used in parallel with the letter "q" as symbol of plural. Guaran languageGuarani, where it is called
puso /pu'so/, as in the words e' (language, to speak), ka'a (grass), a' (sterile).Hawaiian languageHawaiian, the
Òkinaòkina `, an inverted apostrophe, is often rendered as '. It is considered a letter of the alphabet. In the
Tongan language, the apostrophe is called a fakauà and is the last letter of the alphabet. It is used to represent the
glottal stop. Like the òkina, it is inverted. Various other Austronesian languages, such as Samoan languageSamoan,
Tahitian languageTahitian, and Chamorro languageChamorro. Tetum languageTetum, one of the official languages
of East Timor. The Brazilian native Tupi language. Mayan languageMayan. Several fictional languages such as
Klingon languageKlingon, D'ni languageD'ni, Mando'a or Na'vi languageNa'vi. Language Construction Kit, refers to
the common phenomenon of adding apostrophes to make names appear "alien"The apostrophe represents sounds
resembling the glottal stop in the Turkic languages and in some romanizations of Semitic languages, including
Arabic languageArabic. In typography, this function may be performed by the closing single quotation mark. In that
case, the Arabic letter ayinayn () is correspondingly transliterated with the opening single quotation mark.As a
mark of palatalization or non-palatalization Some languages and transliteration systems use the apostrophe to mark
the presence, or the lack of, palatalization. In Belarusian languageBelarusian and Ukrainian languageUkrainian, the
apostrophe is used between a consonant and a following "soft" (iotationiotified) vowel (e, , , n; Uk. , , ,n) to
indicate that no palatalization of the preceding consonant takes place, and the vowel is pronounced in the same way
as at the beginning of the word. It therefore marks a morpheme boundary before /j/, and in Ukrainian, is also
occasionally as a "quasi letter". It appears frequently in Ukrainian, as, for instance, in the words: <n'nr> [p"jat']
'five', <ni'> [vid'jizd] 'departure', <o'nann> [ob'jednanyj] 'united', <'ncynan> [z'jasuvaty] 'to clear up,
explain', <n'ca> [p'jesa] play (drama), etc.Daniel Buncic (Bonn), "The apostrophe: A neglected and misunderstood
reading aid" at the Tbingen University website Linguist List 13.1566, Daniel Buncic, "Apostrophe rules in
languages", from 31 May 2002. In Russian and some derived alphabets the same function is served by the hard sign
(, formerly called yer). But the apostrophe saw some use as a substitute after 1918, when Soviet authorities
enforced an orthographic reform by confiscating type bearing that "letter parasite" from stubborn printing houses in
Petrograd. K nannp :: nannan In some Latin transliterations of certain Cyrillic alphabets (for Belarusian
languageBelarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian languageUkrainian), the apostrophe is used to replace the soft sign (r,
indicating palatalization of the preceding consonant), e.g., ycr is transliterated Kievan Rus'Rus' according to the
BGN/PCGN system. (The Prime (symbol)#Use in linguisticsprime symbol is also used for the same purpose.) Some
of these transliteration schemes use a double apostrophe (") to represent the apostrophe in Ukrainian and Belarusian
text, e.g. Ukrainian cnonnncrke ("Slavic") is transliterated as slov"yanske. Some Karelian languageKarelian
orthographies use an apostrophe to indicate palatalization, e.g. n'evvuo ("to give advice"), d'uuri ("just (like)"),
el'vtti ("to revive").To separate morphemes Some languages use the apostrophe to separate the root
(linguistics)root of a word and its affixes, especially if the root is foreign and unassimilated. (For another kind of
morphemic separation see #Miscellaneous uses in other languagespinyin, below.) In Danish languageDanish an
apostrophe is sometimes used to join the enclitic definite article to words of foreign origin, or to other words that
would otherwise look awkward. For example, one would write IP'en to mean "the IP address". There is some
variation in what is considered "awkward enough" to warrant an apostrophe; for instance, long-established words
such as firma ("company") or niveau ("level") might be written firma'et and niveau'et, but will generally be seen
without an apostrophe. Due to Danish influence, this usage of the apostrophe can also be seen in Norwegian, but is
non-standard a hyphen should be used instead: e.g. CD-en (the CD). In Finnish languageFinnish, apostrophes are
used in the declension of foreign names or loan words that end in a consonant when written but are pronounced with
a vowel ending, e.g. show'ssa ("in a show"), Bordeaux'hun ("to Bordeaux"). For Finnish as well as Swedish
languageSwedish, there is a closely related Colon (punctuation)#Word-medial separatoruse of the colon. In Estonian
languageEstonian, apostrophes can be used in the declension of some foreign names to separate the stem from any
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declension endings; e.g., Monet' (genitive case) or Monet'sse (illative case) of Monet (name of the famous painter).
In Polish languagePolish, the apostrophe is used exclusively for marking inflections of words and word-like
elements (but not acronyms a hyphen is used instead) whose spelling conflicts with the normal rules of inflection.
This mainly affects foreign words and names. For instance, one would correctly write Kampania Ala Gore'a for "Al
Gore's campaign". In this example, Ala is spelt without an apostrophe, since its spelling and pronunciation fit into
normal Polish rules; but Gore'a needs the apostrophe, because e disappears from the pronunciation, changing the
inflection pattern. This rule is often misunderstood as calling for an apostrophe after all foreign words, regardless of
their pronunciation, yielding the incorrect Kampania Al'a Gore'a, for example. The effect is akin to the greengrocers'
apostrophe (see above). In Turkish languageTurkish, Noun#Proper nouns and common nounsproper nouns are
capitalized and an apostrophe is inserted between the noun and any following suffix, e.g. stanbul'da ("in Istanbul"),
contrasting with okulda ("in school"). In Welsh languageWelsh the apostrophe is used with infixed pronouns in order
to distinguish them from the preceding word (e.g. a'm chwaer "and my sister" as opposed to am chwaer "about a
sister").Miscellaneous uses in other languages[citation needed] In Slovak languageSlovak, the caron over lowercase
t, d, l, and uppercase L consonants resembles an apostrophe: , , , . This is especially so in certain common
typographic renderings. But it is non-standard to use an apostrophe instead of the caron. There is also l with an acute
accent: , . In Slovak the apostrophe is properly used only to indicate elision in certain words (tys', as an
abbreviated form of ty si ("you are"), or hor' for hore ("up")); however, these elisions are restricted to poetry (with a
few exceptions). And the apostrophe is also used before a two-digit year number (to indicate the omission of the first
two digits): '87 (usually used for 1987). In Czech languageCzech, an apostrophe is used for writing in
spoken/informal language (when writer wants to express the natural way of informal speech), but it should not be
used in formal/serious text. Instead of "rekl" ("he said"), the world "rek'" ("he said") is used, the form "rek'" of the
verb "rekl" is an informal way to say "he said" (the meaning is the same), but it helps the text to sound more
naturally (as if a friend talked to you informally). In Finnish languageFinnish, one of the consonant gradation
patterns is the change of a k into a hiatus (linguistics)hiatus, e.g. keko keon ("a pile a pile's"). This hiatus has to
be indicated in spelling with an apostrophe if a long vowel or a diphthong would be immediately followed by the
final vowel, e.g. ruoko ruo'on, vaaka vaa'an. (This is in contrast to compound words, where the equivalent
problem is solved with a hyphen, e.g. maa-ala, "land area".) Similarly, the apostrophe is used to mark the hiatus
(linguistics)hiatus (contraction) that occurs in poetry, e.g. miss' on for miss on ("where is"). In Breton
languageBreton, the combination c'h is used for the consonant /x/ (like ch in English Loch Ness), while ch is used for
the consonant // (as in French chat or English she). In Italian, an apostrophe is sometimes used as a substitute for a
grave accentgrave or an acute accent after a final vowel: in capitals, or when the proper form of the letter is
unavailable. So Niccol might be rendered as Niccolo', or NICCOLO'; perch, as perche', or PERCHE'. This applies
only to machine or computer writing, in the absence of a suitable keyboard. This usage is considered incorrect, or at
least inelegant, by many.Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words In Swahili languageSwahili, an apostrophe after ng shows
that there is no sound of /q/ after the // sound; that is, that the ng is pronounced as in English singer, not as in
English finger. In LugandaGanda, ng' (pronounced //) is used in place of on keyboards where this character is not
available. The apostrophe distinguishes it from the letter combination ng (pronounced [q]), which has separate use
in the language. Compare this with the Swahili usage above. In Jrriais, one of the uses of the apostrophe is to mark
gemination, or consonant length. For example, t't represents /t:/, s's /s:/, n'n /n:/, th'th /:/, and ch'ch /:/ (contrasted
with /t/, /s/, /n/, //, and //). In the pinyin (hny pnyn) system of romanization for Standard Chinese, an
apostrophe is often loosely said to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise. Example: the standard
romanization for the name of the city X'n includes an apostrophe to distinguish it from a single-syllable word xian.
More strictly, however, it is correct to place an apostrophe only before every a, e, or o that starts a new syllable after
the first if it is not preceded by a hyphen or a dash. Examples: Tin'nmn, Y'n; but simply Jnn, in which the
syllables are ji and nan, since the absence of an apostrophe shows that the syllables are not jin and an (contrast
Jn'n). Pinyin This is a kind of morpheme-separation marking (see #To separate morphemesabove). In the largely
superseded Wade-GilesWadeGiles romanization for Standard Chinese, an apostrophe marks Aspiration
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(phonetics)aspiration of the preceding consonant sound. Example: in ts (pinyin ze) the consonant represented by ts
is unaspirated, but in ts' (pinyin ce) the consonant represented by ts' is aspirated. In some systems of romanization
for the Japanese, the apostrophe is used between Mora (linguistics)moras in ambiguous situations, to differentiate
between, for example, na and n+a. (This is similar to the practice in Pinyin mentioned above.) In Hebrew, the
geresh (a diacritic similar to the apostrophe and often represented by one) is adjacent to letters to show sounds that
are not represented in the Hebrew alphabet. Sounds such as /voiced palato-alveolar affricated/ (English j as in "job",
/voiceless dental fricativeu/ (English th as in "thigh"), and /voiceless palato-alveolar affricatet/ (English ch as in
"check") are indicated using r ,, and with a geresh (informally "chupchik"). For example, the name George is
spelled in Hebrew (with representing the first and last consonants). In the new Uzbek alphabetUzbek Latin
alphabet adopted in 2000, the apostrophe serves as a Diacriticdiacritical mark to distinguish different phonemes
written with the same letter: it differentiates o' (corresponding to Cyrillic Short U (Cyrillic)) from o, and g' (Cyrillic
Ghaynr) from g. This avoids the use of special characters, allowing Uzbek to be typed with ease in ordinary ASCII
on any Latin keyboard. In addition, a postvocalic apostrophe in Uzbek represents the glottal stop phoneme derived
from Arabic hamzah or Ayinayn, replacing Cyrillic Yer. In English Yorkshire dialect, the apostrophe is used to
represent the word the, which is contracted to a more glottal (or "unreleased") /t/ sound. Most users will write in
t'barn ("in the barn"), on t'step ("on the step"); and those unfamiliar with Yorkshire speech will often make these
sound like intuh barn and ontuh step. A more accurate rendition might be in't barn and on't step, though even this
does not truly convey correct Yorkshire pronunciation as the t is more like a glottal stop.Galician cuisineGalician
restaurants in Madrid (province)Madrid in Yellow PagesPginas Amarillas sometimes use O' in their names instead
of the standard article O ("The"). restaurants with an 'o' in their names in Madrid. In standard Lojban orthography, it
is a letter in its own right (called y'y [rhr]) that can appear only between two vowels, and is phonemically realized as
either Voiceless glottal fricative[h] or, more rarely, Voiceless dental fricative[u]. In Macedonian
languageMacedonian the apostrophe is sometimes used to represent the sound shwa, which can be found on dialectal
levels, but not in the Standard Macedonian. In science fiction, the apostrophe is often used in alien names,
sometimes to indicate a glottal stop (for example T'Pol in Star Trek), but also sometimes simply for
decoration.Typographic form The form of the apostrophe originates in manuscript writing, as a point with a
downwards tail curving clockwise. This form was inherited by the typographic apostrophe (), also known as the
typeset apostrophe, or, informally, the curly apostrophe. Later sans-serif typefaces had stylized apostrophes with a
more geometric or simplified form, but usually retaining the same directional bias as a closing quotation mark.With
the invention of the typewriter, a "neutral" quotation mark form (') was created to economize on the keyboard, by
using a single key to represent: the apostrophe, both opening and closing single quotation marks, single Prime
(symbol)primes, and on some typewriters the exclamation point by overprinting with a period. This is known as the
typewriter apostrophe or vertical apostrophe. The same convention was adopted for quotation marks.Both
simplifications carried over to computer keyboards and the ASCII character set. However, although these are widely
used due to their ubiquity and convenience, they are deprecated in contexts where proper typography is important.
Apostrophe AtrophyComputingTypographic (green) and typewriter (red) apostrophe, followed by a Prime
(symbol)prime (blue), between letters I, i with acute accent, using the fonts: Arial, Calibri, Tahoma
(typeface)Tahoma, Times New Roman, Linux LibertineASCII encoding The typewriter apostrophe (') was inherited
by computer keyboards, and is the only apostrophe character (computing)character available in the (7-bit) ASCII
character encoding, at code value 0x27 (39). As such, it is a highly overloaded character. In ASCII, it represents a
right single quotation mark, left single quotation mark, apostrophe, vertical line or Prime (symbol)prime
(punctuation marks), or an acute accent (modifier letters). Many earlier (pre-1985) computer displays and printers
rendered the ASCII apostrophe as a typographic apostrophe, and rendered the ASCII grave accent (`) U+0060 as a
matching left single quotation mark. This allowed a more typographic appearance of text: `Ìcan't'' would appear as
Icant on these systems. This can still be seen in many documents prepared at that time, and is still used in the
TeX typesetting system to create typographic quotes.Typographic apostrophe in 8-bit encodings Support for the
typographic apostrophe () was introduced in a variety of 8-bit character encodings, such as the Mac OSApple
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Macintosh operating system's Mac Roman character set (in 1984), and later in the CP1252 encoding of Microsoft
Windows. There is no such character in ISO-8859-1. Microsoft Windows CP1252 (sometimes incorrectly called
ANSI or ISO-Latin) contains the typographic apostrophe at 0x92. Due to "smart quotes" in Microsoft software
converting the ASCII apostrophe to this value, other software makers have been forced to adopt this as a de facto
convention. For instance the HTML 5 standard specifies that this value is interpreted as CP1252[citation needed].
Some earlier non-Microsoft browsers would display a '?' for this and make web pages composed with Microsoft
software somewhat hard to read.Unicode There are several types of apostrophe character in Unicode: (') Vertical
typewriter apostrophe (Unicode name apostrophe or apostrophe-quote), U+0027, inherited from ASCII. ()
Punctuation apostrophe (or typographic apostrophe; right single quotation mark; single comma quotation mark),
U+2019. Serves as both an apostrophe and closing single quotation mark. This is the preferred character to use for
apostrophe according to the Unicode standard. The Unicode Consortium (`) Letter apostrophe (or modifier letter
apostrophe), U+02BC. This is preferred when the apostrophe is not considered punctuation that separates letters, but
a letter in its own right. Examples occur in Breton c`h, the Cyrillic scriptCyrillic Azerbaijani alphabet, or in some
transliterations such as the transliterated Arabic glottal stop, hamza, or transliterated Cyrillic soft sign. As the letter
apostrophe is seldom used in practice, the Unicode standard cautions that one should never assume text is coded
thus. The letter apostrophe is rendered identically to the punctuation apostrophe in the Unicode code charts. Unicode
code charts (`) The Hawaiian glottal stop, the òkina, has its own Unicode character, U+02BB. () Letter double
apostrophe (Unicode name modifier letter double apostrophe), U+02EE. One of two characters for glottal stop in
Nenets languagesNenets. (!) Armenian languageArmenian apostrophe, U+055A. (! !) The Tlapanec
languageMe'phaa glottal stop (and other languages of Mexico), the Saltillo (linguistics)Saltillo, has its own Unicode
characters, U+A78B and U+A78C. Entering apostrophes Although ubiquitous in typeset material, the typographic
apostrophe () is rather difficult to enter on a computer, since it does not have its own key on a standard keyboard.
Outside the world of professional typesetting and graphic design, many people do not know how to enter this
character and instead use the typewriter apostrophe ('). The typewriter apostrophe has always been considered
tolerable on Web pages because of the egalitarian nature of Web publishing, the low resolution of computer monitors
in comparison to print, and legacy limitations provided by ASCII. More recently, the correct use of the typographic
apostrophe is becoming more common on the Web due to the wide adoption of the Unicode text encoding standard,
higher-resolution displays, and advanced Spatial anti-aliasinganti-aliasing of text in modern operating systems.
Because typewriter apostrophes are now often automatically converted to typographic apostrophes by
wordprocessing and desktop-publishing software (see below), the typographic apostrophe does often appear in
documents produced by non-professionals. How to enter typographic apostrophes on a computerUnicode (Decimal)
MacintoshWindows-1252 Alt codeLinux/X Window SystemXHTML entityU+2019 8217 ! Option+
Shift+]Alt+0146 on number pad AltGr+ Shift+B or Compose+'+>’XML (and hence XHTML) defines an
' character entity reference for the ASCII typewriter apostrophe. No equivalent entity is defined in the HTML
4 standard, despite all the other predefined character entities from XML being defined in HTML. If it cannot be
entered literally in HTML, a numeric character reference could be used instead, such as "'" or "'". Smart
quotes To make typographic apostrophes easier to enter, word processing and publishing software often converts
typewriter apostrophes to typographic apostrophes during text entry (at the same time converting opening and
closing single and double quotes to their correct left-handed or right-handed forms). A similar facility may be
offered on web servers after submitting text in a form field, e.g. on weblogs or free encyclopedias. This is known as
the smart quotes feature; apostrophes and quotation marks that are not automatically altered by computer programs
are known as dumb quotes.Such conversion is not always done in accordance with the standards for character sets
and encodings. Additionally, many such software programs incorrectly convert a leading apostrophe to an opening
quotation mark (e.g., in abbreviations of years: 29 rather than the correct 29 for the years 1929 or 2029 (depending
on context); or twas instead of twas as the archaic abbreviation of it was. Smart quote features also often fail to
recognise situations when a Prime (symbol)prime rather than an apostrophe is needed; for example, incorrectly
rendering the latitude 495308 as 495308.In Microsoft Word it is possible to turn smart quotes off (in some
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versions, by navigating through Tools, AutoCorrect, AutoFormat as you type, and then unchecking the appropriate
option). Alternatively, typing Control-Z (for Undo) immediately after entering the apostrophe will convert it back to
a typewriter apostrophe. In Microsoft Word for Windows, holding down the Control key while typing two
apostrophes will produce a single typographic apostrophe.Programming Some programming languages, like Pascal
(programming language)Pascal, use the ASCII apostrophe to delimit String (computer science)string constants. In
JavaScript (and ECMAScript, which is nearly identical), Perl, PHP and Python (programming language)Python, and
many other languages either the apostrophe or the double quote may be used, allowing string constants to contain the
other character (but not to contain both without using an escape character). The C programming language (and many
related languages like C++ or Java (programming language)Java) uses apostrophes to delimit a Character
(computing)character constant. In these languages a character constant is a different object than a 1-letter string. In
Visual Basic (and earlier Microsoft BASIC dialects such as QuickBASIC) an apostrophe is used to denote the start
of a comment.As a comment character in MS BASIC, the apostrophe is in most cases an abbreviation of the REM
statement, which can be appended to the end of almost any line with a colon (:). The cases where the apostrophe is
not an abbreviation for REM would be those where the apostrophe is allowed but a REM statement is not. Note that
there are also cases of the reverse constraint; for example, in QuickBASIC, a comment at the end of a DATA
statement line cannot start with an apostrophe but must use ": REM".NotesReferencesFurther readingGibaldi, Joseph
(2003). MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York: Modern Language Association. Lynne
TrussTruss, Lynne (2003). Eats, Shoots & LeavesEats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to
Punctuation (North American ed.). Toronto: Gotham Books. International Standard Book
NumberISBN1-59240-087-6. External links Is there an apostrophe in the plural of pizza? Oxford University Press
article on apostrophe use in plurals "Obsessed with Possessives" Society for Technical Communication article on
apostrophe use with possessives. The apostrophe character Problems representing apostrophes on computers. The
Apostrophe Protection Society ASCII and Unicode quotation marks The Dreaded Apostrophe: An approach using a
single rule only How to use an apostrophe The Oatmeal "How the Past Affects the Future: The Story of the
Apostrophe" by Christina Cavella and Robin A. Kernodle A humorous guide to proper and improper usage of the
apostrophe
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Brackets
is too wide
[] Square brackets () {} Parentheses Braces or curly brackets Chevrons Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets (
[], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation
mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation
marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( )
Space (punctuation)space () ( ) ( ) General typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ ) backslash ( \ )
Bullet (typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^ ) Dagger (typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( ) ditto mark (
) Inverted question and exclamation marksinverted exclamation mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalBrackets are tall punctuation marks used in matched pairs
within text, to set apart or interject other text. Used unqualified, brackets refer to different types of brackets in
different parts of the world and in different contexts.List of types () #Parenthesesparentheses, round brackets or
soft brackets [] square brackets, closed brackets, hard brackets, or brackets (US) {} braces (UK and US),
French brackets, curly brackets, definite brackets, swirly brackets, curly braces, birdie brackets, Scottish brackets,
squirrelly brackets, gullwings, seagull, squiggly brackets or fancy brackets pointy brackets, angle brackets,
triangular brackets, diamond brackets, tuples, or chevrons <> inequality signs, pointy brackets, or brackets.
Sometimes referred to as angle brackets, in such cases as HTML markup. Occasionally known as broken brackets or
brokets. ! !; ! ! corner brackets Characters and , known as guillemets or angular quote brackets, are actually
quotation mark glyphs used in several European languages.History The chevron was the earliest type to appear in
written English. Desiderius Erasmus coined the term lunula to refer to the rounded parentheses (), recalling the round
shape of the moon.Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 161. ISBN 1-59240-087-6.Usage In addition to
referring to the class of all types of brackets, the unqualified word bracket is most commonly used to refer to a
specific type of bracket. In modern American usage this is usually the square bracket and in modern British usage
this is usually the parenthesis.In American usage, parentheses are usually considered separate from other brackets,
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and calling them "brackets" at all is unusual even though they serve a similar function. In more formal usage,
"Parenthesis (rhetoric)parenthesis" may refer to the entire bracketed text, not just to the punctuation marks used (so
all the text in this set of round brackets may be said to be Parenthesis (rhetoric)a parenthesis or a
parenthetical).According to early typographic practice, brackets are never set in italics, even when the surrounding
characters are italic.Robert Bringhurst, The Elements of Typographic Style, 5.3.2.TypesParentheses ( )Parentheses
(/p'rrnuisi:z/) (singular, parenthesis (/p'rrnuisis/)) (also called simply brackets, or round brackets, curved brackets,
oval brackets, or, colloquially, parens) contain material that could be omitted without destroying or altering the
meaning of a sentence (in most writing, overuse of parentheses is usually a sign of a badly structured text). A milder
effect may be obtained by using a pair of commas as the delimiter, though if the sentence contains commas for other
purposes, visual confusion may result.Parentheses may be used in formal writing to add supplementary information,
such as "Sen. John McCain (R., Arizona) spoke at length." They can also indicate shorthand for "uncertain
pluraleither singular or plural" for nouns e.g., "the claim(s)" or for "either masculine or feminine" in some
languages with grammatical gender.Slash (punctuation)#Gender-neutrality in Spanish and PortugueseParenthetical
phrases have been used extensively in informal writing and stream of consciousness literature. Examples include the
southern American author William Faulkner (see Absalom, Absalom! and The Sound and the Fury#Part 2: June 2,
1910the Quentin section of The Sound and the Fury) as well as poet E. E. Cummings. Parentheses have historically
been used where the Em dashdash is currently used that is, in order to depict alternatives, such as
"parenthesis)(parentheses". Examples of this usage can be seen in editions of A Dictionary of Modern English
UsageFowler's.Parentheses may be nested (generally with one set (such as this) inside another set). This is not
commonly used in formal writing (though sometimes other brackets [especially square brackets] will be used for one
or more inner set of parentheses [in other words, secondary {or even tertiary} phrases can be found within the main
parenthetical sentence]).Any punctuation inside parentheses or other brackets is independent of the rest of the text:
"Mrs. Pennyfarthing (What? Yes, that was her name!) was my landlady." In this usage, the explanatory text in the
parentheses is a parenthesis (rhetoric)parenthesis. (Parenthesized text is usually short and within a single sentence.
Where several sentences of supplemental material are used in parentheses the final full stop would be within the
parentheses. Again, the parenthesis implies that the meaning and flow of the text is supplemental to the rest of the
text and the whole would be unchanged were the parenthesized sentences removed.) Parentheses are included in the
syntaxes of many computer programming languages. Typically needed to denote an argument; to tell the compiler
what data type the Method/Function needs to look for first in order to initialise. Parentheses in mathematics signify a
different Order of operationsprecedence of operators. Normally, 2 + 3 4 would be 14, since the multiplication is
done before the addition. On the other hand (2 + 3) 4 is 20, because the parentheses override normal precedence,
causing the addition to be done first. Some authors follow the convention in mathematical equations that, when
parentheses have one level of nesting, the inner pair are parentheses and the outer pair are square brackets. Example:
[(2+3)\times4]^2=400A related convention is that when parentheses have two levels of nesting, braces are the
outermost pair. Parentheses are also used to set apart the Parameterarguments in mathematical Function
(mathematics)functions. For example, f(x) is the function f applied to the Variable (mathematics)variable x. In
coordinate systems parentheses are used to denote a set of coordinates; so in the Cartesian coordinate system (4, 7)
may represent the point located at 4 on the x-axis and 7 on the y-axis. Parentheses may also represent interval
(mathematics)intervals; (0,5), for example, is the interval between 0 and 5, not including 0 or 5.Parentheses may also
be used to represent a binomial coefficient, and in chemistry to denote a polyatomic ion. In Chinese languageChinese
and Japanese languageJapanese, ! !, a combination of brackets and parentheses called !!!! and sumitsuki, are used
for inference in Chinese and used in titles and headings in Japanese.Square brackets [ ] Square brackets also called
simply brackets (US) are mainly used to enclose explanatory or missing material usually added by someone other
than the original author, especially in quoted text.The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed., The University of Chicago
Press, 2003, 6.104 Examples include: "I appreciate it [the honor], but I must refuse", and "the future of psionics
[see definition] is in doubt". They may also be used to modify quotations. For example, if referring to someone's
statement "I hate to do laundry", one could write: He "hate[s] to do laundry". In particular, square brackets are used
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to mark a shift between lower and upper case. Empty square brackets may indicate letters were deleted from a
quotation. The bracketed expression sic[sic] is used after a quote or reprinted text to indicate the passage appears
exactly as in the original source; a bracketed ellipsis [] is often used to indicate deleted material; bracketed
comments indicate when original text has been modified for clarity: "I'd like to thank [several unimportant people]
and my parentals [sic] for their love, tolerance [] and assistance [emphasis added]". The Columbia Guide to
Standard American EnglishIn translated works, brackets are used to signify the same word or phrase in the original
language to avoid ambiguity.The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed., The University of Chicago Press, 2003, 6.105
For example: He is trained in the way of the open hand [karate].When nested parentheses are needed, brackets are
used as a substitute for the inner pair of parentheses within the outer pair.The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed., The
University of Chicago Press, 2003, 6.102 and 6.106 When deeper levels of nesting are needed, convention is to
alternate between parentheses and brackets at each level. In linguistics, phonetic transcriptions are generally enclosed
within brackets,The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed., The University of Chicago Press, 2003, 6.107 often using
the International Phonetic Alphabet, while phonemephonemic transcriptions typically use paired Slash
(punctuation)slashes. Brackets (called move-left symbols or move right symbols) are added to the sides of text in
proofreading to indicate changes in indentation: Move left [To Fate I sue, of other means bereft, the only refuge for
the wretched left. Center ]Paradise Lost[ Move up Brackets are used to denote parts of the text that need to be
checked when preparing drafts prior to finalizing a document. They often denote points that have not yet been agreed
to in legal drafts and the year in which a report was made for certain case law decisions. Brackets are used in
mathematics in a variety of notations, including standard notations for interval (mathematics)intervals, commutators,
the Floor and ceiling functionsfloor function, the Lie bracket of vector fieldsLie bracket, the Iverson bracket, and
Matrix (mathematics)matrices. Brackets can also be used in chemistry to represent the concentration of a chemical
substance or to denote distributed charge in a Complex (chemistry)complex ion. Brackets are used in many computer
programming languages, especially those list of C-based programming languagesderived or inspired by the C
(programming language)C language, to indicate array data structurearray indexing operators. In this context, the
opening bracket is often pronounced as "sub", indicating a subscript.From the top: brackets, braces, parentheses,
angle brackets/chevrons, and inequality signsBraces or curly brackets { } Curly brackets also properly called
braces in the UK (according to the OED) and US are used in specialized ways in poetry and music (to mark repeats
or joined lines). The musical terms for this mark joining staves are accolade (notation)accolade and "brace
(music)brace", and connect two or more lines of music that are played simultaneously. Decodeunicode.org >
U+007B LEFT CURLY BRACKET Retrieved on May 3, 2009 In mathematics they delimit Set (mathematics)sets,
and in writing, they may be used similarly, "Select your animal {goat, sheep, cow, horse} and follow me". In many
programming languages, they enclose groups of Statement (programming)statements. Such languages (C
(programming language)C being one of the best-known examples) are therefore called curly bracket languages.
Some people use a brace to signify movement in a particular direction.[citation needed]Presumably due to the
similarity of the words brace and bracket (although they do not share an etymology), many people mistakenly treat
brace as a synonym for bracket. Therefore, when it is necessary to avoid any possibility of confusion, such as in
computer programming, it may be best to use the term curly bracket rather than brace. However, general usage in
North American English favours the latter form.[citation needed] Indian programmers often use the name "flower
bracket".K R Venugopal, Rajkumar Buyya, T Ravishankar. Mastering C++, 1999. p. 34. ISBN 0-07-463454-2.In
classical mechanics, curly brackets are often also used to denote the Poisson bracket between two quantities. It is
defined as follows: \{f,g\} = \sum_{i=1}^{N} \left[ \frac{\partial f}{\partial q_{i}} \frac{\partial g}{\partial p_{i}} -
\frac{\partial f}{\partial p_{i}} \frac{\partial g}{\partial q_{i}} \right]Angle brackets or chevrons Chevrons
;Some fonts don't display these characters correctly. Please refer to the image on the right instead. are often used to
enclose highlighted material. In physical sciences, chevrons are used to denote an average over time or over another
continuous parameter. For example, \left\langle V(t)^2 \right\rangle = \lim_{T\to\infty}
\frac{1}{T}\int_{-T/2}^{T/2} V(t)^2\,{\rm{d}}t. The inner product of two vectors is commonly written as \langle a,
b\rangle, but the notation (a, b) is also used. In mathematical physics, especially quantum mechanics, it is common to
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126
write the inner product between elements as \langle a | b\rangle, as a short version of \langle a |\cdot| b\rangle, or
\langle a | \hat{O} | b\rangle, where \hat{O} is an Operator (physics)operator. This is known as Dirac notation or
bra-ket notation. In set theory, chevrons or parentheses are used to denote ordered pairs and other tuples, whereas
curly brackets are used for unordered sets. In linguistics, chevrons indicate graphemes (i.e., written letters) or
orthography, as in The English word /kt/ is spelled cat. In epigraphy, they may be used for mechanical
transliterations of a text into the Latin script. In textual criticism, and hence in many editions of pre-modern works,
chevrons denote sections of the text which are illegible or otherwise lost; the editor will often insert his own
reconstruction where possible within them. Chevrons are infrequently used to denote dialogue that is thought instead
of spoken, such as: What a beautiful flower! The mathematical or logical symbols for greater-than(>) and
less-than(<) are inequality (mathematics)inequality symbols, and are not punctuation marks when so used.
Nevertheless, true chevrons are not available on a typical keyboard (computing)computer keyboard, but the less-than
and greater-than symbols are, so they are often substituted. They are loosely referred to as angled brackets or
chevrons in this case.[citation needed]Single and double pairs of comparison operators (<<,>>) (meaning much
smaller than and much greater than) are sometimes used instead of guillemets (, ) (used as non-English usage of
quotation marksquotation marks in many languages) when the proper characters are not available.In comic books,
chevrons are often used to mark dialogue that has been translated notionally from another language; in other words,
if a character is speaking another language, instead of writing in the other language and providing a translation, one
writes the translated text within chevrons. Of course, since no foreign language is actually written, this is only
notionally translated.[citation needed]Chevron-like symbols are part of standard Chinese languageChinese, and
Korean languageKorean punctuation, where they generally enclose the titles of books: ! and ! or ! and ! for
traditional tategakivertical printing, and ! and ! or ! and ! for yokogakihorizontal printing. See also non-English
usage of quotation marks. Corner and half brackets !!, | J In non-English usage of quotation marks#Chinese,
Japanese and Korean quotation marksEast Asian punctuation, angle brackets are used as quotation marks. Half
brackets are used in English to mark added text, such as in translations: "Bill saw |herJ". The corner brackets | and `
have at least two uses in mathematical logic: first, as a generalization of quotation marks, and second, to denote the
gdel number of the enclosed expression. They are also used to denote the integer floor and ceiling functions. In
editions of papyrologypapyrological texts, half brackets enclose text which is lacking in the papyrus due to damage,
but can be restored by virtue of another source, such as an ancient quotation of the text transmitted by the
papyrus.M.L. West (1973) Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique (Stuttgart) 81. For example, Callimachus
Iambus 1.2 reads: r c v v tt|v Jtvt. A hole in the papyrus has obliterated v , but
these letters are supplied by an ancient commentary on the poem.Double brackets [ In Semantics of programming
languagesformal semantics, double brackets, [, also called Strachey brackets, are used to indicate the semantic
evaluation function. The CJK glyphs !! look identical except they have added width. They can be typeset in LaTeX
with the package stmaryrd.ComputingEncoding Representations of various kinds of brackets in ASCII, Unicode and
HTML are given below. Usage Unicode SGML/HTML/XML entities Sample General purpose U+0028 Left
parenthesis ( &lparen; (parenthesis) U+0029 Right parenthesis ) &rparen; U+005B Left square bracket
[ [sic] U+005D Right square bracket ] Technical/mathematical (common) U+003C Less-than sign <
< <HTML> U+003E Greater-than sign > > U+007B Left curly bracket { {round, square, curly}
U+007D Right curly bracket } Technical/mathematical (specialized) U+2308 Left ceiling ᄴ |ceiling`
U+2309 Right ceiling ᄵ U+230A Left floor ᄶ |floorJ U+230B Right floor ᄷ U+27E8
Mathematical left angle bracket ⟨ &lang;* a, b U+27E9 Mathematical right angle bracket ⟩
&rang;* Quotation (halfwidth East-Asian texts) U+2329 Left pointing angle bracket 〈 &lang;* (deprecated)
U+232A Right pointing angle bracket 〉 &rang;* U+FF62 Halfwidth left corner bracket ｢ !!!!!!
U+FF63 Halfwidth right corner angle bracket ｣ Quotation (fullwidth East-Asian texts) U+3008 Left angle
bracket 〈 !!! U+3009 Right angle bracket 〉 U+300A Left double angle bracket 《 !!!!
U+300B Right double angle bracket 》 U+300C Left corner bracket 「 !!!!! U+300D Right corner
bracket 」 U+300E Left corner bracket 『 !!!!!! U+300F Right corner bracket 』 U+3010
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Left thick square bracket 【 !!!!!! U+3011 Right thick square bracket 】 General purpose (fullwidth
East-Asian) U+FF08 Fullwidth left parenthesis （ !!!!!! U+FF09 Fullwidth right parenthesis ）
U+FF3B Fullwidth left square bracket ［ !!!!! U+FF3D Fullwidth right square bracket ］
Technical/mathematical (fullwidth East-Asian) U+FF1C Fullwidth less-than sign ＜ !!!!!! U+FF1E
Fullwidth greater-than sign ＞ U+FF5B Fullwidth left curly bracket ｛ !!!! U+FF5D Fullwidth right
curly bracket ｝ *&lang; and &rang; were tied to the deprecated symbols U+2329 and U+232A in HTML4
and MathML2, but are being migrated to U+27E8 and U+27E9 for HTML5 and MathML3. Braces (curly brackets)
first became part of a character set with the 8-bit code of the IBM 7030 Stretch.The angle brackets or chevrons at
U+27E8 and U+27E9 are for mathematical use and Western languages, while U+3008 and U+3009 are for East
Asian languages. The chevrons at U+2329 and U+232A are deprecated in favour of the U+3008 and U+3009 East
Asian angle brackets. Unicode discourages their use for mathematics and in Western texts because they are
canonically equivalent to the CJK code points U+300x and thus likely to render as double-width symbols. The
less-than and greater-than symbols are often used as replacements for chevrons.These various bracket characters are
frequently used in many computer languages as operators or for other syntax markup. The more common uses
follow. Uses of "(" and ")" are often used to define the syntactic structure of expressions, overriding operator
precedence: a*(b+c) has subexpressions a and b+c, whereas a*b+c has subexpressions a*b and c passing Parameter
(computer science)parameters or arguments to Function (computer science)functions, especially in C (programming
language)C and similar languages, and invoking a function or function-like construct: substring($val,10,1) in Lisp
programming languageLisp, they open and close s-expressions and therefore function applications: (cons a b) in
many regular expression syntaxes parentheses create a capturing group, allowing the matched portion inside to be
retrieved by the user in Forth (programming language)Forth, they open and close Comment (computer
programming)comments in the code. in Fortran-family and COBOL languages, they are also used for array
references in the Perl programming language through Perl 5, they are used to define lists, static array-like structures;
this idiom is extended to their use as containers of subroutine (function) arguments in the Perl 6 programming
language, they define captures, a structure that defers contextual interpretation. This usage extends to ordinary
parentheses as well. They are also used to indicate arguments to function calls and to declare signatures of formal
parameters or other variables. in Python (programming language)Python they are used to disambiguate tuple literals
(Immutable objectimmutable ordered lists), which are usually formed by commas, in places where parentheses and
commas would otherwise be a part of a function call. in Tcl they are used to enclose the name of an element of an
associative array variable in joined brackets in a table form going vertically downwards, a ")" refers to repetition of a
term for the number of items towards the left of this joined list of brackets. Uses of "[" and "]" to refer to elements of
an array (data type)array or associative array, and sometimes to define the number of elements in an array, especially
in C (programming language)C-like languages: queue[3] in many languages, may be used to define a literal
anonymous array or list: [5, 10, 15] in most regular expression syntaxes brackets denote a character class: a set of
possible characters to choose from in Forth (programming language)Forth, "[" causes the system to enter
interpretation state and "]" causes the system to enter compilation state. For example, within a definition, [ 2 3 + ]
literal causes the compiler to switch to the interpreter mode, calculate expression 2+3, leave the result on stack and
resume compilation. As a result, a literal constant "5" will be compiled into the definition, instead of the whole
expression. in Tcl, they enclose a sub-script to be evaluated and the result substituted in some of the List of CLI
languagesCLI languages, most notably C sharp (programming language)C# and C++, they are used to denote
Metadata (CLI)metadata attributes. In C++11 they introduce Anonymous function#C++Lambda expressions and
hold an optional capture clause. in x86 assembly implementations such as FASM, they are used to distinguish
pointers from their data. in Smalltalk, brackets are used to delineate "blocks" or "block closures", grouping of code
that can be executed immediately or later via messages send such as "value" sent to the block. Blocks are full first
class objects in Smalltalk. in Objective-C, brackets are used to send a message to (i.e. call a Method (computer
science)method on) an object on Unix, "[" is a shorthand for the test (Unix)test command in JSON they are used to
define an array. (an ordered sequence of comma-separated values) in programming documentation and
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metalanguages (e.g. in descriptions of operator or command syntax), optional elements are enclosed in square
brackets. For example, "echo [-n] [-e] <text>" means that the -n and -e parameters are optional. delimiting IPv6
addresses in URLs, for example http://[2001:db8:3c4d:15::abcd:ef12]:8080 in Python (programming
language)Python used to denote lists and tuples, also known as arrays. Uses of "{" and "}" are used in some
programming languages to define the beginning and ending of block (programming)blocks of code or data.
Languages which use this convention are said to belong to the curly bracket programming languagecurly bracket
family of programming languages are used to represent certain type definitions or literal data values, such as a
Composite typecomposite structure or associative array in mathematics they enclose elements of a set and denote a
set in Curl (programming language)Curl they are used to delimit Expression (programming)expressions and
Statement (programming)statements (similar to Lisp (programming language)Lisp's use of parenthesis). in Pascal
programming languagePascal they define the beginning and ending of Comment (computer programming)comments
in most regular expression syntaxes, they are used as quantifiers, matching n repetitions of the previous group in Perl
they are also used to refer to elements of an associative array in PHP they are used to determine structures. in Tcl
they enclose a string to be substituted without any internal substitutions being performed in Python programming
languagePython and Ruby programming languageRuby they are used for Associative arraydictionaries (a mutable
objectmutable set of key: value pairs, separated by commas) and for set (computer science)sets. in TeX/LaTeX they
can be used for grouping parts sharing the same local format, wrap parameters, or definitions, depending on the local
catcode value in JSON they are used to define an object (an unordered collection of key:value pairs) in
metalanguages (e.g. in descriptions of operator or command syntax), possible alternatives are enclosed in braces, if
at least one is mandatory. These are also used in music at the start of a stave. Uses of "<" and ">" These symbols are
used in pairs as if they are brackets, to set apart Uniform resource locatorURLs and e-mail addresses in text, such as
"I found it on Example.com <http://www.example.com/>" and "This photo is copyrighted by John Smith
<johnsmith@example.com>". This is also the computer-readable form for addresses in e-mail headers, specified by
RFC 2822. In documentation, often used to specify parameters or other user-specified information (e.g. "The
command 'echo <text>' can be used to display <text>") to enclose code tags in Standard Generalized Markup
LanguageSGML, HTML, and XML (e.g. <div>) to target children of a parent element in CSS (e.g. ul.main>li
whereas all direct child selectors of the ul.main tag are targeted.) in the C++, C Sharp (programming language)C#,
and Java (programming language)Java programming languages, (among others) they delimit generic
programminggeneric arguments in Perl through Perl 5 they are used to read a line from an input source in Perl 6 they
combine quoting and associative array lookup in BackusNaur FormBNF, they are used to denote nonterminals (e.g.
<name> ::= <first-name> <last-name>) in ABAP they denote field symbols placeholders or symbolic names for
other fields, which can point to any data object. to indicate an action or status (e.g. <Waves> or <Offline>),
particularly in online, real-time text-based discussions (instant messaging, bulletin boards, etc.). (Here, asterisks can
also be used to signify an action.) When not used in pairs to delimit text (not acting as brackets): They are used as
less-than and greater-than relational operators, possibly in combination with other marks. In some languages the pair
together as <> denotes an inequation ("not equal to"). When doubled as << or >> they may represent bit shift
operators, or in C++, also stream input/output operators. They indicate the redirection (computing)redirection of
input/output in various shell (computing)command shells.Randal BryantBryant, Randal E.; O'Hallaron, David.
Computer Systems: A Programmer's Perspective, 2003. p. 794. ISBN 0-13-034074-X. Right-angle brackets are used
in nested Usenet quoting and various e-mail formats, and as such are standard quotation mark glyphs. A pair of
right-angle brackets followed by the character's name and a colon are used in some production scripts and translated
closed captioning to denote when there is a change of speaker. This is so a performer can easily scan for their lines
when rehearsing a script. Layout styles In normal writing (prose) an opening bracket is rarely left hanging at the end
of a line of text nor is a closing bracket permitted to start one. However, in computer code this is often done
intentionally to aid readability. For example, a bracketed list of items separated by semicolons may be written with
the brackets on separate lines, and the items, followed by the semicolon, each on one line. A common error in
programming is mismatching braces; accordingly, many Integrated development environmentIDEs have braces
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matching to highlight matching pairs. Mathematics In addition to the use of #Parentheses ( )parentheses to specify
the order of operations, both parentheses and brackets are used to denote an interval (mathematics)interval, also
referred to as a half-open range. The notation [a,c) is used to indicate an interval from a to c that is inclusive of a but
exclusive of c. That is, [5, 12) would be the set of all real numbers between 5 and 12, including 5 but not 12. The
numbers may come as close as they like to 12, including 11.999 and so forth (with any finite setfinite number of 9s),
but 12.0 is not included. In Europe, the notation [5, 12[ is also used for this. The endpoint adjoining the bracket is
known as closed, while the endpoint adjoining the parenthesis is known as open. If both types of brackets are the
same, the entire interval may be referred to as closed or open as appropriate. Whenever Extended real number
line+ or is used as an endpoint, it is normally considered open and adjoined to a parenthesis. See Interval
(mathematics) for a more complete treatment.In quantum mechanics, chevrons are also used as part of Paul
DiracDirac's formalism, bra-ket notation, to note vectors from the dual spaces of the BraA| and the Ket|B.
Mathematicians will also commonly write a, b for the inner product of two vectors. In statistical mechanics,
chevrons denote ensemble or time average. Chevrons are used in group theory to write group presentations, and to
denote the group generatorssubgroup generated by a collection of elements. Note that obtuse angled chevrons are not
always (and even not by all users) distinguished from a pair of less-than and greater-than signs <>, which are
sometimes used as a typographic approximation of chevrons. In group theory and ring theory, brackets denote the
commutator. In group theory, the commutator [g, h] is commonly defined as g 1 h 1 g h . In ring theory, the
commutator [a, b] is defined as a b b a . Furthermore, in ring theory, braces denote the anticommutator where {a,
b} is defined as a b + b a . The bracket is also used to denote the Lie derivative, or more generally the Lie bracket in
any Lie algebra. Various notations, like the vinculum (symbol)vinculum have a similar effect to brackets in
specifying order of operations, or otherwise grouping several characters together for a common purpose. In the Z
notationZ formal specification language, braces define a set and chevrons define a sequence. Accounting
Traditionally in Accountancyaccounting, negative amounts are placed in parentheses. Law Brackets are used in some
countries in the citation of law reports to identify parallel citations to non-official reporters. For example: Chronicle
Pub. Co. v. Superior Court, (1998) 54 Cal.2d 548, [7 Cal.Rptr. 109]. In some other countries (such as England and
Wales), square brackets are used to indicate that the year is part of the citation and parentheses are used to indicate
the year the judgment was given. For example, National Coal Board v England [1954] AC 403, is in the 1954
volume of the Appeal Cases reports although the decision may have been given in 1953 or earlier, whereas (1954) 98
