Chap 4 Sec1 PDF

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 4
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999

1
Chapter 4: Fluids in Motion

4.1 Velocity and Flow Visualization

Primary dependent variable is fluid velocity vector
V = V ( r ); where r is the position vector

If V is known then pressure
and forces can be
determined using
techniques to be discussed
in subsequent chapters.

Consideration of the velocity field alone is referred to as
flow field kinematics in distinction from flow field
dynamics (force considerations).

Fluid mechanics and especially flow kinematics is a
geometric subject and if one has a good understanding of
the flow geometry then one knows a great deal about the
solution to a fluid mechanics problem.

Consider a simple flow situation, such as an airfoil in a
wind tunnel:

k
z j
y i
x r + +
k
w j
v i
u ) t , r ( V + +
x
r
U = constant
2
Velocity: Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints

There are two approaches to analyzing the velocity field:
Lagrangian and Eulerian

Lagrangian: keep track of individual fluids particles (i.e.,
solve F = Ma for each particle)

Say particle p is at position r
1
(t
1
) and at position r
2
(t
2
) then,
k
dt
dz
j
dt
dy
i
dt
dx
t t
r r
lim V
1 2
1 2
0 t
p
+ +

= k
w j
v i
u
p p p
+ +

Of course the motion of one particle is insufficient to
describe the flow field, so the motion of all particles must
be considered simultaneously which would be a very
difficult task. Also, spatial gradients are not given directly.
Thus, the Lagrangian approach is only used in special
circumstances.

Eulerian: focus attention on a fixed point in space
k
z j
y i
x x + +

In general,

k
w j
v i
u ) t , x ( V V + +

velocity components
3
where,
u = u(x,y,z,t), v = v(x,y,z,t), w = w(x,y,z,t)

This approach is by far the most useful since we are usually
interested in the flow field in some region and not the
history of individual particles.

However, must transform F = Ma
from system to CV (recall
Reynolds Transport Theorem
(RTT) & CV analysis from
thermodynamics)

V can be expressed in any coordinate system; e.g., polar or
spherical coordinates. Recall that such coordinates are
called orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. The coordinate
system is selected such that it is convenient for describing
the problem at hand (boundary geometry or streamlines).

Undoubtedly, the most convenient coordinate system is
streamline coordinates:
) t , s ( e ) t , s ( v ) t , s ( V
s s

However, usually V not known a priori and even if known
streamlines maybe difficult to generate/determine.
Ex. Flow around a car

+ e v e v V
r r
j
cos i
sin e
j
sin i
cos
r
e
sin r y
cos r x
+
+

4
4.2 Volume Rate of Flow (flow rate, discharge)

1. cross-sectional area oriented normal to velocity vector
(simple case where V A)

U = constant: Q = volume flux = UA [m/s m
2
= m
3
/s]
U constant: Q =
A
UdA
Similarly the mass flux =

A
UdA m&

2. general case

CS
CS
dA cos V
dA n V Q

( )

CS
dA n V m&

average velocity:
A
Q
V

5
Example:
At low velocities the flow through a long circular tube, i.e.
pipe, has a parabolic velocity distribution (actually
paraboloid of revolution).
,
_
,
_

2
max
R
r
1 u u
i.e., centerline velocity

a) find Q and V

A A
udA dA n V Q

A
2
0
R
0
dr rd ) r ( u udA
=
R
0
rdr ) r ( u 2
dA = 2rdr
u = u(r) and not

2
0
2 d

Q =
,
_
,
_

R
0
2
max
rdr
R
r
1 u 2 =
2
max
R u
2
1

max
u
2
1
V
6
4.3 Acceleration
The acceleration of a fluid particle is the rate of change of
its velocity.

In the Lagrangian approach the velocity of a fluid particle
is a function of time only since we have described its
motion in terms of its position vector.

dt
dw
a
dt
dv
a
dt
du
a
k
a j
a i
a
dt
r d
dt
v d
a
k
w j
v i
u
dt
r d
V
k
) t ( z j
) t ( y i
) t ( x r
p
z
p
y
p
x
z y x
2
p
2
p
p
p p p
p
p
p p p p

+ +
+ +
+ +
v v
v

In the Eulerian approach the velocity is a function of both
space and time; consequently,
k
) t , z , y , x ( w j
) t , z , y , x ( v i
) t , z , y , x ( u V + +

k
a j
a i
a k
dt
dw
j
dt
dv
i
dt
du
dt
V d
a
z y x
+ + + +
v

z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
t
z
z
u
t
y
y
u
t
x
x
u
t
u
dt
du
a
x

called substantial derivative
Dt
Du

x,y,z are f(t)
since we must
follow the
particle in
evaluating
du/dt
7
Similarly for a
y
& a
z
,

z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
Dt
Dw
a
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
Dt
Dv
a
z
y

In vector notation this can be written concisely
V V
t
V
Dt
V D
+
z
j
y
i
gradient operator

First term,
t
V
, called local or temporal acceleration results

from velocity changes with respect to time at a given point.
Local acceleration results when the flow is unsteady.

Second term, V V , called convective acceleration
because it is associated with spatial gradients of velocity in
the flow field. Convective acceleration results when the
flow is non-uniform, that is, if the velocity changes along a
streamline.

