SMELTING is a form of extractive metallurgy; its main use is to produce a metal

from its ore. This includes iron extraction (for the production of steel) from iron ore, and copper extraction and other base metals from their ores. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to change the oxidation state of the metal ore; the reducing agent is commonly a source of carbon such as coke, or in earlier times charcoal. The carbon or carbon monoxide derived from it removes oxygen from the ore to leave the metal. The carbon is thus oxidized in two stages, producing first carbon monoxide and then carbon dioxide. As most ores are impure, it is often necessary to use flux, such as limestone, to remove the accompanying rock gangue as slag.

LEACHING is a widely used extractive metallurgy technique which converts metals

into soluble salts in aqueous media. Compared to pyrometallurgical operations, leaching is easier to perform and much less harmful, because no gaseous pollution occurs. The only drawback of leaching is its lower efficiency caused by the low temperatures of the operation, which dramatically affect chemical reaction rates. There are a variety of leaching processes, usually classified by the types of reagents used in the operation. The reagents required depend on th e ores or pretreated material to be processed. A typical feed for leaching is either oxide or sulfide.

For material in oxide form, a simple acid leaching reaction can be illustrated by the zinc oxide leaching reaction :

ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O

In this reaction solid ZnO dissolves, forming soluble zinc sulfate. In many cases other reagents are used to leach oxides. For example, in the metallurgy of aluminium, aluminium oxide is subject to leaching by alkali solutions: Al2O3 + 3H2O + 2NaOH 2NaAl(OH)4 .

Leaching of sulfides is a more complex process due to the refractory nature of sulfide ores. It often involves the use of pressurized vessels, called autoclaves. A good example of the autoclave leach process can be found in the metallurgy of zinc. It is best described by the following chemical reaction: 2ZnS + O2 + 2H2SO4 2ZnSO4 + 2H2O + 2S .

SINTERING is a method for making objects from powder, by heating the ma terial in a
sintering furnace below its melting point (solid state sintering) until its particles bound to each other. Sintering is traditionally used for manufacturing ceramic objects, and has also found uses in such fields as powder metallurgy.

DEGASIFICATION is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or

aqueous solutions.

PYROMETALLURGY is a branch of extractive metallurgy. It consists of the thermal

treatment of minerals and metallurgical ores and concentrates to bring about physical and chemical transformations in the materials to enable recovery of valuable metals. Pyrometallurgical treatment may produce saleable products such as pure metals, or intermediate compounds or alloys, suitable as feed for further processing. Examples of elements extracted by pyrometallurgical processes include the oxides of less reactive elements like Fe, Cu, Zn, Chromium, Tin, Manganese. Pyrometallurgical processes are generally grouped into one or more of the follow ing categories: DRYING CALCINING ROASTING SMELTING REFINING

HYDROMETALLURGY is the extraction of metals from ores using water. These processes
are usually more energy efficient than pyrometallurical processes.

ROASTING consists of thermal gas-solid reactions, which can include oxidation,

reduction, chlorination, sulfation, and pyrohydrolysis. The most common example of roasting is the oxidation of metal sulfide ores. The metal sulfide is heated in the presence of air to a temperature that allows the oxygen in the air to react with the sulfide to form sulfur dioxide gas and solid metal oxide

SMELTING involves thermal reactions in which at least one product is a molten

phase. Smelting usually takes place at a temperature above the melting point of the metal, but processes vary considerably according to the ore involved and other matters.