Sol Jo 176 reports a decision from 1954, in volume 98 of the Solicitor's Journal which may be published in 1955 or
later. When quoted material is in any way altered, the alterations are enclosed in brackets within the quotation. For
example: Plaintiff asserts his cause is just, stating, "[m]y causes is sic[sic] just." While in the original quoted
sentence the word "my" was capitalized, it has been modified in the quotation and the change signalled with
brackets. Similarly, where the quotation contained a grammatical error, the quoting author signalled that the error
was in the original with "[sic]" (Latin for 'thus'). (California Style Manual, section 4:59 (4th ed.))SportsBracket
(tournament)Tournament brackets, the diagrammatic representation of the series of games played during a
tournament usually leading to a single winner, are so named for their resemblance to brackets or braces.
ReferencesBibliographyJohn LennardLennard, John (1991). But I Digress: The Exploitation of Parentheses in
English Printed Verse. Oxford: Clarendon Press. International Standard Book
NumberISBN0-19-811247-5.Turnbull; et al. (1964). The Graphics of Communication. New York: Holt. States that
what are depicted as brackets above are called braces and braces are called brackets. This was the terminology in US
printing prior to computers.
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Colon
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: Colon : ! : IPA triangular colon Fullwidth formFullwidth colon RatioPunctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (),
{}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( !
) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks (
, , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalThe colon is a punctuation mark consisting of two equally
sized dots centered on the same vertical line. In Unicode, it is encoded at U+003A : Colon (punctuation)colon
(HTML: :).Usage The most common use of the colon is to inform the reader that what follows the colon
proves, explains, or lists elements of what preceded it. The Bedford Handbook describes several uses of a colon. For
example, one can use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.
Also, it can be used between independent clauses if the second summarizes or explains the first. Furthermore, one
may use a colon after the salutation in a formal letter, to indicate hours and minutes, to show proportions, between a
title and subtitle, and between city and publisher in bibliographic entries.Luca Serianni, an Italian scholar who
helped to define and develop the colon as a punctuation mark, identified four punctuational modes for it:
syntactical-deductive, syntactical-descriptive, appositive, and segmental. Although Serianni wrote this guide for the
Italian language, his definitions apply also to English and many other languages.Syntactical-deductive The colon
introduces the logical consequence, or effect, of a fact stated before. There was only one possible explanation: the
train had never arrived.Syntactical-descriptive In this sense the colon introduces a description; in particular, it makes
explicit the elements of a set. I have three sisters: Daphne, Rose, and Suzanne.Similarly, the syntactical-descriptive
colon separates chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely-studied texts, such as epic poetry,
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religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare.Gospel of JohnJohn 3:1416 or John III:1416 refers to verses
14 to 16 of chapter three of the Gospel of John. Syntactical-descriptive colons may separate the numbers indicating
hours, minutes, and seconds in abbreviated measures of time.The concert begins at 21:45.The rocket launched at
09:15:05.British English, however, more frequently uses a full stop for this purpose: The programme will begin at
8.00 pm.You will need to arrive by 14.30.Appositive The colon introduces an appositive independent clause. In other
words, the sentence after the colon is in apposition to the one before the colon. Bob could not speak: He was
drunk.Example quoted in An Educational Companion to Eats, Shoots & Leaves by Lynne TrussAn appositive colon
also separates the Subtitle (titling)subtitle of a work from its principal title. Star Wars Episode IV: A New
HopeSegmental Like a dash or quotation mark, a segmental colon introduces speech. The segmental function was
once a common means of indicating an unmarked quotation on the same line. The following example is from the
grammar book The King's English:Benjamin Franklin proclaimed the virtue of frugality: A penny saved is a penny
earned.This form is still used in written dialogues, such as in a Play (theatre)play. The colon indicates that the words
following an individual's name are spoken by that individual. Patient: Doctor, I feel like a pair of curtains.Doctor:
Pull yourself together!Use of capitals Use of capitalization or lower-case after a colon varies. In British English, the
word following the colon is in lower case unless it is a proper noun or an acronym, or is normally capitalized for
some other reason (e.g. see segmental use hereinbefore). However, in American English, many writers capitalize the
word following a colon if it begins an independent clause, i.e. a clause that could stand as a complete sentence. This
follows the guidelines of some modern American style guides, including those published by the Associated Press and
the Modern Language Association. The Chicago Manual of Style, however, requires capitalization only when the
colon introduces a direct quotation or two or more complete sentences.In many European languages the colon is
usually followed by a lower-case letter (unless the upper case is required for other reasons, such as for a proper
noun). However, usage differs from this in german languageGerman, where an upper-case letter may be used only if
the sentence after the colon could stand alone without the preceding sentence (otherwise one may judge freely
according to the relative independence of the two assertionsWikipedia:Please clarify), Duden Newsletter vom
24.08.2001 and in dutch languageDutch, where an upper-case letter must be used if the colon is followed by a
quotation or an enumeration of complete sentences, although in all other cases a lower-case letter should be
used.Spacing In print, a thin space is traditionally placed before a colon and a thick space after it. In english
languageEnglish-language modern high-volume commercial printing, no space is placed before a colon and a single
space is placed after it. In french languageFrench-language typing and printing, the traditional rules are preserved.
One or two spaces may be and have been used after a colon. The older convention (designed to be used by
monospaced fonts) was to use two spaces after a colon. See also Double spacing at the end of sentences.History
english languageEnglish colon is from latin languageLatin colon (plural cola), itself from greek languageGreek
ct "limb, member, portion", in rhetoric or Meter (poetry)prosody especially a part or section of a sentence or a
rhythmical period of an utterance. In palaeography, a colon is a clause or group of clauses written as a line.The OED
cites William Blades' The life and typography of William CaxtonW.Caxton (1882), p.126:"The Greek
grammarians[]called a complete sentence a period, a limb was a colon, and a clause a comma."Use of the
:symbol to mark the discontinuity of a grammatical construction, or a pause of a length intermediate between that of
a semicolon and that of a full stopperiod, was introduced in English orthography around 1600.John Bullokar's An
English expositor (1616) glosses Colon as "A marke of a sentence not fully ended which is made with two prickes."
John Mason (17061763)John Mason in An essay on elocution (1748) prescribes "A Comma Stops the Voice while
we may privately tell one, a Semi Colon two; a Colon three: and a Period four."IPA Diacritical usageThe IPA length
mark A special triangular colon symbol is used in International Phonetic AlphabetIPA to indicate that the preceding
sound is length (phonetics)long. Its form is that of two triangles, each a little larger than a point (dot) of a standard
colon, pointing toward each other. It is available in Unicode as modifier letter triangular colon, Unicode U+02D0 (:).
A regular colon is often used as a fallback when this character is not available, and in the practical orthography of
some languages which have a phonemic long/short distinction in vowels.If the upper triangle is used without the
lower one, it designates a "half-long" vowel.Word-medial separator In Finnish languageFinnish and Swedish
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languageSwedish, the colon can appear inside words in a manner similar to the apostrophe in the English possessive
case, connecting a grammatical suffix to an abbreviation or initialism, a special symbol, or a Numerical digitdigit
(e.g., Finnish USA:n and Swedish USA:s for the genitive case of "USA", Finnish %:ssa for the inessive case of "%",
or Finnish 20:een for the illative case of "20").Abbreviation In Swedish, the colon is used in Contraction
(grammar)contractions, such as S:t for Sankt (Swedish for "Saint"), e.g. in the Stockholm metro station Sankt
Eriksplan metro stationS:t Eriksplan. This can even occur in people's names, for example Antonia Ax:son Johnson
(Ax:son Johnson familyAx:son for Axelson). The colon was also used to mark abbreviations in early modern
English.Letter The colon is also used as a grammatical tone letter in Budu languageBudu in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, in Sabaot in Kenya, in some Grebo languageGrebo in Liberia, and in Papua New Guinea: Erima,
Gizra, Go!bosi, Gwahatike, Kaluli, Kamula, Kasua languageKasua, Kuni-Boazi, and Zimakani.Peter G. Constable,
Lorna A. Priest, Proposal to Encode Additional Orthographic and Modifier Characters, 2006. The Unicode character
used for the tone letter U+A789 ! modifier letter colon is different from the punctuation (U+003A), as well from
IPA's triangular colon U+02D0. Mathematics and logic The colon is used in mathematics, cartography, scale
modelmodel building and other fields to denote a ratio or a scale (ratio)scale, as in 3:1 (pronounced three to one).
When a ratio is reduction (mathematics)reduced to a simpler form, such as 10:15 to 2:3, this may be expressed with a
double colon as 10:15::2:3; this would be read "10 is to 15 as 2 is to 3". Unicode provides a distinct character
U+2236 : ratio for mathematical usage. The notation |G:H| may also denote the index of a subgroup. The notation :
X Y indicates that is a Function (mathematics)function with domain X and codomain Y. The combination with
an equal sign, := , is used for definitions. In mathematical logic, when using set-builder notation for describing the
characterizing property of a Set (mathematics)set, it is used as an alternative to a vertical bar (which is the ISO 31-11
standard), to mean such that. Example: S = \{x \in \mathbb{R} : 1 < x < 3 \} (S is the set of all x in \mathbb{R}
(the real numbers) such that x is strictly greater than 1 and strictly smaller than 3)In type theory and programming
language theory, the colon sign after a term is used to indicate its type, sometimes as a replacement to the \in symbol.
Example: \lambda x\cdot x\ :\ A\to A Some languages like Haskell (programming language)Haskell use a double
colon (::) to indicate type instead. A colon is also sometimes used to indicate a tensor contraction involving two
indices, and a double colon (::) for a contraction over four indices. Computing In computing, the colon character
(computing)character is represented by ASCII code 58, (HTML :) and is located at Unicode Universal
Character Setcode-point U+003A (colon). Scripts comprising wide characters, such as kanji, use a full-width
equivalent, located at Unicode code point U+FF1A ! fullwidth colon. The colon is quite often used as a special
control character in Uniform Resource LocatorURLs,Tim Berners-LeeBerners-Lee, T.; Roy FieldingFielding, R.;
Masinter, L. (January 2005). Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax Internet Engineering Task
ForceIETF. STD66, RFC3986. computer programming programming languagelanguages, in the path
(computing)path representation of several file systems (such as Hierarchical File SystemHFS), and in many
operating systems commands. It is often used as a single post-fix delimiter, signifying a token keyword had
immediately preceded it or the transition from one mode of character string interpretation to another related mode.
Some applications, such as the widely used MediaWiki, utilize the colon as both a pre-fix and post-fix delimiter.
Several programming languages use the colon for various purposes. In particular, MATLAB uses the colon as a
binary operator that generates vectors, as well as to select particular portions of existing matrices. A lot of
programming languages, most notably Pascal (programming language)Pascal, and Ada (programming language)Ada
use colon immediately followed by an equality sign, := in which case the colon and the equality sign are considering
to compose to an independent Assignment (computer science)assignment sign, in Unicode preferably[citation
needed] encoded as U+2254 = colon equals. In BASIC it's used as a separator between the statements or instructions
in a single line. In Forth (programming language)Forth, colon precedes definition of a new word. For the double
colon used in computer programming, see the scope resolution operator, and Class member functionclass member
access of C++. The colon is also used as part of the ?: conditional operator in C and other languages. In Python
(programming language)Python, which uses indentation to indicate blocks, the colon is used in statements to indicate
that the next line is the start of an indented block.Haskell (programming language)Haskell uses a colon (pronounced
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as cons, short for construct) as an operator to add an Data elementelement to the front of a List (computing)list:
Real World Haskell by Bryan O'Sullivan, Don Stewart, and John Goerzen"child" : ["woman", "man"] -- returns
["child","woman","man"]while a double colon :: is read as "has type of" (confer Scope resolution
operator#Haskellscope resolution operator):("text", False) :: ([Char], Bool)The ML (programming language)ML
languages (including Standard ML and OCaml) have the above reversed, where the double colon (::) is used to add
an element to the front of a list; and the single colon (:) is used for type guards. APL (programming language)APL
uses the colon to introduce a control structure element. In this usage it must be the first non-blank character of the
line. after a label name that will be the target of a :goto or a right-pointing arrow (Note: this style of programming is
deprecated and programmers are encouraged to use control structures instead. to separate a guard (boolean
expression) from its expression in a dynamic function. Two colons are used for an Error guard (one or more error
numbers). Colon + space are used in class definitions to indicate inheritance. Goto label (computing)labels are
formed in a DOS batch file by preceding a label name with a colon. In an IPv6 address#NotationIPv6 address colons
(and one optional double colon) separate up to 8 groups of 16 bits in hexadecimal representation.Hinden, R.; Steve
DeeringDeering, S. (Februari 2006) IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture. Internet Engineering Task ForceIETF.
RFC4291. In a URL a colon follows the initial scheme name (like http), and separates a port number from the
hostname or IP address.In JavaScript, colons are used to define values in an Object (computer science)object. var obj
= { "name": "Charles", "age": 18 } In INTERCAL, the colon is called "two-spot" and is used to identify a 32-bit
variable - distinct from a spot (.) which identifies a 16-bit variable. Internet usage On the Internet#The name
InternetInternet, a colon, or multiple colons, is sometimes used to denote an action or to emote.Wikipedia:No
original research In this use it has the inverse function of quotation marks, denoting actions where unmarked text is
assumed to be dialogue. For example: Tom: Pluto is so small; it should not be considered a planet. It is tiny!Mark:
Oh really? ::Drops Pluto on Toms head:: Still think its small now?Colons may also be used for sounds, e.g.
::Click::, though sounds can also be denoted by an asterisk or other punctuation marks. Colons can also be used to
represent eyes in emoticons. ReferencesExternal links Colon - Definition and examples How to use the colon How to
use colons and semi-colons 430453_275573109176985_100001728935036_674229_810114953_n - Cpia (2)
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Comma
is too wide
, Comma ideographic comma Arabic scriptArabic comma diacriticcombining comma below
Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , ,
) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( )
Portal Portal The comma is a punctuation mark, and it appears in several variants in various languages. It has the
same shape as an apostrophe or single closing quotation mark in many typefaces, but it differs from them in being
placed on the baseline of the text. Some typefaces render it as a small line, slightly curved or straight but inclined
from the vertical, or with the appearance of a small, filled-in number 9. It is used to separate parts of a sentence
(linguistics)sentence such as clauses and lists of three or more things. Almost every article on Wikipedia misuses the
comma, either by failing to use the the punctuation mark where needed, or by using it where it does not belong.The
comma is used in many contexts and languages, principally for separating things. According to the Oxford English
Dictionary, the word comma comes directly from the Greek languageGreek komma (), which means
something cut off or a short clause. A comma can also be used as a diacritic when combined with other
characters.Comma variants The comma is defined in Unicode as U+002C , comma (HTML: ,). Variants by
typography or language exist. Character Unicode point Unicode name Notes , U+002C COMMA Prose in European
languages, decimal separator in Continental Europe, Brazil and other Latin American countries. ` U+02BB
MODIFIER LETTER TURNED COMMA used as Òkina U+02BD MODIFIER LETTER REVERSED COMMA
Indicates weak aspiration U+060C ARABIC COMMA Also used in other languages ! U+1802 MONGOLIAN
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135
COMMA U+3001 IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA Used in Japanese and Chinese languages ! U+FE10
PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL COMMA Used in vertical writing ! U+FE11 PRESENTATION FORM
FOR VERTICAL IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA Used in vertical writing ! U+FE50 SMALL COMMA ! U+FE51
SMALL IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA ! U+FF0C FULLWIDTH COMMA ! U+FF64 HALFWIDTH IDEOGRAPHIC
COMMA U+1363 ETHIOPIC COMMA U+0312 COMBINING TURNED COMMA ABOVE Latvian diacrtic
cedilla above U+0313 COMBINING COMMA ABOVE Greek psili, smooth breathing mark U+0314 COMBINING
REVERSED COMMA ABOVE Greek dasia, rough breathing mark U+0315 COMBINING COMMA ABOVE
RIGHT U+0326 COMBINING COMMA BELOW Romanian, Latvian, Livonian U+A4FE LISU PUNCTUATION
COMMA U+1808 MONGOLIAN MANCHU COMMA U+07F8 NKO COMMA U+A60D VAI COMMA
U+055D ARMENIAN COMMA bowt U+A6F5 BAMUM COMMA HistoryIn the 3rd century BC, Aristophanes
of Byzantium invented a system of single Interpunctdots (distinctiones) that separated verses (colometry), and
indicated the amount of breath needed to complete each fragment of text, when Reading (process)reading aloud. The
different lengths were signified by a dot at the bottom, middle, or top of the line. For a short passage (a komma), a
media distinctio dot was placed mid-level (). This is the origin of the concept of a comma, although the name came
to be used for the mark itself, instead of the clause it separated.The mark used today is descended from a diagonal
slash (punctuation)slash, or virgula suspensiva (/), used from the 13th to 17th centuries to represent a pause, and
was first used by Aldus Manutius. Reading Before Punctuation Introduction to Latin Literature pamphlet,
Haverford College Manuscript Studies, Medieval and Early Modern Palaeography: Punctuation glossaryUses in
English In general, the comma is used where ambiguity might otherwise arise, to indicate an interpretation of the text
such that the words immediately before and after the comma are less closely or exclusively linked in the associated
grammargrammatical structure than they might be otherwise. The comma may be used to perform a number of
functions in English languageEnglish writing. It is used in generally similar ways in other languages, particularly
European ones, although the rules on comma usage and their rigidity vary from language to language. In lists
Commas are used to join items in lists, as in They own a cat, a dog, two rabbits, and six mice. In English, a comma
must be used before the final Grammatical conjunctionconjunction (and, or, nor) in a list of more than two elements.
A comma used in such a position is called a serial comma or an Oxford or Harvard comma (after the Oxford
University Press and Harvard University Press, both prominent advocates of this style). In some cases, use or
omission of such a comma may serve to avoid ambiguity:Use of serial comma disambiguating: I spoke to the boys,
Sam and Tom. could be either the boys and Sam and Tom (I spoke to more than three people) or the boys, who are
Sam and Tom (I spoke to two people)I spoke to the boys, Sam, and Tom. must be the boys and Sam and Tom (I
spoke to more than three people)Omission of serial comma disambiguating: I thank my mother, Anne Smith, and
Thomas. could be either my mother and Anne Smith and Thomas (three people) or my mother, who is Anne Smith,
and Thomas (two people)I thank my mother, Anne Smith and Thomas. The writer is thanking two groups of
people: the writer's mother, and Anne Smith (who is not the writer's mother) and Thomas, and leaves the sentence
incomplete.All lists must have a comma before the "and" prefacing the last item in a series. If the individual items of
a list are long, complex, affixed with description, or themselves contain commas, semicolons may be preferred as
separators, and the list may be introduced with a Colon (punctuation)colon. Separation of clauses Commas are often
used to separate clauses. In English, a comma is generally used to separate a dependent clause from the independent
clause if the dependent clause comes first: After I fed the cat, I brushed my clothes. (Compare this with I brushed my
clothes after I fed the cat.) A relative clause takes commas if it is non-restrictivenessrestrictive, as in I cut down all
the trees, which were over six feet tall. (Without the comma, this would mean that only those trees over six feet tall
were cut down.)Some style guides prescribe that two independent clauses joined by a coordinating Grammatical
conjunctionconjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) must be separated by a comma placed before the conjunction.
In the following sentences, where the second clause is independent (because it can stand alone as a sentence), the
comma is considered by those guides to be necessary:Mary walked to the party, but she was unable to walk
home.Designer clothes are silly, and I can't afford them anyway.Don't push that button, or twelve tons of high
explosives will go off right under our feet!In the following sentences, where the second half of the sentence is not an
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independent clause (it cannot stand alone), those guides prescribe that the comma be omitted (Note that it is
dependent upon the subject's presence in the sentence's second phrase): Mary walked to the party but was unable to
walk home.I think designer clothes are silly and can't afford them anyway.Don't push that button that'll set off the
twelve tons of high explosives sitting right under our feet.However, the comma may be omitted if the second
independent clause is very short, typically when the second independent clause is an imperative moodimperative. In
the following sentence, it is sometimes considered acceptable to omit the comma, even though the second clause is
independent: Sit down and shut up.Long coordinating clauses are usually separated by commas:She had very little to
live on, but she would never have dreamed of taking what was not hers.In some languages, such as German
languageGerman and Polish languagePolish, stricter rules apply on comma usage between clauses, with dependent
clauses always being set off with commas, and commas being generally proscribed before certain coordinating
conjunctions. The joining of two independent sentences with a comma and no conjunction (as in "It is nearly half
past five, we cannot reach town before dark.") is known as a comma splice and is often considered an error in
English; in most cases a semicolon should be used instead. A comma splice should not be confused, though, with
asyndeton, a literary device used for a specific effect in which coordinating conjunctions are purposely omitted.
Certain adverbs Commas are always used to set off certain adverbs at the beginning of a sentence, including
however, in fact, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore, and still.Therefore, a comma would be appropriate
in this sentence.Nevertheless, I will not use one.If these adverbs appear in the middle of a sentence, they are
followed and preceded by a comma. As in the second of the two below examples, if the two sentences are separated
by a semicolon and the second sentence starts with a adverb, then it is preceeded by a semicolon and followed by a
comma. In this sentence, furthermore, commas would also be called for.This sentence is similar; however, a
semicolon is necessary as well.Using commas to offset certain adverbs is optional, including then, so, yet, instead,
and too (meaning also).So, that's it for this rule. orSo that's it for this rule.A comma would be appropriate in this
sentence, too. orA comma would be appropriate in this sentence too.Parenthetical phrases Commas are often used to
enclose parenthesis (rhetoric)parenthetical words and phrases within a sentence (i.e., information that is not essential
to the meaning of the sentence). Such phrases are both preceded and followed by a comma, unless that would result
in a doubling of punctuation marks, or the parenthetical is at the start or end of the sentence. The following are
examples of types of parenthetical phrases:Introductory phrase: Once upon a time, my father ate a muffin.Garner's
Modern American Usage, (Oxford: 2003, p. 655)Interjection: My father ate the muffin, gosh darn it! Aside: My
father, if you dont mind me telling you this, ate the muffin. AppositionAppositive: My father, a jaded and bitter
man, ate the muffin. Absolute phrase: My father, his eyes flashing with rage, ate the muffin. Free modifier: My
father, chewing with unbridled fury, ate the muffin. Resumptive modifier: My father ate the muffin, a muffin which
no man had yet chewed. Summative modifier: My father ate the muffin, a feat which no man had attempted.
Between adjectives A comma is used to separate coordinate adjectives; that is, adjectives#Adjective orderadjectives
that directly and equally modify the following noun. Adjectives are considered coordinate if the meaning would be
the same if their order were reversed or if and were placed between them. For example:The dull, incessant droning
but the cute little cottage.The devious lazy red frog suggests there are lazy red frogs (one of which is devious), while
the devious, lazy red frog does not carry this connotation.Before quotes A comma is used to set off quoted material
that is the grammatical object of an active verb of speaking or writing, as in Mr. Kershner says, "You should know
how to use a comma." Quotations that follow and support an assertion should be set off by a colon
(punctuation)colon rather than a comma.In datesMonth, day, year When a date is written as a month followed by a
day followed by a year, a comma separates the day from the year: December 19, 1941. This style is common in
American English. The comma is necessary because of the otherwise confusing consecutive numbers, compare
December 191941. Additionally, most style manuals, including The Chicago Manual of StyleChicago Manual of
Style: "Its conventional to put a comma after the year. The commas are like parentheses here, so it doesn't make
sense to have only one." and the AP Stylebook, "When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with
commas... Feb. 14, 1987, was the target date." recommend that the year be treated as a parenthetical, requiring a
second comma after it: "Feb. 14, 1987, was the target date." However, one exception to this general rule is that you
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do not include a comma after the year where the date is serving as a specifically identifying adjective - almost as a
title: "The September 11, 2001 attacks on the WTC brought a renewed feeling of patriotism." If just month and year
are given, no commas are used: Top 5 comma errors "Her daughter April may return in June 2009 for the reunion."
Day month year When the day precedes the month, the month name separates the numeric day and year, so commas
are not necessary to separate them: "The Raid on Alexandria (1941)Raid on Alexandria was carried out on
19December1941." In geographical names Commas are used to separate parts of geographical references, such as
city and state (Dallas, Texas) or city and country (Kampala, Uganda). Additionally, most style manuals, including
The Chicago Manual of Style "Mary traveled to Seattle, Washington, before going on to California. and the AP
Stylebook, "Acme Pens was founded in Padua, Italy, in 2004." recommend that the second element be treated as a
parenthetical, requiring a second comma after: "The plane landed in Kampala, Uganda, that evening." Chicago
Manual of Style, 14th ed., 5.67.The United States Postal Service USPS Send Mail - Addressing Tips and Royal
Mail Royal Mail: addressing your mail recommend writing addresses without any punctuation. In numbers In
representing large numbers, English texts usually use commas to separate each group of three digits. This is almost
always done for numbers of six or more digits, and often for five or four digits. However, in much of Europe,
Southern Africa and Latin America, Full stopperiods or spaces are used instead; the comma is used as a decimal
separator, equivalent to the use in English of the decimal markdecimal point. In addition, the comma may not be
used for this purpose at all in some number systems, e.g. the SI#SI writing styleSI writing style; Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. a space may be used to separate groups of three digits instead. In names
Commas are used when writing names that are presented surname first: Smith, John. They are also used before many
titles that follow a name: John Smith, Ph.D. "The big final rule for the comma is one that you won't find in any books
by grammarians... don't use commas like a stupid person." Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots, and Leaves.Ellipsis Commas
may be used to indicate that a word has been omitted, as in The cat was white; the dog, brown. (Here the comma
replaces was.)Vocative Commas are placed before, after, or around a noun or pronoun used independently in
speaking to some person, place or thing: I hope, John, that you will read this.Differences between American and
British usage The comma and the quotation mark pairing can be used in several ways. In American English, the
comma is commonly included inside a quotation, regardless of whether the comma is part of the original
quotation.See, for example, The Chicago Manual of Style For example: My mother gave me the nickname "Bobby
Bobby Bob Bob Boy," which really made me angry. However, in British English, punctuation is placed within
quotation marks only if it is part of what is being quoted or referred to. Thus: My mother gave me the nickname
"Bobby Bobby Bob Bob Boy", which really made me angry. The use of the serial comma is sometimes perceived as
an American EnglishAmericanism, but common practice varies in both American and British English. Barbara Child
claims that in American English there is a trend toward a decreased use of the comma (Child, 1992, p.398). This is
reinforced by an article by Robert J. Samuelson in Newsweek. Lynne Truss says that this is equally true in the UK,
where it has been a slow, steady trend for at least a century:Nowadays A passage peppered with commaswhich
in the past would have indicated painstaking and authoritative editorial attentionsmacks simply of no backbone.
People who put in all the commas betray themselves as moral weaklings with empty lives and out-of-date reference
books. (Truss, 2004, p. 9798)Use of a comma after the last of a series is also being discontinued, especially in the
U.S.,[citation needed] even though this may lead to some confusion, as in the quotation: "I thank my parents, the
Pope and Sinad O'Connor". In his 1963 book "Of Spies and Stratagems", Stanley P. Lovell recalls that, during the
Second World War, the British carried the comma over into abbreviations. Specifically, "Special Operations,
Executive" was written S.O.,E.. Nowadays, even the full stops are frequently discarded. In other
languagesPunctuation has been added to many languages which originally developed without it, including a number
of different comma forms. European languages like German, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese use the same
comma as English with similar spacing. Japanese punctuation commonly uses the '' (toten, , U+3001
IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA) in native text and full-width comma '!' (U+FF0C FULLWIDTH COMMA) when
mixing Japanese and Latin alphabet characters. Languages such as Tamil and its major branch-languages (Telugu,
Kannada and Malayalam)also use the punctuation mark in similar usage to that of European Languages with similar
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spacing. Chinese punctuation normally uses '!' (U+FF0C FULLWIDTH COMMA) but has the "enumeration
comma" '' (Simplified Chinese characterssimplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese characterstraditional Chinese:
!; pinyin: dnho; literally "pause mark", U+3001 IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA) for lists. The comma is used to join
together clauses that deal with a certain topic or line of thinking. As such, what would appear to an English speaker
to be a comma splice is very commonly seen in Chinese writing. Often, the entirety of a long paragraph can consist
of clauses joined by commas, with the sole period coming only at the end. Unlike in English, a comma is allowed
between a subject and its predicate. Arabic, Urdu, and Persian languagePersian languages written from right to
left use a reversed comma '' (U+060C ARABIC COMMA) unlike other right-to-left languages like Hebrew.
Korean punctuation uses both commas and interpuncts for lists. Computing In the common character
(computing)character encoding systems Unicode and ASCII, character 44 (hexadecimal0x2C) corresponds to the
comma symbol. The HTML numeric character reference is ,In many computer languages commas are used to
separate arguments to a Subroutinefunction, to separate elements in a Array data typelist, and to perform data
designation on multiple variables at once. In the C (programming language)C programming language the comma
symbol is an Comma operatoroperator which evaluates its first Parameter (computer science)argument (which may
have side-effects) and then returns the value of its evaluated second argument. This is useful in for statement
(programming)statements and Macro (computer science)macros.In Smalltalk, the comma operator is used to
Concatenationconcatenate collections, including strings. The comma-separated values (CSV) format is very
commonly used in exchanging text data between database and spreadsheet formats. Diacritical usage The comma is
used as a diacritic mark in Romanian languageRomanian under the s (, ), and under the t (, ). A cedilla is
occasionally used instead of it (notably in the Unicode glyph names), but this is technically incorrect. The symbol d
(D-commad with comma below) was used as part of the Romanian alphabetRomanian transitional alphabet (19th
century) to indicate the sounds denoted by the Latin letter z or letters dz, where derived from a Cyrillic scriptCyrillic
Dze (/dz/). The comma and the cedilla are both derivative of a small cursive z () placed below the letter. From this
standpoint alone, , , and d could potentially be regarded as stand-ins for sz, tz, and dz respectively.In Latvian
languageLatvian, the comma is used on the letters , , , , and historically also , to indicate palatalization. Because
the lowercase letter g has a descender, the comma is rotated 180 and placed over the letter. Although their Adobe
SystemsAdobe glyph names are commas, their names in the Unicode Standard are g, k, l, n, and r with a cedilla.
They were introduced to the Unicode standard before 1992, and their name cannot be altered. For input use Alt
290 and Alt 291 sequences, for use Alt 310 and Alt 311, for use Alt 315 and Alt 316, for use Alt 325 and Alt
326.In the Czech languageCzech and Slovak languageSlovak languages, the diacritics in the characters , , and
resemble superscript commas, but they are modified carons because they have ascender (typography)ascenders.
Other ascender letters with carons, such as letters (used in Finnish Kalo languageFinnish Romani and Lakota
languageLakota) and (used in Skolt Sami languageSkolt Sami), did not modify their carons to superscript
commas.ReferencesThis article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1
version 1.3 or later.Bibliography Barbara Child, Drafting Legal Documents, 2nd Edition, 1992. Lynne Truss, Eats,
Shoots and Leaves, Gotham Books (2004), ISBN 1-59240-087-6.External links Commas: They're Not Just for
English Majors, Anymore English comma rules and exercises Major Comma Uses Notes on Commas Comma
guidelines also helpful for non-native speakers Grammar, Punctuation, and Capitalization a comprehensive
online guide by NASA The Oxford Comma: A Solution a satirical suggestion to settle the problem of the Oxford
Comma once and for all. The Quotta and the Quottiod another satirical compromise between the American and
British traditions relating to quotes and commas. The Ten Functions of Commas in English
Comma
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Dash
is too wide
En dash Em dash Figure dash Horizontal bar Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalA dash is a punctuation mark, similar to a hyphen or minus
sign but differing primarily in length and serving different functions. The most common versions of the dash are the
En_(typography)en dash () and the Em_(typography)em dash (), named for the length of a typeface's lower-case
n and upper-case M respectively. Usage varies both within English and in other languages, but the usual convention
in printed English text is: Either dashes may be used to denote a break in a sentence or set off parenthetical
statements, although writers are generally cautioned to use a single form consistently within their work. In this
function, en dashes are used with spaces and em dashes are used without them:Yagoda, Ben. " Mad Dash". The New
York Times. 22 Oct. 2012. Accessed 3 Feb 2012.In matters of grave importance, stylenot sincerityis the vital
thing.In matters of grave importance, style not sincerity is the vital thing.The en dash (but not the em dash) is
also used to indicate spans or differentiation, where it may be considered to replace and or to: MHRA Style Guide: A
Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses, 2nd ed, p. 26. Modern Humanities Research Association
(London). Accessed 3 Feb 2013.The French and Indian War (17541763) was fought in western Pennsylvania and
Dash
140
along the present USCanadian border (Edwards, pp. 81101).The em dash (but not the en dash) is also used to set
off the sources of quotes:In matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity, is the vital thing. Oscar
WildeCommon dashes There are several forms of dash, of which the most common are: glyphUnicode
codepointCharacter (computing)Characters in Unicode are referenced in prose via the "U+" notation. The
hexadecimal number after the "U+" is the character's Unicode code point.HTML character entity reference
HTML/XML numeric character references TeXAlt code (Windows) Mac OS X key combination Compose keyvim
(text editor)vim digraph Microsoft Word key combination #Figure dashfigure dash U+2012 ‒‒#En
dashen dash U+2013 –––--Alt+0150! Opt-Compose--.Ctrl+K-NCtrlNum -#Em dashem
dash U+2014 ———---Alt+0151! Opt Shift-Compose---Ctrl+K-MCtrlAltNum
-#Horizontal barhorizontal bar U+2015 ――Ctrl+K-3#Swung dashswung dash - U+2053
⁓⁓\~{}Less common are the two-em dash () and three-em dash (!), both added to Unicode with
version 6.1 as U+2E3A and U+2E3B. Windows character codes require that Num Lock be on. Figure dashThe figure
dash () is so named because it is the same width as a digit, at least in fonts with digits of equal width. This is true of
most fonts, not only monospaced fonts.The figure dash is used when a dash must be used within numbers (e.g. phone
number 5550199). It does not indicate a range, for which the en dash is used; nor does it function as the minus sign,
which also uses a separate glyph. The figure dash is often unavailable; in this case, one may use a hyphen-minus
instead. In Unicode, the figure dash is Unicode#UpluslinkU+2012 (decimal 8210). HTML authors must use the
numeric forms ‒ or ‒ to type it unless the file is in Unicode; there is no equivalent character entity.
In TeX, the standard fonts have no figure dash; however, the digits normally all have the same width as the en dash,
so an en dash can be substituted when using standard TeX fonts. En dashThe en dash, n dash, n-rule, or "nut" () is
traditionally half the width of an #Em dashem dash. In modern fonts, the length of the en dash is not standardized,
and the en dash is often more than half the width of the em dash. The widths of en and em dashes have also been
specified as being equal to those of the upper-case letters N and M respectively, and at other times to the widths of
the lower-case letters.Ranges of valuesThe en dash is commonly used to indicate a closed range of values, meaning a
range with clearly defined and non-infinite upper and lower boundaries. This may include ranges such as those
between dates, times, or numbers. Examples of this usage include: JuneJuly 1967 1:002:00 p.m. For ages 35
pp.3855 President Jimmy Carter (197781) The Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI)
recommends that when a number range might be misconstrued as subtraction, the word "to" should be used instead
of an en dash. For example, "a voltage of 50 V to 100 V" is preferable to using "a voltage of 50100 V". It is also
considered inappropriate to use the en dash in place of the words to or and in phrases that follow the forms from...
to... and between... and....Relationships and connectionsThe en dash can also be used to contrast values, or
illustrate a relationship between two things. Examples of this usage include: Colombia beat Venezuela 310.
RadicalUnionist coalition BostonHartford route New YorkLondon flight (however, it may be seen that New
York to London flight is more appropriate because New York is a single name composed of two valid words; with a
dash the phrase is ambiguous and could mean either Flight from New York to London or New flight from York to
London) Motherdaughter relationship The Supreme Court voted 54 to uphold the decision. The Bipartisan
Campaign Reform ActMcCainFeingold billA "simple" attributive compound is written with a hyphen; at least one
authority considers name pairs, where the paired elements carry equal weight, as in the Taft-Hartley Act to be
"simple", while others consider an en dash appropriate in instances such as thisGarner, B: Modern American Usage,
Second Edition, page 657. Oxford University Press, 2003. to represent the parallel relationship, as in the Bipartisan
Campaign Reform ActMcCainFeingold bill or BoseEinstein statistics. However, truly compound names are
written with a hyphen, thus the Lennard-Jones potential is named after one person, while Satyendra Nath BoseBose
and Einstein are two people. Attributive compoundsIn English, the en dash is usually used instead of a hyphen in
Adjectival phrasecompound (phrasal) attributives in which one or both elements is itself a compound, especially
when the compound element is an open compound, meaning it is not hyphenated itself. This manner of usage may
include such examples as: The hospitalnursing home connection (the connection between the hospital and the
nursing home, not a home connection between the hospital and nursing) A nursing homehome care policy PreCivil
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141
War era Pulitzer Prize for FictionPulitzer Prizewinning novel The nonSan Francisco part of the world The
postWorld War II era (however, a hyphen would be used in post-war era)TransNew Guinea languages The
exprime minister The pro-conscriptionanti-conscription debate Public-schoolprivate-school rivalries The
disambiguating value of the en dash in these patterns was illustrated by Strunk and White in The Elements of Style
with the following example: when Chattanooga News and Chattanooga Free Press merged, the joint company was
inaptly named Chattanooga News-Free Press, which could be interpreted as meaning that their newspapers were
news-free.An exception to the use of en dashes is made however when prefixing an already hyphenated compound;
an en dash is generally avoided as a distraction in this case. Examples of this include: non-English-speaking air
traffic controllers semi-labor-intensive industries Proto-Indo-European language (rarely ProtoIndo-European) The
post-MS-DOS era (rarely postMS-DOS) non-government-owned corporations Differing recommendationsAs
discussed above, the en dash is sometimes recommended instead of a hyphen in compound adjectives where neither
part of the adjective modifies the otherthat is, when each modifies the noun, as in lovehate relationship. The
Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), however, limits the use of the en dash to two main purposes: First, use it to
indicate ranges of time, money, or other amounts, or in certain other cases where it replaces the word to. Second, use
it in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective when one of the elements of the adjective is an open compound, or
when two or more of its elements are compounds, open or hyphenated.That is, it favors hyphens in instances where
some other guides suggest en dashes the 16th edition explaining that "Chicago's sense of the en dash does not
extend to between" to rule out its use in "US-Canadian relations."In these two uses, en dashes normally do not have
spaces around them. An exception is made when avoiding spaces may cause confusion or look odd. For example,
compare 12June3July with 12June3July.Parenthetic and other uses at the sentence levelLike em dashes, en
dashes can be used instead of colons, or pairs of commas that mark off a nested clause or phrase. They can also be
used around parenthetical expressions such as this one in place of the em dashes preferred by some publishers,
particularly where short columns are used, since em dashes can look awkward at the end of a line. See #En dash
versus em dashEn dash versus em dash, below. In these situations, en dashes must have a single space on each side.
Electronic usageIn TeX, the en dash may normally (depending on the font) be input as a double hyphen-minus (--).
On Mac OS X, most keyboard layouts map an en dash to ! Opt+-. On Microsoft Windows, an en dash may be
entered as Alt+0150 (where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding down the Alt key). In Linux
(GTK+ v. 2.10+ applications only, see Unicode input), it is entered by holding down Ctrl+Shift and typing U
followed by the Unicode code point above, or using the compose key by pressing the compose key, two hyphens,
and a period. The en dash is sometimes used as a substitute for the minus sign, when the minus sign character is not
available, since the en dash is usually the same width as a plus sign. For example, the original 8-bit Macintosh
character set had an en dash, useful for minus sign, years before Unicode with a dedicated minus sign was available.
The hyphen-minus is usually too narrow to make a typographically acceptable minus sign. But the en dash cannot be
used for a minus in programming languages because the syntax usually requires a hyphen-minus; because
programming languages are usually set in a fixed-pitch (monospace fontmonospaced) font face, the hyphen-minus
looks acceptable there. Itemization markThe en dash may be used as a Bullet (typography)bullet mark at the start of
each item in a list.[citation needed]Em dashThe em dash, m dash, m-rule, or "mutton" () often demarcates a break
of thought or some similar interpolation stronger than the interpolation demarcated by parentheses, such as the
following from Nicholson Baker's The Mezzanine: At that age I once stabbed my best friend, Fred, with a pair of
pinking shears in the base of the neck, enraged because he had been given the comprehensive sixty-four-crayon
Crayola boxincluding the gold and silver crayonsand would not let me look closely at the box to see how
Crayola had stabilized the built-in crayon sharpener under the tiers of crayons. It is also used to indicate that a
sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. For example, the em dash is used in the following
way in Joseph Heller's Catch-22: He was Cain, Ulysses, the Flying Dutchman; he was Lot in Sodom, Deirdre of the
Sorrows, Sweeney in the nightingales among trees. He was the miracle ingredient Z-147. He was "Crazy!"
Clevinger interrupted, shrieking. "That's what you are! Crazy!" "immense. I'm a real, slam-bang,
honest-to-goodness, three-fisted humdinger. I'm a bona fide supraman." Similarly, it can be used instead of an
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ellipsis to indicate aposiopesis, the rhetorical device by which a sentence is stopped short not because of interruption
but because the speaker is too emotional to continue, such as Darth Vader's line "I sense something; a presence I've
not felt since" in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.The term em dash derives from its defined width of one em
(typography)em, which is the length, expressed in point (typography)points, by which font sizes are typically
specified. Thus in 9-point type, an em is 9 points wide, while the em of 24-point type is 24 points wide, and so on
(by comparison, the #En dashen dash, with its 1-en (typography)en width, is in most typefacefonts either a half-em
wide or the width of an n ).The em dash is used in much the way a colon (punctuation)colon or a set of
Bracket#Parenthesesparentheses is used; it can show an abrupt change in thought or be used where a full stop (or
"period") is too strong and a comma (punctuation)comma too weak. Em dashes are sometimes used to set off
summaries or definitions.According to most American sources (such as The Chicago Manual of Style) and some
British sources (such as Hart's RulesThe Oxford Guide to Style), an em dash should always be set closed, meaning it
should not be surrounded by spaces. But the practice in some parts of the English-speaking world, including the style
recommended by The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage, sets it open, separating it from its surrounding
words by using spaces or hair spaces (U+200A) when it is being used parenthetically. Some writers, finding the em
dash unappealingly long, prefer to use an open-set en dash. This "space, en dash, space" sequence is also the
predominant style in German and French typography. See #En dash versus em dashEn dash versus em dash below.In
Canada, The Canadian Style (A Guide to Writing and Editing), The Oxford Canadian of Grammar, Spelling &
Punctuation, Guide to Canadian English Usage (Second Edition), Editing Canadian English Manual, and the
Canadian Oxford Dictionary all specify that an em dash should be set closed when used between words, a word and
numeral, or two numerals.In Australia, the Style manual (For authors, editors and printers, Sixth edition), also
specifies that em dashes inserted between words, a word and numeral, or two numerals, should be set closed. A
section on the 2-em rule () also explains that the 2-em can be used to mark an abrupt break in direct or reported
speech, but a space is used before the 2-em if a complete word is missing, while no space is used if part of a word
exists before the sudden break. Two examples of this are as follows (note that properly typeset 2-em and 3-em
dashes should appear as a single dash, but they may show on this page as several em dashes with spaces in
between):I distinctly heard him say, "Go away or I'll ". It was alleged that D had been threatened with
blackmail. Monospaced fonts that mimic the look of a typewriter have the same width for all characters. Some of
these fonts have em and en dashes that more or less fill the monospaced width they have available. For example, the
sequence hyphen, en dash, em dash, minus shows as "- " in a monospace font.When an actual em dash is
unavailableas in the ASCII character setit has been typographic approximationapproximated as a double(--) or
triple(---) hyphen-minus. In Unicode, the em dash is U+2014 (decimal 8212). In HTML, one may use the numeric
forms — or —; there is also the HTML entity —. In TeX, the em dash may normally be input as
a triple hyphen-minus (---). On any MacintoshMac, most keyboard layouts map an em dash to ! Opt+ Shift+-. On
Microsoft Windows, an em dash may be entered as Alt+0151, where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad
while holding the Alt key down. It can also be entered into Microsoft Office applications by using the Ctrl+Alt+-. In
the X Window System, it may entered using the compose key by pressing the compose key and three hyphens.
Because early comic book letterers were not aware of the typographic convention of replacing a typewritten double
hyphen with an em dash, the double hyphen became traditional in American comics. This practice has continued
despite the development of computer lettering.Corpus linguisticsCorpus studies indicate that em dashes are more
commonly used in Russian than in English.En dash versus em dashThese comparisons of the hyphen (-), en dash (),
and em dash (), in various 12-point fonts, illustrate the typical relationship between lengths ("- n m "). In some
fonts, the en dash is not much longer than the hyphen; and in Lucida Grande, the en dash is actually shorter than the
hyphen (making this default Safari browser font typographically nonstandard and potentially confusing).The en dash