The convective acceleration terms are nonlinear which
causes mathematical difficulties in flow analysis; also, even
in steady flow the convective acceleration can be large if
spatial gradients of velocity are large.
8
Example: Flow through a converging nozzle can be
approximated by a one dimensional velocity distribution
u = u(x). For the nozzle shown, assume that the velocity
varies linearly from u = V
o
at the entrance to u = 3V
o
at the
exit. Compute the acceleration
Dt
V D
as a function of x.
Evaluate
Dt
V D
at the entrance
and exit if V
o
= 10 ft/s and
L =1 ft.

We have i
) x ( u V ,
x
a
x
u
u
Dt
Du

( )

,
_
+ + 1
L
x 2
V V x
L
V 2
) x ( u
o o
o

L
V 2
x
u
0

,
_
+ 1
L
x 2
L
V 2
a
2
o
x

@ x = 0 a
x
= 200 ft/s
2

@ x = L a
x
= 600 ft/s
2

u = V
o
y
Assume linear
variation
between inlet
and exit
u(x) = mx + b
u(0) = b = V
o

m =
L
V 2
L
V V 3
x
u
o o o

9
4.4 Basic Control-Volume Approach

Laws of mechanics are written for a system, i.e., a fixed
amount of matter.

1. Conservation of mass: 0
dt
dM

2. Conservation of momentum:
dt
) V M ( d
a M F
3. Conservation of energy: W Q
dt
dE
& &

Also of relevance, but not treated in this course are:
Conservation of angular momentum:
G
G
M
dt
H d

Second Law of Thermodynamics: s
T
Q d
dt
dS
&
&
+
s& , entropy production due to system irreversibilities
0 s &
M
10
In fluid mechanics we are usually interested in a region of
space, i.e, control volume and not particular systems.
Therefore, we need to transform GDEs from a system to a
control volume, which is accomplished through the use of
RTT (actually derived
in thermodynamics for
CV forms of continuity
and 1
st
and 2
nd
laws, but
not in general form or
referred to as RTT).

Note GDEs are of form:

( ) RHS E , V M , M
dt
d

system extensive properties B
sys
depend on mass

i.e., involve
dt
dB
sys
which needs to be related to changes in
CV. Recall, definition of corresponding system intensive
properties

= (1, V, e) independent of mass

where

d dm B

i.e.,
dm
dB

11
Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

Then we wish to relate ) B (
dt
d
sys
to changes in B
cv
. We do
this by a limiting process: at time t + t, the system has
moved slightly due to V as indicated in the figure.

( )
( ) ( )
1
]
1
1
]
1
+ +
+

+

t
B
t
B
t
B B
lim
t
B B B B
lim B
dt
d
I III
II II
0 t
t
II I
t t
III II
0 t
sys
t t t

12
Since in the limit as t0 region II becomes the CV the
first term becomes

t
B
lim
II
0 t

CV
CV
V d
dt
d
dt
dB
( )
CV
V d
t

since CV not
The two terms in denote the outflux moving or
and influx of across the CS deforming

t
B
lim
III
0 t
rate of outflux of B from CV

t
B
lim
I
0 t
rate of influx of B into CV

If dA is a portion of the CS, the flux of B across dA is

V dA

where dA = ndA so that for inflow
V dA is negative and for outflow
V dA is positive.

We have then,

,
_

CS
I III
0 t
dA V
t
B
t
B
lim
= net outflux of B across CS

= ndA
13
Conservation of mass B
sys
= M 1
dM
dB

Combining and yields RTT

( )

+
CV CS
sys
dA V V d B
t dt
) B ( d

time rate of
change of system
extensive property B
sys
=
V d : intensive property

= time rate of change of B within CV
= net rate of outflow of B through bounding control
surface CS

Simplifications:

Steady flow:

CS
sys
dA V
dt
dB

Uniform flow across discreet CS (steady or unsteady flow):

CS
CS
A V dA V

Note: V A = - VA for inlet

= + VA for outlet
14
Complications:

Moving (at V
s
) and deforming (V(t)) CV

Note that in deriving the transport theorem we have
assumed a stationary non-deforming CV. If the CV is
moving and deforming then one must recognize that
V = V (t) and the relative fluid velocity must be used in the
flux term; i.e.,

) t ( CS
R
) t ( CV
sys
dA V V d
dt
d
dt
dB
General Form

where, V
R
= V V
S
= relative velocity of fluid to CS

absolute velocity of CS

15
M
The RTT can be applied to both vector and scalar quantities
and is used to relate changes of system extensive properties
to changes of that property with regard to a control volume.

For example if B = mass = 1 the transport theorem
yields the continuity equation:

dA V dV
dt
d
0
dt
) mass ( d
CV

The RTT can be used in the present form to provide
integral (CV) forms of the governing equations.
Frequently, we require differential forms of the governing
equations, which can also be obtained from the RTT by
application to an elemental CV after making use of the
Gauss (or divergence) Theorem.

V S
dS n b V d b

S V
V d ) V ( dS n V where =

where upon (for fixed CV)
( ) ( ) V d V
t
V d ) V ( V d
dt
d
dt
dB
CV
CV CV
sys
1
]
1

+

CV CS
V d
dt
d
dA V
Continuity at a point
=1 B
sys
=M 0
dt
dM

( ) 0 V
t
+

imcompressible flow
0 V

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 4

Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999

, called local or temporal acceleration results

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