is wider than the hyphen but not as wide as the em dash. An Em (typography)#Incorrect and alternate definitionsem
width is defined as the point size of the currently used font, since the M character is not always the width of the point
size. In running text, various dash conventions are employed: an em dashlike soor a spaced em dash like
so or a spaced en dash like so can be seen in contemporary publications. Various style guides and national
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varieties of languages prescribe different guidance on dashes. Dashes have been cited as being treated differently in
the US and the UK, with the former preferring the use of an em-dash with no additional spacing, and the latter
preferring a spaced en-dash. As examples of the US style, The Chicago Manual of Style and APA styleThe
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association recommend unspaced em dashes. Style guides
outside the US are more variable. For example, the Canadian The Elements of Typographic Style recommends the
spaced en dash like so and argues that the length and visual magnitude of an em dash "belongs to the padded and
corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography." In the United Kingdom, the spaced en dash is the house style for certain
major publishers, including the Penguin Group, the Cambridge University Press, and Routledge. But this convention
is not universal. The Hart's RulesOxford Guide to Style (2002, section 5.10.10) acknowledges that the spaced en
dash is used by "other British publishers", but states that the Oxford University Presslike "most US
publishers"uses the unspaced em dash.The en dashalways with spaces in running text when, as discussed in this
section, indicating a parenthesis or pauseand the spaced em dash both have a certain technical advantage over the
not spaced em dash. Most typesetting and word processing expects word spacing to vary to support Justification
(typesetting)full justification. Alone among punctuation that marks pauses or logical relations in text, the not spaced
em dash disables this for the words it falls between. This can cause uneven spacing in the text, but can be mitigated
by the use of thin spaces, hair spaces, or even zero-width spaces on the sides of the em dash. This provides the
appearance of an not spaced em dash, but allows the words and dashes to break between lines. The spaced em dash
risks introducing excessive separation of words. In full justification, the adjacent spaces may be stretched, and the
separation of words further exaggerated. En dashes may also be preferred to em dashes when text is set in narrow
columns, such as in newspapers and similar publications, as the en dash is smaller. In such cases, its use is based
purely on space considerations and is not necessarily related to other typographical concerns.Horizontal
barUnicodeU+2015 horizontal bar, also known as a quotation dash, is used to introduce quoted text. This is the
standard method of printing dialogue in some languages. See the Quotation mark, non-English usage#Quotation
dashquotation dash section of the Quotation mark, non-English usage article for further details of how it is used. The
em dash is equally suitable if the quotation dash is unavailable or is contrary to the house style being used.There is
no support in the standard TeX fonts, but one can use \hbox{---}\kern-.5em--- instead, or just use an em dash. The
Chicago Manual of Style makes no mention of the horizontal bar or the quotation dash but states: "Em dashes are
occasionally used instead of quotation marks to set off dialogue ( la writers in some European languages). Each
speech starts a new paragraph. No space follows the dash."The Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition), paragraph
6.88 (p. 335).Swung dashUnicodeU+2053 - swung dash resembles a lengthened tilde, and is used to separate
alternatives or approximates. In dictionarydictionaries, it is frequently used to stand in for the term being defined. A
dictionary entry providing an example for the term henceforth might employ the swung dash as follows:henceforth
(adv.) from this time forth; from now on; "- she will be known as Mrs. Wales" There are several similar, related
characters: U+02DC small tilde (HTML: ˜ &tilde;) (see below) UnicodeU+223C - tilde operator, used in
mathematics. In TeX and LaTeX, this character can be expressed using the math mode command $\sim$. U+301C
wave dash, used in East Asian typography for a variety of purposes, including Japanese punctuation#Wave
dashJapanese punctuation. U+FF5E fullwidth tilde, used in East Asian typography. Similar Unicode characters
Sample Repeated Unicode#UpluslinkUnicode Unicode name Remark - ----- U+002D hyphen-minus The standard
ASCII hyphen. Sometimes this is used in groups to indicate different types of dash.In programming
languageprogramming languages, it is the character usually used to denote Operator (programming)operators like the
subtraction or the negative Sign (mathematics)sign. _ _____ U+005F underscorelow line A spacing character usually
showing a horizontal line below the Baseline (typography)baseline (i.e. a spacing underscore). It is commonly used
within URLs and Identifier (computer science)identifiers in programming languages, where a space-like separation
between parts is desired but a real space is not appropriate. As usual for ASCII characters, this character shows a
considerable range of Glyphglyphic variation; therefore, whether sequences of this character connect depends on the
used font. ~ ~~~~~ U+007E tildeUsed in programming languages (e.g. for the Bitwise operationbitwise NOT
operator in Operators in C and C++C and C++). Its Glyphglyphic representation varies, therefore for punctuation in
Dash
144
running text the use of more specific characters is preferred, see #Swung dashabove. U+00AD soft hyphen Used to
indicate where a line may break, as in a Compound (linguistics)compound word or between syllables. U+00AF
macron A horizontal line positioned at cap height usually having the same length as U+005F _ low line. It is a
spacing character, not to be confused with the diacritic mark "macron". A sequence of such characters is not
expected to connect, unlike U+203E overline. U+02C9 macronmodifier letter macron A spacing modifier
characterspacing clone of a diacritic mark (a line which is applied above of the base letter). _ _____ U+02CD modifier
letter low macron A spacing clone of a diacritic mark (a line which is applied below the base letter). - ----- U+02D7
modifier letter minus sign A variant of the minus sign used in phonetics to mark a retracted (phonetics)retracted or
backed articulation. It may show small end-serifserifs. U+02DC small tilde A spacing clone of
tilde#Diacritical usetilde diacritic mark. U+2010 hyphen The character that can be used to unambiguously
represent a hyphen. - ----- U+2011 non-breaking hyphen Also called "hard hyphen", denotes a hyphen after which no
word wrapping may apply. This is the case where the hyphen is part of a trigraph (orthography)trigraph or tetragraph
denoting a specific sound (like in the Swiss placename S-chanf), or where specific orthographic rules prevent a
line break (like in German compound nouncompounds of single-letter abbreviations and full nouns, as "E-Mail").
U+203E overline A character similar to U+00AF macron, but a sequence of such characters usually
connects. - ----- U+2043 hyphen bullet A short horizontal line used as a list bullet (typography)bullet. U+207B
superscript minus Usually is used together with Subscript and superscriptsuperscripted numbers. , ,,,,, U+208B
subscript minus Usually is used together with Subscript and superscriptsubscripted numbers. U+2212
minus sign An arithmetic operation (mathematics)operation used in mathematics to represent subtraction or negative
numbers. ! !!!!! U+23AF horizontal line extensionMiscellaneous Technical (Unicode block). Can be used in
sequences to generate long connected horizontal lines. ! !!!!! U+23E4 straightnessMiscellaneous Technical
(Unicode block). To be used in technical context. U+2500 box drawings light horizontalbox drawing
characters. Several similar characters from one Unicode block used to draw horizontal lines. ! !!!!! U+2796 heavy
minus signUnicode symbols. ! !!!!! U+10191 roman uncia signUncia (unit). A symbol for an Ancient Romeancient
Roman unit of length. Similar Unicode characters used in specific writing systemwriting systemsU+058A ! armenian
alphabetarmenian hyphenU+05BE hebrew alphabethebrew punctuation maqafU+1400 ! canadian syllabics
hyphenU+1428 ! canadian syllabics final short horizontal strokeU+1806 ! mongolian todo soft hyphen is a hyphen
from the Clear scriptMongolian Todo alphabet. U+1B78 ! balinese scriptbalinese musical symbol left-hand open
pangU+2E0F ! paragraphosparagraphos is an Ancient Greek textual symbol, usually displayed by a long low line.
U+3161 ! hangul letter eu or U+1173 ! hangul jungseong eu are Hangul letters used in Korean languageKorean to
denote the sound [m]. U+301C wave dash and U+3030 wavy dash are wavy lines found in some East Asian
character sets. Typographically, they have the width of one CJK character cell (fullwidth form), and follow the
direction of the text, being horizontal for horizontal text, and vertical for columnar. They are used as dashes, and
occasionally as emphatic variants of the katakana vowel extender mark. U+30FC ! choonpukatakana-hiragana
prolonged sound mark, the Japanese choonpu, is used in Japanese to indicate a long vowel. U+4E00 ! <cjk
ideograph, first>, the Chinese character for "one", is used in various East Asian languages. U+A4FE fraser
alphabetlisu punctuation comma looks like a sequence of a hyphen and a full stop. U+10110 ! aegean
numeralsaegean number tenU+1104B ! brahmi punctuation lineU+11052 ! brahmi numeralsbrahmi number
oneU+110BE ! kaithi section markU+1D360 ! counting rod unit digit oneRendering dashes on
computersTypewriters and early computers have traditionally had only a limited character (computing)character set,
often having no key that produces a dash. In consequence, it became common to substitute the nearest available
punctuation mark or symbol. Em dashes are often represented in British usage by a single hyphen-minus surrounded
by spaces, or in American usage by two hyphen-minuses surrounded by spaces. Modern computer software typically
has support for many more characters, and is usually capable of rendering both the en and em dashes
correctlyalbeit sometimes with an inconvenient input method. Some software, though, may operate in a more
limited mode. Some text editors, for example, are restricted to working with a single 8-bit character encoding, and
when unencodable characters are enteredfor example by pasting from the clipboardthey are often blindly
Dash
145
converted to question marks. Sometimes this happens to em and en dashes, even when the 8-bit encoding supports
them, or when an alternative representation using hyphen-minuses is an option. Any kind of dash can be used
directly in an HTML document, but HTML also lets them be entered using character references. The em dash and
the en dash are special in that they can be written using character entity references as — and –,
respectively. In GNU/Linux, under recent versions of GTK+, there are various methods of producing these dashes.
For em dashes, one may use the compose key followed by three presses of the hyphen character. For en dashes, one
may press the compose key followed by two hyphens and a period. For all dashes, one may press and hold ctrl and
shift and then press u (and release them all) after which an underlined u appears. Then, type the Unicode number
(i.e., 2015) for the appropriate dash and press enter or the space bar. Also, other keys may be remapped to create
dashes. In Mac OS X using the Australian, British, Canadian, German, Irish, Irish Extended, Italian, Pro Italian,
Russian, US, US Extended, or Welsh keyboard layout, an en dash can be obtained by typing ! Opt+-, while an em
dash can be typed with ! Opt+ Shift+-. In TeX, an em dash () is typed as three hyphenminuses (---), an en dash
() as two hyphenminuses (--), and a hyphen () as one hyphenminus (-). Mathematical minus () is signified as $-$
or $-$.. On Plan 9 from Bell LabsPlan 9 systems, an en or em dash may be entered by pressing the Compose key
(usually left Alt), followed by typing en or em respectively. In Microsoft Windows running on a computer whose
keyboard has a numeric keypad, an en or em dash may be typed into most text areas by using their respective Alt
code by holding down the Alt key and pressing either 0150 (en dash) or 0151 (em dash). The numbers must be typed
on the numeric keypad with Num Lock enabled. In addition, the Character Map utility included with MicrosoftMS
Windows can be used to copy and paste en and em dash characters into most applicationsalong with
diacriticaccented letters and other non-English language characters. It can normally be found in the System Tools
folder, or the Accessories folder on MS Windows Vista. Character Map can also be opened by typing charmap in the
run command box. In Microsoft Word running on a computer whose keyboard has a numeric keypad, an em dash
can be typed with ctrl + alt + numeric hyphen (on the numeric keypad, usually in the top-right corner), and an en
dash can be typed with ctrl + numeric hyphen. This doesn't work with the hyphen key on the main keyboard (usually
between "0" and "="), which has completely different functions. With Microsoft Word's default settings, in both
Windows and Macintosh versions, an em dash symbol, which is not always a true em dash from the font, is
automatically produced by Autocorrect when two unspaced hyphens are entered between words ("word--word"). An
en dash, which again is not always a true en dash from the font, is automatically produced when one or two hyphens
surrounded by spaces are entered: ("word-word") or ("word--word"). This feature can be disabled by customizing
Autocorrect. Other dashes, spaces, and special characters are possible, found through the Tools menu. Unassigned
symbols, such as the true minus sign, can be assigned keyboard shortcuts through the Insert menu. To determine if
the true en or em dash from the font are being used rather than a cross-referenced character from the Symbol font,
copy and paste samples of the dashes into a text editor such as Windows Notepad. Using the true dash is important if
one ever needs to share documents with other users in other applications or operating systems. ReferencesExternal
links Peter K. Sheerin, " The trouble with EM 'n EN" Dashes and Hyphens Commonly confused
charactersmeta:Help:Special charactersMediaWiki User's Guide to creating special characters
Double hyphen
146
Double hyphen
Double hyphen in a Fraktur typeface.
The double hyphen ( , , or ) is a
punctuation mark that consists of two
parallel hyphens. It is not to be confused
with two consecutive hyphens (--), which
usually represents an em dash () or en
dash (). In order to avoid its being
confused with the equals sign (=), the double hyphen is often sheared slightly.
Usage
The double hyphen is used for several different purposes throughout the world:
Some typefaces, such as Fraktur faces, use the double hyphen as a glyphic variant of the single hyphen. (With
Fraktur faces, such a double hyphen usually is oblique.)
It may be also used for artistic or commercial purposes to achieve a distinctive visual effect. For example, the
name of The Waldorf=Astoria hotel is officially written with a double hyphen.
In Merriam-Webster dictionaries if a word is divided at the end of the line, and the division point happens to be a
hyphen, it is replaced with a double hyphen to graphically indicate that the divided word is normally hyphenated,
for example cross
country.
In several dictionaries published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, all such compound words are
linked with double hyphens, whether at the end of the line or not, and the normal use of the single hyphen for
non-compound words is retained. An example from the first or second page of such dictionaries is Aaron'srod.
Examples include the Century Dictionary and Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary of the English
Language.
It is used as a distinct punctuation mark by Coptic language scholars.
It is used as a distinct puncutation mark in Ojibwe language publications in the Fiero orthography, as a hyphen is
used to separate compound preverb units, while a double hyphen is used to divide a word at the end on a line.
However, due to lack of availability of a double hyphen in most fonts, an equal sign is often used as a substitute.
In Japanese, the double hyphen ( daburu haifun) in rare cases replaces an English en
dash or hyphen when writing foreign words in katakana due to their potential confusion with the prolonged sound
mark ( ). It is generally used to separate multiple foreign names, as in the cases of the RussellEinstein
Manifesto ( ) and The Waldorf=Astoria Collection (
). It may also be used to separate a person's given and family names or to separate
other foreign words. The middle dot ( ) is however much more commonly used for these purposes. The double
hyphen is part of the JIS X 0213 standard, but is not included in more commonly used character encodings, such
as Shift-JIS and EUC-JP. For this reason, the equals sign is frequently used in its place.
Double hyphen
147
Unicode
When the double hyphen is used as a functionally equivalent graphical variant of the single hyphen, it is represented
in Unicode as a normal hyphen.
When used as a punctuation mark distinct from the single hyphen, the double hyphen is represented in Unicode by
two different code points. A third code point has been assigned for the use of a generic (non-Asian) double hyphen at
U+2E40, though this character is still under ballot and has not been formally adopted in the standard.
Name Glyph Code point Purpose
DOUBLE OBLIQUE HYPHEN U+2E17 Western orthography (including Coptic language scholarship)
KATAKANA-HIRAGANA DOUBLE HYPHEN U+30A0 Japanese and Ainu orthography (in Kana or Kanji script)
References
http:/ / www. cs. tut. fi/ ~jkorpela/ dashes. html
Ellipsis
148
Ellipsis
is too wide
Ellipsis ... Precomposed ellipsis Spaced 3periods Mid-line ellipsis Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets (
[], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation
mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation
marks ( , , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( )
Space (punctuation)space () ( ) ( ) General typographyampersand ( & ) asterisk ( * ) at sign ( @ ) backslash ( \ )
Bullet (typography)bullet ( ) caret ( ^ ) Dagger (typography)dagger ( , ) Degree symboldegree ( ) ditto mark (
) Inverted question and exclamation marksinverted exclamation mark ( ) Inverted question and exclamation
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalEllipsis (plural ellipses; from the Ancient Greek: rtttyt,
lleipsis, "omission" or "falling short") is a series of dots that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word,
sentence or whole section from the original text being quoted, and though necessary for syntactical construction, is
not necessary for comprehension. Ellipses can also be used to indicate an unfinished thought or, at the end of a
sentence, a trailing off into silence (aposiopesis), example: "But I thought he was . . .". When placed at the beginning
or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing. The ellipsis calls for a slight
pause in speech or any form of text, and can be used to suggest a tense or awkward momentary silence.The most
common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops (. . .) or a pre-composed triple-dot glyph (). The
usage of the Dash#Em dashem dash () can overlap the usage of the ellipsis. The Chicago Manual of Style
recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides.The triple-dot
punctuation mark is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or colloquialismcolloquially,
dot-dot-dot.In writing It is used to build tension or show that the sentence has been left unfinished or unstarted. In
the 19th and early 20th centuries, an ellipsis was often used when a writer intentionally omitted a specific proper
noun, such as a location: "Jan was born on . . . Street in Warsaw." As commonly used, this juxtaposition of
characters is referred to as "dots of ellipsis" in the English language.[citation needed]Occasionally, it would be used
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149
in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th C. fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been
censored.Raymond Chandler, Frank MacShane. Raymond Chandler: Stories and Early Novels. First Edition. New
York: Library of America. 1995. Note on the Texts.An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by
context. For example, when Count Dracula says "I never drink . . . wine", the implication is that he does drink
something else. In reported speech, the ellipsis is sometimes used to represent an intentional silence, perhaps
indicating irritation, dismay, shock or disgust. [citation needed]In poetry, this is used to highlight sarcasm or make
the reader think about the last points in the poem. In news reporting, it is used to indicate that a quotation has been
condensed for space, brevity or relevance. Herb Caen, Pulitzer-prize-winning columnist for the San Francisco
Chronicle, became famous for his "Three-dot journalism". In different languagesIn EnglishThe Chicago Manual of
Style suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of
a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission,
while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots:...) and omissions
between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots:....). An ellipsis at the end of a sentence with
a sentence following should be preceded by a period (for a total of four dots).The Modern Language Association
(MLA), however, used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an
ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was
no pause in the original quote: [ ... ]. Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style
handbooks. However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.Fowler, H.
Ramsey, Jane E. Aaron, Murray McArthur. The Little, Brown Handbook. Fourth Canadian Edition. Toronto:
LongmanPearson Longman. 2005. p. 440.The Modern Language AssociationMLA now indicates that a three-dot,
spaced ellipsis () should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote. When crossing
sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four-dot, spaced
(except for before the first dot) ellipsis (....) should be used. When ellipsis points are used in the original text,
ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g. "text
[...] text").http://www.naropa.edu/nwc/documents/citationcomparisonsp11.pdfAccording to the Associated Press, the
ellipsis should be used to condense quotations. It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an
unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip. The stylebook indicates that if the
shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or
other ending punctuation. When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an
ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and in front of the beginning of the next, according to this
style.Godlstein, Norm, editor. "Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law". 2005.
pp.328329.According to Robert Bringhurst's Elements of Typographic Style, the details of typesetting ellipsis
depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full
space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too
wide"he recommends using flush dots, or thin spacethin-spaced dots (up to one-fifth of an em (typography)em), or
the prefabricated ellipsis character (Unicode U+2026, Latin entity …). Bringhurst suggests that normally an
ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the
leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. This is the usual practice in typesetting. He provides the
following examples: i... j k.... l..., l l,... l m...? n...! In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the Bluebook
citation guide governs the use of ellipsis and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent
dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final
punctuation. In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as three asterisks (*** or ***) to make it obvious that text
has been omitted.In Polish When applied in Polish language syntax, the ellipsis is called wielokropek, which means
"multidot". The word wielokropek distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that of mathematical notation, in
which it is known as an elipsa.When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed
in parentheses or square brackets. An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech. The
syntactical rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document PN-83/P-55366, Zasady skladania
Ellipsis
150
tekstw w jzyku polskim ("Rules for setting texts in the Polish Language"). In Japanese The most common
character corresponding to an ellipsis is called 3-ten rd ("3-dot leaders", ). 2-ten rd exists as a character, but it
is used less commonly. In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two 3-ten rd characters, ). Three
dots (one 3-ten rd character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header. However, variations in the
number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height
(between the baseline (typography)baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Microsoft
WindowsWindows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word
for dot is pronounced "ten", the dots are colloquially called "ten-ten-ten" (!!!!!!, akin to the English "dot dot dot").In
Japanese languageJapanese manga, the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "Comic timing#Pregnant
pausepregnant pause". Given the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt to an expression of being
dumbfounded at another person's words or actions. As a device, the ten-ten-ten is intended to focus the reader on a
character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative
"camera" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see
inanimate objects "speaking" the ellipsis.In Chinese In Chinese languageChinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two
groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal space as two characters) (i.e. ). The dots are always
centered within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal (on the baseline has become acceptable)[citation
needed] and centered horizontally when vertical. In mathematical notation An ellipsis is also often used in
mathematics to mean "and so forth". In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as
in: 1,2,3,\ldots,100\,.To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the
line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:
1+2+3+\cdots+100\,(though sometimes, for example, in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are
used even in repeated summationsMnnrnnn A. 3. Haenrckn cnonapr-cnpanonnnk. H. 3-e, ncnp. n on.,
3nekponnoe M.: OHMA-Hpecc, 2006. (in Russian)). The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers
from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol. Repeated summations or products may
similarly be denoted using capital sigma notationcapital sigma and capital pi notation, respectively:
1+2+3+\cdots+100\ = \sum_{n=1}^{100} n1 \times 2 \times 3 \times \cdots \times 100\ = \prod_{n=1}^{100} n =
100! (see factorial) Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being
to show the indefinite continuation of an irrational number such as: \pi=3.14159265\ldotsSometimes, it is useful to
display a formula compactly, for example: 1+4+9+\cdots+n^2+\cdots+400\,.Another example is the set of Root of a
functionzeros of the cosine function (mathematics)function. \left\{\pm\frac{\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{3\pi}{2},
\pm\frac{5\pi}{2}, \ldots \right\}\,.There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation. The diagonal and
vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in matrix (mathematics)matrices, such
as the size-n identity matrixI_n = \begin{bmatrix}1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\0 & 1 & \cdots & 0 \\\vdots & \vdots &
\ddots & \vdots \\0 & 0 & \cdots & 1 \end{bmatrix}.The use of ellipses in mathematical proofs is often discouraged
because of the potential for ambiguity. For this reason, and because the ellipsis supports no systematic rules for
symbolic calculation, in recent years some authors have recommended avoiding its use in mathematics
altogether.Roland Backhouse, Program Construction: Calculating Implementations from Specifications. Wiley
(2003), page 138Computer interfaces and programming Ellipses are often used in an operating system's taskbars or
web browser Tabbed document interfacetabs to indicate longer titles than will fit. Hovering the cursor over the tab
often displays a tooltip of the full title. When many programs are open, or during a "tab explosion" in web browsing,
the tabs may be reduced in size so much that no characters from the actual titles show, and ellipses take up all the
space besides the program icon or favicon. In many user interface guidelines, a "" after the name of a command
implies that the user will need to provide further information, for example in a subsequent dialog box, before the
action can be completed. A typical example is the Save As command, which after being clicked will usually
require the user to enter a filename, as opposed to Save where the file will usually be saved under its existing
name.An ellipsis character after a status message signifies that an operation may take some time, as in "Downloading
updates". The ellipsis is used as an operator (programming)operator in some programming languages. The precise
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151
meaning varies by language, but it generally involves something dealing with multiple items. One of its most
common uses is in defining variadic functions which can take an unknown number of arguments in the C and C++
languages. See Ellipsis (programming operator).On the Internet and in text messaging The ellipsis is a non-verbal
cue that is often used in computer-mediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as chat. The
reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions: the sign of
ellipsis can function as a floor holding device, and signal that more is to come, for instance when people break up
longer turns in chat dot-dot-dot can be used systematically to enact linguistic politeness, for instance indicating topic
change or hesitation suspension dots can be turn-constructional units to signal silence, for example when indicating
disagreement, disapproval or confusion Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in
popularity as a "trailing-off" or "silence" indicator, particularly in mid-20th century comic strip and comic book
prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipsis anywhere from two to dozens of periods
have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages. The extent of repetition in itself might
serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue, to "extend the lexical meaning of the words, add
character to the sentences, and allow fine-tuning and personalisation of the message"Computer representations In
computing, several ellipsis character (computing)characters have been codified, depending on the system used. In the
Unicode standard, there are the following characters: Name Character Unicode HTML entity name orNumeric
character reference Use Horizontal ellipsis U+2026 … General Lao languageLaotian ellipsis ! U+0EAF
ຯ General Mongolian languageMongolian ellipsis ! U+1801 ᠁ General Thai languageThai ellipsis
+ U+0E2F ฯ General Vertical ellipsis : U+22EE &vellip; Mathematics Midline horizontal ellipsis
U+22EF ⋯ Mathematics Up-right diagonal ellipsis . U+22F0 ⋰ Mathematics Down-right
diagonal ellipsis U+22F1 ⋱ Mathematics Presentation form for vertical horizontal ellipsis ! U+FE19
︙ Vertical form In Windows, it can be inserted with Alt+0133. In MacOS, it can be inserted with ! Opt+;
(on an English language keyboard). In Linux, it can be inserted with AltGr+.In Chinese languageChinese and
sometimes in Japanese languageJapanese, ellipsis characters are done by enteringWikipedia:Please clarify two
consecutive horizontal ellipsis (U+2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol
accordingly.Unicode recognizes a series of three full stopperiod characters (U+002E) as Unicode
equivalencecompatibility equivalent (though not canonical) to the horizontal ellipsis character. UnicodeData.txt:
2026;HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS;Po;0;ON;<compat> 002E 002E 002E;;;;N;;;;;In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis
character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by
the entity reference &vellip; (since HTML 5.0). Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character
reference such as … or … can be used. In the TeXTeX typesetting system, the following types of
ellipsis are available: Character name Character TeX markup Lower ellipsis \ldots\,\!\ldots Centred ellipsis
\cdots\,\!\cdots Diagonal ellipsis \ddots\,\!\ddots Vertical ellipsis \vdots\,\!\vdots Up-right diagonal ellipsis
\reflectbox{\ddots}The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps: in Windows
code pageWindows-1250Windows-1258 and in IBM/MS-DOS Code page 874, at code pointcode 85
(hexadecimal) in Mac-Roman encodingMac-Roman, Macintosh Central European encodingMac-CentEuro and
several other Macintosh encodings, at code C9 (hexadecimal) in Ventura International encoding at code C1
(hexadecimal) Note that ISO/IEC 8859 encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis. As with all characters,
especially those outside of the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in
agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly
assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake. The The Chicago Manual of StyleChicago
Style Q&A recommends to avoid the use of (U+2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus
two nonbreaking spaces (...) instead, so that an editor, publisher, or designer can replace them later.In Abstract
Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), the ellipsis is used as an extension marker to indicate the possibility of type
extensions in future revisions of a protocol specification. In a type constraint expression like A ::= INTEGER
(0..127, ..., 256..511) an ellipsis is used to separate the extension root from extension additions. The definition of
type A in version 1 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ...) and the definition of type A in version 2 system
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of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) constitute an extension series of the same type A in different
versions of the same specification. The ellipsis can also be used in compound type definitions to separate the set of
fields belonging to the extension root from the set of fields constituting extension additions. Here is an example: B
::= SEQUENCE { a INTEGER, b INTEGER, ..., c INTEGER } ReferencesFurther readingRobert
BringhurstBringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (Version 2.5 ed.). Point Roberts,
Washington: Hartley & Marks. pp.8283. International Standard Book NumberISBN978-0-88179-132-7. OCLC
50848361. Halliday, M.A.K, and Ruqayia, H. (1976), Cohesion in English, London: Longman.Morris, William
(1980). The Houghton Mifflin Canadian Dictionary of the English Language. Markham, OntarioMarkham, ON:
Houghton Mifflin Canada. pp.424 (spacing of dots: . . .). International Standard Book
NumberISBN978-0-395-29654-7. OCLC 8063090.
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! Exclamation mark Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( ,
Portal Portal The exclamation mark is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or Sentence
(linguistics)exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence.
Example: Watch out! The character is encoded in Unicode as U+0021 ! exclamation point (HTML:
!).History One theory of its origin is that it was a Latin exclamation of joy (io), written with the I above the
o.[citation needed]The exclamation mark was first introduced into English printing in the 15th century, and was
called the "sign of admiration or exclamation" or the "note of admiration" until the mid-17th century; admiration
referred to its Latin sense of wonderment. The exclamation mark did not have its own dedicated key on standard
manual typewriters before the 1970s. Instead, one typed a Full stopperiod, backspaced, and typed an
apostrophe.Truss (2004), p. 135. In the 1950s, secretarial dictation and typesetting manuals in America referred to
the mark as "bang," perhaps from comic books where the ! appeared in dialogue balloons to represent a gun being
fired, although the nickname probably emerged from letterpress printing. This bang usage is behind the titles of the
interrobang, an uncommon typographic character, and a shebang line, a feature of Unix computer systems. Slang and
other names for the exclamation mark This punctuation mark is called, in the printing world, "a screamer, a gasper, a
startler, or ... a dog's cock".In Hacker (programmer subculture)hacker culture, the exclamation mark is called "bang",
"shriek", or, in the British slang known as Commonwealth Hackish, "pling". For example, the password
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communicated in the spoken phrase "Your password is em-zero-pee-aitch-pling-en-three" is m0ph!n3. Other slang
names are dembanger and shout pole.[citation needed]LanguagesThe exclamation mark is common to languages
using the Latin alphabet, although usage varies slightly between languages. The exclamation point is also used in
languages with other scripts, such as Greek languageGreek, Russian languageRussian, Arabic languageArabic,
Hebrew languageHebrew, Chinese languageChinese, Korean languageKorean and Japanese languageJapanese but it
has never been found in Hindi. English A sentence ending in an exclamation mark may be an Sentence
(linguistics)exclamation (such as "Wow!", "Boo!"), or an imperative moodimperative ("Stop!"), or may indicate
astonishment: "They were the footprints of a gigantic duck!" Exclamation marks are occasionally placed
mid-sentence with a function similar to a comma, for dramatic effect, although this usage is obsolescent: "On the
walk, oh! there was a frightful noise." The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe. "Villains!" I shrieked, "dissemble no
more! I admit the deed! tear up the planks! here, here! it is the beating of his hideous heart!"Informally,
exclamation marks may be repeated for additional emphasis ("That's great!!!"), but this practice is generally
considered unacceptable in formal prose.The exclamation mark is sometimes used in conjunction with the question
mark. This can be in protest or astonishment ("Out of all places, the squatter-camp?!"); a few writers replace this
with a single, nonstandard punctuation mark, the interrobang, which is the combination of a question mark and an
exclamation point. Again, this is informal. Overly frequent use of the exclamation mark is generally considered poor
writing, for it distracts the reader and devalues the mark's significance. Cut out all those exclamation points. An
exclamation point is like laughing at your own jokes. F. Scott FitzgeraldSome authors, however, most notably
Tom Wolfe, are known for unashamedly liberal use of the exclamation mark. In comic books, the very frequent use
of exclamation mark is commonsee exclamation point#ComicsComics, below. For information on the use of
spaces after an exclamation mark, see the discussion of Full stop#Spacing after a full stopspacing after a full stop.
Several studies have shown that women use exclamation marks more than men do, and one study suggests that, in
addition to other usage, exclamation points may also function as markers of friendly interaction, for example, by
making "Hi!" or "Good luck!" seem friendlier than simply "Hi." or "Good luck." (with periods). French In French
languageFrench, next to marking exclamations or indicating astonishment, the exclamation mark is also commonly
used to mark orders or requests: Viens ici ! (English: "Come here!"). A space ( espace fine ) is used between the
last word and the exclamation mark.German In German languageGerman, the exclamation mark has several specific
uses for which English languageEnglish employs other forms of punctuation: In the salutation line of a letter, for
which English uses a Comma (punctuation)comma: Lieber Hans! (English: "Dear Hans,") In this case, the first word
of the following sentence begins with a capital letter. However, usage of a comma, as in English, is both also
acceptable and far more common.On signs, not just those warning of danger as discussed below, the exclamation
mark is used to emphasize the sign's content: Betreten verboten! (English: "No trespassing")At the end of an
Imperative moodimperative sentence: Ruf mich morgen an! (English: "Call me tomorrow.")Spanish In Spanish
languageSpanish, a sentence or clause ending in an exclamation mark must also begin with an Inverted question and
exclamation marksinverted exclamation mark (the same also applies to the question mark): Ests loco? Casi la
matas! (English: "Are you crazy? You almost killed her!") For informal written online communications, however,
usage of inverted question and exclamation marks has become less common. Turkish In Turkish languageTurkish, an
exclamation mark is used after a sentence or phrase for emphasis, and is common following both commands and the
addressees of such commands. For example, in Ordular! lk hedefiniz Akdenizdir, ileri! ("Armies! Your first target is
the Mediterranean") order by Atatrk, ordular (the armies) constitute the addressee. It is further used in parentheses
"(!)" after a sentence or phrase to indicate irony or sarcasm: ok iyi bir i yaptin (!) ("You've done a very good job
Not!").Phonetics In Khoisan languages, and the International Phonetic Alphabet, the exclamation mark is used as a
letter to indicate the postalveolar click sound (represented as q in Zulu languageZulu orthography). In Unicode, this
letter is properly coded as U+01C3 ! latin letter retroflex click and distinguished from the common punctuation
symbol U+0021 ! exclamation mark to allow software to deal properly with word breaks.The exclamation point has
sometimes been used as a phonetic notationphonetic symbol to indicate that a consonant is ejective
consonantejective. More commonly this is represented by an apostrophe, or a superscript glottal stop symbol
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(U+02C0 modifier letter glottal stop). InterrobangThere is a nonstandard punctuation mark intended to combine
the functions of a question mark and an exclamation mark in English languageEnglish called interrobang, which
resembles those marks superimposed over one another ("") but it is seldom seen outside Wikipedia articles or
Unicode documentation - the sequence of "?!" or "!?" is used almost exclusively. Proper names Although
exclamation marks are, as a standard, part of a complete sentence and not the spelling of individual words, they
appear in many proper names, especially in commercial advertising. Prominent examples include the World Wide
WebWeb service Yahoo!, the game show Jeopardy! and the '60s musical TV show Shindig!. The titles of the musical
theatremusicals Oklahoma!, Oliver! and Oh! Calcutta! and the movies Airplane! and Moulin Rouge! also contain
exclamation points. Writer Elliot S! Maggin and cartoonist Scott Shaw (artist)Scott Shaw! include exclamation
marks in their names.Place names The EnglandEnglish town of Westward Ho!, named after Westward Ho!
(novel)the novel by Charles Kingsley, is the only place name in the United Kingdom that officially contains an
exclamation point. There is a town in Quebec called Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, QuebecSaint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, which
is spelled with two exclamation marks. The city of Hamilton, OhioHamilton, Ohio, changed its name to Hamilton! in
1986.Kemme, Steve (September21,2001). "City's gimmick made a point". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved
2010-08-26. The city of Ostrava, Czech Republic, chnaged its logotype to Ostrava!!! in 2008 "Logo of the City of
Ostrava". Official Website of Ostrava City; however the official name was still not changed yet. WarningsWarning
signs are often an exclamation point enclosed within a triangle Exclamation points are used to emphasize a
precautionary statement. On warning signs, an exclamation mark is often used to draw attention to a warning of
danger, hazards, and the unexpected. These signs are common in hazardous environments or on potentially
dangerous equipment. A common type of this warning is a yellow triangle with a black exclamation point, but a
white triangle with a red border is common on European Warning signroad warning signs. New Zealand road sign
warning of a "cattle stop" (cattle grid/cattle guard)SarcasmIn writing and often Subtitle (captioning)subtitles,
especially in British English, a (!) symbol (an exclamation point within Bracket#Parentheses %28 %29parentheses)
implies that a character has made an obviously sarcasmsarcastic comment e.g.: "Ooh, a sarcasm detector. That's a
really useful invention(!)"Unicode The mark is encoded as U+0021 ! exclamation markexclamation mark. Related
forms are encoded: U+01C3 ! latin letter retroflex click (In IPA: alveolar click) U+203C ! double exclamation mark
(for use in vertical text)U+2048 ? question exclamation mark (for use in vertical text)U+2049 ! exclamation
question mark (for use in vertical text)U+2755 ! white exclamation mark ornament (in Unicode lingo, white means
hollow)U+2757 ! heavy exclamation mark symbolU+2762 1 heavy exclamation mark ornamentU+2763 7 heavy
heart exclamation mark ornamentU+A71D ! modifier letter raised exclamation markU+A71E ! modifier letter raised
inverted exclamation markU+A71F ! modifier letter low inverted exclamation markU+FE57 ! small exclamation
mark (for special applications within CJK charactersCJK text)U+FF01 ! fullwidth exclamation mark (for special
applications within CJK charactersCJK text)U+E0021 tag exclamation markSome scripts have their own
exclamation mark: U+055C ! Armenian alphabetarmenian exclamation markU+07F9 ! N'Ko scriptnko exclamation
markU+109F ! Burmese scriptmyanmar symbol shan exclamationU+1944 ! Limbu scriptlimbu exclamation
markUse in various fieldsMathematics In mathematics, the symbol represents the factorial operation. The expression
n! means "the product of the integers from 1 to n". For example, 4! (read four factorial) is 4 3 2 1 = 24. (0! is
defined as 1, which is a neutral element in multiplication, not multiplied by anything.)Computers In computing, the
exclamation mark (sometimes called a "bang") corresponds to ASCII character (computing)character 33 (21 in
hexadecimal). It is therefore found in Unicode at U+0021 ! exclamation mark. The inverted exclamation mark is
found in ISO-8859-ISO-8859-11, ISO-8859-99 and ISO-8859-1515 at position 161 (A1HEX) and in Unicode at
U+00A1 inverted exclamation mark. The name given to "!" by programmers varies according to their background.
In the UK the term pling was popular in the earlier days of computing, whilst in the USA the term Vociferationshriek
was used. It is claimed that these word usages were invented in the US and shriek is from Stanford or MIT; however,
shriek for the ! sign is found in the Oxford English Dictionary dating from the 1860s. Several computer languages
use "!" for various meanings, most importantly for logical negation; e.g. A!=B means "A is inequationnot equal to
B", and !A means "the logical negation of A" (also called "not A"). In the UK, BBC BASIC used pling as an
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indirection operator, equivalent to PEEK and POKE of four bytes at once.Plings are also used in Acorn Computers
LtdAcorn RISC OS to denote an application directory: a folder that when double clicked executes a program file
inside called !Run. Other files in the appfolder generally contain resources the application needs to run. The
appfolder can be viewed as a normal folder by double clickdouble-clicking with the shift key held down. In addition,
other special resource files such as !Boot (executed the first time the application containing it comes into view of the
filer), !Sprites (an icon file containing icon definitions loaded if !Boot cannot be found) and !Help (a text, HTML or
other executable file listed in the filer menu for the application) also start with a pling.Early e-mail systems also used
the exclamation mark as a separator character between hostnames for routing information, usually referred to as
"UUCP#UUCP for mail routingbang path" notation. In the Internet Relay ChatIRC protocol, a user's nickname and
Identifierident are separated by an exclamation point in the hostmask assigned to him or her by the server. In the
Geek Code version 3, "!" is used before a letter to denote that the geek refuses to participate in the topic at hand. In
some cases, it has an alternate meaning, such as G! denoting a geek of no qualifications, !d denoting not wearing any
clothes, P! denoting not being allowed to use Perl, and so on. They all share some negative connotations
however.When computer programs display messages that alert the user, an exclamation mark may be shown
alongside it to indicate that the message is important and should be read. This often happens when an error is made,
or to obtain user consent for hazardous operations such as deleting data. In UNIX scripting (typically for UNIX shell
or Perl), "!" is usually used after a "#" in the first line of a script, the interpreter directive, to tell the OS what
program to use to run the script. The "#!" is usually called a "hash-bang" or shebang (Unix)shebang. An exclamation
mark starts history expansions in many Unix shells such as Bash (Unix shell)bash and tcsh where !! executes the
previous command and !* refers to all of the arguments from the previous command. In the ML (programming
language)ML programming language (including Standard ML and OCaml), "!" is the operator to get the value out of
a "reference" data structure. In the Haskell (programming language)Haskell programming language, "!" is used to
express strictness. In the Scheme (programming language)Scheme and Ruby (programming language)Ruby
programming languages, "!" is conventionally the suffix for functions and special forms which mutate their input.
Video games In the Metal Gear (series)Metal Gear series of stealth games, a red exclamation point (!) appears above
an enemy's head with a short, loud noise if they see the player. When this happens, the enemy will try to attack the
player.In the Pokmon series, rival trainers have an exclamation point appear above the head of other trainers when
they spot the main character's trainer. In certain Versions of the game an exclamation point also appears on the main
character's head when they hook a fish on one of the game's three rods (Old Rod, Good Rod and Super Rod).In the
Paper Mario series, enemies have an exclamation point appear over their heads if they notice Mario, Luigi, Peach, or
Bowser.In the Warcraft series, Non-player characterNPCs having available quests for players are represented with an
yellow exclamation point floating over their heads. If the quest is repeatable it is represented with a blue exclamation
point.In the Counter-Strike games, a green exclamation point appears above a player's head if the player uses a radio
command.In "Minecraft" the splash screen includes a quote followed by an exclamation point. Internet culture In
recent Computer cultureInternet culture, especially where leet is used, multiple exclamation marks may be affixed
with the numeral "1" as in !!!!!!111. The notation originates from a common error: when typing multiple
exclamation points quickly, the typist may fail to hold the Shift keyShift1 combination which produces the
exclamation mark on many keyboard layouts. This error, first used intentionally as a joke in the leet linguistic
community, is now an accepted form of exclamation in leet and derivative dialects such as LolcatLolspeak. Some
utterances include further substitutions, for example "!!!111oneeleven".In fandom and fanfiction, ! is used to signify
a defining quality in a character, usually signifying an alternate interpretation of a character from a Canon
(fiction)canonical work. Examples of this would be "Romantic!Draco" or "Vampire!Harry" from Harry Potter
fandom. It is also used to clarify the current persona of a character with multiple identities or appearances, such as to
distinguish "Armor!Al" from "Human!Al" in a work based on Fullmetal Alchemist. The origin of this usage is
unknown, although it is hypothesized to have originated with certain Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles action figures,
for example, "Football Player! Leonardo", "Rockstar! Raphael", and "Breakdancer! Michelangelo".[citation
needed]ComicsThis Action Comics cover from 1959 ends every sentence with an exclamation point or question
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mark. Often, few or no full stopperiods would be used in the entire book. Some comic books, especially superhero
comics of the mid-20th century, routinely use the exclamation point instead of the period, which means the character
has just realized something; unlike when the question mark appears instead, which means the character is confused,
surprised or he does not know what is happening. This tends to lead to exaggerated speech, in line with the other
hyperboles common in comic books. A portion of the motivation, however, was simply that a period might disappear
in the printing process used at the time, whereas an exclamation point would likely remain recognizable even if there
was a printing glitch. For a short period Stan Lee, as Editor-in-Chief of Marvel Comics, attempted to curb their
overuse by a short-lived ban on exclamation points altogether, which led to an inadvertent lack of ending
punctuation on many sentences.Cronin, Brian (January 28, 2010). Comic Book Legends Revealed #245. Comic
Book Resources. Retrieved 2010-08-26.Comic book writer Elliot S. MagginElliot S! Maggin once accidentally
signed his name with an exclamation due to the habit of using them when writing comic scripts; it became his
professional name from then on.Adams, Eury, Swan (2006). The Krypton Companion. TwoMorrows Publishing. p.
141. ISBN 978-1-893905-61-0. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Superman.nu Elliot S! Maggin Fan page. Similarly, comic
artist Scott Shaw (artist)Scott Shaw! has used the exclamation point after his name throughout his career. In comic
books and comics in general, a large exclamation point is often used near or over a character's head to indicate
surprise. A question mark can similarly be used to indicate confusion. This practice also appears in some video
games. Chess In Algebraic chess notationchess notation Punctuation (chess)#!: Good move"!" denotes a good move,
Punctuation (chess)#!: Brilliant move"!!" denotes an excellent move, "?!" denotes a dubious move, and "!?" denotes
an interesting, risky move. In some chess variants such as large-board Shogi variants, "!" is used to record pieces
capturing by stationary feeding or burning. Scrabble In Scrabble, an exclamation mark written after a word is used to
indicate its presence in the Official Tournament and Club Word List but its absence from the Official Scrabble
Players Dictionary, usually because the word has been judged offensive. Baseball Exclamation points or asterisks
can be used on scorecards to denote a "great defensive play".Holz, Sean. Scoring Baseball - Advanced Symbols
Baseball-Almanac.comPopular music The band "!!!" (pronounced 'Chk Chk Chk') uses exclamation points as its
name.Seabrook, Andrea (May 17, 2007). "The Musicians of!!!: Making Their Own 'Myths' " (Audio: Flash or
MP3). All Things Considered NPR. Retrieved 2010-08-26.In 2008, the pop punk band Panic! At the Disco dropped
the exclamation point in its name; this became the "most-discussed topic on [fan] message boards around the
world".Montgomery, James; Elias, Matt (January 11, 2008). "Panic At The Disco Explain Excised Exclamation
Point". Artist News MTV News. Retrieved 2010-08-26. In 2009, the exclamation mark was re-inserted following the
band's split.Maura (July 10, 2009). "Panic! At The Disco Post New Music, Restore Their Exclamation Point".
Retrieved 2009-07-16.The band Bomb the Music Industry! utilizes an exclamation mark in its name, as well as
several album and song titles and promotional material. Examples include their songs "(Shut) Up The Punx!!!" and
the album Adults!!!: Smart!!! Shithammered!!! And Excited by Nothing!!!!!!!. American musician, Pink
(singer)Pink, is known to use an exclamation point in her stage name, (P!nk), as well as three in the subtitle of her
Greatest Hits album, So Far!!!, which was released in 2010.The title of the Hellogoodbye album Zombies! Aliens!
Vampires! Dinosaurs! contains four exclamation marks. ReferencesExternal links U+0021 exclamation point
Decode Unicode
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Full stop
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. Full stop Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
Portal PortalA full stop (British English, Irish English, Australian English, and New Zealand English) or period
(American English and Canadian English)The term full stop for the term of punctuation is rarely used by speakers in
Canada and virtually never in the United States. In American English, the phrase "full stop" is generally used only in
the context of transport to describe the process of completely halting the motion of a vehicle. See, e.g., Seaboard Air
Line Railway Co. v. Blackwell, "under the laws of the state a train is required to come to a full stop 50 feet from the
crossing"; Chowdhury v. City of Los Angeles, 38 Cal. App. 4th 1187 (1995) "Once the signals failed, the City could
reasonably foresee that motorists using due care would obey the provisions of the Vehicle Code and make a full stop
before proceeding when it was safe to do so". is the punctuation mark placed to indicate the end of Sentence
(linguistics)sentences. In the context of web addresses and computing in general, it is typically called a dot. Some
experts call it a baseline dot , because it is a dot on the baseline (typography)baseline, as distinct from an interpunct
(a middle dot). In conversation, as opposed to linguistics, the term is often used to mean "the end of the matter" (for
example, "We are calling a full stop to discussions on this subject" or "We will not do it. Period!").History The full
stop symbol derives from Aristophanes of Byzantium who invented the system of punctuation where the height of
placement of a dot on the line determined its meaning. The high dot (`) was called a "periodos" and indicated a
finished thought or sentence, the middle dot () was called a "kolon" and indicated part of a complete thought, while
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the low dot (.) was called a "telia" and also indicated part of a complete thought.Daniels, W.: 1994, De geschiedenis
van de komma, SDu Uitgeverij: Den Haag, p. 20.Usage Abbreviations A full stop is used after some abbreviations. If
the abbreviation ends a declaratory sentence there is no additional period immediately following the full stop that
ends the abbreviation (e.g., My name is Gabriel Gama, Jr.). This is called haplography. Though two full stops (one
for the abbreviation, one for the sentence ending) might be expected, conventionally only one is written. In the case
of an interrogative or exclamatory sentence ending with an abbreviation, a question or exclamation mark can still be
added (e.g., Are you Gabriel Gama, Jr.?).Titles In British English, abbreviations of titles often omit a period, as in
Mr, Dr, Prof, Rev, Gen, which in American English would be given as Mr., Dr., Prof., Rev., Gen. According to the
Oxford AZ of Grammar and Punctuation, "If the abbreviation includes both the first and last letter of the
abbreviated word, as in 'mister' and 'doctor', a full stop is not used." This does not include Professor, Reverend,
General.Oxford AZ of Grammar and Punctuation by John Seely.In this use, the full stop is also occasionally known
as a suspension mark. This originates from the old practice of marking the end of an abbreviation with the final letter
superscript and a dot beneath it (though still "suspended" above where a full stop would go). Another use of the
suspension mark can be seen in examples such as the "c" in "Mc" (e.g., the Rand McNally logo).Acronyms and
initialisms In acronyms and initialisms, full stops are somewhat more often placed after each initial in American
English (for example, U.S. and U.S.S.R.) than in British English (US and USSR), but this depends much upon the
house style of a particular writer or publisher. Initialisms Oxford Dictionaries Online. The American Chicago
Manual of Style now deprecates the use of full stops in acronyms.The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th
ed.Mathematical usage The glyph has two alternative uses with regard to numbers. It can be used either as a decimal
separator or to present large numbers in a much more readable form. The former use is more prevalent in English
languageEnglish-speaking countries. In much of Europe, Southern Africa, and Latin America (with the exception of
Mexico due to the influence of the United States), a comma is used as a decimal separator, while a full stop or a
space is used for the presentation of large numbers. The following are examples where the comma is or would be
used as a decimal separator: 1.002,003 or 1 002,003 (One thousand and two and three thousandths) 1.002.003 or 1
002 003 (One million two thousand and three) In countries that use the comma as a decimal separator, the full stop is
sometimes found as a multiplication sign; for example, 5,2 . 2 = 10,4. This usage is impractical in cases where the
full stop is used as a decimal separator, hence the use of the interpunct: 5.2 2 = 10.4. This notation is also seen
when multiplying units in science; for example, 50km/h could be written as 50kmh1. Punctuation styles when
quoting The traditional convention in American English and in Canada is "aesthetic" punctuation, or "typesetters'
quotation", where full stops and commas are included inside quotation marks even if they are not part of the quoted
sentence.[citation needed] The style used in the UK, and to a lesser extent in the U.S., is "logical punctuation", which
stays true to the punctuation used by the original source, placing commas and full stops inside or outside quotation
marks depending on where they were placed in the material that is being quoted.[citation needed] Scientific and
technical publications, including in the U.S., almost universally use it for that reason.The aesthetic or typesetter's rule
was standard in early 19th-century Britain; its application was advocated, for example, in the influential book The
King's English by Fowler and Fowler. "Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety." (aesthetic or typesetters' style)
"Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety". (logical style used here because the full stop was not part of the
original quotation) Before the advent of mechanical type, the order of quotation marks with full stops and commas
was not given much consideration. The printing press required that the easily damaged smallest pieces of type for the
comma and full stop be protected behind the more robust quotation marks. AUE: FAQ excerpt: ", vs
,"Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources Typesetters' style still adheres to this older tradition in formal writing. It is
taught to American schoolchildren when they learn how to draft prose, and is strictly observed in most books,
newspapers, magazines, and journals. References: The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition; Hart's RulesHart's
Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford.Spacing after a full stop There have been a
number of conventions relating to the spacing after a full stop. Some examples are listed below: One word space
(Sentence spacing#Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriterFrench Spacing). This is the current convention
in countries that use the ISO basic Latin alphabet for published and final written work, as well as digital media. Two
Full stop
160
word spaces (Sentence spacing#Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriterEnglish Spacing). The two-space
convention stems from the use of the monospaced font on typewritersthe intent was to provide a clear break
between sentences. This spacing method has been replaced by the single space convention in published print and
digital media today.; One widened space (such as an em space). This spacing was seen in History of sentence
spacinghistorical typesetting practices (until the early twentieth century).See for example, It has also been used in
other mechanical typesetting systems such as the Linotype machine cited in and the TeX system. Modern
computer-based digital fonts can adjust the spacing after terminal punctuation as well, creating space slightly wider
than a standard word space.; ; Full stops in other scripts In some Asian languages, notably Chinese languageChinese
and Japanese languageJapanese, a small circle is used instead of a solid dot: "!" (U+3002 "Ideographic Full Stop").
Notably, in Traditional Chinese charactersTaiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao usage, the full stop is written at center
height instead of on the line. In the Devanagari script, used to write Hindi and Sanskrit among other Languages of
IndiaIndian languages, a vertical line ("'") (U+0964 "Devanagari Danda") is used to mark the end of a sentence. In
Hindi, it is known as poorna viraam (full stop). Some Indian languages also use the full stop, such as Marathi
languageMarathi. In Tamil it is known as "Mutrupulli", which means End Dot.In Sinhala languageSinhala, it is
known as kundaliya:"! " ((U+0DF4) symbol "full stop"). Periods were later introduced into Sinhala script after the
introduction of paper due to the influence of Western languages. Sinhala numeralsUrdu uses (".") (U+06D4) symbol.
In Thai languageThai, no symbol corresponding to the full stop is used as terminal punctuation. A sentence is written
without spaces, and a space is typically used to mark the end of a clause or sentence.[citation needed]In the Ge'ez
script used to write Amharic languageAmharic and several other Ethiopian and Eritrean languages, the equivalent of
the full stop following a sentence is the 'arat nettib (=) which means "four dots". The two dots on the right are
slightly ascending from the two on the left, with space in between them.Use in telegrams The term STOP was used
in telegrams in place of the full stop. The end of a sentence would be marked by STOP, because punctuation cost
extra. Julian Borger in The Guardian, February 3, 2006Encodings The character is encoded at UnicodeU+002E . full
stop (HTML: .). Computing use In computing, the full stop is often used as a delimiter (commonly called a
"dot"), such as in Domain Name SystemDNS lookups, web addresses, and Computer filefile names.
www.wikipedia.org document.txt 192.168.0.1It is used in many programming languages as an important part of the
syntax. C (programming language)C uses it as a means of accessing a member of a struct, and this syntax was
inherited by C++ as a means of accessing a member of a Class (computer science)class or Object (computer
science)object. Java (programming language)Java and Python (programming language)Python also follow this
convention. Pascal (programming language)Pascal uses it both as a means of accessing a member of a record set (the
equivalent of struct in C), a member of an object, and after the end construct which defines the body of the program.
In Erlang (programming language)Erlang, Prolog, and Smalltalk, it marks the end of a statement ("sentence"). In a
regular expression, it represents a match of any character. In Perl and PHP, the full stop is the string concatenation
operator. In the Haskell (programming language)Haskell standard library, the full stop is the function composition
operator.In file systems, the full stop is commonly used to separate the Filename extensionextension of a file name
from the name of the file. RISC OS uses full stops to separate levels of the hierarchical file system when writing path
namessimilar to / in Unix-based systems and \ in MS-DOS-based systems. In Unix-like operating systems, some
applications treat files or directories that start with a full stop as hidden filehidden. This means that they are not
displayed or listed to the user by default. In Unix-like systems and Microsoft Windows, the dot character represents
the working directory of the file system. Two dots (..) represent the parent directory of the working directory. Bourne
shell-derived command-line interpreters, such as Bourne shellsh, Korn shellksh, and Bash (Unix shell)Bash, use the
dot as a synonym for the source command, which reads a file and executes its content in the running
interpreter.Notes External links Chicago Style Q&A on one space versus two after sentences
Full stop
161
Guillemets
is too wide
Guillemet Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalGuillemets (pron.: /'qilmrt/, or /qi:'mei/, French: [qijmr]), also called Non-English usage of quotation
marksangle quotes or French quotation marks, are polylines, pointed as if arrows ( or ), sometimes forming a
complementary set of punctuation marks used as a form of quotation mark.The symbol at either enddouble and
or single and is a guillemet. They are used in a number of languages to indicate speech. They resemble (but are
not the same as) the symbols for lesser than, greater than (for the single <), and for left and right
Bitwise_operation#Bit_shiftsbit shifts in some programming languages, MSDN, C++ documentation, Shift
Operators: >> and << MSDN, << Operator (C# Reference) as well as rewind and fast forward on various media
players, such as VCRs, DVD players, and MP3 players.Etymology The word is a diminutive of the French name
Guillaume (the equivalent of which in English is William), after the French printingprinter and punchcutter
Guillaume Le B (152598). Character design standards - Punctuation 1 decodeunicode.org . decode .
LEFT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK Some languages derive their word for guillemets
analogously; for example, the Irish languageIrish term is Liamg, from Liam 'William' and a diminutive
Guillemets
162
suffix.UsesUsed pointing outwards (like this) to indicate speech in these languages and regions:Albanian
languageAlbanianArabic languageArabicArmenian languageArmenianBelarusian languageBelarusianBreton
languageBretonBulgarian languageBulgarian (rarely used, ... is official, but "..." prevails) Catalan
languageCatalanChinese languageChinese (! and ! are used to indicate a book or album title) Estonian
languageEstonianFranco-Provenal languageFranco-ProvenalFrench languageFrench (separated by non-breaking
spaces like this), except in SwitzerlandGalician languageGalicianGreek languageGreekItalian
languageItalianKhmer scriptKhmer (Cambodian) Korean languageNorth Korean (in South Korea " is used)Latvian
languageLatvianLithuanian languageLithuanianNorwegian languageNorwegianPersian languagePersianPolish
LanguagePolish (acceptable and defined to indicate a quote inside a quote by some language standards, but less
common. See the main article for details) Portuguese languagePortuguese (European; now largely replaced by
quotation marks) Romanian languageRomanian, only to indicate a quotation within a quotation Russian
languageRussian, and some languages of the former Soviet Union using Cyrillic scriptCyrillic script Spanish
languageSpanish (uncommon in daily usage, but commonly used in publishing) Swiss languagesUkrainian
languageUkrainianVietnamese languageVietnameseUsed pointing inwards (like this) to indicate speech in these
languages:Croatian languageCroatian (marked usage, ... prevails) Czech languageCzech (marked usage, ...
prevails) Danish languageDanish (... is also used) German languageGerman (Except in Switzerland. ... is more
commonly used) Hungarian languageHungarian (only as a secondary quote, inside a section already marked by the
usual quotes) Polish LanguagePolish (used to indicate a quote inside a quote as defined by dictionaries, more
common usage in practice. See the main article for details) Serbian languageSerbian (marked usage, ... prevails)
Slovak languageSlovak (marked usage, ... prevails) Slovene languageSlovene (used alternatively to ... and "...")
Swedish languageSwedish (... is also used) Used pointing right (like this) to indicate speech in these
languages:Finnish languageFinnishDirection A guillemet is sometimes used to indicate direction, for example: fast
forward button on a media player, or fast rewind indicated by the complementary guillemet a Chevron
(insignia)chevron on road signage to show road direction, or multiple chevrons pointing in the same direction for
emphasis as an alternative to an ellipsis in a document, for example to indicate additional content. The guillemet is
balanced in the spine height of the line for most fonts, so it is more visible than an ellipsis. Guillemets in
computingNavigation Buttons in User Interfaces Guillemets are often used on buttons that enable forward and
backward navigation across a set of items (for example in VB, MS Access, email clients, article comment sections,
etc). Often a guillemet signifies navigation to the first () or last () item in a list, while a corresponding single angle
(not actually a guillemet) signifies navigation to the previous (<) or next (>) item. Typing "" and "" on computers
InWindows: Alt + 0171 Alt + 7598 Alt + 174 Alt + 686 Alt + 0187 Alt + 7599 Alt + 175 Alt + 687 With a US
International Keyboard and corresponding layout, Alt Gr+[ and Alt Gr+] can also be used. The characters are
standard on French Canadian keyboards and some others. Macintosh users can type "" as ! Opt+\ and "" as ! Opt+
Shift+\. (This applies to all English-language keyboard layouts supplied with the operating system, e.g. "Australian",
"British", "Canadian", "Irish", "Irish Extended", "U.S." and "U.S. Extended". Other language layouts may differ). In
French-language keyboard layouts ! Opt+7 and ! Opt+ Shift+7 can be used. For users of Unix-like operating
systems running the X Window System, creation of the guillemet depends on a number of factors including the
keyboard layout that is in effect. For example, with US International Keyboard layout selected a user would type Alt
Gr+[ for "" and Alt Gr+] for "". On some configurations they can be written by typing "" as Alt Gr+z and "" as
Alt Gr+x. With the compose key, press Compose+<+< and Compose+>+>. Additionally with the ibus input method
framework enabled, users may enter these characters into those applications that accept it by using Ctrl+ Shift+U
followed by their Unicode code points: either AB or BB, respectively. EncodingUnicodeWindows code pages
Character entity referenceCompose key Name hexadecimalhexdecimaldec hex dec LEFT-POINTING DOUBLE
ANGLE QUOTATION MARK 00AB 0171 AB 171 « Compose+<+< SINGLE LEFT-POINTING ANGLE
QUOTATION MARK 2039 8249 8B 139 &lsaquo; Compose+.+< RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE
QUOTATION MARK 00BB 0187 BB 187 » Compose+>+> SINGLE RIGHT-POINTING ANGLE
QUOTATION MARK 203A 8250 9B 155 &rsaquo; Compose+.+> Despite their names, the characters are mirrored
Guillemets
163
when used in text directionright-to-left contexts. Double guillemets are present also in several of ISO 8859 code
pages (namely: ISO 8859-1-1, ISO 8859-7-7, ISO 8859-8-8, ISO 8859-9-9, ISO 8859-13-13, ISO 8859-15-15, ISO
8859-16-16) on the same code points. UML Guillemets are used in Unified Modeling Language to indicate a
stereotype (UML)stereotype of a standard element. Gmail Gmail offers an orange guillemet as an optional star that
can be applied to messages. Gmail Help Gmail also uses single and double angles to denote messages sent directly to
the recipient, although it calls them arrows rather than guillemets. Gmail HelpMail mergeMicrosoft Word uses
guillemets when creating mail merges. Microsoft use these punctuation marks to denote a mail merge "field", such as
Title, AddressBlock or GreetingLine. Then on the final printout, the guillemet-marked tags are replaced by the
corresponding data outlined for that field by the user.Guillemet vs. guillemot In Adobe Systems font software, its file
format specifications, and in all fonts derived from these that contain the characters, the word is incorrectly spelled
guillemot (a malapropism: guillemot is actually a species of seabird) in the names of the two glyphs: guillemotleft
and guillemotright. Adobe acknowledges the error.Adobe Systems Inc., PostScript Language Reference 3rd edition,
Addison Wesley 1999. ISBN 0-201-37922-8. Character set endnote 3, page 783.Likewise, X Window SystemX11
mistakenly calls them XK_guillemotleft and XK_guillemotright in the file keysymdef.h. References
Hyphen
164
Hyphen
is too wide
Hyphen - - - Hyphen-minus Non-breaking hyphen Hyphen bullet Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {},
) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! )
Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( ) hyphen-minus ( - ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks (
, , '', "" ) semicolon ( ; ) Slash (punctuation)slash/stroke/solidus ( /, ) Word dividers interpunct ( ) Space
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The hyphen () is a punctuation mark used to join words and
to separate syllables of a single word. The use of hyphens is called hyphenation. The hyphen should not be confused
with dashes (, , , ), which are longer and have different uses, or with the minus sign () which is also
longer.Etymology The term derives from Ancient Greek v` i (hyph hn), contracted from v i (hyp hn) "in
one" (literally "under one").The term j vr (hyphn) was used for a caret-like (^) sign written below two
consecutive letters to indicate that they belong to the same word (where it was necessary to avoid ambiguities in
times before the Space (punctuation)space was used regularly).Usage in English Hyphens are mostly used to break
single words into parts, or to join ordinarily separate words into single words. Spaces should not be placed between a
hyphen and either of the words it connects except when using a suspended or "hanging" hyphen (e.g. nineteenth- and
twentieth-century writers).A definitive collection of hyphenation rules does not exist; rather, different manual of
stylemanuals of style prescribe different usage guidelines. The rules of style that apply to dashes and hyphens have
evolved to support ease of reading in complex constructions; editors often accept deviations from them that will
support, rather than hinder, ease of reading. The use of the hyphen in English compound nouns and verbs has, in
general, been steadily declining. Compounds that might once have been hyphenated are increasingly left with spaces
or are combined into one word. In 2007, the sixth edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary removed the
Hyphen
165
hyphens from 16 000entries, such as fig-leaf (now fig leaf), pot-belly (now pot belly) and pigeon-hole (now
pigeonhole).. The advent of the Internet and the increasing prevalence of computer technology have given rise to a
subset of common nouns that may have been hyphenated in the past (e.g. "toolbar", "hyperlink", "pastebin").Despite
decreased use, hyphenation remains the norm in certain compound modifier constructions and, amongst some
authors, with certain prefixes (see below). Hyphenation is also routinely used to avoid unsightly spacing in justified
texts (for example, in newspaper columns). Separating Justification and line-wrapping When flowing text, it is
sometimes preferable to break a word in half so that it continues on another line rather than moving the entire word
to the next line. The word may be divided at the nearest breakpoint between syllables, and a hyphen inserted to
indicate that the letters form a word fragment, rather than a full word. This allows more efficient use of paper, allows
more regular appearance of right-side margins without requiring spacing adjustments, reduces the problem of river
(typography)rivers, and avoids the need to erase long words begun near the end of a line that do not fit. This kind of
hyphenation is most useful when the width of the column of text is very narrow. For example: Justified textwithout
hyphenationJustified textwith hyphenation We,therefore,the representatives of the United States of
America... We,therefore,therepresen- tatives ofthe United States of America... The details of doing this properly
are complex and language-dependent and can interact with other Orthographyorthographic and typesetting practices.
Hyphenation algorithms, when employed in concert with dictionaries, are sufficient for all but the most formal texts.
See also Justification (typesetting)justification. Prefixes and suffixes Certain prefixes (co-, pre-, mid-, de-, non-,
anti-, etc.) may or may not be hyphenated. Many long-established words, such as preamble, degrade, and prefix, do
not require a hyphen since the prefix is viewed as fully fused. In other cases, usage varies depending on individual or
regional preference. British English tends towards hyphenation (pre-school) whereas American English and
Australian English tend towards omission of the hyphen (preschool). A hyphen is mandatory when a prefix is
applied to a proper (capitalized) adjective (un-American, de-Stalinisation)...In British English, hyphens may be
employed where readers would otherwise be tempted into a mispronunciation (e.g., co-worker is so punctuated
partly to prevent the reader's eye being caught automatically by the word cow). The AP styleAP Stylebook provides
further information on the use of "co-" as a prefix.Hyphens may be used, in association with prefixes, suffixes or
otherwise, when repeated vowels or consonants are pronounced separately rather than being silent or merged in a
diphthong. For example: shell-like, anti-intellectual. In the vowel-vowel case, some English authorities use a
Diaeresis (diacritic)diaeresis (as in coperation, rather than co-operation or cooperation), but this style is now
rare.Some prefixed words are hyphenated to distinguish them from other words that would otherwise be
homographs, such as recreation (fun or sport) and re-creation (the act of creating again).Syllabification and spelling
Hyphens are occasionally used to denote syllabification, as in syl-la-bi-fi-ca-tion. Most British and North American
dictionaries use an interpunct, sometimes called a "middle dot" or "hyphenation point", for this purpose, as in
syllabification. Similarly, hyphens may be used to indicate a word is being or should be spelled, such as
"W-O-R-D spells word".Joining Compound modifiersCompound modifiers are groups of two or more words that
jointly modify the meaning of another word. When a compound modifier other than an adverbadjective
combination appears before a term, the compound modifier is often hyphenated to prevent misunderstanding, such as
in American-football player or little-celebrated paintings. Without the hyphen, there is potential confusion about
whether the writer means a "player of American football" or an "American player of football" and whether the writer
means paintings that are 'little celebrated' or 'celebrated paintings' that are little.Gary Blake and Robert W. Bly, The
Elements of Technical Writing, pg. 48. New York CityNew York: Macmillan Publishers (United States)Macmillan
Publishers, 1993. ISBN 0020130856 Compound modifiers can extend to three or more words, as in
ice-cream-flavored candy, and can be adverbial as well as adjectival (spine-tinglingly frightening). However, if the
compound is a familiar one, it is usually unhyphenated. For example, at least one style guide prefers the construction
high school students, to high-school students.. Although the expression is technically ambiguous ("students of a high
school"/"school students that are on drugs"/"students of grand physical stature"/"students elevated to great altitude"),
it would normally be formulated differently if other than the first meaning were intended. Nounnoun compound
modifiers may also be written without a hyphen when no confusion is likely: grade point average and department
Hyphen
166
store manager. Indiana University Style Guide When the modifier is an adverb ending in -ly or when one of the parts
is a proper noun or a proper adjective, there is no hyphen (e.g. a badly written novel or "a South American
actor).http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000127.htmWhen a compound modifier follows the term to which it
applies, a hyphen is typically not used. For example, "that gentleman is well respected", not "that gentleman is
well-respected". Some authorities differ, and recommend the hyphen when the compound adjective follows the verb
to be or any of its inflections.In the 19th century, it was common to hyphenate adverbadjective modifiers with the
adverb ending in -ly. However, this has become rare. For example, wholly owned subsidiary and quickly moving
vehicle are unambiguous, because the adverbs clearly modify the adjectives: "quickly" cannot modify "vehicle".
However, if an adverb can also function as an adjective, then a hyphen may be or should be used for clarity,
depending on the style guide. For example, the phrase more-important reasons ("reasons that are more important") is
distinguished from more important reasons ("additional important reasons"), where more is an adjective. Similarly,
more-beautiful scenery (with a mass nounmass-noun) is distinct from more beautiful scenery. (In contrast, the
hyphen in "a more-important reason/a more important reason" is not necessary.) The hyphen in little-celebrated
paintings clarifies that one is not speaking of little paintings.Hyphens are used to connect numbers and words in
modifying phrases, particularly with weights and measures, whether using numerals or words for the numbers, as in
28-year-old woman and twenty-eight-year-old woman or 320-foot wingspan.[citation needed] The same usually
holds for abbreviated time units. Hyphens are also used in spelled-out fraction (mathematics)fractions as adjectives
(but not as nouns), such as two-thirds majority and one-eighth portion. However, with symbols for SI unitsas
opposed to the names of these unitsboth the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the U.S. National
Institute of Standards and Technology recommend use without a hyphen: a 25kg sphere. When the units are spelled
out, this recommendation does not apply: a 25-kilogram sphere, a roll of 35-millimeter film. "The International
System of Units (SI)", BIPMBureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006 "Guide for the Use of the International
System of Units (SI)", NIST Special Publication 811, National Institute of Standards and Technology, March 2008In
English, an en dash ( ) sometimes replaces the hyphen in hyphenated compounds if either of its constituent parts is
already hyphenated or contains a space, for example San Franciscoarea residents or public-schoolprivate-school
rivalries. En dashes are more proper than hyphens in ranges (pp.31214) and relationships (bloodbrain barrier) and
to convey the sense of "to", as in BostonWashington, D.C.Washington race.Objectverbal noun compounds When
an object is compounded with a verbal noun, such as Mixer (cooking)egg-beater (a tool that beats eggs), the result is
sometimes hyphenated. Some authors do this consistently, others only for disambiguation; in this case, egg-beater,
egg beater, and eggbeater are all common.An example of an ambiguous phrase appears in they stood near a group of
alien lovers, which without a hyphen implies that they stood near a group of lovers who were aliens; they stood near
a group of alien-lovers clarifies that they stood near a group of people who loved aliens, as "alien" can be either an
adjective or a noun. On the other hand, in the phrase a hungry pizza-lover, the hyphen will often be omitted (a
hungry pizza lover), as "pizza" cannot be an adjective and the phrase is therefore unambiguous.Similarly, there's a
man-eating shark in these waters is nearly the opposite of there's a man eating shark at table 6; the first is a shark,
and the second a man. A government-monitoring program is a program that monitors the government, whereas a
government monitoring program is a government program that monitors something else.Other compounds
Connecting hyphens are used in a large number of miscellaneous compounds, other than modifiers, such as in
lily-of-the-valley, cock-a-hoop, clever-clever, tittle-tattle and orang-utan. Usage is often dictated by convention
rather than fixed rules, and hyphenation styles may vary between authors; for example, orang-utan is also written as
orangutan or orang utan, and lily-of-the-valley may or may not be hyphenated.Some married couples compose a new
surname (sometimes referred to as a double-barrelled name) for their new family by combining their two surnames
with a hyphen. Jane Doe and John Smith might become Jane and John Smith-Doe, or Doe-Smith, for instance. In
some countries, however, only the woman hyphenates her birth surname, appending her husband's surname.
Suspended hyphens A suspended hyphen (also referred to as a "hanging hyphen" or "dangling hyphen") may be used
when a single base word is used with separate, consecutive, hyphenated words which are connected by "and", "or",
or "to". For example, nineteenth-century and twentieth-century may be written as nineteenth- and twentieth-century.
Hyphen
167
This usage is now common in English and specifically recommended in some style guides. Although less common,
suspended hyphens are also used in English when the base word comes first, such as in "investor-owned and
-operated". Usages such as "applied and sociolinguistics" (instead of "applied linguistics and sociolinguistics") are
frowned on in English; the Indiana University Style Guide uses this example and says "Do not 'take a shortcut' when
the first expression is ordinarily open." (i.e., ordinarily two separate words).Other uses A hyphen may be used to
connect groups of numbers, such as in dates (see below), telephone numbers or sports scores, but it is more proper to
use an En dash#En dashen-dash to indicate a range of value. The hyphen is sometimes used to hide letters in words,
as in G-d, although an en-dash can be used as well for stylistic purposes (Gd). Varied meanings Some strong
examples of semantic changes caused by the placement of hyphens: Disease-causing poor nutrition, meaning poor
nutrition that causes diseaseDisease causing poor nutrition, meaning a disease that causes poor nutrition A
man-eating shark is a shark that eats humans. A man eating shark is a man who is eating shark meat. A blue-green
sea is a sea whose color is somewhere between blue and green. A blue green sea is a contradiction, unless "blue" or
"green" are used contextually to mean something other than a color.Three-hundred-year-old trees are an
indeterminate number of trees that are 300 years old.Three hundred-year-old trees are three trees that are 100 years
old.Three hundred year-old trees are 300 trees that are 1 year old.Origin and history The first use of the hyphenand
its originationis often credited to Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany circa 1455 with the publication of his
42-line Gutenberg BibleBible. Examination of an original copy on vellum (Hubay index #35) in the Library of
CongressU. S. Library of Congress shows that Gutenberg's movable type was set justified in a uniform style, 42
equal lines per page. The Gutenberg printing press required words made up of individual letters of type to be held in
place by a surrounding non-printing rigid frame. Gutenberg solved the problem of making each line the same length
to fit the frame by inserting a hyphen as the last element at the right side margin. This interrupted the letters in the
last word, requiring the remaining letters be carried over to the start of the line below. His hyphen appears
throughout the Bible as a short, double line inclined to the right at a 60-degree angle. In medieval times and the early
days of printing, the predecessor of the comma was a Slash (punctuation)slash. As the hyphen ought not to be
confused with this, a double-slash was used, this resembling an equals sign tilted like a slash. Writing forms changed
with time, and included the full development of the comma, so the hyphen could become one horizontal stroke.
Those dictionaries based on the second edition of the Merriam-Webster dictionary used one small, slightly tilted
slash for a hyphen which they added at the end of a line where they broke the word, but used a double-slash, much
like the very old symbol, to indicate a hyphen that was actually a part of the phrase but just happened to fall at the
end of the line. This double-slash would be used in hyphenated phrases in the middle of the text as well, so that there
would be no confusion. In computing In the ASCII character encoding, the hyphen is encoded as character 45. This
character is actually called the hyphen-minus, and it is also used as the minus sign and for dash (punctuation)dashes.
In Unicode, the hyphen-minus is encoded as Unicode#UpluslinkU+002D (-) so that Unicode remains compatible
with ASCII. However, Unicode also encodes the hyphen and minus separately, as U+2010 () and U+2212 ()
respectively, along with the em dash U+2014 (), en dash U+2013 () and other related characters. The
hyphen-minus is a general-purpose character which attempts to fulfill several roles, and wherever accurate
typography is needed, the correct hyphen, minus, or other symbol should be used instead. For example, compare
4+32=5 (minus) and 4+3-2=5 (hyphen-minus); in most fonts the hyphen-minus will have neither the correct width,
thickness nor vertical position. However, the Unicode hyphen is awkward to enter on most keyboards, so the
hyphen-minus character remains very common. They are often used instead of dashes or minus signs in situations
where the proper characters are unavailable (such as ASCII-only text) or difficult to enter, or when the writer is
unaware of the distinction. Some writers use two hyphen-minuses (--) to represent a dash in ASCII text. Since it is
difficult for a computer program to automatically make good decisions on when to hyphenate a word at a line break,
the concept of a soft hyphen was introduced to allow manual specification of a place where a hyphenated break was
allowed without forcing a line break in an inconvenient place if the text was later re-flowed. In contrast, a hyphen
that is always displayed and printed is called a hard hyphen (though some use this term to refer to a non-breaking
hyphen; see below). Soft hyphens are inserted into the text at the positions where hyphenation may occur. It is a
Hyphen
168
tedious task to insert the soft hyphens by hand, and tools using hyphenation algorithms are available that do this
automatically. The upcoming Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) version 3 will provide language-specific hyphenation
dictionaries.Most text systems consider a hyphen to be a word boundary and a valid point at which to break a line
when flowing text. However, this is not always desirable behavior, especially when it could lead to ambiguity (such
as in the examples given before, where recreation and re-creation would be indistinguishable), or in languages other
than English (e.g. a line break at the hyphen in Irish languageIrish an t-athair or Romanian languageRomanian s-a
would be undesirable). For this purpose, Unicode also encodes a non-breaking hyphen as U+2011 (-, coded for by
‑). This character looks identical to the regular hyphen, but it is treated as a letter by word processors,
namely that the hyphenated word will not be divided at the hyphen should this fall at what would be the end of a line
of text; instead, the whole hyphenated word either will remain in full at the end of the line or will go in full to the
beginning of the next line.The ASCII hyphen-minus character is also often used when specifying command-line
options. The character is usually followed by one or more letters that indicate specific actions. Typically it is called a
dash or switch in this context. Various implementations of the getoptgetopt() function to parse command-line options
additionally allow the use of two hyphen-minus characters (--) to specify long option names that are more
descriptive than their single-letter equivalents. Another use of hyphens is that employed by programs written with
Pipeline (Unix)pipelining in mind a single hyphen may be recognized in lieu of a filename, with the hyphen then
serving as an indicator that a standard streamsstandard stream, instead of a file, is to be worked with. Usage in date
notation In parts of Europe, the hyphen is used to delineate parts within a written date. Germans[citation needed] and
Slavs also used Roman numerals for the month; 14-VII-1789, for example, is one way of writing the first Bastille
Day, though this usage is rapidly falling out of favour. Plaques on the wall of the Moscow Kremlin are written this
way. Use of hyphens, as opposed to the slashes used in the English language, is specified for international
standards.International standard ISO 8601, which was accepted as European Standard EN 28601 and incorporated
into various typographic style guides (e.g., DIN 5008 in Germany), brought about a new standard using the hyphen.
Now all official European governmental documents use this. These norms prescribe writing dates using hyphens:
1789-07-14 is the new way of writing the first Bastille Day. This is also the typical date format used in large parts of
Eastern Europe and Asia, although sometimes with other separators than the hyphen. This method has gained
influence within North America, as most common computer filesystems make the use of slashes difficult or
impossible. DOS, OS/2 and Windows simultaneously support both \ and / as directory separators, but / is also used to
introduce and separate switches to shell commands (unless reconfigured to use the hyphen-minus in DOS). Unix-like
systems use / as a directory separator and, while \ is legal in filenames, it is awkward to use as the shell uses it as an
escape character. Unix also uses a space followed by a hyphen to introduce switches. Apart from the separator used
the non-year form of the date format is also identical to the standard American representation. The ISO date format
sorts correctly using a default collation, which can be useful in many computing situations including for filenames,
so many computer systems and IT technicians have switched to this method. The government of the Commonwealth
of Massachusetts, for example, has switched to this method.[citation needed]Unicode Apart from dash and minus
sign, Unicode has multiple hyphen characters: U+2010 hyphen (HTML: ‐) U+002D - hyphen-minus
(HTML: -) (still not to be confused with U+2212 minus sign) U+00AD soft hyphen (HTML: )
U+2011 - non-breaking hyphen (HTML: ‑) also see {{nbhyph}} U+2043 - hyphen bullet (HTML: ⁃)
And in non-Latin scripts: U+058A ! armenian hyphen (HTML: ֊) U+1400 ! canadian syllabics hyphen
(HTML: ᐀) U+1806 ! mongolian todo soft hyphen (HTML: ᠆) References External links A short
guide to using the hyphen Economist Style Guide Hyphens Compound Words: When to Hyphenate Jukka
Korpela, Soft hyphen (SHY) - a hard problem? (see also his article on word breaking, line breaks, and special
characters (including hyphens) in HTML) Markus Kuhn, Unicode interpretation of SOFT HYPHEN breaks ISO
8859-1 compatibility. Unicode Technical Committee document L2/03-155R, June 2003. Hyphenator.js,
Hyphenator.js source code hypho-o, hypho-o online soft hyphen insertion tool Lyric Hyphenator, Online
Hyphenation Tool United States Government Printing Office Style Manual 2000 6. COMPOUNDING RULES
ushuaia.pl, online hyphenator (multilanguage)
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Hyphen-minus
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- Hyphen-minus Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The hyphen-minus (-) is a Character (computing)character used in digital documents and computing to
represent a hyphen () or a minus sign (). It is present in Unicode as code point U+002D - hyphen-minus; it is also
in ASCII with the same value. The use of one character for hyphen and minus, and sometimes also for en dash, was a
compromise made in the early days of fixed-width typewriters and computer displays. However, in proper
typesetting and graphic design, there are distinct characters for hyphens, dashes, and the minus sign. Usage of the
hyphen-minus nonetheless persists in many contexts, as it is well-known, easy to enter on Alphanumeric
keyboardkeyboards, and in the same location in all common character sets. Most programming languages, restricting
themselves to ASCII, use the hyphen-minus, rather than the Unicode character U+2212 minus sign, for denoting
subtraction and negative numbers. Historically, an em dash is represented by two hyphen-minus signs in succession,
or even three in TeX markup. References
Hyphen-minus
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Interpunct
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Interpunct Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash
Portal PortalAn interpunct ( ), also called an interpoint, is a punctuation mark consisting of a dot used for interword
separation in ancient Latin alphabetLatin script and in some modern languages as a stand-alone sign inside a word. It
is present in Unicode as code point U+00B7 middle dot (HTML: · ·).The dot is vertically centered,
e.g. "RequiemDONAEISREQVIEM", and is therefore also called a middle dot or centered dot (Commonwealth:
centred dot). In addition to the round dot form, inscriptions sometimes use a small equilateral triangle for the
interpunct, pointing either up or down. Such triangles can be found on inscriptions on buildings in the twentieth
century. Ancient Greek, by contrast, had not developed interpuncts; all the letters ran together. The use of space
(punctuation)spaces for word separation did not appear until much later, some time between 600 and 800 Anno
DominiAD.The dot operator (also called middle dot and visually similar or identical to the interpunct) is a
multiplication sign (instead of the often used in English-speaking countries): a multiplied by b is written either
explicitly as ab or implicitly as ab, depending on context. It also discriminates the scalar product (ab) from the
vector cross product (ab or atb) in vector multiplication. Kerning differs from the interpunct in many computer
Interpunct
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fonts.In written language Various dictionaries often use the interpunct (in this context, sometimes called hyphenation
point) to indicate syllabification within a word with multiple syllables.Yet there is also a separate Unicode character
with the name hyphenation point, code point U+2027.EnglishBritish English In United KingdomBritish typography,
an interpunct is sometimes called a space dot. Traditionally it has been primarily used as a decimal point, e.g. 314 as
opposed to the SI 3,14 or American 3.14 (also SI), but this usage is less common in typography than in handwritten
text, as a full stop (period) is easier to type.In Great BritainBritish publications up to the mid-1970s, especially
scientific and mathematical texts, the decimal point was commonly typeset as a middle dot. When the British
currency was decimalisationdecimalised in 1971, the official advice issued was to write decimal amounts with a
raised point (thus: 2148) and to use a decimal point "on the line" only when typesetting constraints made it
unavoidable. The widespread introduction of electronic typewriters and calculators (many of which were
manufactured and imported from places like Japan and the United States) soon afterwards was probably a major
factor contributing to the decline of the raised decimal point, although it can still sometimes be encountered in
academic circles (e.g., Cambridge University History Faculty Style Guide 2010) and its use is still enforced by some
UK-based academic journals such as The Lancet.Shavian In the Shavian alphabet of English, the middle dot is used
before a word to denote it as a proper noun. CatalanThe combination of two l and a raised dot is a typical feature of
Catalan texts.In Catalan languageCatalan, the punt volat (literally, "flown dot") is used between two l (thus: ll) in
cases where each belongs to a separate syllable (e.g. cella, 'cell'). This is to distinguish the true "double-l"
pronunciation [velarized alveolar lateral approximantllength (phonetics):] from that of the letter-combination ll
(without a dot) which in Catalan stands for [palatal lateral approximant] (e.g. cella, 'eyebrow').In orthographic
descriptions, ll is called ela geminada ("geminate l") and ll doble ela. A Full stopperiod or a hyphen is frequently
used when a middle dot is unavailable: col.lecci or col-lecci. This is nonetheless considered a misspelling.
Unicode has unique code points for the letters L (U+013F) and l (U+0140), but they are Unicode compatibility
characterscompatibility characters and are not frequently used nor recommended. Unicode Latin Extended A code
chart p.13 The preferred Unicode representation is l (U+006C + U+00B7). The use of the bullet (U+2022,
•) is strongly discouraged on aesthetic grounds.In Medieval Catalan languageCatalan the symbol was
sometimes used to note certain elisions, much like the modern apostrophe (see #OccitanOccitan below).There is no
separate keyboard layout for Catalan; punt volat can be typed using Shift-3 in the Keyboard layout#SpanishSpanish
(Spain) layout.Chinese The Chinese language sometimes uses the interpunct (called the partition sign) to separate the
given name and the family name of non-Chinese, or unsinicized or desinicized minority ethnic groups in China, for
example, !!!!!! (WilinShshby) !!!!!! Google Translate (text to speech). is the transliteration of "William
Shakespeare", and the partition sign is inserted in between the characters signifying the sound of "William" and
those for "Shakespeare". In Taiwan the Unicode code point U+2027, Hyphenation Point, is recommended by
government as a fullwidth punctuation to separate the given name and the family name of non-Chinese. Therefore
!!!!!! is the transliteration of "William Shakespeare" (Traditional Chinese characterstraditional Chinese). The
Chinese partition sign is also used to separate book title and chapter title when they are mentioned consecutively
(with book title first, then chapter).In Chinese, the middle dot is also fullwidth in printed matter, but the regular
middle dot () is used in computer input, which is then rendered as fullwidth in Chinese-language fonts. Note that
while some fonts may render the Japanese katakana middle dot as a square under great magnification, this is not a
defining property of the middle dot that is used in China or Japan. Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren used a
middle dot to represent the glottal stop in his reconstruction of medieval Chinese languageChinese. See also proper
name mark. Taiwanese Minnan In Peh-oe-j for Taiwanese Hokkien, middle dot is often used as a workaround for
dot above right diacritic because most early encoding systems did not support this diacritic. This is now encoded as
U+0358 combining dot above right (see o). Unicode did not support this diacritic until June 2004. Newer fonts often
support it natively; however, the practice of using middle dot still exists. Historically, it was derived in the late 19th
century from an older barred-o with curly tail as an adaptation to the typewriter.Franco-Provenal In
Franco-Provenal languageFranco-Provenal (or Arpitan), the interpunct is used in order to distinguish the following
graphemes: ch, pronounced [], versus ch, pronounced [ts]j, pronounced [], versus j, pronounced [dz]g before e, i,
Interpunct
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pronounced [], versus g before e, i, pronounced [dz]Greek The Greek languageGreek no stigm or no telea (c
t/c t, lit."upper dot") is a punctuation mark equivalent to the semicolon and is often incorrectly
expressed as a middle dot; Unicode provides a unique code point: U+0387 greek ano teleia. Unicode Greek code
chart, pp.34, 36Japanese Interpuncts are often used to separate transcribed foreign words written in katakana. For
example, "Can't Buy Me Love" becomes !!!!!!! (Kyantobaimravu). A middle dot is also sometimes used to
separate lists in japanese languageJapanese instead of the Japanese comma ("" known as toten). Dictionaries and
grammar lessons in Japanese sometimes also use a similar symbol to separate a verb Affixsuffix from its
root.However, the Japanese writing system usually does not use space or punctuation to separate words (though the
mixing of katakana, kanji, and hiragana gives some indication of word boundary). In Japanese typography, there
exist two Unicode code points: U+30FB katakana middle dot, with a fixed width that is the same as most kana
characters, known as fullwidth.U+FF65 halfwidth katakana middle dotThe interpunct also has a number of other
uses in Japanese, including the following: to separate titles, names and positions: (Assistant Section Head
Suzuki); as a decimal point when writing numbers in kanji: !! (3.141 592); and in place of hyphens, dashes and
colons when writing vertically. Korean Interpuncts are used in written Korean to denote a list of two or more words,
more or less in the same way a Slash (punctuation)slash(/) is used to juxtapose words in many other languages. In
this role it also functions in a similar way to the english languageEnglish dash#En dashen dash, as in ,
"AmericanSoviet relations". The use of interpuncts has declined in years of digital typography and especially in
place of slashes, but, in the strictest sense, a slash cannot replace a middle dot in Korean typography. Latin The dot
called interpunct was regularly used in classical Latin to separate words. It often took the shape of a triangle, point
down, and sometimes of a mid-line comma. It fell out of use circa200CE, and latin languageLatin was written
scripta continua for several centuries.Occitan In Occitan languageOccitan, especially in the Gascon languageGascon
dialect, the interpunct (punt interior, literally, "inner dot", or ponch naut for "high/upper point") is used to
distinguish the following graphemes:sh, pronounced [s.h], versus sh, pronounced [], for example, in deshar 'to
undo' vs deishar 'to leave'nh, pronounced [n.h], versus nh, pronounced [], for example in inhrn 'hell' vs vinha
'vineyard'Although it is considered to be a spelling error, a Full stopperiod is frequently used when a middle dot is
unavailable: des.har, in.hrn, which is the case for French Keyboard layout#Frenchkeyboard layout.In old Occitan,
the symbol was sometimes used to denote certain elisions, much like the modern apostrophe, the only difference
being that the word that gets to be elided is always placed after the interpunct, the word before ending either in a
vowel sound or the letter n:quel (que lo, that the) versus qu'el (that he) From Bertran de Born's Ab joi mou lo vers
el comens (translated by JamesH. Donalson):Bela Domnal vostre cors gensElh vostre bel olh m'an conquis,El
doutz esgartz e lo clars vis,El vostre bels essenhamens,Que, can be m'en pren esmansa,De beutat nous trob
egansa:La genser etz c'om posc'el mon chauzir,O noi vei clar dels olhs ab queus remir.Domnal ['donnal] =
Domna, lo ("Lady, the": singular Definite article#Definite articledefinite article) Elh [e] = E li ("And the": plural
definite article) El [el] = E lo ("And the") El = E lo ("And the") Nous [nows] = Non vos ("(do) not... you": Object
(grammar)#Types of objectdirect object pronoun) El = En lo ("in the") Noi [noj] = Non i ("(do) not... there") //
Queus [kews] = Que vos ("that (I)... you") O pretty lady, all your grace and eyes of beauty conquered me, sweet
glance and brightness of your face and all your nature has to tell so if I make an appraisal I find no one like in
beauty: most pleasing to be found in all the world or else the eyes I see you with have dimmed. Old Irish In many
linguistic works discussing Old Irish (but not in actual Old Irish manuscripts), the interpunct is used to separate a
pretonic preverbal element from the stressed syllable of the verb, e.g. dobeir "says". It is also used in citing the verb
forms used after such preverbal elements (the prototonic forms), e.g. beir "carries", to distinguish them from forms
used without preverbs, e.g. beirid "carries". In other works, the hyphen (do-beir, -beir) or colon (punctuation)colon
(do:beir, :beir) may be used for this purpose. Runes Runic texts use either an interpunct-like or a colon-like
punctuation mark to separate words. There are two Unicode characters dedicated for this: U+16EB runic single
punctuation and U+16EC runic multiple punctuation. In mathematics and scienceIn International System of
UnitsSI units the middle dot or non-breaking space is used as a multiplication sign. Only a comma or full stopfull
stop (period) may be used as a decimal marker. In mathematics, a small middle dot can be used to represent
Interpunct
173
multiplicationproduct; for example, x-y for the product of x and y. When dealing with scalar (mathematics)scalars,
it is interchangeable with the multiplication sign: xy means the same thing as xy, but is easily confused with
the letter x. However, when dealing with vector (geometry)vectors, the dot product is distinct from the cross product.
This usage has its own designated code point in Unicode, U+2219 (-), called the "bullet operator".[citation needed]
It is also sometimes used to denote the logical conjunctionAND relationship in formal logic, due to the
relationship between these two operations. In situations where the interpunct is used as a decimal point (as noted
above, by many mathematics teachers in some countriesWikipedia:Avoid weasel words), then the multiplication sign
used is usually a full stop (period), not an interpunct.In computing, the middle dot is usually used to indicate
Whitespace characterwhite space in various software applications such as word processing, graphic design, web
layout, desktop publishing or software development programs. In some word processors, interpuncts are used to
denote not only hard space or space characters, but also sometimes used to indicate a space when put in paragraph
format to show indentations and spaces. This allows the user to see where white space is located in the document and
what sizes of white space are used, since normally white space is invisible so tabs, spaces, non-breaking spaces and
such are indistinguishable from one another. In chemistry, the middle dot is used to separate the parts of formulas of
addition compounds, mixture salts or solvates (mostly hydrates), such as of copper(II) sulfatecopper(II) sulphate
pentahydrate, CuSO45H2O. Keyboard input On computers, the interpunct may be available through various key
combinations, depending on the operating system and the keyboard layout. On Mac OS X, an interpunct can be input
by pressing ! Option keyOpt+ Shift keyShift+9. In the X Window System, it can be input by pressing AltGr+.. On
Microsoft Windows, it can be input by pressing Alt keyAlt+0183 (on the numeric keypad). Similar symbols Symbol
Character Entity Numeric Entity Unicode Code Point LaTeX Notes · · U+00B7 middle
dot\textperiodcentered Mittelpunkt · U+0387 greek ano teleia Greek no stigm ּ U+05BC hebrew
point dagesh or mappiq Hebrew point dagesh or mappiqmapiq ᛫ U+16EB runic single punctuationRunic
punctuation • • U+2022 bulletbullet (typography)bullet, often used to mark list items ‧
U+2027 hyphenation point\textbullethyphenation point (dictionaries) ∘ U+2218 ring operator\circ ring
operator (mathematics) - ∙ U+2219 bullet operator\bullet bullet operator (mathematics) ⋅ ⋅
U+22C5 dot operator\centerdot, \cdot, \cdotp dot operator (mathematics) ◦ U+25E6 white bullet hollow
bullet ⦁ U+2981 z notation spot symbol used by the Z notation ⸰ U+2E30 ring pointAvestan
alphabetAvestan punctuation mark ⸱ U+2E31 word separator middle dot Word separator (Avestan and
other scripts) ・ U+30FB katakana middle dot fullwidth katakana middle dot ･ U+FF65
halfwidth katakana middle dot halfwidth katakana middle dot 𐂧 U+10101 aegean word separator dot Word
separator for Aegean scripts (Linear A and Linear B) Characters in the Symbol column above may not render
correctly in all browsers.References
Question mark
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Question mark
is too wide
? Question mark Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The question mark (?; also known as an interrogation point, interrogation mark, question point, query,
or eroteme),In journalism. See Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 139. ISBN 1-59240-087-6. is a
punctuationpunctuation mark that replaces the full stop (period) at the end of an interrogative sentence in English
and many other languages. The question mark is not used for indirect questions. The question mark character is also
often used in place of missing or unknown data. In Unicode, it is encoded at U+003F ? question mark (HTML:
?).History Lynne Truss attributes an early form of the modern question mark in western language to
AlcuinAlcuin of York.Lynne Truss. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 76. ISBN 1-59240-087-6. Truss describes the
punctus interrogativus of the late 8th century as "a lightning flash, striking from right to left". Typografie.info (The
punctuation system of Aelius Donatus, current through the Early Middle Ages, used only simple dots at various
heights.)This earliest question mark was a decoration of one of these dots, with the "lightning flash" perhaps meant
to denote intonation (linguistics)intonation (or a tilde or titlo, named after the Latin word titulus, as in "~", like
those wavy and more or less slanted marks used in lots of medieval texts for denoting various things such as
abbreviations, and that would become later various diacritics or ligatures or modified letters used in the Latin script),
and perhaps associated with early musical notation like neumes.M. B. Parkes, Pause and effect: punctuation in the
west, ISBN 0-520-07941-8. The Straight Dope on the question mark (link down) Over the next three centuries this
Question mark
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pitch-defining element (if it ever existed) seems to have been forgotten, so that the Alcuinesque stroke-over-dot sign
(with the stroke sometimes slightly curved) is often seen indifferently at the end of clauses, whether they embody a
question or not.In the early 13th century, when the growth of communities of scholars (universityuniversities) in
Paris and other major cities led to an expansion and streamlining of the book-production trade,De Hamel,
Christopher History of Illuminated Manuscripts, 1997 punctuation was rationalised by assigning Alcuin's
stroke-over-dot specifically to interrogatives; by this time the stroke was more sharply curved and can easily be
recognised as the modern question-mark. The symbol is also sometimesBrewer, E. C. Dictionary of Phrase and
Fable, 1870 (rev. 1894), s.v. 'Punctuation'. thought to originate from the Latin quaestio (that is, qvaestio), meaning
"question", which was abbreviated during the Middle Ages to qo. The lowercase q was written above the lowercase
o, and this mark was transformed into the modern symbol. However, evidence of the actual use of the Q-over-o
notation in medieval manuscripts is lacking; if anything, medieval forms of the upper component seem to be
evolving towards the q-shape rather than away from it.The origin of the question mark.A diagram showing the
evolution of the question mark.According to a 2011 discovery by a Cambridge manuscript expert, Syriac was the
first language to use a question mark. The Syriac question mark has the form of a vertical double dot.In other
languages and scriptsOpening and closing question marksOpening and closing question marks In some languages,
such as Spanish languageSpanish, typography since the 18th century has required opening and closing question
marks, as in "Qu hora es?" (What time is it?); an interrogative sentence or phrase begins with an Inverted question
mark and exclamation pointinverted question mark () and ends with the question mark (?). This
orthographyorthographical rule is often disregarded in quick typing, although its omission is always considered a
mistake.Armenian, Greek question markQuestion mark in Armenian In Armenian alphabetArmenian the question
mark ( ) takes the form of an open circle and is placed over the last vowel of the question word. It is defined in
Unicode at U+055E armenian question mark. In Greek languageGreek and Church Slavonic languageChurch
Slavonic, the question mark is a semicolon. The regular Latin semicolon can be used U+003B ; semicolon. Although
it exists a separate character U+037E greek question mark, the regular semicolon is well used. Mirrored question
markMirrored question mark in Arabic and PersianIn Arabic languageArabic and languages that use Arabic script
and were influenced by the Arabic language such as Persian languagePersian and Urdu, which are written from right
to left, the question mark is mirrored right-to-left from the English question mark. (Some browsers may display the
character in the previous sentence as a forward question mark due to font or text directionality issues). Hebrew
languageHebrew is also written right-to-left, but it uses a question mark that appears on the page in the same
orientation as the Roman-alphabet question mark.Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 143. ISBN
1-59240-087-6.In Unicode, two encodings are available: U+061F arabic question mark (HTML: ؟ With
Bi-directional textBidi code AL: Right-to-Left Arabic) and U+2E2E reversed question mark (HTML: ⸮
With bi-directional code Other Neutrals). Fullwidth question mark The question mark is also used in modern writing
in Chinese languageChinese, and Japanese languageJapanese, although it is not strictly necessary in either. Usually it
is written as fullwidth form in Chinese and Japanese, in Unicode: Mapping of Unicode charactersU+FF1F
fullwidth question mark. In other scripts Some other scripts have a specific question mark: U+1367 Ethiopian
languageethiopic question markU+A60F ! Vai scriptvai question markU+2CFA ! Old Nubian languagecoptic old
nubian direct question mark and U+2CFB ! coptic old nubian indirect question markStylistic variants French usage
must include a space (punctuation)space before the question mark (for example, "Que voulez-vous boire ?"), Book
typography, Ari Rafaeli, 2005 whereas in the English language orthography no space is allowed in front of the
question mark (e.g. "What do you drink?"), see also: Plenken. In typography, some stylistic variants and
combinations are available: U+2047 ? double question markU+FE56 ! small question markU+2048 ? question
exclamation markU+2049 ! exclamation question markU+203D InterrobanginterrobangRhetorical question
markThe rhetorical question mark or percontation point was invented by Henry Denham in the 1580s and was used
at the end of a rhetorical question; however, its use died out in the 17th century. It was the reverse of an ordinary
question mark, so that instead of the main opening pointing back into the sentence, it opened away from it.Truss,
Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 142. ISBN 1-59240-087-6. This character can be represented using the
Question mark
176
reversed question mark () found in Unicode as U+2E2E. The percontation point is analogous to the Irony mark, but
these are very rarely seen.Rhetorical questions in some (informal) situations can use a bracketed question mark, e.g.
"Oh, really(?)", for example in Closed captioning888 subtitles.The equivalent for an ironic or sarcastic statement
would be a bracketed exclamation mark, e.g. "Oh, really(!)".The question mark can also be used as a meta-sign to
signal uncertainty regarding what precedes. It is usually put between brackets (?). The uncertainty may concern
either a superficial (such as unsure spelling) or a deeper truth-conditional semanticstruth (real Meaning (philosophy
of language)meaning) level. Computing In computing, the question mark character (computing)character is
represented by ASCII code 63 (0x3F hexadecimal), and is located at Unicode Universal Character Setcode-point
U+003F. The full-width (double-byte) equivalent, , is located at Unicode code point U+FF1F.The question mark is
often utilized as a wildcard character: a symbol that can be used to substitute for any other character or characters in
a String (computer science)string. In particular "?" is used as a substitute for any one character as opposed to the
asterisk, "*", which can be used as a substitute for zero or more characters in a string. The Inverted question mark
and exclamation pointinverted question mark () corresponds to Unicode code-point 191 (U+00BF), and can be
accessed from the keyboard in Microsoft Windows on the default US layout by holding down the Alt key and typing
either 1 6 8 (ANSI) or 0 1 9 1 (Unicode) on the numeric keypad. In GNOME applications, it can be entered by
typing the hexadecimal Unicode character while holding down both ctrl and shift, i.e.: ctrl+shift+BF. In recent
XFree86 and X.Org ServerX.Org incarnations of the X Window System, it can be accessed as a compose sequence
of two straight question marks, i.e. pressing <Compose> ? ? yields . In the Mac OS, option+shift+? produces an
inverted question mark. The question mark is used in ASCII renderings of the International Phonetic Alphabet, such
as SAMPA in place of the glottal stop symbol, 2, (which resembles "?" without the dot), and corresponds to Unicode
code point U+0294, Latin letter glottal stop.In computer programming, the symbol "?" has a special meaning in
many programming languages. In C (programming language)C-descended languages, "?" is part of the ?: operator,
which is used to evaluate simple Boolean domainboolean conditions. In C Sharp (programming language)C# 2.0, the
"?" modifier and the "??" operator are used to handle Nullable typenullable data types. In the POSIX syntax for
regular expressions, such as the one used in Perl and Python (programming language)Python, ? stands for "zero or
one instance of the previous subexpression", i.e. an optional element. In certain implementations of the BASIC
programming language, the "?" character may be used as a shorthand for the "print" function; in others (notably the
BBC BASIC family), "?" is used to address a single-byte memory location. In OCaml, the question mark precedes
the label for an optional parameter. In Scheme (programming language)Scheme, as a convention, symbol names
ending in ? are used for predicates such as odd?, null?, and eq?. Similarly, in Ruby (programming language)Ruby,
method names ending in ? are used for predicates.In many web browsers and other computer programs, "?" is used to
show a character (computing)character not found in the program's character set. This commonly occurs for
apostrophes and quotation marks when they are written with software that uses its own proprietary non-standard
code for these characters, such as Microsoft's Smart quotes#Quotation marks in electronic documentsSmart Quotes.
Some fonts will instead use the Unicode Replacement Glyph (U+FFFD, +), which is commonly rendered as a white
question mark in a black diamond (see Unicode Specials#Replacement characterreplacement character). The generic
Uniform Resource LocatorURL syntax allows for a query string to be appended to a resource location in a web
address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the query mark, ?, is used to indicate the start of a
query string. A query string is usually made up of a number of different field/value pairs, each separated by the
ampersand symbol, &, as seen in this URL:
http://www.example.com/login.php?username=test&password=blankHere, a script on the page login.php on the
server www.example.com is to provide a response to the query string containing the pairs "username"-"test" and
"password"-"blank".Games In algebraic chess notation, "?" denotes a bad move, and "??" a blunder (chess)blunder,
"?!" a dubious move and "!?" an interesting move. For details of all of the chess punctuation see punctuation (chess).
In Scrabble, a question mark indicates a blank tile.Mathematics In mathematics, "?" commonly denotes Minkowski's
question mark function. In equations, it can mean "questioned" as opposed to "defined". U+225F = questioned equal
toU+2A7B ! less-than with question mark aboveU+2A7C ! greater-than with question mark aboveMedicineA
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question mark is used in English medical notes to suggest a possible diagnosis. It facilitates the recording of a
doctor's impressions regarding a patient's symptoms and signs. For example, for a patient presenting with left lower
abdominal pain, a differential diagnosis might include ?Diverticulitis (read as 'Query Diverticulitis').
NotesReferencesLupton, Ellen and Miller, J. Abbott, "Period styles: a punctuated history", in The Norton Reader
11th edition, ed. Linda H. Peterson, Norton, 2003 Online excerpt (at least)Parkes, M.B., Pause and Effect: an
Introduction to the History of Punctuation in the West, University of California Press, 1993Truss, Lynne, Eats,
Shoots & Leaves Gotham Books, NY, p.139External links The question mark and indirect questions
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Quotation mark
is too wide
Double quotes (curly) "" '' Single quotes (curly) Typewriter double quotes Typewriter single quotes
Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , ,
) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full stopfull stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( ) hyphen ( )
Portal Portal In English writing, quotation marks or inverted commas (informally referred to as quotes or speech
marks)Barber, 2004. are Punctuationpunctuation marks surrounding a quotation, direct speech, or a literal title or
name. Quotation marks can also be used to indicate a different meaning of a word or phrase than the one typically
associated with it and are often used to express irony. Quotation marks are sometimes used to provide emphasis,
although this is usually considered incorrect.English Department, 1999. Language Log: Dubious quotation
marksQuotation marks are written as a pair of opening and closing marks in either of two styles: single () or
double (). Opening and closing quotation marks may be identical in form (called neutral, vertical, straight,
typewriter, or typographic approximation"dumb" quotation marks), or may be distinctly left-handed and
right-handed (typographic or, colloquially, curly quotation marks); see quotation mark glyphs for details.
Typographic quotation marks are usually used in manuscript and typeset text. Because typewriter and computer
keyboards lack keys to directly enter typographic quotation marks, much typed writing has neutral quotation marks.
The "smart quotes" feature in some computer software can convert neutral quotation marks to typographic ones, but
sometimes imperfectly. The closing single quotation mark is identical or similar in form to the apostrophe and
similar to the Prime (symbol)prime symbol. However, these three characters have quite different purposes. The
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double quotation mark is similar to, and often used to represent, the ditto mark and the double prime symbol. History
In the first centuries of typesetting, quotations were distinguished merely by indicating the speaker, and this can still
be seen in some editions of the Bible. During the Renaissance, quotations were distinguished by setting in a typeface
contrasting with the main body text (often Italic type with Roman typeroman, or the other way around). Long
quotations were also set this way, at full size and full measure.Bringhurst (2002), p 86.Quotation marks were first cut
in metal type during the middle of the sixteenth century, and were used copiously by some printers by the
seventeenth. In some Baroque and Romantic-period books, they would be repeated at the beginning of every line of
a long quotation. When this practice was abandoned, the empty margin remained, leaving the modern form of
indented block quotation.In Early Modern English, quotation marks were used only to denote pithy comments. They
first began to quote direct speech in 1714. By 1749, single quotation marks, or inverted commas, were commonly
used to denote direct speech.Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 151. ISBN
1-59240-087-6.UsageQuotations and speech Single or double quotation marks denote either speech or a quotation.
Double quotes are preferred in the United States, and also tend to be preferred in Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. Single quotes are more usual in the United Kingdom and South Africa, though double quotes are also
common there.The Penguin Guide to Punctuation, Larry TraskR. L. Trask, p. 94. A publisher's or author's style may
take precedence over regional general preferences. The important idea is that the style of opening and closing
quotation marks must be matched: 'Good morning, Frank,' said Hal. "Good morning, Frank," said Hal. For speech
within speech, the other style is used as inner quotation marks: 'Hal said, "Good morning, Dave,"' recalled Frank.
"Hal said, 'Good morning, Dave,'" recalled Frank. Sometimes Nested quotationquotations are nested in more levels
than inner and outer quotation. Nesting levels up to five can be found in the BibleChristian Bible.; ; ; ; In these cases,
questions arise about the form (and names) of the quotation marks to be used. The most common way is to simply
alternate between the two forms,Stilman, Ann. Grammatically Correct, 1997. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-89879-776-3. thus:
"ellipsis'"' '"'" If such a passage is further quoted in another publication, then all of their forms have
to be shifted up by one level. In most cases, quotations that span multiple paragraphs should be set as block
quotations, and thus do not require quotation marks. Quotation marks are used for multiple-paragraph quotations in
some cases, especially in narratives. The convention in English is to give opening quotation marks to the first and
each subsequent paragraph, using closing quotation marks only for the final paragraph of the quotation, as in the
following example from Pride and Prejudice:The letter was to this effect: "My dear Lizzy,"I wish you joy. If you
love Mr. Darcy half as well as I do my dear Wickham, you must be very happy. It is a great comfort to have you so
rich, and when you have nothing else to do, I hope you will think of us. I am sure Wickham would like a place at
court very much, and I do not think we shall have quite money enough to live upon without some help. Any place
would do, of about three or four hundred a year; but however, do not speak to Mr. Darcy about it, if you had rather
not. "Yours, etc." As noted Quotation mark#Historyabove, in some older texts, the quotation mark is repeated every
line, rather than every paragraph. The Spanish convention uses closing quotation marks at the beginning of all
subsequent paragraphs beyond the first. When quoted text is interrupted, such as with the phrase he said, a closing
quotation mark is used before the interruption, and an opening quotation mark after. Commas are also often used
before and after the interruption, more often for quotations of speech than for quotations of text: "Hal", noted Frank,
"said that everything was going extremely well". Quotation marks are not used for paraphrased speech. This is
because a paraphrase is not a direct quote, and in the course of any composition, it is important to document when
one is using a quotation versus when one is using a paraphrased idea, which could be open to interpretation. If Hal
says: "All systems are functional", then: Incorrect: Hal said "everything was going extremely well".Correct: Hal said
that everything was going extremely well.Irony Another common use of quotation marks is to indicate or call
attention to ironyironic or apologetic words: He shared his "wisdom" with me. The lunch lady plopped a glob of
"food" onto my tray. Quotes indicating verbal irony, or other special use, are sometimes called scare quotes. They
are sometimes gestured in oral speech using air quotes, or indicated in speech with a tone change or by replacement
with supposed[ly] or so-called.Signaling unusual usage Quotation marks are also used to indicate that the writer
realizes that a word is not being used in its current commonly accepted sense: Crystals somehow "know" which
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shape to grow into. In addition to conveying a neutral attitude and to call attention to a neologism, or slang, or
special terminology (also known as jargon), quoting can also indicate words or phrases that are descriptive but
unusual, colloquial, folksy, startling, humorous, metaphoric, or contain a pun: Dawkins's concept of a meme could
be described as an "evolving idea".People also use quotation marks in this way to distance the writer from the
terminology in question so as not to be associated with it, for example to indicate that a quoted word is not official
terminology, or that a quoted phrase presupposes things that the author does not necessarily agree with; or to indicate
special terminology that should be identified for accuracy's sake as someone else's terminology, as when a term
(particularly a controversial term) pre-dates the writer or represents the views of someone else, perhaps without
judgement (contrast this neutrally-distancing quoting to the negative use of scare quotes). The Chicago Manual of
Style, 15th edition, acknowledges this type of use but, in section 7.58, cautions against its overuse: "Quotation marks
are often used to alert readers that a term is used in a nonstandard, ironic, or other special sense [T]hey imply
'This is not my term,' or 'This is not how the term is usually applied.' Like any such device, scare quotes lose their
force and irritate readers if overused."Usemention distinctionEither quotation marks or italic type can emphasize
that an instance of a word refers to usemention distinctionthe word itself rather than its associated concept. Cheese
is derived from milk. "Cheese" is derived from a word in Old English. Cheese has calcium, protein, and phosphorus.
Cheese has three Es.A three-way distinction is occasionally made between normal use of a word (no quotation
marks), referring to the concept behind the word (single quotation marks), and the word itself (double quotation
marks): When discussing 'use', use "use". The logic for this derives from the need to distinguish use forms, coupled
with the mandate to retain consistent notation for like use forms. The switching between double and single quotes in
nested citation quotes reveals the same literary device for reducing ambiguity. Writing about language often uses
italics for Words as wordsthe word itself and single quotation marks for a gloss, with the two not separated by a
comma or other punctuation, and with strictly #Logical quotationlogical quotation around the gloss extraneous
terminal punctuation outside the quotation marks even in North American publications, which might otherwise
prefer them inside: Latin ovis 'sheep', canis 'dog', and equus 'horse' are nouns.Titles of artistic works Quotation
marks, rather than italics, are generally used for the titles of shorter works. Whether these are single or double
depends on the context; however, many styles, especially for poetry, prefer the use of single quotation marks. Short
fiction, poetry, etc.: Arthur C. Clarke's "The Sentinel" Book chapters: The first chapter of 3001: The Final Odyssey
is "Comet Cowboy" Articles in books, magazines, journals, etc.: "Extra-Terrestrial Relays", Wireless World, October
1945 Album tracks, singles, etc.: David Bowie's "Space Oddity (song)Space Oddity" As a rule, a whole publication
would be italicised, whereas the titles of minor works within or a subset of the larger publication (such as poems,
short stories, named chapters, journal papers, newspaper articles, TV show episodes, video game levels, editorial
sections of websites, etc.) would be written with quotation marks. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet Dahl's "Taste" in
Completely Unexpected TalesNicknames and false titles Quotation marks can also offset a nickname embedded in
an actual name, or a false or ironic title embedded in an actual title; for example, Nat "King" Cole, Miles "Tails"
Prower, or John "Hannibal" Smith. Nonstandard usage Quotes are sometimes used for emphasis
(typography)emphasis in lieu of underlining or italics, most commonly on signs or placards. This usage can be
confused with ironic or altered-usage quotation, sometimes with unintended humor. For example, For sale: "fresh"
fish, "fresh" oysters, could be construed to imply that fresh is not used with its everyday meaning, or indeed to
indicate that the fish or oysters are anything but fresh. As another example, Cashiers' desks open until noon for your
"convenience" could be interpreted to mean that the convenience was for the bank employees, not the
customers.Typographical considerationsPunctuation With regard to quotation marks adjacent to periods and
commas, there are two styles of punctuation in widespread use. While these two styles are most commonly referred
to as "American" and "British" and some style sheets provide no other names, some American writers and
organizations use the "British" style and vice versa. Both systems have the same rules regarding question marks,
exclamation points, colons and semicolons. They differ on the treatment of periods and commas. In all major forms
of English, question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside or outside quoted material depending on
whether they apply to the whole sentence or just the quoted portion, but colons and semicolons are always placed
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outside. TJHSST Did he say, "Good morning, Dave"? No, he said, "Where are you, Dave?" There are three major
definitions of the word "gender": vernacular, sociological, and linguistic. The prevailing style in the United Kingdom
and other non-American localescalled British style and logical quotationis to include within quotation marks
only those punctuation marks that appeared in the quoted material but otherwise to place punctuation outside the
closing quotation marks. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage provides an early example of the rule: "All
signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed according to the sense." Emphasis in
original. When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, this style places periods and
commas outside the quotation marks: "Carefree", in general, means "free from care or anxiety". The name of the
song was "Gloria", which many already knew. She said she felt "free from care and anxiety". When dealing with
direct speech, British placement depends on whether or not the quoted statement is complete or a fragment.
According to the British style guide Butcher's Copy-editing, American style should be used when writing fiction. In
non-fiction, some British publishers may permit placing punctuation that is not part of the person's speech inside the
quotation marks but prefer that it be placed outside. Periods and commas that are part of the person's speech are
permitted inside the quotation marks regardless of whether the material is fiction. "Today," said Cinderella, "I feel
free from care and anxiety." (fiction) "Today", said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (preferred
in non-fiction) "Today I feel happy," said the woman, "carefree, and well." (regardless) In the U.S., the prevailing
style is called American style, whereby commas and periods are almost always placed inside closing quotation
marks.The Associated Press Stylebook, p. 337; The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed., ch. 6.9, pp. 242243,
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/Punctuation/Punctuation50.html; Strunk, William Jr., and White,
E. B. ,The Elements of Style, Pearson Education Company, 4th ed., p. 36; McFarlane and Warren Clements. The
Globe and Mail Style Book, 9th ed., p. 237; Brinck, Tom, et al., Usability for the Web, Morgan Kaufmann, 2002, p.
277. This style of punctuation is common in the U.S. and Canada, and is the style usually recommended by The
Chicago Manual of Style and most other American style guides. However, many American style guides specific to
certain specialties, such as legal writing and linguistics, prefer British style.As just two examples, The ABA Journal
of the American Bar Association has preferred logical quotation since at least as early as 1951, and the journal
Language (journal)Language of the Linguistic Society of America also requires logical quotation.When dealing with
words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, this style places periods and commas inside the quotation
marks: "Carefree," in general, means "free from care or anxiety." The name of the song was "Gloria," which many
already knew. She said she felt "free from care and anxiety." This style also places periods and commas inside the
quotation marks when dealing with direct speech, regardless of whether the work is fiction or non-fiction: "Today,"
said Cinderella, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (fiction) "Today," said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care
and anxiety." (non-fiction) Many American style guides explicitly permit periods and commas outside the quotation
marks when the presence of the punctuation mark inside the quotation marks will lead to ambiguity, such as when
describing keyboard input: In the programming language Pascal (programming language)Pascal, the statement
"end.", including the period/full stop, signifies the end of a program. In both major styles, regardless of placement,
only one end mark (?, !, or .) can end a sentence. Only the period, however, may not end a quoted sentence when it
does not also end the enclosing sentence, except for literal text:The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition; Hart's
RulesHart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford; Merriam-Webster's Guide to
Punctuation and Style, second edition. "Hello, world," she said. (American style) "Hello, world", she said. (British
non-fiction) She said, "Hello, world." (both styles) "Hello, world!" she exclaimed. (both styles) "Is anybody out
there?" she asked into the void. (both styles) Spacing In English, when a quotation follows other writing on a line of
text, a space precedes the opening quotation mark unless the preceding symbol, such as an em dash, requires that
there be no space. When a quotation is followed by other writing on a line of text, a space follows the closing
quotation mark unless it is immediately followed by other punctuation within the sentence, such as a colon or closing
punctuation. (These exceptions are ignored by some Asian computer systems that systematically display quotation
marks with the included spacing, as this spacing is part of the fixed-width characters.) There is generally no space
between an opening quotation mark and the following word, or a closing quotation mark and the preceding word.
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When a double quotation mark or a single quotation mark immediately follows the other, proper spacing for
legibility may suggest that a non-breaking space ( ) or thin space ( ) be inserted. So Dave actually
said, "He said, 'Good morning'"? Yes, he did say, "He said, 'Good morning.'" This is not common practice in
mainstream publishing, which will generally use more precise kerning. It is more common in online writing,
although using Cascading Style SheetsCSS to create the spacing by kerning is more Semantic HTMLsemantically
appropriate in Web typography than inserting extraneous spacing characters. Non-language related usage Straight
quotation marks (or italicized straight quotation marks) are often used to typographic approximationapproximate the
prime (symbol)prime and double prime, e.g., when signifying feet and inches, arcminutes and arcseconds or minutes
and seconds, where the quotation mark symbolises the latter part of the pair. For instance, 5feet and 6inches is often
written 5'6"; and 40degrees, 20arcminutes, and 50 arcseconds is written 4020'50". When available, however, the
prime should be used instead (e.g., 56, and 402050). Prime and double prime are not present in most code
pages, including ASCII and Latin-1, but are present in Unicode, as characters U+2032 prime and U+2033 double
prime. Double quotation marks, or pairs of single ones, are also often used to represent the ditto mark. Straight single
and double quotation marks are used in most programming languages to delimit String (computer science)strings or
literal character (computing)characters, collectively known as string literals. In some languages (e.g. Pascal
(programming language)Pascal) only one type is allowed, in some (e.g. C (programming language)C and its
derivatives) both are used with different meanings and in others (e.g. Python (programming language)Python) both
are used interchangeably. In some languages, if it is desired to include the same quotation marks used to delimit a
string inside the string, the quotation marks are doubled. For example, to represent the string eat 'hot' dogs in Pascal
one uses 'eat ''hot'' dogs'. Other languages use an escape character, often the backslash, as in 'eat \'hot\' dogs'. Typing
quotation marks on a computer keyboard Standard English computer keyboard layouts inherited the single and
double straight quotation marks from the typewriter (the single quotation mark also doubling as an apostrophe), and
they do not include individual keys for left-handed and right-handed typographic quotation marks. However, most
computer text-editing programs provide a "smart quotes" feature (see below) to automatically convert straight
quotation marks into typographic punctuation. Generally, this smart quote feature is enabled by default. Some
websites do not allow typographic quotation marks or apostrophes in posts. One can skirt these limitations, however,
by using the HTML character codes or entities. See the WWW Consortium tables here.How to type quotation marks
(and apostrophes) on a computer keyboardWindows Alt code combinations Macintosh key combinations Linux (X
Window SystemX) keys Unicode point HTML entityHTML decimal Single opening Alt+0145 (on number pad) !
Opt+]Compose keyCompose+<+' or AltGr keyAlt Gr+ Shift+VU+2018 ‘‘Single closing(&
apostrophehttp://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2019/index.htmhttp://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2000.pdf)Alt+0146
(on number pad) ! Opt+ Shift+]Compose+>+' or Alt Gr+ Shift+BU+2019 ’’Double opening
Alt+0147 (on number pad) ! Opt+[Compose+<+" or Alt Gr+VU+201C ““Double closing Alt+0148
(on number pad) ! Opt+ Shift+[Compose+>+" or Alt Gr+BU+201D ””Smart quotes To make
typographic quotation marks easier to enter, publishing software often automatically converts typewriter quotation
marks (and apostrophes) to typographic form during text entry (with or without the users being aware of it). These
are known as smart quotes ( ). Straight quotation marks are also known as dumb quotes (" "). Some word
processing programs incorrectly produce an opening single quotation mark in places where an apostrophe is
required, for example, in abbreviated years like 08 for 2008, or tis for It is. In the TeX typesetting program, left
double quotes are produced by typing `` (two back-ticks) and right double quotes by typing two
apostrophes.NotesReferences Barber, Katherine, ed., The Canadian Oxford Dictionary (second ed.). Oxford
University Press. 2004. International Standard Book NumberISBN0-19-541816-6.Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The
Elements of Typographic Style, version 2.5. Vancouver, Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4. Butcher, Judith
(1992). Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors and Publishers, third edition. pp 264266.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40074-0.English Department (26 July 1999). "3.8 - Quotation Marks".
University of Calgary. Retrieved 2010-12-19.External links Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML Quotation
marks in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository ASCII and Unicode quotation marks detailed discussion of
Quotation mark
183
the ASCII `backquote' problem Commonly confused characters Smart Quotes Smart Quotes vs. Dumb Quotes
Quotation mark Blog of unnecessary quotation marks on noticesThis article is based on material taken from the Free
On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the
GNU Free Documentation LicenseGFDL, version 1.3 or later.
Quotation mark glyphs
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is too wide
''"" Quotation mark glyphs Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal Different typefaces, character encodings and computer
languages use various encodings and glyphs for quotation marks. This article lists some of these glyphs along with
their Unicode code points and HTML entities.Quotation marks in EnglishEnglish languageEnglish curved quotes,
also called "book quotes" or "curly quotes," resemble small figures 6 (number)six and 9 (number)nine raised above
the baseline (like 6...9 and 66...99), but then solid, i.e., with the counter (typography)counters filled. In many
typefaces, the shapes are the same as those of an inverted (upside down) and normal comma (punctuation)comma.
Typewriter quotation marks "Ambidextrous" quotation marks were introduced on typewriters to reduce the number
of keys on the keyboard, and were inherited by computer keyboards and character sets. Some computer systems
designed in the past had character sets with proper opening and closing quotes. However, the ASCII character set,
which has been used on a wide variety of computers since the 1960s, only contained a straight single quote (U+0027
' apostropheapostrophe) and double quote (U+0022 " quotation mark). Many systems, like the personal computers of
the 1980s and early '90s, actually drew these quotes like curved closing quotes on-screen and in printouts, so text
would appear like this (approximately): Good morning, Dave, said HAL.Good morning, Dave, said HAL.These
same systems often drew the grave accent (`, U+0060) as an open quote glyph (actually a high-reversed-9 glyph, to
preserve some usability as a grave). This gives a proper appearance at the cost of semantic correctness. Nothing
185
similar was available for the double quote, so many people resorted to using two single quotes for double quotes,
which would look like the following: ''Good morning, Dave, said HAL.'Good morning, Dave, said HAL.The
typesetting application TeX still uses this convention for input files. However, the appearance of these characters has
varied greatly from font to font. On systems which provide straight quotes and grave accents like most do today (and
as Unicode specifies) the result is poor as shown here: ``Good morning, Dave'', said HAL.`Good morning, Dave',
said HAL.The Unicode slanted/curved quotes described below are shown here for comparison: Good morning,
Dave, said HAL.Good morning, Dave, said HAL.Quotation marks in electronic documents Historically support
for curved quotes was a problem in information technology, primarily because the widely used ASCII character set
did not include a representation for them. Unicode and emailTo use non ASCII characters in e-mail and on Usenet
the sending mail application needs to set a MIME type specifying the encoding. In most cases, (the exceptions being
if UTF-7 is used or if the 8BITMIME extension is present), this also requires the use of a
MIME#Content-Transfer-Encodingcontent-transfer encoding. Curved and straight quotes are also sometimes
referred to as smart quotes () and dumb quotes ("") respectively; these names are in reference to the name of a
function found in several word processors that automatically converts straight quotes typed by the user into curved
quotes. This function, known as "educating quotes," was developed for systems that lack separate open- and
close-quote keyboard keys. Since curved quotes are the typographically correct ones, word processors have
traditionally offered curved quotes to users. Before Unicode was widely accepted and supported, this meant
representing the curved quotes in whatever 8-bit encoding the software and underlying operating system were
usingbut the character sets for Microsoft WindowsWindows and Apple MacintoshMacintosh used two different
pairs of values for curved quotes, and ISO 8859-1 (historically the default character set for the Unixes and older
Linux systems) has no curved quotes, making cross-platform compatibility quite difficult to
implement.Compounding the problem is the "smart quotes" feature mentioned above, which some word processors
(including Microsoft Word and OpenOffice.org) use by default. With this feature turned on, users may not have
realized that the ASCII-compatible straight quotes they were typing on their keyboards ended up as something
entirely different. Further, the "smart quotes" feature converts opening apostrophes (such as in the words 'tis, 'em and
'til) into opening single quotation marksessentially upside-down apostrophes. A blatant example of this error
appears in the advertisements for the television show 'Til DeathTil Death.Unicode support has since become the
norm for operating systems. Thus, in at least some cases, transferring content containing curved quotes (or any other
non-ASCII characters) from a word processor to another application or platform has been less troublesome, provided
all steps in the process (including the Clipboard (software)clipboard if applicable) are Unicode-aware. But there are
still applications which still use the older character sets, or output data using them, and thus problems still occur.
There are other considerations for including curved quotes in the widely used markup languages HTML, XML, and
SGML. If the encoding of the document supports direct representation of the characters, they can be used, but doing
so can result in difficulties if the document needs to be edited by someone who is using an editor that cannot support
the encoding. For example, many simple text editors only handle a few encodings or assume that the encoding of any
file opened is a platform default, so the quote characters may appear as "garbage." HTML includes a set of entities
for curved quotes: ‘ (left single), ’ (right single), &sbquo; (low 9 single), “ (left double),
” (right double), and &bdquo; (low 9 double). XML does not define these by default, but specifications based
on it can do so, and XHTML does. In addition, while the HTML 4, XHTML and XML specifications allow
specifying numeric character references in either hexadecimal or decimal, SGML and older versions of HTML (and
many old implementations) only support decimal references. Thus, to represent curly quotes in XML and SGML, it
is safest to use the decimal numeric character references. That is, to represent the double curly quotes use “
and ”, and to represent single curly quotes use ‘ and ’. Both numeric and named references
function correctly in almost every modern browser. While using numeric references can make a page more
compatible with outdated browsers, using named references are safer for systems that handle multiple character
encodings (i.e. RSS aggregators and search results). Quotation marks in Unicode In Unicode, 29 characters are
marked Quotation Mark=Yes by character property . They all have general category "Punctuation", and a
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subcategory Open, Close, Initial, Final or Other (Ps, Pe, Pi, Pf, Po). Quotation marks in Unicode (Unicode character
propertyCharacter property "Quotation_Mark"=Yes) Glyph CodeUnicode nameHTMLComments " U+0022
quotation mark " Typewriter ("programmers") quote, ambidextrous ' U+0027 apostrophe ' Typewriter
("programmers") straight single quote, ambidextrous U+00AB left-pointing double angle quotation mark «
Double angle quote (Chevron (insignia)chevron, guillemetsguillemet, duck-foot quote), left U+00BB
right-pointing double angle quotation mark » Double angle quote, right U+2018 left single quotation mark
‘ Single curved quote, left U+2019 right single quotation mark ’ Single curved quote, right , U+201A
single low-9 quotation mark &sbquo; Low single curved quote, left ' U+201B single high-reversed-9 quotation mark
‛ also called single reversed comma, quotation mark U+201C left double quotation mark “ Double
curved quote, or "curly quote," left U+201D right double quotation mark ” Double curved quote, right
U+201E double low-9 quotation mark &bdquo; Low double curved quote, left U+201F double high-reversed-9
quotation mark ‟ also called double reversed comma, quotation mark U+2039 single left-pointing angle
quotation mark &lsaquo; Single angle quote, left U+203A single right-pointing angle quotation mark &rsaquo;
Single angle quote, right Quotation marks in CJK charactersChinese, Japanese, and Korean (CJK) ! U+300C left
corner bracket 「 CJK ! U+300D right corner bracket 」 CJK ! U+300E left white corner bracket
『 CJK ! U+300F right white corner bracket 』 CJK ! U+301D reversed double prime quotation
mark 〝 CJK ! U+301E double prime quotation mark 〞 CJK ! U+301F low double prime quotation
mark 〟 CJK Alternate encodings ! U+FE41 presentation form for vertical left corner bracket ﹁ CJK
Compatibility, preferred use: U+300C ! U+FE42 presentation form for vertical right corner bracket ﹂ CJK
Compatibility, preferred use: U+300D ! U+FE43 presentation form for vertical left corner white bracket ﹃
CJK Compatibility, preferred use: U+300E ! U+FE44 presentation form for vertical right corner white bracket
﹄ CJK Compatibility, preferred use: U+300F ! U+FF02 fullwidth quotation mark ＂ Halfwidth and
Fullwidth Forms, corresponds with U+0022 ! U+FF07 fullwidth apostrophe ＇ Halfwidth and Fullwidth
Formscorresponds with U+0027 ! U+FF62 halfwidth left corner bracket ｢ Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms,
corresponds with U+300C ! U+FF63 halfwidth right corner bracket ｣ Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms,
corresponds with U+300D References
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Semicolon
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; Semicolon Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The semicolon (;) is a punctuation mark with several uses. The ItalyItalian printer Aldus Manutius the
Elder established the practice of using the semicolon to separate words of opposed meaning and to indicate
interdependent statements. "The first printed semicolon was the work of... Aldus Manutius" in 1494. Ben Jonson
was the first notable English writer to use the semicolon systematically. The modern uses of the semicolon relate
either to the listing of items or to the linking of related clauses. In Unicode it is encoded at U+003B ;
Semicolonsemicolon (HTML: ;).According to Lynne Truss, a British writer on grammar, many non-writers
avoid the Colon_(punctuation)colon and semicolon for various reasons: "They are old-fashioned", "They are
middle-class", "They are optional", "They are mysteriously connected to pausing", "They are dangerously addictive
(vide Virginia Woolf)", and "The difference between them is too negligible to be grasped by the brain of man".
However, the semi-colon is used frequently in academic writing.In EnglishThe frequency of semicolons in English
texts from 15002008 While terminal marks (i.e., full stops, exclamation marks, and question marks) mark the end
of a sentence, the comma, semicolon and Colon (punctuation)colon are normally sentence internal, making them
secondary boundary marks. The semicolon falls between terminal marks and the comma; its strength is equal to that
of the colon.The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, Chapter 19, 7.ConstraintsWhen a semicolon marks
the right boundary of a constituent (e.g., a clause or a phrase), the left boundary is marked by punctuation of equal or
Semicolon
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greater strength. When two or more semicolons are used within a single construction, all constituents are at the same
level unlike commas which can separate, for example, subordinate clauses from main clauses. Usage A semicolon is
used when a sentence could have been ended, but it wasnt. Semicolons are followed by a lower case letter, unless
that letter is the first letter of a proper noun like the word I or Paris. Modern style guides recommend no space before
them, and one space after. Modern style guides also typically recommend placing semicolons outside of ending
quotation marksalthough this was not always the case. For example, the first edition of the Chicago Manual of
Style (1906) recommended placing the semicolon inside ending quotation marks.Applications of the semicolon in
English include: Between items in a series or listing containing internal punctuation, especially parenthetic commas,
where the semicolons function as serial commas: She saw three men: Jamie, who came from New Zealand; John, the
milkman's son; and George, a gaunt kind of man.Several fast food restaurants can be found within the cities: London,
England; Paris, France; Dublin, Ireland; and Madrid, Spain.Examples of familiar sequences are: one, two, and three;
a, b, and c; and first, second, and third.She stood at the edge, but then decided otherwise; she walked home.(Fig. 8;
see also plates in Harley 1941, 1950; Schwab 1947).This is by far the most frequent use
currently.http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/?c=bnc&q=8899086Between closely related independent clauses not conjoined
with a Grammatical conjunctioncoordinating conjunction: I went to the basketball court; I was told it was closed for
cleaning.I told Kate she's running for the hills; I wonder if she knew I was joking.Nothing is true; everything is
permitted.A man chooses; a slave obeys.I told John that his shoe was untied; he looked.At the mall I bought four
things; my sister bought only two things.Between independent clauses linked with a transitional phrase or a
conjunctive adverb: Everyone knows he is guilty of committing the crime; of course, it will never be
proven.http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/semicolons_before_transitional_phrases.htm Semicolon before a
transitional phrase. "Everyone knows he is guilty; of course, it will never be proved. (The transitional phrase "of
course" acts like a bridge between the first half and the second half.)"Date accessed: 17 September 2010.It can occur
in both melodic and harmonic lines; however, it is subject to certain restraints. Of these patients, 6 were not enrolled;
thus, the cohort was composed of 141 patients at baseline.This is the least common use, and is mostly confined to
academic texts.http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/?c=bnc&q=8899010Other languagesArabic In Arabic languageArabic, the
semicolon is called Fsila Manquta (Arabic languageArabic: ~.... ~I..) which means literally "a dotted comma",
and is written inverted (:). In Arabic, the semicolon has several uses: It can be used between two phrases, in which
the first phrase causes the second. Example: "He played much; so, his clothes became dirty". (Arabic
languageArabic: .~... ..... :,. ,> ..) It can be used in two phrases, where the second is a reason for the
first.Example: "Your sister did not get high marks; because she didn't study sincerely". (Arabic languageArabic:
._..] ... . .. :~,. ,. ... _...) Greek and Church Slavonic In Greek languageGreek and Church
Slavonic languageChurch Slavonic, a semicolon indicates a question, similar to a Latin question mark. To indicate a
long pause or separate sections, each with commas (the semicolon's purpose in English), Greek uses the "c
t", an interpunct (). Examples: Greek: M v_c t t vtr; (Excuse me; where are the
toilets?) Church Slavonic: r cr poxec napr yecki; (Where is the one who is born king of the Jews? -
Matthew 2:1) Literature "Just as there are writers who worship the semicolon, there are other high stylists who
dismiss it who label it, if you please, middle-class." Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots, and Leaves. Some authors have
spurned the semicolon throughout their works. Lynne Truss stated that "Samuel Beckett spliced his way merrily
through such novels as Molloy and Malone Dies, thumbing his nose at the semicolon all the way," "James Joyce
preferred the colon, as more authentically classical; P. G. Wodehouse did an effortlessly marvellous job without it;
George Orwell tried to avoid the semicolon completely in Coming up for Air, (1939)," "Martin Amis included just
one semicolon in Money (1984)," and "Umberto Eco was congratulated by an academic reader for using no
semicolons in The Name of the Rose (1983)."Kurt Vonnegut in A Man Without a Country (2005) stated: "Here is a
lesson in creative writing. First rule: Do not use semicolons. They are transvestite hermaphrodites representing
absolutely nothing. All they do is show you've been to college." In response to Vonnegut and Truss, Ben MacIntyre,
columnist in The Times (London), wrote: "Americans have long regarded the semi-colon with suspicion, as a
genteel, self-conscious, neither-one-thing-nor-the other sort of punctuation mark, with neither the butchness of a full
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colon nor the flighty promiscuity of the comma. Ernest HemingwayHemingway and Raymond ChandlerChandler
and Stephen King wouldnt be seen dead in a ditch with a semi-colon (though Truman Capote might). Real men,
goes the unwritten rule of American punctuation, dont use semi-colons."Computing usage The semicolon is
represented by Unicode and ASCII character (computing)character U+003B ; semicolon (59decimal). The EBCDIC
semicolon character is 94 or hexadecimal0x5E. Scripts comprising wide characters, such as kanji, use a full-width
equivalent, !, located at Unicode code point U+FF1B (fullwidth semicolon).In computer programming, the
semicolon is often used to separate multiple Statement (programming)statements (for example, in Perl, Pascal
(programming language)Pascal, PL/I, and SQL). In other languages, semicolons are called terminators and are
required after every statement (such as in Java (programming language)Java, and the C (programming language)C
family). Other languages (for instance, some assembly languages and Lisp (programming language)LISP dialects)
use semicolons to mark the beginning of comment (computer programming)comments. Additionally, the semicolon
stands for a NOP (no operation or null command) in C/C++, useful in busy waiting synchronization loops.Example
C++ code: int main(void) { int x, y; x = 1; y = 2; // Two statements are separated by the semicolon std::cout << x <<
std::endl; while (wait_event()) ; return 0; } Conventionally, in many languages, each statement is written on a
separate line, but this is not typically a requirement of the language. In the above example, two statements are placed
on the same line; this is legal, since the semicolon separates the two statements. The semicolon is often used to
separate elements of a string of text. For example, multiple e-mail addresses in the "To" field in some e-mail clients
have to be Delimiterdelimited by a semicolon. The semicolon is commonly used as parts of emoticons, in order to
indicate winking. In Microsoft Excel, the semicolon is used as a list separator, especially in cases where the decimal
separator is a comma, such as 0,32; 3,14; 4,50, instead of 0.32, 3.14, 4.50. In MATLAB and GNU Octave, the
semicolon can be used as a row separator when defining a vector or matrix (whereas a comma separates the columns
within a row of a vector or matrix) or to execute a command silently, without displaying the resulting output value in
the console. In HTML, a semicolon is used to terminate a character entity reference, either named or numeric.
Mathematics In the argument list of a mathematical function (mathematics)function f(x_1, x_2, \dots; a_1, a_2,
\dots), a semicolon may be used to separate parameter#Mathematical functionsvariables and parameters. In
differential geometry, a semicolon preceding an Indexed familyindex is used to indicate the covariant derivative of a
function with respect to the coordinate associated with that index. ReferencesHacker, Diana (2002). The Bedford
Handbook (6th ed. ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. International Standard Book
NumberISBN0-312-41281-9.External links Celebrating the Semicolon in a Most Unlikely Location - New York
Times, Feb. 18, 2008. Has modern life killed the semicolon? - Slate (magazine)Slate, June 20, 2008. The end of the
line? - The Guardian, April 4, 2008. The Use of Semicolons in English Examples of how to use the Semicolon
slash
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slash
is too wide
/ Slash Fraction slash Division slash Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The slash (/) is a sign used as a punctuation mark and for
various other purposes. It is often called a forward slash (a retronym used to distinguish the slash from the backslash,
"\"), and many other #Alternative namesalternative names.History The slash goes back to the days of ancient Rome.
In the early modern period, in the Fraktur (typeface)Fraktur script, which was widespread through Europe in the
Middle Ages, one slash (/) represented a comma (punctuation)comma, while two slashes (//) represented a Dash
(punctuation)dash. The two slashes eventually evolved into a sign similar to the equals sign (=), then being further
simplified to a single dash or hyphen (). UsageIn English text The slash is most commonly used as the word
substitute for "or" which indicates a choice (often mutually-exclusive) is present. (Examples: Male/Female, Y/N,
He/She. See also the #Gender-neutrality in Spanish and PortugueseGender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese
section below.) The slash is also used to avoid taking a position in a naming controversy, allowing the juxtaposition
of both names without stating a preference. An example is the designation "Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac" in the official
U.S. census, reflecting the Syriac naming dispute. The Swedish census has come to a similar solution, using
"Assyrier/Syrianer" to refer to the same ethnic group. Additionally the use of the slash is to replace the hyphen or en
dash to make a clear, strong joint between words or phrases, such as "the Hemingway/Faulkner generation". The
slash is also used to indicate a Line (poetry)line break when quoting multiple lines from a poetrypoem, Play
slash
191
(theatre)play, or headline; or in an ordinary prose quotation, the start of a new paragraph. In this case, a space is
placed before and after the slash. For example: "Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks / But bears it out even
to the edge of doom". When used this way, the mark is called a virgule. It is thinner than a solidus if typeset.There
are usually no spaces either before or after a slash: "male/female". Exceptions are in representing the start of a new
line when quoting verse, or a new paragraph when quoting prose. The Chicago Manual of Style (at 6.104) also
allows spaces when either of the separated items is a compound that itself includes a space: "Our New Zealand /
Western Australia trip". (Compare use of an en dash used to separate such compounds.) The Canadian Style: A
Guide to Writing and Editing prescribes "No space before or after an oblique when used between individual words,
letters or symbols; one space before and after the oblique when used between longer groups which contain internal
spacing", giving the examples "n/a" and "Language and Society / Langue et socit".Abbreviations The slash is often
used, perhaps incorrectly[citation needed], to separate the letters in a two-letter initialism such as R/C (short for
"radio control") or w/o ("without"). PuristsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words strongly discourage this newer use of the
symbol. However, since other uses of the slash with individual characters are highly context-specific, confusion is
not likely to arise. Other examples include b/w ("between" or, sometimes, "black and white"), w/e ("whatever", also
"weekend" or "week ending"), i/o ("input/output"), r/w ("read/write") and even a one-letter initialism w/ ("with").
British English in particular makes use of the slash instead of the hyphen in forming abbreviations. Many examples
are found in writings during the Second World War. For example, "S/E" means "single-engined", as a quick way of
writing a type of aircraft. In the U.S. government, office names are abbreviated using slashes, starting with the larger
office and following with its subdivisions. In the State Department, the Office of Commercial & Business Affairs in
the Bureau for Economic, Energy and Business Affairs is referred to as EEB/CBA. Proofreading When highlighting
corrections on a proof, a proofreader will write what he or she thinks should be changedor why it should be
changedin the margin. They separate the comments with a slash called a separatrix.When marking an uppercase
letter for conversion to lowercase, a proofreader will put a slash through it and write lc or l/c in the
margin.Arithmetic Used between numbers slash means Division (mathematics)division, and in this sense the symbol
may be read aloud as "over". For sets, it usually means Modular arithmeticmodulo (quotient group). Proper
typography requires a more horizontal line and the numbers rendered using superscript and subscript, e.g. 123456.
Currency The solidus /'snlids/ or a shilling mark is a punctuation mark used to indicate fractions including
fractional currency. The solidus is significantly more horizontal than the slash.[citation needed] These are two
distinct symbols that traditionally have entirely different uses.[citation needed] However, many people no longer
distinguish between them, and when there is no alternative it is acceptable to use the slash in place of the solidus. In
the UK and British Commonwealth, prior to Decimal Daydecimalisation, a solidus symbol was used for shillings;
thus "56" meant "five shillings and six pence", and "5-" meant "five shillings". Currency sums in Pound
Sterlingpounds, shillings, and pence were abbreviated using the 'pound sign' symbol, the 's.' symbol, and the 'd.'
symbol (collectively sd) referring to the Ancient Roman units of measurement#Mass and coinslibra, the solidus
(coin)solidus, and the denarius. The 's.' was at one stage written using a long s, | that was further abbreviated to the
symbol, and suppression of the 'd.'; thus '2 pounds, 10 shillings, and 6 pence', often written as 2-10-6 (as an
alternative to '2 10s. 6d.'), and '10 shillings' would often be written as 10 -. This usage caused the names solidus
(given the abbreviation's historical root) and shilling mark to be used as names for this character.[citation needed]A
slash followed by a dash is used at the conclusion of currency if cents are not included. For example, on a
check/cheque or a hand-written invoice, somebody may write $50/- (equivalent to $50.00) to denote the end of the
currency. This keeps anybody from adding further digits to the end of the number.Bowling A slash denotes a Spare
(bowling)spare, knocking down all ten pins in two throws, when scoring ten-pin bowling, and duckpin bowling.
ComputingEncoding In Unicode and ASCII the slash is character (computing)character 47, or U+002F ( / ).
International Organization for StandardizationISO and unicode.org both designate this character as the SOLIDUS,
in contradictionBringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style. Publisher: Hartley & Marks
Publishers; 2nd edition (2002). ISBN 978-0-88179-132-7.Wikipedia:Citing sources to long-established typesetting
terminology (see #CurrencyCurrency). A character that more closelyWikipedia:No original research resembles the
slash
192
solidus is U+2215 ( ), called "DIVISION SLASH".HTML code for / is / (numerical code) or / (hex
code) In addition there is U+2044 ( ), called "FRACTION SLASH". This is intended to specifically indicate a
fraction, and to flag the rendering engine to realize the numbers as vulgar fraction if possible, so that "12" can be
rendered similar to the single character "". Since few fonts and text layout systems have the proper mappings to
implement this, the fraction slash is often realized identically to the division slash. The fraction slash is found in the
mac-roman character set used on legacy Apple Macintosh computers. It can be typed on a Macintosh computer (with
US keyboard layout) by pressing ! Option+ Shift+1 (this produces the Unicode fraction slash on Mac OS X). The
fraction slash can be typed on Microsoft Windows as Alt+8260 and the division slash as Alt+8725. Files On
Unix-like systems the slash is used to separate directory and file components of a path (computing)path:
pictures/image.jpgA leading slash represents the root directory of the virtual file system. It is used when specifying
absolute paths: /home/john/pictures/image.jpegThe slash is sometimes called a "forward slash" to contrast with the
backslash, "\", which is also used in DOS, Windows (operating system)Windows and OS/2 systems the same as
slash. Due to DOS and Windows users often seeing far more backslashes than normal ones, they sometimes
incorrectly assume a backslash is normal and incorrectly call a slash a "backslash",Turton, Stuart. "Berners-Lee: web
address slashes were 'a mistake'". PC Pro. October 15, 2009 or felt they needed to say "forward slash" to ensure the
correct one was understood. With the increased visibility of slash in Internet URLs, and increased use of Unix
systems (such as Mac OS X and Linux), slashes have again become more common for most computer users.
Networking Slashes are used in Uniform Resource LocatorURLs in a way similar to the separator in file systems
(often a portion corresponds to a file on a Unix server with exactly the same name):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)The slash in an IP address, such as 192.0.2.0/24, denotes CIDR
notation. Chat Many Internet Relay Chat and in-game chat clients use the slash to distinguish commands, such as the
ability to join or part a chat room or send a private message to a certain user. The slash has also been used in many
chat mediums as a way of expressing an action or statement in the likeness of a command. /join #services to join
IRC channelschannel "#services"/me sings a song about birds./endrantThe slash is used as a reply on instant
messages representing "OK" or "check" or "got it" and also implying "thanks". In Second Life chat the slash is used
to select the communications channel allowing users to direct commands to various virtual objects listening on
different channels (e.g. "/42 on" could be a message in local chat directing the house lights to turn on). Programming
In most programming languages, / is used as a division operator. Starting with version 2.2, Python (programming
language)Python uses // (two slashes) for integer division, rounding down.MATLAB and GNU Octave also have the
./ (a dot and a slash) to indicate an element-by-element division of matrices. Comments in C (programming
language)C, C++, C Sharp (programming language)C#, Java (programming language)Java, PHP, Cascading Style
SheetsCSS, and SAS SystemSAS begin with /* (a slash and an asterisk), and end with */ (the same characters in the
opposite order).C99, C++, C Sharp (programming language)C#, PHP, and Java (programming language)Java also
have comments that begin with // (two slashes) and span a single line. In SGML and derived languages such as
HTML and XML, a slash is used to indicate a closing tag. For example, in HTML, ends a section of
emphasized text that had been started with . Slashes are used as the standard delimiters for regular expressions,
although other characters can be used instead. Slashes are sometimes used to show italics, when no special
formatting is available. Example: /Italic text/ IBM JCL uses two slashes to start each line in a batch job stream
(except for /* and /&). Windows (operating system)Windows, DOS, CP/M, OpenVMS, and OS/2 all use the slash to
indicate command-line options. For instance the "wide" option is added to the dir (command)dir command by typing
"dir/w" (no space is necessary). Compatibility with this is why DOS added the backslash path separator, because
otherwise one could not run a program in a different directory, since the program name always ended at the slash.
Genealogy The GedcomGEDCOM Standard for exchanging computerized genealogical data uses slashes to delimit
surnames. Example: Bill /Smith/ Jr. Slashes around surnames are also used in Personal Ancestral File. Dates Certain
shorthand date formats use / as a delimiter, for example "16/9/2003" 16 September 2003. In the UK there used to
beWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items a specialised use in prose: 7/8 May referred
to the night which starts the evening of 7 May and ends the morning of 8 May, totalling about 12 hours depending on
slash
193
the season. This was used to list night-bombing air-raids which would carry past midnight. Some police units in the
USA use this notation for night disturbances or chases. Conversely, the form with an en dash, 78 May, would refer
to the two-day period, at most 48 hours. This would commonly be used for meetings.ISO 8601 provides a standard
method of expressing dates and times which resolves ambiguities caused by the Date and time notation by
countrydifferent formats historically used by different countries. According to this norm, dates must be written
year-month-day using hyphens, but time periods are written separated by a Solidus (punctuation)solidus:
1939-09-01/1945-05-08, for example, would be the duration of the Second World War in the European theatre, while
2010-09-03/12-22 might be used for the autumn term of a northern-hemisphere school, from September the third to
December the twenty-second, both in 2010. Instead of the solidus in some applications a double hyphen is used, e.g.
1939-09-01--1945-05-08, which would allow the use of the duration in filenames.FictionFor a specialised use of the
slash in the classification of fan fiction stories, see slash fiction. The slash has been used as the title of a novel by
Greg Bear, / (Slant). The "Slant" was added on to give people something to call the book, but it has ultimately
become the accepted title in many book lists.The slash is also the symbol for a wand in NetHack.Library science In
cataloging, as prescribed by the AACR2Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, a slash is used to separate the title from
the statement of responsibility (e.g., author, director, production company). The slash is flanked by a single space on
either side. This form may be seen on catalog cards as well as electronic catalogs, depending on how items are
chosen to display. Examples: Gone with the Wind / by Margaret Mitchell. Star Trek II. The Wrath of Khan
[videorecording] / Paramount Pictures. Linguistics Slashes are used to enclose a phonemephonemic transcription
(linguistics)transcription of Speech communicationspeech. Address Slashes (or virgules) are used in addresses of
places. E.g. 8/A Pushkar Society, to specify the eighth Apartment (bearing Number 8) in Building A of a
multi-building residential complex named Pushkar Society. However, 8-A or # 8A will mean Section or Wing A of
Apartment 8. In this sense, the slash stands for of.Numbering Slashes (or virgules) are used to indicate the serial
number of an article in a set of a finite number of articles.[citation needed] E.g. "page #17/35" in a document
indicates the seventeenth out of a total of 35 pages in a document/chapter/book. Also, the marking "#333/500" on
one of many packages indicates that the package so identified is three hundred thirty-third out of 500 numbered
packages. In this sense, the slash stands for "out of". Music Slashes (virgules) are used in music as an alternative to
writing out specific notes where it is easier to read than traditional notation, or where the player can improvise. They
are commonly used to indicate chords either in place of or in combination with traditional notation, and for
drummers as an indication to continue with the previously indicated style. Physics In quantum field theory, a slash
through a symbol, such as !, is shorthand for a, where a is a covariant four-vector, the are the gamma
matrices, and the repeated index is summed over according to the Einstein notation.Other alternations with hyphen
Besides the varied usage with dates, the slash is used to indicate a range of serial numbers which have the hyphen
already as part of their alphanumeric symbol set. The primary example is the US Air Force serial numbers for
aircraft. These are usually written, for example, as "85-1000", for the thousandth aircraft ordered in fiscal year 1985.
To designate a series of serial numbers, the slash is used, as in 85-1001/1050 for the first fifty subsequent aircraft.
Gender-neutrality in Spanish and PortugueseIn Portuguese languagePortuguese and Spanish languageSpanish, as
well in other West Iberian languages, many feminine forms are very similar to the masculine ones, differing only by
an extra desinence, usually an "-a". For instance, the feminine of "pintor" ("male painter" both in Spanish and
Portuguese) is "pintora". These two forms can be joined together through a slash: pintor/a. Proponents of
gender-neutral language assert that this composed form should be used when the sex of the person referred to is
unknown or when a description fits both sexes. Traditionally, speakers of these languages (and others from the
Romance family) employ the masculine form in this sense, even when the description is also suitable for a
woman.Although parentheses are longer and less specific than a slash, they are the preferred punctuation marks in
Portuguese, so "painter" (meaning male or female) is usually written as "pintor(a)". Prominent Portuguese grammar
references don't mention any use of the slash,Cunha & Cintra (2001). Nova Gramtica do Portugus Contemporneo,
3rd edition revised. Rio de Janeiro, Nova Fronteira. ISBN 85-209-1137-4 but at least one proposal of
gender-inclusive Portuguese does incorporate the sign. According to Portuguese With Inclusion of Gender, a slash
slash
194
should be used instead of parentheses. Slashes should not be used when an at-sign ("At sign#Gender-neutrality in
Spanish and Portuguese@") or an ae ligature ("#Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese") are more
appropriate. Alternative namesdiagonal (rare)forward slashforward stroke#Arithmeticfraction barbarover when the
symbol is used to #Arithmeticindicate divisionper when used to indicate prices (e.g., $5/dozen, read, "five dollars per
dozen")right-leaning stroke[citation needed]scratch comma Authors' and Printers' Dictionary, p. 371, READ
BOOKS, 2007separatrixslak (rare)slantslat (rare)solidus, or shilling mark (#Currencymay be more slanted than the
slash)stroke Oxford Dictionaries FAQ In British English this is often used when reading the character aloud,
although this term is also used to mean any single mark or dash in general. It is common to hear someone say "this
stroke that", whereas a North American speaker is more likely to say "this slash that". However, the term slash is
usually used in the UK when reading computer pathnames. Stroke is also commonly used among the North
American amateur radio community.virgulevirgula suspensivawhack Some speakers use this term only for the
backslash ("\"). oblique References External linksKlein, Samuel John (2006-03-03). Typography Words of the Day:
Slashes. Designorati, 3 March 2006. Retrieved from designorati.com Gender-inclusive use of "/" in Portuguese (and
in Spanish too): 2 - A lngua e o sexo (2 - Language and Sex), Quartos (quarters) I, II and III, one of the subjects of
Controversial Numbers project
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/ Slash Fraction slash Division slash Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal Portal The slash (/) is a sign used as a punctuation mark and for
various other purposes. It is often called a forward slash (a retronym used to distinguish the slash from the backslash,
"\"), and many other #Alternative namesalternative names.History The slash goes back to the days of ancient Rome.
In the early modern period, in the Fraktur (typeface)Fraktur script, which was widespread through Europe in the
Middle Ages, one slash (/) represented a comma (punctuation)comma, while two slashes (//) represented a Dash
(punctuation)dash. The two slashes eventually evolved into a sign similar to the equals sign (=), then being further
simplified to a single dash or hyphen (). UsageIn English text The slash is most commonly used as the word
substitute for "or" which indicates a choice (often mutually-exclusive) is present. (Examples: Male/Female, Y/N,
He/She. See also the #Gender-neutrality in Spanish and PortugueseGender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese
section below.) The slash is also used to avoid taking a position in a naming controversy, allowing the juxtaposition
of both names without stating a preference. An example is the designation "Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac" in the official
U.S. census, reflecting the Syriac naming dispute. The Swedish census has come to a similar solution, using
"Assyrier/Syrianer" to refer to the same ethnic group. Additionally the use of the slash is to replace the hyphen or en
dash to make a clear, strong joint between words or phrases, such as "the Hemingway/Faulkner generation". The
slash is also used to indicate a Line (poetry)line break when quoting multiple lines from a poetrypoem, Play
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(theatre)play, or headline; or in an ordinary prose quotation, the start of a new paragraph. In this case, a space is
placed before and after the slash. For example: "Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks / But bears it out even
to the edge of doom". When used this way, the mark is called a virgule. It is thinner than a solidus if typeset.There
are usually no spaces either before or after a slash: "male/female". Exceptions are in representing the start of a new
line when quoting verse, or a new paragraph when quoting prose. The Chicago Manual of Style (at 6.104) also
allows spaces when either of the separated items is a compound that itself includes a space: "Our New Zealand /
Western Australia trip". (Compare use of an en dash used to separate such compounds.) The Canadian Style: A
Guide to Writing and Editing prescribes "No space before or after an oblique when used between individual words,
letters or symbols; one space before and after the oblique when used between longer groups which contain internal
spacing", giving the examples "n/a" and "Language and Society / Langue et socit".Abbreviations The slash is often
used, perhaps incorrectly[citation needed], to separate the letters in a two-letter initialism such as R/C (short for
"radio control") or w/o ("without"). PuristsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words strongly discourage this newer use of the
symbol. However, since other uses of the slash with individual characters are highly context-specific, confusion is
not likely to arise. Other examples include b/w ("between" or, sometimes, "black and white"), w/e ("whatever", also
"weekend" or "week ending"), i/o ("input/output"), r/w ("read/write") and even a one-letter initialism w/ ("with").
British English in particular makes use of the slash instead of the hyphen in forming abbreviations. Many examples
are found in writings during the Second World War. For example, "S/E" means "single-engined", as a quick way of
writing a type of aircraft. In the U.S. government, office names are abbreviated using slashes, starting with the larger
office and following with its subdivisions. In the State Department, the Office of Commercial & Business Affairs in
the Bureau for Economic, Energy and Business Affairs is referred to as EEB/CBA. Proofreading When highlighting
corrections on a proof, a proofreader will write what he or she thinks should be changedor why it should be
changedin the margin. They separate the comments with a slash called a separatrix.When marking an uppercase
letter for conversion to lowercase, a proofreader will put a slash through it and write lc or l/c in the
margin.Arithmetic Used between numbers slash means Division (mathematics)division, and in this sense the symbol
may be read aloud as "over". For sets, it usually means Modular arithmeticmodulo (quotient group). Proper
typography requires a more horizontal line and the numbers rendered using superscript and subscript, e.g. 123456.
Currency The solidus /'snlids/ or a shilling mark is a punctuation mark used to indicate fractions including
fractional currency. The solidus is significantly more horizontal than the slash.[citation needed] These are two
distinct symbols that traditionally have entirely different uses.[citation needed] However, many people no longer
distinguish between them, and when there is no alternative it is acceptable to use the slash in place of the solidus. In
the UK and British Commonwealth, prior to Decimal Daydecimalisation, a solidus symbol was used for shillings;
thus "56" meant "five shillings and six pence", and "5-" meant "five shillings". Currency sums in Pound
Sterlingpounds, shillings, and pence were abbreviated using the 'pound sign' symbol, the 's.' symbol, and the 'd.'
symbol (collectively sd) referring to the Ancient Roman units of measurement#Mass and coinslibra, the solidus
(coin)solidus, and the denarius. The 's.' was at one stage written using a long s, | that was further abbreviated to the
symbol, and suppression of the 'd.'; thus '2 pounds, 10 shillings, and 6 pence', often written as 2-10-6 (as an
alternative to '2 10s. 6d.'), and '10 shillings' would often be written as 10 -. This usage caused the names solidus
(given the abbreviation's historical root) and shilling mark to be used as names for this character.[citation needed]A
slash followed by a dash is used at the conclusion of currency if cents are not included. For example, on a
check/cheque or a hand-written invoice, somebody may write $50/- (equivalent to $50.00) to denote the end of the
currency. This keeps anybody from adding further digits to the end of the number.Bowling A slash denotes a Spare
(bowling)spare, knocking down all ten pins in two throws, when scoring ten-pin bowling, and duckpin bowling.
ComputingEncoding In Unicode and ASCII the slash is character (computing)character 47, or U+002F ( / ).
International Organization for StandardizationISO and unicode.org both designate this character as the SOLIDUS,
in contradictionBringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style. Publisher: Hartley & Marks
Publishers; 2nd edition (2002). ISBN 978-0-88179-132-7.Wikipedia:Citing sources to long-established typesetting
terminology (see #CurrencyCurrency). A character that more closelyWikipedia:No original research resembles the
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solidus is U+2215 ( ), called "DIVISION SLASH".HTML code for / is / (numerical code) or / (hex
code) In addition there is U+2044 ( ), called "FRACTION SLASH". This is intended to specifically indicate a
fraction, and to flag the rendering engine to realize the numbers as vulgar fraction if possible, so that "12" can be
rendered similar to the single character "". Since few fonts and text layout systems have the proper mappings to
implement this, the fraction slash is often realized identically to the division slash. The fraction slash is found in the
mac-roman character set used on legacy Apple Macintosh computers. It can be typed on a Macintosh computer (with
US keyboard layout) by pressing ! Option+ Shift+1 (this produces the Unicode fraction slash on Mac OS X). The
fraction slash can be typed on Microsoft Windows as Alt+8260 and the division slash as Alt+8725. Files On
Unix-like systems the slash is used to separate directory and file components of a path (computing)path:
pictures/image.jpgA leading slash represents the root directory of the virtual file system. It is used when specifying
absolute paths: /home/john/pictures/image.jpegThe slash is sometimes called a "forward slash" to contrast with the
backslash, "\", which is also used in DOS, Windows (operating system)Windows and OS/2 systems the same as
slash. Due to DOS and Windows users often seeing far more backslashes than normal ones, they sometimes
incorrectly assume a backslash is normal and incorrectly call a slash a "backslash",Turton, Stuart. "Berners-Lee: web
address slashes were 'a mistake'". PC Pro. October 15, 2009 or felt they needed to say "forward slash" to ensure the
correct one was understood. With the increased visibility of slash in Internet URLs, and increased use of Unix
systems (such as Mac OS X and Linux), slashes have again become more common for most computer users.
Networking Slashes are used in Uniform Resource LocatorURLs in a way similar to the separator in file systems
(often a portion corresponds to a file on a Unix server with exactly the same name):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)The slash in an IP address, such as 192.0.2.0/24, denotes CIDR
notation. Chat Many Internet Relay Chat and in-game chat clients use the slash to distinguish commands, such as the
ability to join or part a chat room or send a private message to a certain user. The slash has also been used in many
chat mediums as a way of expressing an action or statement in the likeness of a command. /join #services to join
IRC channelschannel "#services"/me sings a song about birds./endrantThe slash is used as a reply on instant
messages representing "OK" or "check" or "got it" and also implying "thanks". In Second Life chat the slash is used
to select the communications channel allowing users to direct commands to various virtual objects listening on
different channels (e.g. "/42 on" could be a message in local chat directing the house lights to turn on). Programming
In most programming languages, / is used as a division operator. Starting with version 2.2, Python (programming
language)Python uses // (two slashes) for integer division, rounding down.MATLAB and GNU Octave also have the
./ (a dot and a slash) to indicate an element-by-element division of matrices. Comments in C (programming
language)C, C++, C Sharp (programming language)C#, Java (programming language)Java, PHP, Cascading Style
SheetsCSS, and SAS SystemSAS begin with /* (a slash and an asterisk), and end with */ (the same characters in the
opposite order).C99, C++, C Sharp (programming language)C#, PHP, and Java (programming language)Java also
have comments that begin with // (two slashes) and span a single line. In SGML and derived languages such as
HTML and XML, a slash is used to indicate a closing tag. For example, in HTML, ends a section of
emphasized text that had been started with . Slashes are used as the standard delimiters for regular expressions,
although other characters can be used instead. Slashes are sometimes used to show italics, when no special
formatting is available. Example: /Italic text/ IBM JCL uses two slashes to start each line in a batch job stream
(except for /* and /&). Windows (operating system)Windows, DOS, CP/M, OpenVMS, and OS/2 all use the slash to
indicate command-line options. For instance the "wide" option is added to the dir (command)dir command by typing
"dir/w" (no space is necessary). Compatibility with this is why DOS added the backslash path separator, because
otherwise one could not run a program in a different directory, since the program name always ended at the slash.
Genealogy The GedcomGEDCOM Standard for exchanging computerized genealogical data uses slashes to delimit
surnames. Example: Bill /Smith/ Jr. Slashes around surnames are also used in Personal Ancestral File. Dates Certain
shorthand date formats use / as a delimiter, for example "16/9/2003" 16 September 2003. In the UK there used to
beWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items a specialised use in prose: 7/8 May referred
to the night which starts the evening of 7 May and ends the morning of 8 May, totalling about 12 hours depending on
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the season. This was used to list night-bombing air-raids which would carry past midnight. Some police units in the
USA use this notation for night disturbances or chases. Conversely, the form with an en dash, 78 May, would refer
to the two-day period, at most 48 hours. This would commonly be used for meetings.ISO 8601 provides a standard
method of expressing dates and times which resolves ambiguities caused by the Date and time notation by
countrydifferent formats historically used by different countries. According to this norm, dates must be written
year-month-day using hyphens, but time periods are written separated by a Solidus (punctuation)solidus:
1939-09-01/1945-05-08, for example, would be the duration of the Second World War in the European theatre, while
2010-09-03/12-22 might be used for the autumn term of a northern-hemisphere school, from September the third to
December the twenty-second, both in 2010. Instead of the solidus in some applications a double hyphen is used, e.g.
1939-09-01--1945-05-08, which would allow the use of the duration in filenames.FictionFor a specialised use of the
slash in the classification of fan fiction stories, see slash fiction. The slash has been used as the title of a novel by
Greg Bear, / (Slant). The "Slant" was added on to give people something to call the book, but it has ultimately
become the accepted title in many book lists.The slash is also the symbol for a wand in NetHack.Library science In
cataloging, as prescribed by the AACR2Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, a slash is used to separate the title from
the statement of responsibility (e.g., author, director, production company). The slash is flanked by a single space on
either side. This form may be seen on catalog cards as well as electronic catalogs, depending on how items are
chosen to display. Examples: Gone with the Wind / by Margaret Mitchell. Star Trek II. The Wrath of Khan
[videorecording] / Paramount Pictures. Linguistics Slashes are used to enclose a phonemephonemic transcription
(linguistics)transcription of Speech communicationspeech. Address Slashes (or virgules) are used in addresses of
places. E.g. 8/A Pushkar Society, to specify the eighth Apartment (bearing Number 8) in Building A of a
multi-building residential complex named Pushkar Society. However, 8-A or # 8A will mean Section or Wing A of
Apartment 8. In this sense, the slash stands for of.Numbering Slashes (or virgules) are used to indicate the serial
number of an article in a set of a finite number of articles.[citation needed] E.g. "page #17/35" in a document
indicates the seventeenth out of a total of 35 pages in a document/chapter/book. Also, the marking "#333/500" on
one of many packages indicates that the package so identified is three hundred thirty-third out of 500 numbered
packages. In this sense, the slash stands for "out of". Music Slashes (virgules) are used in music as an alternative to
writing out specific notes where it is easier to read than traditional notation, or where the player can improvise. They
are commonly used to indicate chords either in place of or in combination with traditional notation, and for
drummers as an indication to continue with the previously indicated style. Physics In quantum field theory, a slash
through a symbol, such as !, is shorthand for a, where a is a covariant four-vector, the are the gamma
matrices, and the repeated index is summed over according to the Einstein notation.Other alternations with hyphen
Besides the varied usage with dates, the slash is used to indicate a range of serial numbers which have the hyphen
already as part of their alphanumeric symbol set. The primary example is the US Air Force serial numbers for
aircraft. These are usually written, for example, as "85-1000", for the thousandth aircraft ordered in fiscal year 1985.
To designate a series of serial numbers, the slash is used, as in 85-1001/1050 for the first fifty subsequent aircraft.
Gender-neutrality in Spanish and PortugueseIn Portuguese languagePortuguese and Spanish languageSpanish, as
well in other West Iberian languages, many feminine forms are very similar to the masculine ones, differing only by
an extra desinence, usually an "-a". For instance, the feminine of "pintor" ("male painter" both in Spanish and
Portuguese) is "pintora". These two forms can be joined together through a slash: pintor/a. Proponents of
gender-neutral language assert that this composed form should be used when the sex of the person referred to is
unknown or when a description fits both sexes. Traditionally, speakers of these languages (and others from the
Romance family) employ the masculine form in this sense, even when the description is also suitable for a
woman.Although parentheses are longer and less specific than a slash, they are the preferred punctuation marks in
Portuguese, so "painter" (meaning male or female) is usually written as "pintor(a)". Prominent Portuguese grammar
references don't mention any use of the slash,Cunha & Cintra (2001). Nova Gramtica do Portugus Contemporneo,
3rd edition revised. Rio de Janeiro, Nova Fronteira. ISBN 85-209-1137-4 but at least one proposal of
gender-inclusive Portuguese does incorporate the sign. According to Portuguese With Inclusion of Gender, a slash
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should be used instead of parentheses. Slashes should not be used when an at-sign ("At sign#Gender-neutrality in
Spanish and Portuguese@") or an ae ligature ("#Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese") are more
appropriate. Alternative namesdiagonal (rare)forward slashforward stroke#Arithmeticfraction barbarover when the
symbol is used to #Arithmeticindicate divisionper when used to indicate prices (e.g., $5/dozen, read, "five dollars per
dozen")right-leaning stroke[citation needed]scratch comma Authors' and Printers' Dictionary, p. 371, READ
BOOKS, 2007separatrixslak (rare)slantslat (rare)solidus, or shilling mark (#Currencymay be more slanted than the
slash)stroke Oxford Dictionaries FAQ In British English this is often used when reading the character aloud,
although this term is also used to mean any single mark or dash in general. It is common to hear someone say "this
stroke that", whereas a North American speaker is more likely to say "this slash that". However, the term slash is
usually used in the UK when reading computer pathnames. Stroke is also commonly used among the North
American amateur radio community.virgulevirgula suspensivawhack Some speakers use this term only for the
backslash ("\"). oblique References External linksKlein, Samuel John (2006-03-03). Typography Words of the Day:
Slashes. Designorati, 3 March 2006. Retrieved from designorati.com Gender-inclusive use of "/" in Portuguese (and
in Spanish too): 2 - A lngua e o sexo (2 - Language and Sex), Quartos (quarters) I, II and III, one of the subjects of
Controversial Numbers project
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Space Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( ,
Portal Portal In writing, a space () is a blank area devoid of content, serving to word dividerseparate words, letters,
numbers, and punctuation. Conventions for interword separationinterword and Sentence spacingintersentence spaces
vary among languages, and in some cases the spacing rules are quite complex.In the Classical antiquityclassical
period, Latin was written with interpuncts (centred dots) as word separators, but that practice was abandoned
sometime around AD 200 in favour of scriptio continua, i.e., with the words running together without any word
separators. In around AD 600800, blank spaces started being inserted between words in Latin, and that practice
carried over to all languages using the Latin alphabet (e.g. English). In typesetting, spaces have historically been of
multiple lengths with particular space-lengths being used for specific typographic purposes, such as separating words
or separating sentences or separating punctuation from words. Following the invention of the typewriter and the
subsequent overlap of designer style-preferences and computer-technology limitations, much of this reader-centric
variation was lost in normal use.In computer representation of text, spaces of various sizes, styles, or language
characteristics (different space characters) are indicated with unique code points.Use of the space in natural
languagesSpaces between wordsModern English uses a space to separate words, but not all languages follow this
practice. Spaces were not used to separate words in Latin until roughly AD 600800. Ancient Hebrew and Arabic
did use spaces, partly to compensate in clarity for the lack of vowels. Traditionally, all CJK languages have no
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spaces: modern Chinese languageChinese and Japanese languageJapanese (except when written with little or no
kanji) still do not, but modern Korean languageKorean uses spaces.Spaces between sentencesLanguages with a
Latin-derived alphabet have used multiple methods of sentence spacing since the advent of movable type in the 15th
century. One space (French Spacing). This is the current convention in countries that use the ISO basic Latin
alphabet for published and final written work, as well as digital (World Wide Web) media. Double space (English
Spacing). This convention stems from the use of the monospaced font on typewriters. This historical convention was
carried on by tradition until it was replaced by the single space convention in published print and digital media
today. One widened space, typically one-and-a-third to slightly less than two times as wide as a word space. This
spacing has been seen in early typesetting practices (prior to the nineteenth century). It has also been used in other
non-typewriter typesetting systems such as the Linotype machine cited in and the TeX system. Modern
computer-based digital fonts can adjust the spacing after terminal punctuation as well, creating a Sentence
spacing#Digital agespace slightly wider than a standard word space.; ; No space. According to Lynne Truss, "young
people" today using digital media "are now accustomed to following a full stop with a lower-case letter and no
space".There has been some Sentence spacing#Controversycontroversy regarding the proper amount of sentence
spacing in typeset material. The Elements of Typographic Style states that only a single word space is required for
sentence spacing since "Larger spaces...are themselves punctuation."Spaces and unit symbolsThe International
System of Units, or SI,. and the style guide on the English-language Wikipedia recommend a (non-breakable, thin
Spacethin) space only between a number and the unit. 5.0 cm not 5.0 c m 45 kg not 45kg 32 C not 32C or 32
CThe only exceptions to this rule in the SI are for the symbols for degree, minute and second for plane angle, as 30
22 8. For the sake of clarity, a hyphen may be inserted between a numeral and a symbol used adjectivally: 35-mm
film 60-W bulb However, some other style guides, including Wikipedia's, deprecate hyphenation in these cases. The
SI allows a hyphen between the numeral and the unit only when the name of the unit is spelled out, as 35-millimetre
film.Space characters and digital typography Variable-width general-purpose space In computer character encodings,
there is a normal general-purpose space (Unicode character Unicode#UpluslinkU+0020; 32 decimal) whose width
will vary according to the design of the typeface. Typical values range from 1/5-em to 1/3-em (in digital typography
an Em (typography)em is equal to the nominal size of the font, so for a 10-point font the space will probably be
between 2 and 3.3 points). Sophisticated fonts may have differently sized spaces for bold, italic, and small-caps
faces, and often compositors will manually adjust the width of the space depending on the size and prominence of
the text.In addition to this general-purpose space, it is possible to encode a space of a specific width. See the table
below for a complete list. In monospaced proofreading copy (written)copy, only em- and en-spaces are represented
using this character (which is called an em-quad or an en-quad), while other types of spaces are represented with a
number sign (see Number sign#Space in particular).Breaking and non-breaking spaces By default, computer
programs usually assume that, in flowing text, a line break may as necessary be inserted at the position of a space.
The non-breaking space, Unicode#UpluslinkU+00A0 (160 decimal), is intended to render the same as a normal
space but prevents line-wrapping at that position.However, there are programs which do not follow this intent
exactly, for example even such a modern and widespread web browser like the Mozilla Firefox 3.5 series, released in
2009. It (correctly) suppresses the line-wrapping when rendering the non-breaking space, but it (incorrectly) ignores
the word-spacing CSS property for non-breaking spaces. This was corrected in Firefox version 3.6, released in 2010.
Other programs may also suffer from the same flaw. The following simple HTML code demonstrates this flaw on
affected browsers: <html><body style="word-spacing:1em"> This paragraph shows extremely wide spaces
between words, because of the 1em word-spacing CSS value.
This paragraph contains non-breaking spaces and 
should show the same spaces as the first one.
</body></html> Here are the above two paragraphs rendered in your current browser: This paragraph shows
extremely wide spaces between words, because of the 1em word-spacing CSS value.
Thisparagraphcontainsnon-breakingspacesand shouldshowthesamespacesasthefirstone. Hair spaces around
dashes In American typography, both en dashes and em dashes are set continuous with the text (as illustrated by use
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in The Chicago Manual of Style, 6.80, 6.8386). However, an em dash can optionally be surrounded with a so-called
hair space, Unicode#UpluslinkU+200A (8202 decimal), or thin space, Unicode#UpluslinkU+2009 (8201 decimal).
The thin space can be written in HTML by using the List of XML and HTML character entity references#Character
entity references in HTMLnamed entity and the hair space can be written using numeric character reference
or . This space should be much thinner than a normal space, and is seldom used on its own.
Normal space versus hair space(as rendered by your browser) Normal space leftright Normal space with em dash
leftright Thin space with em dash left right Hair space with em dash left right No space with em dash
leftright Spaces in UnicodeRelative widths of various spaces in Unicode.Unicode defines The Unicode Standard
ver. 5.2.0 section 6.2 table 6-2, and section 16.2 Line and Word Breaking several space characters with specific
semantics and rendering characteristics, as shown in the table below. Depending on the browser and fonts used to
view this table, not all spaces may display properly: Spacing characters in Unicode Code Dec Non-breaking
spaceBreak in URLList of XML and HTML character entity referencesHTML Name Unicode blockBlock Display
U+0020 32 Yes No Space Basic Latin ] [ Normal space, same as ASCII character 0x20 U+00A0 160 No No
No-Break Space Latin-1 Supplement ][ Identical to U+0020, but not a point at which a line may be broken
U+1680 5760 Yes Yes Ogham Space Mark Ogham ] [ Used for interword separation in Ogham text. Normally a
vertical line in vertical text or a horizontal line in horizontal text, but may also be a blank space in "stemless" fonts.
Requires an Ogham font. U+180E 6158 Yes Yes Mongolian Vowel Separator (MVS) Mongolian ]![ A narrow space
character (not to be confused with "thin space", below) used in Mongolian to cause the final two characters of a word
to take on different shapes. U+2000 8192 Yes NoThis character is blacklisted for domain names by browsers
because it might be used for phishing.<ref> En quad General Punctuation ] [ Width of one En (typography)en.
U+2002 is canonically equivalent to this character; U+2002 is preferred. U+2001 8193 Yes NoEm quadMutton quad
General Punctuation ] [ Width of one Em (typography)em. U+2003 is canonically equivalent to this character;
U+2003 is preferred. U+2002 8194 Yes No&ensp;En SpaceNut General Punctuation ] [ Width of one En
(typography)en. U+2000 En Quad is canonically equivalent to this character; U+2002 is preferred. U+2003 8195
Yes No&emsp;Em SpaceMutton General Punctuation ] [ Width of one Em (typography)em. U+2001 Em Quad is
canonically equivalent to this character; U+2003 is preferred. U+2004 8196 Yes NoThree-Per-Em SpaceThick Space
General Punctuation ] [ One third of an em wide U+2005 8197 Yes NoFour-Per-Em SpaceMid Space General
Punctuation ] [ One fourth of an em wide U+2006 8198 Yes NoSix-Per-Em Space General Punctuation ] [ One sixth
of an em wide. In computer typography sometimes equated to U+2009. U+2007 8199 No NoFigure spaceFigure
Space General Punctuation ] [ In fonts with monospaced digits, equal to the width of one digit. U+2008 8200 Yes
NoPunctuation Space General Punctuation ] [ As wide as the narrow punctuation in a font, i.e. the advance width of
the period or comma. U+2009 8201 Yes No Thin Space General Punctuation ] [ One fifth (sometimes one
sixth) of an em wide. Recommended for use as a thousands separator for measures made with SI units#SI writing
styleSI units. Unlike U+2002 to U+2008, its width may get adjusted in typesetting.The Unicode Standard 5.0,
printed edition, p.205 U+200A 8202 Yes NoHair Space General Punctuation ] [ Thinner than a thin space U+200B
8203 Yes NoZero Width Space (ZWSP) General Punctuation ] [ Used to indicate word boundaries to text processing
systems when using scripts that do not use explicit spacing. It is similar to the soft hyphen, with the difference that
the latter is used to indicate syllable boundaries, and should display a visible hyphen when the line breaks at it.
U+200C 8204 Yes Yes &zwnj;Zero-width non-joinerZero Width Non Joiner (ZWNJ) General Punctuation ][ When
placed between two characters that would otherwise be connected, a ZWNJ causes them to be printed in their final
and initial forms, respectively. U+200D 8205 Yes Yes &zwj;Zero-width joinerZero Width Joiner (ZWJ) General
Punctuation ][ When placed between two characters that would otherwise not be connected, a ZWJ causes them to be
printed in their connected forms. U+202F 8239 No NoNarrow No-Break Space General Punctuation ] [ Similar in
function to U+00A0 No-Break Space. Introduced in Unicode 3.0 for Mongolian,ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993/FDAM
29:1999(E) to separate a suffix from the word stem without indicating a word boundary. When used with Mongolian,
its width is usually one third of the normal space; in other context, its width resembles that of the Thin Space
(U+2009) at least with some fonts. This char is also used in French before ";?!" chars and after "". U+205F 8287
Space
203
Yes No Medium Mathematical Space (MMSP) General Punctuation ] [ Used in mathematical formulae.
Four-eighteenths of an em. In mathematical typography, the widths of spaces are usually given in integral multiples
of an eighteenth of an em, and 4/18 em may be used in several situations, for example between the a and the + and
between the + and the b in the expression a+b. U+2060 8288 No Yes Word Joiner (WJ) General Punctuation ][
Identical to U+200B, but not a point at which a line may be broken. Introduced in Unicode 3.2 to replace the
deprecated "zero width no-break space" function of the U+FEFF character. U+3000 12288 Yes NoIdeographic
Space (used for example as tai tou) CJK Symbols and Punctuation ] [ As wide as a CJK character cell (fullwidth)
U+FEFF 65279 No Yes Zero-width non-breaking spaceZero Width No-Break Space= Byte Order MarkByte Order
Mark (BOM) Arabic Presentation Forms-B ][ Used primarily as a Byte Order Mark. Use as an indication of
non-breaking is deprecated as of Unicode 3.2, see U+2060 instead. </ref>Unicode also provides some visible
characters to stand in for space when necessary: Space illustrating characters (visible) in Unicode Code Dec Name
Unicode blockBlock Display Description U+00B7 183 Middle dot Basic Latin interpunct, used in text processors.
HTML also: · U+237D 9085 Shouldered open box Miscellaneous Technical ! used for NBSP U+2420 9248
Symbol for space Control Pictures ! U+2422 9250 Blank symbol Control Pictures ! U+2423 9251 Open box Control
Pictures Use of the space in computingIn programming language syntax, spaces are frequently used to explicitly
separate token (parser)tokens. Aside from this use, spaces and other whitespace (computer science)whitespace
characters are usually ignored by modern programming languages. Exceptions are Haskell (programming
language)Haskell, occam programming languageoccam, ABC programming languageABC, and Python
(programming language)Python, which use the amount of whitespace in indentation to indicate the bounds of a
block, and a whimsical language called Whitespace (programming language)Whitespace, where whitespace is the
only meaningful syntactical element. In commands processed by command processors, e.g. in scripts and typed in,
the space character can cause problems as it has two possible functions: as part of a command or parameter, or as a
parameter or name Delimiterseparator. Ambiguity can be prevented either by prohibiting embedded spaces, or by
enclosing a name with embedded spaces between quote characters. Text editors, word processors, and desktop
publishing software differ in how they represent whitespace characterwhitespace on the screen, and how they
represent spaces at the ends of lines longer than the screen or column width. In some cases, spaces are shown simply
as blank space; in other cases they may be represented by an interpunct or other symbols. Many different characters
(described below) could be used to produce spaces, and non-character functions (such as margins and tab settings)
can also affect whitespace. Hard spaces (contrasted with "soft spaces") may be defined by some word processors and
operating systems as either a non-breaking space, a non-combining/non-expanding space, or some other special
character. Space characters in markup languages Generalised markup languages, such as SGML, do not treat space
characters differently from other characters. However, special-purpose markup languages may. In particular, web
markup languages such as XML and HTML treat whitespace characters specially, including space characters, for
programmers' convenience. One or more space characters read by conforming Display-time processors of those
markup languages are collapsed to 0 or 1 space, depending on their semantic context. For example, double (or more)
spaces within text are collapsed to a single space, and spaces which appear on either side of the "=" that separates an
attribute name from its value have no effect on the interpretation of the document. Element end tags can contain
trailing spaces, and empty-element tags in XML can contain spaces before the "/>". In XML attribute values,
sequences of whitespace characters are treated as a single space when the document is read by a parser. Whitespace
in XML element content is not changed in this way by the parser, but an application receiving information from the
parser may choose to apply similar rules to element content. An XML document author can use the
xml:space="preserve" attribute on an element to instruct the parser to discourage the downstream application from
altering whitespace in that element's content. In most HTML elements, a sequence of whitespace characters is treated
as a single inter-word separator, which may manifest as a single space character when rendering text in a language
that normally inserts such space between words. Conforming HTML renderers are required to apply a more literal
treatment of whitespace within a few prescribed elements, such as the pre tag and any element for which Cascading
Style SheetsCSS has been used to apply pre-like whitespace processing. In such elements, space characters will not
Space
204
be "collapsed" into inter-word separators.In both XML and HTML, the non-breaking space character, along with
other non-"standard" spaces, is not treated as collapsible "whitespace", so it is not subject to the rules above.
References External links Unicode spaces, by Jukka "Yucca" Korpela. Commonly confused characters
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Uncommon typography
Asterism
is too wide
Asterism Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal In typography, an asterism, from the Greek astr ('star'),Alexander Humez, Nicholas D. Humez (2008).
On the Dot: The Speck That Changed the World, p.72 & 186n. ISBN 978-0-19-532499-0. is a rarely used and nearly
obsoleteRadim Pesko, Louis Lthi (2007). Dot Dot Dot 13, p.193. Stuart Bailey, Peter Bilak, eds. ISBN
978-90-77620-07-6. symbol consisting of three asterisks placed in a triangle (). It is used to "indicate minor breaks
in text,"Hudson, Robert (2010). The Christian Writer's Manual of Style, p.396. ISBN 978-0-310-86136-2. call
attention to a passage, or to separate sub-chapters in a book. It is Unicode character U+2042 asterism (HTML:
⁂). In Windows it is possible to use the key combination ALT+8258 to produce the character, but it has very
limited support in the default fonts (Arial Unicode MS / Lucida Sans Unicode / MS Mincho).Asterisms in James
Joyce Ulysses (novel)Ulysses, the "Wandering Rocks" chapter, from the 1922 edition. The 1961 edition used a
hollow star (), the 1984 edition used a dinkus (***).Often, this symbol is replaced with three consecutive asterisks
(called a dinkus Lundmark, Torbjorn Quirky Qwerty: A Biography of the Keyboard (2002)), more than three
Asterism
206
asterisks, or three or more dots. Otherwise, an extra space (punctuation)space between paragraphs is used. An
asterism or its analogue may be used in conjunction with the extra space to mark a smaller subdivision than a
subchapter.It can also be used to mean 'untitled' or author or title withheld, for example, some editions of Album for
the Young by composer Robert Schumann (no.'s 21, 26, and 30).Taruskin, Richard (2005). The Oxford history of
western music, Volume 3, p.311. ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9. Besides originating from the same word, "the rarely
used asteriscus (!), which Isidore of Seville (p. 48) says 'is put in place of something that has been omitted so as to
call attention to the omission'," also resembles the asterism.The asterism should not be confused with the similar
looking therefore sign U+2234 . Therefore signtherefore (HTML: ∴ &there4;) which is composed of
three round dots rather than asterisks. LaTeX In the typesetting language LaTeX, an asterism can be defined as a
command by inserting something similar to the code below in the LaTeX document's preamble:
\newcommand{\asterism}{{\footnotesize \smash{% \raisebox{-.2ex}{% \setlength{\tabcolsep}{0.5pt}%
\begin{tabular}{@{}cc@{}}% \multicolumn2c*\\[-1.5ex] *&*% \end{tabular}}}}} An asterism can then be
inserted in the body of a document by using the \asterism command. References
Because and therefore signs
207
is too wide
. Therefore sign Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal PortalIn mathematical proof, the therefore sign (.) is sometimes placed before a logical consequence, such as
the conclusion of a syllogism. The symbol consists of three dots placed in an upright triangle and is read therefore. It
is encoded at U+2234 . therefore (HTML: ∴ &there4;). While it is not generally used in formal writing, it is
often[citation needed] used in mathematics and shorthand. It is complementary to U+2235 because (HTML:
∵).History According to Florian CajoriCajori, A History of Mathematical Notations, Johann Rahn used both
the therefore and because signs to mean "therefore"; in the German edition of Teutsche Algebra (1659) the therefore
sign was prevalent with the modern meaning, but in the in the 1668 English edition Rahn used the because sign more
often to mean "therefore". Cajori, vol. 1, p. 211; Other authors in the eighteenth century also used three dots in a
triangle shape to signify "therefore", but as with Rahn, there wasn't much in the way of consistency as to how the
triangle was oriented; because with its current meaning appears to have originated in the nineteenth century. Also, in
this century, the three-dot notation for therefore becomes very rare in continental Europe, but remains popular in the
British Isles.Example of use Used in a syllogism: All gods are immortal. Zeus is a god. .Zeus is immortal. x+1=6
.x=5 It would also be proper to indicate a premise with the because sign. For example: All gods are immortals.
Zeus is a god. . Zeus is an immortal. Related signsA diploma from the Masonic Grande Loge de France showing the
symbol as a substitute for the dot of abbreviation. The inverted form , known as the because sign, is sometimes
208
used as a shorthand form of "because". This is Unicode character U+2235.The therefore sign is sometimes used as a
substitute for an asterism (typography)asterism .To denote logical implication or entailment, various signs are used
in mathematical logic: , =, , -, =. These symbols are then part of a mathematical formula, and are not
considered to be punctuation. In contrast, the therefore sign is traditionally used as a punctuation mark, and does not
form part of a formula.http://www.scenta.co.uk/tcaep/maths/symbol/Mathematical%20Symbols/index.htmThe
graphically identical sign . serves as a Japanese map symbol on the maps of the Geographical Survey Institute of
Japan, indicating a tea plantation. On other maps the sign, often with thicker dots, is sometimes used to signal the
presence of a national monument or ruins. The character : in the Tamil script represents the ytam, a special sound
of the Tamil language. In Masonic traditions the symbol is used for abbreviation, instead of the usual period. For
example "R.W. John Smith" is an abbreviation for "Right Worshipful John Smith" (the term Right Worshipful
indicates that Brother Smith is a Grand Lodge officer).Encyclopedia of Freemasonry Part 1 and Its Kindred Sciences
Comprising the ..., Albert Gallatin Mackey, page 2, reprint in 2002, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN
0-7661-2650-1.References
Index
209
Index
is too wide
Index Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash (
Portal Portal1865 wanted poster of John Wilkes Booth using index-fist character. The symbol is a punctuation
mark, called an index, manicule (from the Latin root 'manus' for 'hand') or fist. Though rare today, this symbol was
in common use between the 12th and 18th centuries in the margins of books, and was formerly included in lists of
standard punctuation marks. Its typical use is as a bullet-like symbol to direct the readers attention to important text,
having roughly the same meaning as the word attention or nota benenote. Some encyclopedias use it in articles
to cross-reference, as in other articles. It occasionally sees use in magazines and comic books to indicate to the
reader that a story on the right-hand page continues onto the next.It primarily fell out of favor because its complex
design made it unfit for handwriting, and its wide size made it difficult to fit on a typewriter or on early,
low-resolution, Monospaced fontmonospaced computer fonts. It was therefore not included in ASCII. It was,
however, added to Unicode. Other names for the symbol include printer's fist, bishop's fist, digit, mutton-fist and
pointing hand (see Sherman, p. 10).In literature American science fiction writer Kurt Vonnegut used the symbol as a
form of margin on the first line of every paragraph in his novel Breakfast Of Champions. The literary effect of this
was to create separation between each paragraph, reinforcing the Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)stream of
consciousness style of the text.Thomas Pynchon parodies this punctuation mark in his novel Gravity's Rainbow by
depicting a middle finger, rather than an index finger, pointing at a line of text.Other uses In linguistics, the symbol
Index
210
is often used in Optimality TheoryOptimality Theoretic tableau (linguistics)tableaux to identify the winner in a
candidate set. The mark is sometimes used in web designs to indicate an active or selected hyper link. Many video
games made in the 1980s and '90s, primarily text-based adventure games, use the symbol as a Cursor
(computers)cursor. Unicode There are ten index symbols in Unicode. U+261A = black left pointing indexU+261B
black right pointing indexU+261C white left pointing indexU+261D white up pointing indexU+261E
white right pointing indexU+261F white down pointing indexU+1F446 ! white up pointing backhand
indexU+1F447 ! white down pointing backhand indexU+1F448 ! white left pointing backhand indexU+1F449 !
white right pointing backhand indexIn addition, the dingbat font Wingdings 2, found in all versions of Microsoft
Windows since Windows 95, includes 16 forms of the index, and the original Wingdings font features four others
(resembling the white Unicode indices). References External linksSherman, William. Toward a History of the
Manicule, 2005. Collection of photographs of manicules on Flickr
Interrobang
211
Interrobang
is too wide
Interrobang Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , )
Portal Portal The interrobang, also known as the interabang, (pron.: /in'trrb/), (often represented by ?! or !?), is
a nonstandard punctuation mark used in various written languages and intended to combine the functions of the
question mark (also called the interrogative point) and the exclamation pointexclamation mark or exclamation
point (known in printers and programmers' jargon as the bang). The glyph is a superimposition of these two
marks.Application A sentence (linguistics)sentence ending with an interrobang asks a question in an excited manner,
expresses excitement or disbelief in the form of a question, or asks a rhetorical question. For example: Say what
She's pregnantIn informal English, the same inflection is usually notated by ending a sentence with first a question
mark and then an exclamation mark, or vice versa. Many people are unfamiliar with the interrobang, and would be
puzzled when first seeing it, although its intention is usually self-evident. The interrobang can be hand-written with a
single stroke plus the dot. One common application is in cartoons, as a stand-alone symbol of surprise. HistoryAn
interrobang in the Palatino Mergenthaler Linotype CompanyLinotype fontMany writers, especially in informal
writing, have used multiple punctuation marks to end a sentence expressing surprise and question. What the...?!
Neves, Called Dead in Fall, Denies It (headline from San Francisco Examiner, May 9, 1936)Writers using informal
language may use several alternating question marks and exclamation marks for even more emphasis: He did
what?!?!?! Like multiple exclamation marks and multiple question marks, such strings count as poor style in formal
Interrobang
212
writing. Punctuation. Chicago Style Q&A. Chicago Manual of Style Online. (15th ed.) Accessed August 28,
2007.The combinations "!?" and "?!" are also used to express judgements of particular chess moves through their use
as Punctuation (chess)punctuation in chess annotation. "!?" denotes an "interesting" move, while "?!" denotes a
"dubious" move. Invention American Martin K. Speckter conceptualized the interrobang in 1962. As the head of an
advertising agency, Speckter believed that advertisements would look better if copywriters conveyed surprised
rhetorical questions using a single mark. He proposed the concept of a single punctuation mark in an article in the
magazine TYPEtalks. Speckter solicited possible names for the new character from readers. Contenders included
rhet, exclarotive, and exclamaquest, but he settled on interrobang. He chose the name to reference the punctuation
marks that inspired it: interrogatio is Latin for "a rhetorical question" or "cross-examination";Burton, Gideon O.
interrogatio. Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric. Brigham Young University. Accessed August 28, 2007. bang
is printer (publisher)printers' slang for the exclamation mark. Graphic designGraphic treatments for the new mark
were also submitted in response to the article.Haley, Allan. Early interestIn 1966, Richard Isbell of American Type
Founders issued the Americana (typeface)Americana typeface and included the interrobang as one of the characters.
In 1968, an interrobang key was available on some Remington RandRemington typewriters. During the 1970s one
could buy replacement interrobang keycaps and typefaces for some Smith-Corona typewriters. Smith-Corona flyer
illustrating the Changeable Type system with an exclamation mark / interrobang unit Accessed March 7, 2009. The
interrobang was in vogue for much of the 1960s, with the word interrobang appearing in some dictionarydictionaries
and the mark itself featuring in magazine and newspaper articles.Never standard, but still availableThe interrobang
failed to amount to much more than a fad and it has not become a standard punctuation mark. Although most fonts
do not include the interrobang, it has not disappeared: Microsoft provides several versions of the interrobang
character as part of the Wingdings 2 character set (on the right bracket and tilde keys on US keyboard layouts)
available with Microsoft Office. The INTERROBANG: A twentieth century punctuation mark. Accessed August 28,
2007. It was accepted into Unicode and is present in several fonts, including Lucida Sans Unicode, Arial Unicode
MS, and Calibri, the default font in the Office 2007 suite. MSDN fontblog. Accessed August 28, 2007.Inverted
interrobang A reverse and upside down interrobang (combining and , Unicode character: ), suitable for starting
phrases in Spanish, Galician languageGalician and Asturian languageAsturian is called an "inverted interrobang" or
a gnaborretni (interrobang written backwards). In current practice, interrobang-like Inverted question and
exclamation marks#Mixtures of question marks and exclamation pointsemphatic ambiguity in Hispanic languages is
usually achieved by including both sets of punctuation marks one inside the other (Verdad!? or Verdad?!
[Really!?]).Real Academia EspaolaRAE's Diccionario Panhispnico de Dudas Older usage, still official but not
widespread, recommended mixing the punctuation marks: Verdad? or Verdad!De Buen, Jorge: Manual de diseo
editorial (3a. ed.), Trea: Gijn, 2008.Entering and display The interrobang is not a standard punctuation mark. Few
modern typefaces or fonts include a glyph for the interrobang character. The standard interrobang is at Unicode code
point U+203D interrobang (HTML: ‽). The inverted interrobang is at Unicode code point U+2E18
inverted interrobang.Michael EversonEverson, Michael. Proposal to add INVERTED INTERROBANG to the UCS,
April 1, 2005 Single-character versions of the double-glyph versions are also available at code points U+2048 ?
question exclamation mark and U+2049 ! exclamation question mark.The interrobang can be used in some word
processors with the alt code Alt+8253 when working in a font that supports the interrobang, or using an operating
system that performs font substitution. Depending on the browser and which fonts the user has installed, some of
these may or may not be displayed or may be substituted with a different font. Image Default font Fixed
(typeface)FixedPalatino LinotypeCalibriArial Unicode MSCode2000HelveticaUnicode* *The Unicode
column uses one of a selection of wide coverage Unicode fonts depending on what is installed on the user's system
On a Linux system supporting the Compose Key, an interrobang can be produced by pressing the compose key
followed by the exclamation point and the question mark; reversing the order creates the inverted interrobang. On
Mac OS X, it is found on the Character Palette, obtained by pressing the key combination = Cmd+! Opt+T. The
interrobang can be displayed in LaTeX by using the package textcomp and the command \textinterrobang. The
inverted interrobang is also provided for in the textcomp package through the command \textinterrobangdown.
Interrobang
213
Prominent uses The State Library of New South Wales, New South Wales, Australia, uses an interrobang as its
logo.http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/about/organisation/executive.htmlThe Partnership at Drugfree.orgPartnership for a
Drug-Free America formerly used the interrobang for its logo. Chief Judge Frank H. Easterbrook used an
interrobang in the 2012 Seventh Circuit opinion Robert F. Booth Trust v. Crowley.Punctuate! Theatre, an Edmonton,
Alberta not-for-profit theatre company, uses the Palatino Linotype interrobang in its logo.
www.punctuatetheatre.comReferencesExternal links The INTERROBANG: A twentieth-century punctuation mark
National Punctuation Day Reignites INTERROBANG Passion
Irony punctuation
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Irony punctuation
is too wide
Irony punctuation Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( ,
Portal PortalAlthough in the written English language there is no standard way to denote irony or sarcasm, several
forms of punctuation have been proposed. Among the oldest and frequently attested are the percontation point
invented by English printer Henry Denham in the 1580s, and the irony mark, used by Marcellin Jobard in an article
dated June 11, 1841 and commented in a 1842 report.Marcellin JOBARD, "Industrie franaise: rapport sur
l'exposition de 1839 - Volume II, p. 350-351." (French industry, report on the 1839 exhibition, Vol 2 pp.350-351
(french text available on-line) It was furthered by French poet Alcanter de Brahm in the 19th century. Both of these
marks were represented visually by a backwards question mark, (in Unicode: U+2E2E reversed question mark
(HTML: ⸮)). Using LaTeX, one can display it by including the graphicx package, and then using
\reflectbox?.Flynn, Peter. Typography. TUGboat, vol. 28, issue 2, p. 172-173. 2007These punctuation marks are
primarily used to indicate that a sentence should be understood at a second level. A bracketed
Exclamation_point#Sarcasmexclamation point or question mark as well as scare quotes are also sometimes used to
express irony or sarcasm. Percontation pointThe modern question mark (? U+003F) is descended from the "punctus
interrogativus" (described as "a lightning flash, striking from right to left"), Typografie.info but unlike the modern
question mark, the punctus interrogativus may be contrasted with the punctus percontativusthe former marking
questions that require an answer while the latter marks rhetorical questions. Proposal to add Medievalist and
Irony punctuation
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Iranianist punctuation characters to the UCS by Michael Everson, Peter Baker, Marcus Dohnicht, Antnio Emiliano,
Odd Einar Haugen, Susana Pedro, David J. Perry, Roozbeh Pournader.This percontation point (), later also referred
to as a rhetorical question mark, was invented by Henry Denham in the 1580s and was used at the end of a question
that does not require an answera rhetorical question. Its use died out in the 17th century. It was the reverse of an
ordinary question mark, so that instead of the main opening pointing back into the sentence, it opened away from
it.Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 142. ISBN 1-59240-087-6. This character can be represented using
the reversed question mark () found in Unicode as U+2E2E; another character approximating it is the Arabic
question mark (), U+061F.InterrobangA sentence ending with an interrobang () can be used to ask a rhetorical
question in addition to expressing excitement or disbelief in the form of a question. Irony markIrony mark as
designed by Alcanter de Brahm in a French encyclopedia from 1905 The irony mark or irony point () (French
languageFrench: point dironie) is a punctuation mark proposed by the French poet Alcanter de Brahm (alias Marcel
Bernhardt) at the end of the 19th century used to indicate that a sentence should be understood at a second level
(irony, sarcasm, etc.). It is illustrated by a small, elevated, backward-facing question mark.It was in turn taken by
Herv Bazin in his book Plumons lOiseau ("Let's pluck the bird," 1966), where the author however used another
(y-like) shape. In doing this, the author proposed five other innovative punctuation marks: the "doubt point" (),
"certitude point" (), "acclamation point" (), "authority point" (), and "love point" (). Revised preliminary proposal to
encode six punctuation characters introduced by Herv Bazin in the UCS by Mykyta Yevstifeyev and Karl Pentzlin,
Feb. 28, 2012In March 2007, the Dutch foundation CPNB (Collectieve Propaganda van het Nederlandse Boek)
presented another design of an irony mark ().Scare quotesScare quotes are a particular use of quotation marks. They
are placed around a word or phrase to indicate that it is not used in the fashion that the writer would personally use it.
In contrast to the nominal typographic purpose of quotation marks, the enclosed words are not necessarily quoted
from another source. When read aloud, various techniques are used to convey the sense, such as prepending the
addition of "so-called" or a similar word or phrase of disdain, using a sarcastic or mocking tone, or using air quotes,
or any combination of the above. Temherte slaqIn certain Ethiopic languages, sarcasm and unreal phrases are
indicated at the end of a sentence with a sarcasm mark called temherte slaq or temherte slaq (U+00A1) ( ), a
character that looks like the inverted exclamation point.Other typographyRhetorical questions in some informal
situations can use a bracketed question mark, e.g. "Oh, really[?]"The equivalent for an ironic or sarcastic statement
would be a bracketed exclamation mark, e.g. "Oh, really[!]". Subtitles, such as in Teletext, sometimes use an
exclamation mark within brackets or parentheses to mark sarcasm: (!). Likewise, Karl Marx uses the exclamation
mark within brackets repeatedly throughout Das Kapital, Volume 1. For example, in one instance, to ridicule
Colonel Torrens:The problem is in no way simplified if extraneous matters are smuggled in, as with Colonel
Torrens: "effectual demand consists in the power and inclination [!], on the part of the consumers, to give for
commodities, either by immediate or circuitous barter...".The question mark can also be used as a "meta" sign to
signal uncertainty regarding what precedes. It is usually put between parentheses ["(?)"]. The uncertainty may
concern either a superficial aspect of the text (such as unsure spelling) or a deeper level of meaning.[citation
needed]It is common in online conversation among computer specialists to use a pseudo-HTML element:
</sarcasm>. The tag is often written only after the sarcasm so as to momentarily trick the reader before admitting the
joke. Similarly, and common in social-news-based sites, is a single /s placed at the end of a comment to indicate a
sarcastic tone for the preceding text. "Rolling eyes" and ":P" emoticons are often used as well, particularly in instant
messaging, while a Twitter-style hashtag, #sarcasm, is also gaining currency. Emoticons can also be used in text,
most often in informal writing, to denote sarcasm. Some people have attempted to augment this emotional gap in the
English language through the creation of a "SarcMark."In some internet forums, green text is used to signify
irony.References
Irony punctuation
216
Lozenge
is too wide
Lozenge Lozenge Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( ,
Portal PortalA lozenge (), often referred to as a diamond, is a form of rhombus. The definition of lozenge is not
strictly fixed, and it is sometimes used simply as a synonym (from the French languageFrench losange) for rhombus.
Most often, though, lozenge refers to a thin rhombusa rhombus with acute angles of 45. Definition of lozenge at
Mathworld web site The lozenge shape is often used in parquetry and as decorative artdecoration on ceramics
(art)ceramics, Silver (household)silverware and textiles. It also features in heraldry and Suit (cards)playing
cards.SymbolismSown fields in an open field system of farming. The lozenge motif dates as far back as the Neolithic
and Paleolithic artPaleolithic period in Eastern Europe and represents a sown Field (agriculture)field and female
fertility. The ancient lozenge pattern often shows up in Diamond vault architecture, in traditional dress patterns of
Slavic peoples, and in traditional Ukrainian embroidery. The lozenge pattern also appears extensively in Celtic art,
art from the Ottoman Empire, and ancient Phrygian art.The lozenge symbolism is one of the main female symbol in
Berber carpetsBerber Carpets of Morocco: The Symbols Origin and Meaning, by Bruno Barbatti, ACR Edition,
ISBN 978-2-86770-184-9. Common Berber jewelry from the Aures mountains or Kabylie, in Algeria also use this
Lozenge
217
pattern as a female fertility sign. In 1658, the English philosopher Sir Thomas Browne published The Garden of
Cyrus subtitled The Quincunciall Lozenge, or Network Plantations of the Ancients where he outlined the
mysticismmystical interconnection of art, nature and the Universe. He suggested that ancient plantations used the
quincunx pattern that revealed the "mystical mathematics of the city of Heaven" and proof of the wisdom of
God.Lozenges appear as symbols in Classical elementancient classic element systems, in amulets, and in religious
symbolism. In a Suit (cards)suit of playing cards, diamonds is in the shape of a lozenge.Encodings In Unicode, the
Lozenge is encoded in multiple variants: U+2311 square lozenge (HTML: ⌑) U+25CA Lozengelozenge
(HTML: ◊ &loz;)http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U25A0.pdfU+2662 white diamond suit (HTML:
♢) U+2666 + black diamond suit (HTML: ♦ &diams;) U+27E0 lozenge divided by horizontal rule
(HTML: ⟠) U+29EB black lozenge (HTML: ⧫) U+2B27 white medium lozenge (HTML:
⬧) U+2B28 black medium lozenge (HTML: ⬨) U+2B2A white small lozenge (HTML:
⬪) U+2B2B black small lozenge (HTML: ⬫) In IBM 026 punched card code it is
(12-8-4),http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/026.html DOS code page 437 (at character code 4) and
Mac-Roman. The LaTeX command for the lozenge is \lozenge. ApplicationsModal logic In modal logic, the lozenge
expresses that there is "possibility." For example, the expression \Diamond P expresses that it is possible that P is
true. Mathematics In axiomatic set theory, the lozenge refers to the principles known collectively as diamondsuit.
CamouflageA Fokker D.VII shows a four-color Lozenge-Tarnung (lozenge camouflage) During the World War
IFirst World War, the GermanyGermans developed Lozenge-Tarnung (lozenge
camouflage).http://www.wwiaviation.com/lozenge.html This camouflage was made up of colored polygons of four
or five colors. The repeating patterns often used irregular four-, five- and six-sided polygons, but some contained
regular rhombi or hexagons. Because painting such a pattern was very time consuming, and the paint added
considerably to the weight of the aircraft, the pattern was printed on fabric. This pre-printed fabric was used from
1916 until the end of the war, in various forms and colours.Heraldry The lozenge in heraldry is a diamond-shaped
charge (heraldry)charge, usually somewhat narrower than it is tall. A mascle is a voided lozengethat is, a lozenge
with a lozenge-shaped hole in the middleand the rarer rustre is a lozenge containing a circular hole. A field
covered in a pattern of lozenges is described as lozengy; a similar field of mascles is masculy.Cough tablets Cough
tablets have taken the name lozenge, based on their original shape. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the
first use of this sense was in 1530.U.S. MilitaryTo implement 10 U.S.C 773, the Secretary of the Navy has
prescribed the following distinctive mark for wear by members of military societies which are composed entirely of
honorably discharged officers and enlisted personnel, or by the instructors and members of duly organized cadet
corps. The distinctive mark will be a diamond, 3-1/2 inches long by two inches wide, of any cloth material. A white
distinctive mark will be worn on blue, green, or khaki clothing; and a blue distinctive mark will be worn on white
clothing. The distinctive mark will be worn on all outer clothing on the right sleeve, at the point of the shoulder, the
upper tip of the diamond to be 1/4 inch below the shoulder seam. The lozenge is also used in the U.S. United States
ArmyArmy, United States Marine CorpsMarine Corps, and United States Air ForceAir Force on the insignia of their
respective First Sergeants. They are also used in the Junior Reserve Officers' Training CorpsJunior ROTC and the
Cadet Program in the Civil Air Patrol, for Cadet Officers corresponding to the military pay grades of O-4 to O-6
(C/Major, C/Lieutenant Colonel, and C/Colonel). Finnish Defence Forces In Finnish military ranks, the lozenge is
found in the insignia of conscript officer students (one lozenge) and conscript officer cadets (two lozenges).
TransportationBicycle lane sign The lozenge can be used on public roadways in the United States and Canada to
mark a specific lane for a particular use. The lane will usually be painted with a lozenge at a regular interval, and
signage will be installed to indicate the restrictions on using the lane. This marking is most often used to denote
high-occupancy vehicle lanes or bus lanes, with accompanying signage reading " HOV LANE" or " BUS LANE"
and giving the requirements for a vehicle to be accepted. Prior to 17 January 2006, lozenges could also be used to
mark bicycle-only lanes, often in conjunction with a bicycle icon. "Phase-In Compliance Periods, Section 9B.04
Bicycle Lane Signs" Retrieved on 2009-01-17. In New Zealand and Japan, a lozenge marked in white paint on the
road indicates an upcoming uncontrolled pedestrian crossing. ImageryPhrygian art, 7th Century
Lozenge
218
BCCucuteni-Trypillian cultureCucuteni-Trypillian figurine with sown field patternBush Barrow Lozenge British
Bronze AgeUshak carpet, Ottoman EmpireKhatha, sacred Yantra amulet from ThailandHindu Star of
LakshmiMuslim Rub el HizbMagic squares were used as amuletsGrimoire manuscripts originated in
MesopotamiaArabic manuscript China, 16th CenturyCharlemagne coins, denier or denaro ca. 771-793Belitung
shipwreck, Tang Dynasty ca.825Traditional sown field pattern of Western UkraineArmenian tapestryRongorongo
proto-writing, possible lunar calendar calculating deviceEpigonation in Eastern ChristianityGreeceGreek Classical
elementsIn Ecclesiastical heraldry Lozenge (heraldry)lozenge shape is reserved for femalesWomen Airforce Service
Pilots BadgeNational flag of Belarus with sown field patternCoat of arms Lozenge (heraldry)lozenge shape is
reserved for femalesAce of diamondsDiamond vault in German architectureRune-shaped designs (five-lozenges
cross and heart) on the gable of Ledringhem's churchReferences
Slashed zero
Display of zero in three typefaces. From top to bottom: slashed zero,
dotted zero, plain zero.
The slashed zero is a representation of the number '0'
(zero), with a slash through it. In character encoding
terms, it is an alternate glyph (in addition to the open
zero glyph) for the self-same zero character. Unlike in
the Scandinavian vowel '' and the "empty set" symbol
'', the slash of a slashed zero usually does not extend
past the ellipse (except in hasty handwriting).
The slashed zero glyph is often used to distinguish the
digit "zero" ("0") from the Latin script letter "O"
anywhere that the distinction needs emphasis,
particularly in encoding systems, scientific and engineering applications, computer programming (such as software
development), and telecommunications.
Origins
The slashed zero
long predates computers, known to have been used in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
[1]
is used in many Baudot teleprinter applications, specifically the keytop and typepallet that combines "P" and
slashed zero.
[2]
is used in many ASCII graphic sets descended from the default typewheel on the Teletype Model 33.
[3]
Slashed zero
219
Usage
The slashed zero, sometimes called communications zero, was used on teleprinter circuits for weather applications.
[4]
The slashed zero can be used in stoichiometry to avoid confusion with the symbol for Oxygen (capital O).
The slashed zero symbol is widely used in video games and software product keys, and any other instance when
clarity is necessary.
The slashed zero is used by programmers in order to avoid confusion with the character 'O', when it is understood by
context that a string should represent a numeric value it may be used to indicate null.
The slashed zero is also common for recording amateur radio call signs in logs of contacts to distinguish a zero (i.e.
) from a capital 'O', since amateur radio call signs contain both letters and numerals.
When personal computers started to become mainstream in the early 1980s, it became one of the things associated
with the hacker culture of the time. Some cartoons depicted computer users talking in binary code with 1s and 0s
using a slashed zero for the 0.
Slashed zeroes can also be used on cheques in order to prevent fraud, for example: changing a 0 to an 8.
Slashed zeroes were once common in military radio where the problem arose of "0(zero)" being confused with
"O(capital O)". On typewriters, typists would type a normal zero, backspace, and hit the slash key to mark the zero.
The use of the slashed zero by many computer systems of the 1970s and 1980s inspired the 1980s space rock band
Underground Zer to use the Scandinavian vowel in the band's name and as the band Logo on all their album
covers (see link below)
Slashed zeroes have been used in the Flash-based artwork of Young-Hae Chang Heavy Industries, notably in their
2003 work, Operation Nukorea. The reason for their use is unknown, but has been conjectured to be related to
themes of 'negation, erasure, and absence'.
[5]
Representation in Unicode and HTML
The treatment of slashed zero as a glyph is supported by any font whose designer chose the option. Successful
display on any local system depends on having the font available there, either via the system's font files or via font
embedding.
The treatment of slashed zero with distinct character encoding is supported by Unicode, but only via a pair of
combining characters, not as a distinct single character (or codepoint, in Unicode parlance). It is treated literally as "a
zero that is slashed" and it is coded as two characters, the commonplace zero and then the "combining long solidus
overlay" (U+0338). These combining characters overlay the preceding character, creating a composite glyph.
When used in HTML, use of such combining characters is valid but not yet supported by all current web browsers;
for instance, Microsoft Internet Explorer fails to render them. They may be coded as 0̸ giving 0.
Similar symbols
The slashed zero has the disadvantage that it can be confused with several other symbols:
The slashed zero format causes problems for certain Scandinavian languages is used as a letter in the
Danish, Faroese and Norwegian alphabets, where it represents [] or [].
It also resembles the Greek letters Theta and Phi in some fonts (although usually, the slash is horizontal or
vertical, respectively).
The symbol "" (U+2205) is used in mathematics to refer to the empty set.
"" (U+2300) is Unicode's codepoint for the diameter symbol.
In German-speaking countries, is also used as a symbol for average value: average in German is Durchschnitt,
directly translated as cut-through.
Slashed zero
220
However the unslashed zero has the disadvantage that it is easily confused with the letter 'O'.
In paper writing one may not distinguish the 0 and O at all, or may add a slash across it in order to show the
difference, although this sometimes causes ambiguity in regard to the symbol for the empty set.
Variations
Dotted zero
The zero with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 controllers. The dotted zero
may appear similar to the Greek letter theta (particularly capital theta, ), but the two have different glyphs. In raster
fonts, the theta usually has a horizontal line connecting, or nearly touching, the sides of an O; while the dotted zero
simply has a dot in the middle. However, on a low-definition display, such a form can be confused with a numeral 8.
Alternatively, the dot can become a vertical trace, for example by adding a combining short vertical line overlay
(U+20D3). It may be coded as 0⃓ giving 0.
Slashed 'O'
IBM (and a few other early mainframe makers) used a convention in which the letter O has a slash and the digit 0
does not. This is even more problematic for Danes, Faroese, and Norwegians because it means two of their
lettersthe O and slashed O ()are similar.
Reversed slash
Some Burroughs/Unisys equipment displays a zero with a reversed slash, as.
Other
German license plate depicting diagonal gap
Yet another convention common on early line printers left zero
unornamented but added a tail or hook to the letter-O so that it
resembled an inverted Q or cursive capital letter-O. In the Fixedsys
typeface, the numeral 0 has two internal barbs along the lines of the
slash, which can alternately be considered a narrow S within the zero.
On German car license plates, which use the FE-Schrift typeface, there is an insinuated slash in zeros: a diagonal
crack just beneath the top right curvature of the zero.
Typefaces
There are very few typefaces commonly included in a PC that use the slashed zero. They include:
Terminal in Microsoft's Windows line.
Consolas in Microsoft's Windows Vista, Windows 7, Microsoft Office 2007 and Microsoft Visual Studio 2010
Menlo in Mac OS X
Monaco in Mac OS X
The Linux distribution known as Fedora ships with a tweaked variant of the Liberation typeface which features
the use of a slashed zero; this is not present on most existing Linux distributions.
The DejaVu family of typefaces has a "DejaVu Sans Mono" variant with a dotted zero.
[6]
Slashed zero
221
Notes
[1] [1] .
[2] [2] "Teletype Printing Telegraph Systems, Keytops and Typepallets", Bulletin 1164B, April 1958: 1-6, Teletype part number 99564(keytop)
[3] [3] Teletype Parts Bulletin 1184B pages 27 - 29 figure 29 - 31
[4] "Reference Data For Radio Engineers, Fifth Edition, Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., 1970: 30-38 Table 23
[5] http:/ / www. metafilter. com/ 25220/ That-gentle-piano-is-the-peace-of-the-grave#476182
References
Cajori, Florian (192829), A History of Mathematical Notations, Chicago, IL: Open Court Pub.; op. cit., New
York: Dover Publications, 1993, ISBN0-486-67766-4.
External links
"0" (http:/ / www. catb. org/ ~esr/ jargon/ html/ 0/ numeral-zero. html), The Jargon File, Eric S Raymond.
Underground Zer Album Cover (http://2.bp.blogspot.com/
_VfTYpLOGZ3w/Sx7Qq2NSF1I/AAAAAAAAEpo/0wyq40rXrzY/s1600-h/1.jpg)
Underground Zer Band Logo
Tee
Verum or tee (, \top in TeX) is a symbol used to represent:
Top element in lattice theory.
A logical constant denoting a tautology in logic.
In Unicode the symbol is encoded U+22A4 down tack (HTML: ⊤).
Tie
222
Tie
is too wide
Tie Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {}, ) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( ,
Portal Portal The tie is a symbol in the shape of an arc (geometry)arc similar to a large breve, used in Ancient Greek,
phonetic alphabets, and Z notation. It can be used between two characters with spacing as punctuation, or
non-spacing as a diacritic. It can be above or below, and reversed. Its forms are called tie, double breve, enotikon,
ligature tie, papyrological hyphen, and undertie.UsesAncient Greek Various forms of the tieThe Papyrological
hyphen or enotikon can be found in Greek as written on papyri, before space (punctuation)space was invented. Greek
/h/, by Nick Nicholas. The enotikon ("uniter"), is used as a word non-divider, similar to hyphen, as opposed to the
hypodiastole used as a word divider. The enotikon can be both spacing and non-spacing. On computers both
characters U+203F undertie and U+035C combining double breve below can be used Punctuation, by Nick
Nicholas.Ancient Greek music, Martin Litchfield West, 1994, p. 267.Enotikon was also used in Ancient Greek music
notation, as a Slur (music)slur under two notes. When a syllable was sung with three notes, this slur was used in
combination with a Colon (punctuation)double point and a Overlinediseme over the notes.International Phonetic
Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet uses two type of ties : the ligature tie (IPA #433), above or below two
symbols ; and the undertie (IPA #509) between two symbols. Ligature tie The ligature tie, also called double
inverted breve, is used to represent Doubly articulated consonantdouble articulation (e.g. [kp]), Affricate
consonantaffricates (e.g. [t]) or prenasalized consonant (e.g. [mb]) in the IPA. It is mostly found above but can also
Tie
223
be found below when more suitable (e.g. [kp]). On computers, it is encoded with characters U+0361 combining
double inverted breve and, as an alternative when raisers might be interfering with the bow, U+035C combining
double breve below. Undertie The undertie is used to represent linking (absence of a break) in the IPA. For example
it is used to indicate liaison (French)liaison (e.g. /vuzave/) but can also be used for other types of sandhi. On
computers, the character used is U+203F undertie, a spacing character, which is not to be confused with ab
U+035C combining double breve below, a combining diacritic, used as an alternative to the ligature tie abU+0361
combining double inverted breve. SC2/WG2 N2594 - Proposal to encode combining double breve belowUralic
Phonetic Alphabet The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet uses several forms of the tie or double breve: Uralic Phonetic
Alphabet characters for the UCS, 2002-03-20. Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic
Alphabet, Klaas Ruppel, Tero Aalto, Michael Everson, 2009-01-27. The triple inverted breve or triple breve below
indicates a triphthong The double inverted breve, also known as the ligature tie, marks a diphthong The double
inverted breve below indicates a syllable boundary between vowels The undertie is used for Prosody
(linguistics)prosody The inverted undertie is used for prosody. Other uses The double breve is used in the phonetic
notation of the The American Heritage Dictionary of the English LanguageAmerican Heritage Dictionary in
combination with a double o, oo, to represent the near-close near-back vowel ( in IPA). Proposal for 3 Additional
Double Diacritics, 2002-05-10.The triple breve below is used in the phonetic writing Rheinische Dokumenta for
three letter combinations. Proposal to encode a combining diacritical mark for Low German dialect writing, Karl
Pentzlin, 2008-10-25The character tie is used for sequence concatenation in Z notation. It is encoded with U+2040
character tie in Unicode. For example "st" represents the concatenation sequence of sequences called s and t;
and the notation "/q" is the distributed concatenation of the sequence of sequences called q. The Z Notation: a
reference manual, J. M. Spivey.The ligature tie is used in the logotypes of mobilkom Austria and its A1 brand.
Encoding name character HTML code Unicode Unicode name sample non-spacing double breve ͝ U+035D
combining double breve oo ligature tie ͡ U+0361 combining double inverted breve /kp/ ligature tie below,
enotikon ͜ U+035C combining double breve below /kp/ spacing undertie, enotikon ‿ U+203F
undertie /vuzave/ tie ⁀ U+2040 character tie st inverted undertie ⁔ U+2054 inverted
undertie oo The diacritic signs triple inverted breve, triple breve, and double inverted breve have not yet been
encoded for computers. Unicode has characters similar to the tie: U+23DC top parenthesis and U+23DD
bottom parenthesisU+2322 frown and U+2323 smileReferences
Up tack
224
Up tack
The up tack or falsum (, \bot in TeX, U+22A5 in Unicode) is a constant symbol used to represent:
Bottom element in lattice theory.
The bottom type in type theory.
A logical constant denoting Contradiction in logic.
It appears as the upside down tee symbol, and as such is sometimes called eet.
The similar-looking perpendicular symbol (, \perp in TeX) is a binary relation symbol used to represent:
Perpendicularity of lines in geometry.
Orthogonality in linear algebra.
Independence of random variables in probability theory.
Comparability in order theory.
Coprimality in number theory.
Weierstrass p
Weierstrass p
In mathematics, the Weierstrass p (, or at a larger font size, or in bold form, or in italicized form, a stylized
letter p), also called pe, is used for the Weierstrass's elliptic function. It is occasionally used for the power set,
[1]
although for that purpose a cursive capital, rather than lower-case, p is more widespread. It is named after the
German mathematician Karl Weierstrass.
Its Unicode code point is U+2118 script capital p (HTML: ℘ &weierp;). The naming is incorrect,
because it is always a lowercase letter, but this error is not corrected in later versions in order to keep the Unicode
standard stable.
[2]
The TeX code for this character is \wp.
Starting with Unicode 3.0.1, a separate, capital symbol is available for power set, namely U+1D4AB mathematical
script capital p (HTML: 𝒫), which is available as &Pscr; in HTML5.
[3][4]
As of 2009, only a few
specialized OpenType fonts support this code point.
References
225
Miscellany
Japanese postal mark
Several versions of the mark.
A mailbox in Japan
A mail car
( Ybin mku) is the service mark of Japan
Post, the postal operator in Japan. It is also used as a Japanese
postal code mark. The mark is stylized katakana syllable te ( ),
from the word teishin ( communications). The mark dates
from the pre-World War II era, when literacy was less complete,
the katakana symbol being more easily recognized than a kanji.
To indicate a postal code, the mark is written first, and the postal
code is written after. For example, one area of Meguro, Tokyo,
would have 153-0061 written on any mail, in order to direct
mail to that location. This usage has resulted in the inclusion of the
mark into the Japanese character sets for computers, and thus
eventually their inclusion into Unicode.
Of the versions shown to the right, the one on the far right is the
standard mark used in addressing. The circled yubin mark in the
middle is often used on maps to denote post offices.
Japanese postal mark
226
Unicode
POSTAL MARK
Unicode: U+3012, UTF-8: E3 80 92

POSTAL MARK FACE
Unicode: U+3020, UTF-8: E3 80 A0

CIRCLED POSTAL MARK
Unicode: U+3036, UTF-8: E3 80 B6

External links
Official Postal Site
[1]
(English)
Japanese typographic symbols
227
This page lists Japanese typographic symbols which are not included in kana or kanji.
The links in the Unicode column lead to the Unihan database.
Repetition marks
JIS X
0208
JIS X 0213 Unicode Name(s) Usage
2139 1-1-25
U+3005
[1]
noma ( )
kuma ( )
kurikaeshi ( - )
d no jiten ( )
Kanji repetition mark. For example, could be written
.
2138 1-1-24
U+4EDD
[2]
d no jiten ( ) Kanji repetition mark
2152 1-1-19
U+30FD
[3]
katakanagaeshi (
- )
kurikaeshi ( - )
Katakana iteration mark
2153 1-1-20
U+30FE
[4]
Katakana iteration mark with a dakuten
2154 1-1-21
U+309D
[5]
hiraganagaeshi (
- )
kurikaeshi ( - )
Hiragana iteration mark. For example, (haha) could be
written .
2136 1-1-22
U+309E
[6]
Hiragana iteration mark with a dakuten
2137 1-1-23
U+3003
[7]
nonoten ( ) Ditto mark. The name originates from resemblance to two
katakana no characters ( ).
U+3031
[8]
Kana vertical repetition mark
U+3032
[9]
Kana vertical repetition mark with a dakuten
1-2-19 (top),
1-2-21
(bottom)
U+3033
[10]
(top),
U+3035
[11]
(bottom)
kunojiten ( ) Repetition mark used in vertical writing. It means repeat the
previous two or more kana.
1-2-20 (top),
1-2-21
(bottom)
U+3034
[12]
(top),
U+3035
[11]
(bottom)
Kunojiten with a dakuten
Brackets and quotation marks
228
JIS X
0208
JIS X
0213
Unicode Name(s) Usage
2156,
2157
1-1-54,
1-1-55
U+300C
[13]
,
U+300D
[14]
kagi (
?
, "hook")
kagikakko (
?
, "hook brackets")
Usual Japanese quotation marks
2158,
2159
1-1-56,
1-1-57
U+300E
[15]
,
U+300F
[16]
kagi ( )
nijkagikakko (
?
, "double
hook brackets")
Japanese version of double quotes, often used when
indicating a book title
2169,
216A
1-1-42,
1-1-43
U+FF08
[17]
,
U+FF09
[18]
pren (
?
, "parenthesis")
kakko ( )
marugakko (
?
, "round brackets")
shkakko (
?
, "small brackets")
216C,
216E
1-1-44,
1-1-45
U+3014
[19]
,
U+3015
[20]
kikk (
?
, "tortoise shell")
Used to insert comments into quoted text
216D,
216E
1-1-46,
1-1-47
U+FF3B
[21]
,
U+FF3D
[22]
kakko ( )
kagikakko ( )
216F,
2170
1-1-48,
1-1-49
U+FF5B
[23]
,
U+FF5D
[24]
bursu (
?
, "brace")
namikakko (
?
, "wave brackets")
nakakakko (
?
, "middle brackets")
2171,
2172
1-1-50,
1-1-51
U+3008
[25]
,
U+3009
[26]
kakko ( )
yamakakko (
?
, "hill brackets")
gyume (
?
, "guillemets")
yamagata (
?
, "hill-shaped [symbol]")
The name gyume comes from the guillemets
2173,
2174
1-1-52,
1-1-53
U+300A
[27]
,
U+300B
[28]
kakko ( )
yamakakko (
?
, "double hill
brackets")
gyume (
?
, "double
guillemets")
yamagata (
?
, "double
hill-shaped [symbol]")
2179,
217A
1-1-58,
1-1-59
U+3010
[29]
,
U+3011
[30]
kakko ( )
sumitsukikakko ( )
Used in headings, for example in dictionary
definitions
1-2-58,
1-2-59
U+3016
[31]
,
U+3017
[32]
1-2-56,
1-2-57
U+3018
[33]
,
U+3019
[34]
229
U+301A
[35]
,
U+301B
[36]
Phonetic marks
JIS X
0208
JIS X
0213
2443 1-4-35
U+3063
[37]
sokuon (
?
, "double
consonant")
Doubles the sound of the next consonant. For example, " " /kata/
becomes " " /kata/.
1-5-35
U+30C4
[38]
213C 1-1-28
U+30FC
[39]
chonpu (
?
, "long
sound symbol")
onbiki ( )
bbiki ( )
bsen (
?
, "bar line")
Indicates a lengthened vowel sound. Often used with katakana. The
direction of writing depends on the direction of text.
212B 1-1-11
U+309B
[40]
dakuten (
?
, "voiced
point")
nigori (
?
, "voiced")
tenten
Used with both hiragana and katakana to indicate a voiced sound. For
example, ta ( ) becomes da ( ), shi (- ) becomes ji ().
212C 1-1-12
U+309C
[41]
handakuten (
?
,
"half-voice point")
handaku (
?
,
"half-voiced")
maru (
?
, "circle")
Used with hiragana and katakana to indicate a change from a hahifuheho
sound to a papipupepo sound.
Punctuation marks
JIS X
0208
JIS X
0213
2123 1-1-3
U+3002
[42]
kuten (
?
,
"sentence point",
"period")
maru (
?
, "circle",
"small ball")
Marks the end of a sentence. Japanese equivalent of full stop or period.
2122 1-1-4
U+3001
[43]
tten (
?
,
"reading point")
Japanese equivalent of a comma
2126 1-1-6
U+30FB
[44]
nakaguro (
?
,
"middle black")
potsu ( )
nakaten (
?
,
"middle point")
Used to separate foreign words and items in lists. For example, if " "
BillGates is written instead of " " Bill Gates, a Japanese person
unfamiliar with the names might have difficulty understanding which part represents the
given name and which one represents the surname. This symbol is known as an interpunct
in English.
230
U+30A0
[45]
,
U+FF1D
[46]
daburu haifun (

?
, "double
hyphen")
Sometimes replaces an English en dash or hyphen when writing foreign words in katakana.
It is also rarely used to separate given and family names, though the middle dot (nakaguro)
is much more common in these cases. See also double hyphen.
Other special marks
JIS X
0208
JIS X
0213
213A 1-1-26
U+3006
[47]
shime (- ) This character is used to write shime in shimekiri ("deadline") (as )
and similar. Variant as well, to indicate that a letter is closed.
2141 1-1-33
U+301C
[48]
nyoro ( )
naishi ( - )
nami (
?
, "wave")
kara ( )
Used in "to from" constructions in Japanese, such as "from
Monday to Friday". In horizontal writing and on computers, the fullwidth tilde
(U+FF5E
[49]
) is often used instead.
2144 1-1-36
U+2026
[50]
tensen (
?
, "dot
line")
santen rda (

?
, "three-dot
leader")
A line of dots corresponding to one half of a Japanese ellipsis; also used as an
ellipsis informally
2145 1-1-37
U+2025
[51]
tensen (
?
, "dot
line")
niten rda (
?
, "two-dot leader")
Rarely used
2576 1-5-86
U+30F6
[52]
A simplified version of the kanji (the generic counter). Most commonly used in
indicating a period of months, for example, "one month", or in place
names. See small ke.
1-3-32,
1-3-31
U+2022
[53]
,
U+25E6
[54]
bten (
?
, "side
dot")
wakiten (!
?
, "side
dot")
Adding these dots to the sides of characters (right side in vertical writing, above in
horizontal writing) emphasizes the character in question. It is the Japanese
equivalent of the use of italics for emphasis in English.
21A6 1-2-8
U+203B
[55]
kome ("
?
, "rice")
komejirushi (" #
?
,
"rice symbol")
This symbol is used in notes ($, ch) as a reference mark, similar to an asterisk
%
2196 1-1-86
U+FF0A
[56]
hoshijirushi (& #
?
,
"star symbol")
asuterisuku (

?
, "asterisk")
This symbol is used in notes ($, ch)
'
1-3-28
U+303D
[57]
ioriten (( ) This mark is used to show the start of a singer's part in a song
)
222E 1-2-14
U+3013
[58]
geta kig ( *
+
?
, "geta symbol")
Used as a proofreader's mark indicating unavailability of a glyph, such as when a
character cannot be displayed on a computer. The name comes from geta, a type of
Japanese shoe.
231
2276 1-2-86,
1-2-91,
1-2-92,
1-2-93
U+266A
[59]
,
U+266B
[60]
,
U+266C
[61]
,
U+2669
[62]
onpu (
?
, "musical
note")
Often used as an emoticon in informal text to indicate a singsong tone of voice or a
playful attitude
Organization-specific symbols
JIS X
0208
JIS X
0213
2229 1-2-9
U+3012
[63]
ybin ( ) Used to indicate post offices on maps, and printed before postcodes. See also Japanese
addressing system and Japan Post.
U+3036
[64]
Variant postal mark in a circle
1-6-70
U+3020
[65]
Variant postal mark with a face
,
U+3004
[66]
jisumku (jisumku (-

?
, "JIS
mark")
nihon kougyou kikaku
( . / 0 1 2
?
,
"Japanese Industrial
Standards", "JIS")
This mark on a product shows that it complies with the Japanese Industrial Standards
0
U+24CD
[67]
This mark is used on music or print publications to indicate the farthest date at which
the item must be sold at a fixed price under saihan seido, Japan's resale price
maintenance system.
[citation needed]
Sometimes it is printed as just an uncircled "X".
1
U+24CE
[68]
This mark is used on music or print publications to indicate the earliest date at which
the item must be sold at a fixed price under saihan seido.
[citation needed]
It is typically the
item's release date for music, or the publication date for print matter. On music releases,
this mark may be absent, and the years 19841990 may be indicated by the letters "N",
"I", "H", "O", "R", "E", and "C". Sometimes it is printed as just an uncircled "Y".
Non-English usage of quotation marks
232
is too wide
German quotes ! !Dum quotes GuillemetsCJK quotes Punctuationapostrophe ( ' ) brackets ( [], (), {},
) Colon (punctuation)colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( , , , ) ellipsis ( , ..., . . . ) exclamation mark ( ! ) Full
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Portal PortalQuotation marks, also called quotes, speech marks and
inverted commas, are punctuation marks used in pairs in various writing systems to set off direct speech, a quotation,
or a phrase. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark and a closing quotation mark, which may or may not be
the same character.http://www.daube.ch/docu/glossary/quotation_marks.htmlThey have a variety of forms in
different languages and in different media, as can be seen in the table below. English usage is included for the
purposes of comparison; for more detailed information on quotation marks in English, see the article Quotation
marks. OverviewFor particular quote glyph information, see Quotation mark glyphs. Language Standard Alternative
Spacing Names, notes & references Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Afrikaans
languageAfrikaans,TraditionalAanhalingstekensAlbanian languageAlbanianThonjzaArabic
languageArabic or "" optional ,... ... (àlmt tanss, quotation marks) The direction of text is
right-to-left. Armenian languageArmenian...!! (chakertner, quotation marks)Azerbaijani
languageAzerbaijani or "" or '' 01 pt Dirnaq iarsi (fingernail mark)Basque
languageBasqueKomatxoakBelarusian languageBelarusiannykocci (double commas)Hanki (little
paws)Bulgarian languageBulgarian or RareQuotation dash preferred for dialogue or
Kannnkn is often incorrectly replaced by "" or and are sometimes incorrectly written as
233
or ' Catalan languageCatalanA closing quotation mark is added to the beginning of each new
paragraph. none Cometes franceses (French quotation marks) Cometes angleses (English
quotation marks) Cometes simples (Simple quotation marks)Simplified ChineseChinese,
simplifiedGuobiaoGB/T standard 15834:1995!!!!This is only used when text is written
vertically.Fullwidth form (pinyin: shungynho, double quotation mark) ! (pinyin: dnynho, single
quotation mark)Traditional ChineseChinese, traditional !!!!!!!!!! or !!!! or !!These forms are rotated for use
in horizontal text; they were originally written and in vertical textFullwidth form ! (yn ho)Croatian
languageCroatian, and Navodnici, Polunavodnici is used only in printed media Czech
languageCzech,Uvozovky (introduce)Danish languageDanish or ,Citationstegn
(citation marks)Anfrselstegn (quotes)Gsejne (goose eyes)Dutch
languageDutch,Aanhalingstekens (citation marks)British EnglishEnglish, UKWithin a
quotation, the opening quotation mark is repeated at the beginning of each new paragraph. 12 pt Quotation
marks, double quotes, quotes, inverted commas, speech marksINTERCAL: Rabbit-ears;ITU-T: Diereses, quotation
marks American EnglishEnglish, USEsperanto languageEsperantoUsage may vary, depending on
the native language of the author and publisher.CitilojEstonian languageEstonianJutumrgid (speech
marks)Filipino languageFilipinoPanipiFinnish languageFinnishRegulated by the standard SFS 4175:2006,
Typing of numbers, marks and signs. Released by the National standards organization of
Finland.Lainausmerkit (citation marks)French languageFrench or First version
according to the French Imprimerie nationale. English quotes are more common, though. em
Guillemets French, SwissIn Switzerland the same style is used for all languages.Georgian
languageGeorgian none rggoggo (brcqalebi, claws)German
languageGerman,Anfhrungszeichen (quotation marks)Gnsefchen (little goose
feet)Hochkommas, Hochkommata (high commas) German, SwissGreek languageGreekAjj N.
Mcj, T Ett j Ou F (1998)Source: Att _tot j
trcEtct (introductory marks).Hebrew languageHebrew Punctuation rules, 28, The
Academy of the Hebrew Language.,""''rzz (merkha'ot)The direction of text is right-to-left, so low
quotation marks are opening. Not to be confused with z_c gershayim.Hungarian
languageHungarianMacskakrm (cat claws) Idzjel (quotation mark)Ldlb (goose feet)
Hegyvel befel fordul jelprIcelandic languageIcelandic,Gsalappir (goose feet)Indonesian
languageIndonesianTanda kutip, tanda petikInterlingua languageInterlinguaVirgulettasIrish
languageIrish 12 pt Liamg (Guillemets#EtymologyWilliam)Italian languageItalian 12
pt Virgolette Italian, SwissJapanese languageJapanese!! or !!!! or !!!!: !!! (kagi kakko, hook
bracket)!!: !!!! (niju kagi kakko, double hook bracket)Korean languageKorean!!!!, : !!! (taompyo,
quotation mark)!!: !! (scythe symbol)!!: !!! (double scythe symbol)Latvian
languageLatvianPdiasLithuanian languageLithuanianKabutesMacedonian languageMacedonianpp.
141-143, Hpanonnc na akeonckno nnepaypen jank, B. neockn etal., Hpocneno eno-Ckonje
(2007) Hanonnnn (double quote) Honynanonnnn (single quote)Norwegian
languageNorwegianHandwritingAnfrselstegn (quotation marks)Gseauge, gseyne (goose
eyes)Hermeteikn, hermetegnSittatteikn, sitattegnDobbeltfnuttPersian languagePersian...~.:Polish
languagePolishPreferred for headings and other texts in larger font sizes or or May substitute
for either the opening or closing markCudzyslw (someone else's word).Brazilian PortuguesePortuguese,
BrazilAspas duplas, aspas simplesPortuguese languagePortuguese, PortugalSource: Bergstrm, Magnus, &
Neves Reis 2004. Pronturio Ortogrfico e Guia da Lngua Portuguesa. Editorial Notcias,
Lisboa.Aspas, vrgulas dobradasRomanian languageRomanianAcademia Romn, Institutul de
Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan, ndreptar ortografic, ortoepic i de punctua(ie, edi(ia a V-a, Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1995 none Ghilimele (quotes)Russian languageRussian none Kanunkn
(kavychki) nonkn (yolochki, little fir trees) Hankn (lapki, little paws)Serbian
234
languageSerbian or Hanonnnn, nann nanoa, navodnici, znaci navodaSlovak
languageSlovak,vodzovky (introduce)Slovene languageSlovene,Sorbian
languageSorbian,Spanish languageSpanish none Comillas latinas, comillas
angulares Comillas inglesas dobles Comillas inglesas simplesSwedish languageSwedish Sprknmnden,
questions and answers (in Swedish) or Citationstecken, anfringsteckenCitattecken
(modernised term)Dubbelfnutt (ASCII double quote)Thai languageThaioqB+n+n (anyaprakat)Turkish
languageTurkish 01 pt Tirnak iareti (fingernail mark)Ukrainian languageUkrainian none
Hankn (lapky, little paws)Vietnamese languageVietnameseDu ngoc kpWelsh
languageWelsh 12 pt DyfynodauSpecific language featuresDutchThe standard form in the table
above is taught in schools and used in handwriting. Several large newspapers have kept these low-high quotation
marks, but otherwise the alternative form with single or double English-style quotes is now almost the only form
seen in printed matter. Neutral quotation marks (" and ') are used widely, especially in texts typed on computers and
on websites.Dutch Consortium Our Language, page on quotes Aanhalingstekens hoog of laagAlthough not common
in Dutch languageDutch any more, double angle quotation marks are still used in Dutch government
publications.[citation needed]German (Germany and Austria) What the left quote is in English is used as the right
quote in Germany and Austria, and a different low 9 quote is used for the left instead. Some fonts, e.g. Verdana,
were designed not bearing in mind the automatic use of the English left quote as the German right quote and are
therefore typographically incompatible with German. Samples Unicode (decimal) HTML Description ,O U+201A
(8218), U+2018 (8216) &sbquo; ‘ German single quotes (left and right) O U+201E (8222), U+201C (8220)
&bdquo; “ German double quotes (left and right) Double quotes are standard for denoting speech in German
languageGerman. Andreas fragte mich: Hast du den Artikel ,EU-Erweiterung gelesen?This style of quoting is also
used in Bulgarian languageBulgarian, Czech languageCzech, Estonian languageEstonian, Georgian
languageGeorgian, Icelandic languageIcelandic, Russian languageRussian, Serbian languageSerbian, Slovak
languageSlovak, Slovene languageSlovene and in Ukrainian languageUkrainian. In Bulgarian, Icelandic, Russian
and Ukrainian single quotation marks are not used. The double-quote style was also used in the Netherlands, but is
now out of fashionit is still frequently found on older shop signs, however and is used by some newspapers.
Sometimes, especially in books, the angle quotation marks (see below) are used in Germany and Austria, albeit in
reversed order: O. In Switzerland, however, the same quotation marks as in French are used: O. Double-angle
quotation marks without spaces are the standard for German languageGerman printed texts in Switzerland: Andreas
fragte mich: Hast du den Artikel EU-Erweiterung gelesen? Andrew asked me: Have you read the article EU
Expansion? Angle quotation marks are also often used in German publications from Germany and Austria,
especially in novels, but then exactly reversed and without spacing: Andreas fragte mich: Hast du den Artikel
EU-Erweiterung gelesen? Andrew asked me: Have you read the article EU Expansion? Finnish and Swedish In
Finnish languageFinnish and Swedish languageSwedish, right quotes, ..., are used to mark both the beginning and
the end of a quote (sometimes called dumb quotes). Double right-pointing angular quotes, , can also be used.
Alternatively, an en-dash followed by a (non-breaking spacenon-breaking) space can be used to denote the beginning
of quoted speech, in which case the end of the quotation is not specifically denoted (see section #Quotation
dashQuotation dash below). A line-break should not be allowed between the en-dash and the first word of the
quotation. Samples Unicode (decimal) HTML Description O U+2019 (8217) ’ Secondary level quotation
O U+201D (8221) ” Primary level quotation O U+00BB (187) » Alternative primary level
quotation O U+2013 (8211) – Alternative denotation at the beginning of quoted speech FrenchFrench
language uses angle quotation marks (guillemets, or duck-foot quotes), adding a quarter-em space (officially)
(U+2005 Space (punctuation)four-per-em space (HTML: )) within the quotes. However, many people now
use the non-breaking space, because the difference between a non-breaking space and a four-per-em is virtually
imperceptible (but also because the Unicode quarter-em space is breakable), and the quarter-em is virtually always
omitted in non-Unicode fonts. Even more commonly, people just put a normal (breaking) space between the
quotation marks because the non-breaking space is often not easily accessible from the keyboard.Voulez-vous un
235
sandwich, Henri?Would you like a sandwich, Henri? Sometimes, for instance on the French news site Le Figaro,
no space is used around the quotation marks. This parallels normal usage in other languages, e.g. Catalan
languageCatalan, Polish languagePolish, Portuguese languagePortuguese, Russian languageRussian, Spanish
languageSpanish, or in Swiss GermanGerman, Swiss FrenchFrench and Swiss ItalianItalian as written in
Switzerland:Dies ist ein Zitat. [Swiss German] To jest cytat.3o nnaa. This is a quote. Samples Unicode
(decimal) HTML Description O U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187) « » French double angle quotes
(left and right), most usual (approximative) form used today on the web, with normal (half-em) non-breaking spaces.
O French double angle quotes (left and right), more exact form used by typographers, with narrow (quarter-em)
non-breaking spaces.O non-French double angle quotes (left and right) without space (not recommended) O
U+2039 (8249), U+203A (8250) &lsaquo; &rsaquo; French single angle quotes (left and right), alternate form for
embedded quotations, used on the web with normal non-breaking spaces. O French single angle quotes (left and
right), alternate form for embedded quotations, preferably used by typographers with narrow non-breaking
spaces.Initially, the French guillemet characters were not angle shaped but also used the comma (6/9) shape. They
were different from English quotes because they were standing (like today's guillemets) on the baseline (like
lowercase letters), and not above it (like apostrophes and English quotation marks) or hanging down from it (like
commas). At the beginning of the 19th century, this shape evolved to look like ((small parentheses)). The angle
shape appeared later to increase the distinction and avoid confusions with apostrophes, commas and parentheses in
handwritten manuscripts submitted to publishers. Unicode currently does not provide alternate codes for these 6/9
guillemets on the baseline, which are still considered as form variants implemented in older French typography (such
as the Didot (typeface)Didot font design). Also there was not necessarily any distinction of shape between the
opening and closing guillemets, with both types pointing to the right (like today's French closing guillemets).Unlike
English, French does not set off unquoted material within a quotation mark by using a second set of quotes. They
must be used with non-breaking spaces (preferably narrow, if available, i.e. U+202F NNBSP which is missing in
most computer fonts but that renderers should be able to render using the same glyph as the breaking "French" thin
space U+2009, handling the non-breaking property internally in the text renderer / layout engine, because
line-breaking properties are never defined in fonts themselves; such renderers should also be able to infer a
half-width space from the glyph assigned to the normal half-em non-breaking space, if the thin space itself is not
mapped). Compare: Cest une belle journe pour les Montralais, soutient le ministre. Ces investissements
stimuleront la croissance conomique. This is a great day for Montrealers, the minister upholds. These
investments will stimulate economic growth. In many printed books, when quotations are spanning multiple lines of
text (including multiple paragraphs), an additional closing quotation sign is traditionally used at the beginning of
each line continuing a quotation ; any right-pointing guillemet at the beginning of a line does not close the current
quotation; this convention has been consistently used since the beginning of the 19th century by most book printers
(and is still in use today). Note that such insertion of continuation quotation marks will also occur if there's a word
hyphenation break. Unfortunately, there is still no support for automatic insertion of these continuation guillemets in
HTML/CSS and in many word-processors, so these have to be inserted by manual typesetting: Cest une belle
journe pour les Montralais, soutient le ministre. Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance conomique.
For clarity, some newspapers put the quoted material in italics: Cest une belle journe pour les Montralais,
soutient le ministre. Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance conomique. The French Imprimerie nationale
(cf. Lexique des rgles typographiques en usage l'Imprimerie nationale, presses de l'Imprimerie nationale, Paris,
2002), though, does not use different quotation marks for nesting:Son explication nest quun mensonge,
sindigna le dput. His explanation is just a lie, the deputy protested. In this case, when there should be two
adjacent opening or closing marks, only one is written: Il rpondit: Ce nest quun gadget!. He answered: It's
only a gizmo. The use of English quotation marks is increasing in French and usually follows English rules, for
instance when the keyboard or the software context doesn't allow the utilisation of guillemets. The French news site
Le Monde uses straight quotation marks (however, the printed version of this daily newspaper still uses the French
angle-shaped guillemets).English quotes are also used sometimes for nested quotations: Son explication nest
236
quun mensonge, sindigna le dput. His explanation is just a lie, the deputy protested. But the most frequent
convention used in printed books for nested quotations is to style them in italics (single quotation marks are much
more rarely used, and multiple levels of quotations using the same marks is often considered confusing for readers):
Son explication nest quun mensonge, sindigna le dput.Il rpondit: Ce nest quun gadget!.Further,
running speech does not use quotation marks beyond the first sentence, as changes in speaker are indicated by a
dash, as opposed to the English use of closing and re-opening the quotation. (For other languages employing dashes,
see section #Quotation dashQuotation dash below.) The dashes may be used entirely without quotation marks as
well. In general, quotation marks are extended to encompass as much speech as possible, including not just
non-spoken text such as "he said" (as previously noted), but also as long as the conversion extends. The quotation
marks end at the last spoken text however, not extending to the end of paragraphs when the final part is not spoken.
Je ne vous parle pas, monsieur, dit-il. Mais je vous parle, moi! scria le jeune homme exaspr de ce mlange
dinsolence et de bonnes manires, de convenances et de ddains. (Alexandre Dumas, preDumas, Les trois
mousquetaires) I am not speaking to you, sir, he said. But I am speaking to you! cried the young man,
exasperated by this combination of insolence and good manners, of protocol and disdain. GreekGreek
(language)Greek uses angled quotation marks (tct eisagogik):Mttt ; cj j M.
Nt, v, uj. and the #Quotation dashquotation dash (t pvla): Mttt ; cj
j M. Nt, v, uj. which translate to: "Is he serious?" he asked Maria. "Yes, certainly", she
replied. Samples Unicode (decimal) HTML Description O U+00AB (0171), U+00BB (0187) « »
Greek first level double quotes (tct)O U+2015 (8213) ― Greek direct quotation em-dash A
closing quotation mark () is added to the beginning of each new quoted paragraph. When quotations are nested in
more levels than inner and outer, single quotation marks are used (i.e. ).Hungarian Samples
Unicode (decimal) HTML Description O U+201E (8222), U+201d (8221) &bdquo; ” Hungarian first level
double quotes (left and right) O U+00AB (0187), U+00BB (0171) » « Hungarian second level
double quotes (left and right) O U+2019 (8217) ’ Hungarian unpaired quotes signifying
"meaning"According to current recommendation by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences the main Hungarian
quotation marks are comma-shaped double quotation marks set on the base-line at the beginning of the quote and at
apostrophe-height at the end of it for first level, inversed French quotes without space (the German tradition) for
the second level, so the following nested quotation pattern emerges: Quote inside quote In Hungarian linguistic
tradition the meaning of a word is signified by uniform (unpaired) apostrophe-shaped quotation marks:die Biene
mhA #Quotation dashquotation dash is also used, and is predominant in belletristic literature. Merre jrtl?
krdezte a kpcs. Polish Samples Unicode (decimal) HTML Description ,O U+201A (8218), U+2019 (8217)
&sbquo; ’ Polish single quotes (left and right) O U+201E (8222), U+201d (8221) &bdquo; ” Polish
double quotes (left and right) O U+2015 (8213) ― Polish direct quotation em-dash O U+2013 (8211)
– Polish direct quotation en-dash According to current PN-83/P-55366 standard from 1983 (but not
dictionaries, see below), Typesetting rules for composing Polish text (Zasady skladania tekstw w jzyku polskim)
one can use either ordinary Polish quotes or French quotes (without space) for first level, and ,single Polish
quotes or French quotes for second level, which gives three styles of nested quotes: Quote ,inside quote Quote
inside quote Quote ,inside quote There is no space on the internal side of quote marks, with the exception of
Em (typography)#Firetfiret (~ Em (typography)em) space between two quotation marks when there are no other
characters between them (e.g. , and ).The above rules have not changed since at least the previous BN-76/7440-02
standard from 1976 and are probably much older. These rules, however, conflict with the Polish punctuation
standard as given by dictionaries, including the Wielki Slownik Ortograficzny PWN recommended by the Polish
Language Council, which state:Guillemet marks pointing inwards are used for highlights and in case a quotation
occurs inside a quotation. Guillemet marks pointing outwards are used for definitions (mainly in scientific
publications and dictionaries), as well as for enclosing spoken lines and indirect speech, especially in poetic texts. In
Polish books and publications, this style (also known as German quotes) is used almost exclusively. In addition to
being standard for second level quotes, guillemot quotes are sometimes used as first level quotes in headings and
237
titles but almost never in ordinary text in paragraphs. Another style of quoting is to use an em-dash to open a quote;
this is used almost exclusively to quote dialogues, and is virtually the only convention used in works of fiction. Mag
sklonil si. Bialy kot spiacy obok paleniska ocknal si nagle i spojrzal na niego badawczo. Jak si nazywa ta wies,
panie? zapytal przybysz. Kowal wzruszyl ramionami. Glupi Osiol. Glupi? Osiol powtrzyl kowal
takim tonem, jakby wyzywal goscia, zeby sprbowal sobie z niego zazartowac. Mag zamyslil si. Ta nazwa ma
pewnie swoja histori stwierdzil w koncu. W innych okolicznosciach chtnie bym jej wysluchal. Ale
chcialbym porozmawiac z toba, kowalu, o twoim synu. The wizard bowed. A white cat that had been sleeping by the
furnace woke up and watched him carefully. What is the name of this place, sir? said the wizard. The blacksmith
shrugged. Bad ass, he said. Bad? Ass, repeated the blacksmith, his tone defying anyone to make something
of it. The wizard considered this. A name with a story behind it, he said at last, which were circumstances
otherwise I would be pleased to hear. But I would like to speak to you, smith, about your son. (Terry Pratchett,
Equal rites)An en-dash is sometimes used in place of the em-dash, especially so in newspaper texts. Russian,
Ukrainian, Belarusian and LatvianIn Russian languageRussian, Ukrainian languageUkrainian, Belarusian
languageBelarusian and Latvian languageLatvian, angled quotation marks are used without spaces. In case of quoted
material inside a quotation, rules and most of noted style manuals prescribe the use of different kinds of quotation
marks. However, some of them allow to use the same quotation marks for quoted material inside a quotation, and if
inner and outer quotation marks fall together, then one of them should be omitted. Right: Hymknn nncan enrnnry:
Ay Huranon n onac ncny. (Pushkin wrote to Delvig: Waiting for Gypsies, and publish at once.)
Permissible, when it is technically impossible to use different quotation marks: Huranu on ne npoacn
nonce, ceonan Hymknn. (My Gypsies are not selling at all, Pushkin complained.) But preferable ways in
such case are:[citation needed] setting the quote as a separate paragraph with indent; marking the inner quotation
with italics; marking the outer quotes with bold or using single angled quotation marks ( ) as inner ones (the last
method is virtually never found in practice). SpanishSpanish (language)Spanish uses angled quotation marks
(comillas latinas or angulares) as well, but always without the spaces. Esto es un ejemplo de cmo se suele hacer
una cita literal en espaol. This is an example of how a literal quotation is usually written in Spanish. And, when
quotations are nested in more levels than inner and outer quotation, the system is:This system follows the rules laid
down in section 5.10 of the orthography guide Ortografa de la lengua espaola published by the Real Academia
Espaola (RAE).Antonio me dijo: Vaya cacharro que se ha comprado Julin.As in French, the use of English
quotation marks is increasing in Spanish, and the El Pas style guide, which is widely followed in Spain,
recommends them. Latin Americans often use them due to influence from the United States of America. Chinese,
Japanese and Korean quotation marks Corner brackets are well-suited for Chinese languageChinese, Japanese
languageJapanese, and Korean languageKorean languages which are written in both Horizontal and vertical writing
in East Asian scriptsvertical and horizontal orientations. China, South Korea, and Japan all use corner brackets when
writing vertically, however usages differ when writing horizontally: In Japan, corner brackets are used. In South
Korea and Mainland China, English-style quotes are used. In North Korea, angle quotes are used. In the Taiwan,
Hong Kong and Macau where Traditional Chinese is used, corner brackets are prevalent, but English-style quotes are
also used. In the Chinese language, double angle brackets are used around titles of books, documents, musical
pieces, cinema films, TV programmes, newspapers, magazines, laws, etc. With some exceptions, this usage overlaps
italics in English. When nested, single angle brackets are used inside double angle brackets. White corner brackets
are used to mark quote-within-quote segments. Samples Unicode (decimal) Description Usage !!!! U+300C (12300),
U+300D (12301) Corner bracketsTraditional Chinese: !! (dn yn ho)Simplified Chinese: !Japanese
languageJapanese: !!! (kagikakko)Korean languageKorean: !! (natpyo) Japanese,Korean,Traditional Chinese !!!!
U+FE41 (65089), U+FE42 (65090)These codes for vertical-writing characters are for presentation forms in the
Unicode CJK compatibility forms section. Typical documents use normative character codes which are shown for
the horizontal writing in this table, and applications are usually responsible to render correct forms depending on the
writing direction used. For vertical writing:Japanese,Korean,Simplified Chinese,Traditional Chinese !!!! U+300E
(12302), U+300F (12303) White corner bracketsTraditional Chinese: !! (shung yn ho)Simplified Chinese:
238
Japanese: !!!! (niju kagikakko)Korean: !!! (gyeopnatpyo) Japanese,Korean (book titles), Traditional Chinese !!!!
U+FE43 (65091), U+FE44 (65092) For vertical writing:Japanese,Korean,Simplified Chinese,Traditional Chinese !
U+201C (8220), U+201D (8221) Double quotesKorean: !!!! (keunttaompyo), Simplified Chinese: (shung yn
ho) Korean (South Korea), Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese (acceptable but less common, happened in
Hong Kong mainly as a result of influence from mainland China) ! U+2018 (8216), U+2019 (8217) Single
quotesKorean: !!!!! (jageunttaompyo), Simplified Chinese: ! (dn yn ho) Korean (South Korea), Simplified
Chinese (for quote-within-quote segments) !!! U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187) Double angle quotes Simplified
Chinese: !! (shu mng ho)Traditional Chinese: !!! Korean (North Korea),Chinese languageChinese (used for titles
of books, documents, musical pieces, cinema films, TV programmes, newspapers, magazines, laws, etc. ) Quotation
dashAnother typographical style is to omit quotation marks for lines of dialogue, replacing them with an initial dash:
Je mennuie tellement, dit-elle. Cela nest pas de ma faute, rtorqua-t-il. Im so bored, she said. Thats not
my fault, he retorted. This style is particularly common in Bulgarian, Esperanto, French, Greek, Hungarian,
Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish and Turkish. James Joyce always insisted on this style, although his
publishers did not always respect his preference. Alan Paton used this style in Cry, the Beloved Country (and no
quotation marks at all in some of his later work). Charles Frazier used this style for his novel Cold Mountain
(novel)Cold Mountain as well. Details for individual languages are given above.The dash is often combined with
ordinary quotation marks. For example, in French, a guillemet may be used to initiate running speech, with each
change in speaker indicated by a dash, and a closing guillemet to mark the end of the quotation. Dashes are also used
in many modern English languageEnglish novels, especially those written in non-standard dialects. Some examples
include: James Joyce's prose; Trainspotting (novel)Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh;The Book of Dave by Will Self,
which alternates between standard English chapters, with standard quotation marks, and dialect chapters, with
quotation dashes;A Scanner Darkly by Philip K. Dick (not written in dialect);AegyptThe gypt Sequence by John
Crowley, in which events occurring in the Renaissance are indicated by quotation dashes, and events in the present
by ordinary quotation marks; The Van (novel)The Van by Roddy Doyle; andYou Shall Know Our Velocity by Dave
Eggers, in which spoken dialogues are written with the typical English quotation marks, but dialogues imagined by
the main character (which feature prominently) are written with quotation dashes.In Italian, Catalan, Portuguese,
Spanish, Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian, Lithuanian and Hungarian the reporting clause in the
middle of a quotation is separated with two additional dashes: A, a, a! nckpnknyn Hennn. B ner,
kaxecn, yxe ne ennr ne ronen. B n ne noyan. Xopom! cencr, ckaan Cenan Apkaennn, a enn xe
naunaemr nnrnnnco! Onako ner oo nenrn. ee nao roner. Oh dear! exclaimed Levin. I think it is nine
years since I went to communion! I havent thought about it. You are a good one! remarked Oblonsky, laughing.
And you call me a Nihilist! But it wont do, you know; you must confess and receive the sacrament. from Leo
Tolstoys Anna Karenina (Louise and Aylmer Maude translation)In Finnish languageFinnish, on the other hand, a
second dash is added when the quote continues after a reporting clause: Et sin ole paljon minkn nkinen,
sanoi Korkala melkein surullisesti, mutta ei auta. You don't seem to be anything special, said Korkala almost
sadly, but there's no help to it. Frakki, lhti Huikari. Miss on frakki? Rtliss, sanoi Joonas
rauhallisesti. Tailcoat, yelped Huikari. Where is the tailcoat? At the tailor's, said Joonas calmly. According to
the Unicode standard, U+2015 horizontal bar should be used as a quotation dash. In general it is the same length
as an em-dash, and so this is often used instead. Both are displayed in the following table. Samples Unicode
(decimal) HTML Description O U+2015 (8213) ― Quotation dash, also known as Dash#Horizontal
barhorizontal barO U+2014 (8212) — Dash#Em dashEm-dash, an alternative to the quotation dash
ReferencesThis article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1
version 1.3 or later.External links Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML French Quotes Typography (uuvrez
les guillemets!) -- in French Quotation marks in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository ASCII and Unicode
quotation marks detailed discussion of the ASCII `backquote' problem The Gallery Of "Misused" Quotation Marks
Commonly confused characters Smart Quotes
239
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File:TrajanSpec3a.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TrajanSpec3a.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was GearedBull at en.wikipedia
File:Pressing-16th century.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pressing-16th_century.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tolnai korabeli kp alapjn (Gottfried-
Trtnelmi krnika)
Image:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: William Caslon
Image:Oscar wilde english renaissance of art 2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oscar_wilde_english_renaissance_of_art_2.png License: GNU Free Documentation
License Contributors: Angr, James Arboghast
Image:Latex example type.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latex_example_type.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Porge,
User:Porge/Esperanza
Image:John Wilkes Booth wanted poster new.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Wilkes_Booth_wanted_poster_new.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
1Veertje, Childzy, Finnrind, Frank C. Mller, Jappalang, Julia W, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Xhienne, 1 anonymous edits
Image:EncycBrit1913.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EncycBrit1913.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:James Arboghast
File:Symbol book class2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Symbol_book_class2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
Lokal_Profil
File:Folder Hexagonal Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Anomie, Mifter
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
Image:Historical ampersand evolution.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Historical_ampersand_evolution.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Alatius
Image:Ampersand.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ampersand.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Fibonacci, User:Fibonacci,
User:Fibonacci
Image:etlig.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Etlig.svg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: Arnapha, Fryed-peach, Kimbar, Rocket000, VIGNERON, Y12J
Image:Trebuchet MS ampersand.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trebuchet_MS_ampersand.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Stephencole2
File:Section break 02 by Pengo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Section_break_02_by_Pengo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pengo
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File:19-manasses-chronicle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:19-manasses-chronicle.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original: Constantine Manasses
File:1674 liten.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1674_liten.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boivie, Hekerui, Herbythyme, JohnnyMrNinja, Nicke L, 1
anonymous edits
File:Ariza1448-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ariza1448-2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jorge Romance. Original uploader was
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File:Obelos.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obelos.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Aethralis
Image:Daggers.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Daggers.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: GJo
File:PerthGazette 1833 06 01 1 ditto.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PerthGazette_1833_06_01_1_ditto.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Multiple authors
Image:Left side of modern US-International keyboard.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Left_side_of_modern_US-International_keyboard.JPG License: Public
Domain Contributors: JoshFarron
File:Skjermbilete 2012-11-03 kl. 02.48.36.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skjermbilete_2012-11-03_kl._02.48.36.png License: Copyrighted free use Contributors:
Nringsoppgva er eit offentleg skjema. Offentlege, norske skjema er i prinsippet frie. Sjlve skjermknipsen er eg sjlv ansvarleg for.
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License: Public Domain Contributors: Atr2006
Image:Sklonk-klesn.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sklonk-klesn.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: cs:User:SJu
File:Percent sign in 1339.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percent_sign_in_1339.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Cherowitzo created file using a
facsimile of 1339 Italian arithmetic text, author unknown
File:Percent sign in 1425.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percent_sign_in_1425.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Cherowitzo; based on facsimile
of 1425 arithmetic text author unknown
Image:Percent sign in 1648.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percent_sign_in_1648.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Cherowitzo; based on
facsimile of 1685 arithmetic text (author unknown)
File:Percentsign in Poor Richard font.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percentsign_in_Poor_Richard_font.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
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File:Helmholtz pitch notation c.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Helmholtz_pitch_notation_c.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mdcollins1984
File:Prime (symbol).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prime_(symbol).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: GJo
Image:RegisteredTM.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RegisteredTM.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Roman Tworkowski
Image:Hic Fabricatur Naves.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hic_Fabricatur_Naves.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carta_Marina.jpeg: Olaus Magnus
derivative work: Petri Krohn (talk)
Image:Dot printer ASCII0x7C+.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dot_printer_ASCII0x7C+.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Incnis Mrsi (talk)
Image:Wave Dash.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wave_Dash.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: D.328 14:59, 11 June 2006 (UTC)
Image:Wave Dash2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wave_Dash2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: D.328 13:40,
30 December 2006 (UTC)
Image:Indian Rupee symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Rupee_symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Orionist
File:Currency-Symbol Regions of the World circa 2006.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Currency-Symbol_Regions_of_the_World_circa_2006.png License:
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File:Euro Construction.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euro_Construction.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Erina
File:Moreeurosigns.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moreeurosigns.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was SergioGeorgini at
en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Andrew pmk at en.wikipedia.
Image:Armenian dram sign.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Armenian_dram_sign.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Central Bank of Armenia
File:Parag-guarani-G.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parag-guarani-G.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
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File:Azeri manat symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Azeri_manat_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
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Image:Kazakhstani tenge symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kazakhstani_tenge_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors:
Kalashnov
251
Image:Anarchy-symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anarchy-symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Linuxerist, Froztbyte, Arcy
Image:US3ASSI.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US3ASSI.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Illegitimate Barrister, Javierme,
Nobunaga24, Thadius856
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File:Apostrophe+prime+acute-in- Arial+Calibri+Tahoma+Times+Libertine.png Source:
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User:Karl432
File:Quote to be Moved Up.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quote_to_be_Moved_Up.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Wereon
File:Brackets.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brackets.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Fibonacci, User:Fibonacci
Image:IPA length mark.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IPA_length_mark.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Angr
File:Dash font comparison.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dash_font_comparison.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Richard Lyon
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File:Iddots black.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iddots_black.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: VSL
File:Achtung.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Achtung.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below.
File:Cattle stop sign - New Zealand.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cattle_stop_sign_-_New_Zealand.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
Contributors: Phillip Capper from Wellington, New Zealand
Image:Catalan Ls with interpunct.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Catalan_Ls_with_interpunct.png License: Public Domain Contributors: en:User:Aeusos1
File:Cella-cat.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cella-cat.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Xpicto
Image:Quaestio.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quaestio.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Angelus(talk)
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Joyce (Life time: 1941)
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File:point de doute.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Point_de_doute.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Sakurambo, from Herv Bazin's 1966 essay
"Plumons lOiseau"
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File:point d'acclamation.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Point_d'acclamation.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Sakurambo, from Herv Bazin's 1966
essay "Plumons lOiseau"
File:point d'autorit.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Point_d'autorit.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Sakurambo, from Herv Bazin's 1966 essay
"Plumons lOiseau"
File:point d'amour.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Point_d'amour.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Sakurambo from Herv Bazin's 1966 essay
"Plumons lOiseau"
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Image:Antique oushak carpet with a pale red and green tone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antique_oushak_carpet_with_a_pale_red_and_green_tone.jpg
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Legibility refers to perception and readability refers to comprehension.

Generic currency sign Used when the correct sign is not

cent, centavo, &c. A centesimal subdivision of

Costa Rican coln Also used for the former Salvadoran

Algerian dinar Latin form: DA

Serbian dinar Latin form: din.

European euro In addition to the members of the

Aruban florin (Afl.)

Mill, mil, &.c An uncommon millesimal subdivision

Philippine peso Also P, PhP, and P

Iranian rial Script for "rial," a currency name

Israeli new shekel

Bangladeshi Taka Also Tk

North Korean and South Korean won

Unicode: U+3012, UTF-8: E3 80 92

Unicode: U+3020, UTF-8: E3 80 A0

Unicode: U+3036, UTF-8: E3 80 B6

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