BY: Amal Vivek :D

Science Notes Yearly 2012

Body Balance
Glossary
Coordination the functioning of interrelated body systems and organs working together to enable proper functionality The Five Senses o Sight o Smell o Touch o Hearing o Taste

Sensory Receptors
Sensory receptors are nerve endings of the sensory nerve. They respond to internal and external stimuli of an environment. They are what perceive light, taste, touch and so on in organisms. They converted what they have detected from the stimuli and convert them into electrical impulses. These signals are sent to the CNS via the PNS. The brain then coordinates a response to the signal received. In emergencies, the signal stops at the spinal cord where a response isnt coordinated by the brain but a signal is sent to the appropriate motor neurons as a reflex from the spinal cord. The sensory receptors are: Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli such as sound a and distortions in pressure for example touch, and pain; any deformation of a mechanoreceptors nerve ending results in an electrical change (i.e. response) Photoreceptors Light; convert light in to signals that stimulate biological processes Chemoreceptors Respond to chemical stimuli; Smell and Taste; also digestive and circulatory systems; there are two types of chemoreceptors (distant and direct): Distant for example the nose receives smell from distant objects Direct for example taste buds require direct contact for sensation Thermoreceptors Temperature; heat Electroreceptors detect electricity in marine or amphibious organisms

Taste Vs. Flavour

Taste is one of the 5 senses that is picked up by sensory receptors. Flavour, however, is a combination of a couple of senses.

Nervous System
The Nervous System is a network of cells called Neurons that coordinate the different parts of the body. The Nervous system consists of two parts; Central and Peripheral:

BY: Amal Vivek :D Central Nervous System (CNS) the central nervous system receives all the information from the different parts of the body and integrates this. It is the largest part of the nervous system composed of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) the peripheral nervous system consist of the sensory and motor components that act as a bridge between the environment and central nervous system. These components send signals that it receives from stimuli to usually the brain part of the CNS but sometimes in emergencies the spinal cord will stop the message and send it back for a quick response. The PNS can be divided into two subdivisions: Somatic Nervous System (SNS) the SNS is the part of the PNS that is associated with voluntary movements and muscles. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) the ANS controls involuntary movements and muscles like heart rate, digestion, salivation, perspiration, pupil dilation, urination, sexual arousal and breathing. The ANS can be further divided into: Sympathetic used in fight or flight response (adrenaline) Parasympathetic - used in relaxation Both these subdivisions involve reflex arcs. Somatic reflex arcs are ones that occur from exterior stimuli affecting muscles such as the knee jerk or pulling your hand away from a flame or hot surface. Autonomic reflex arcs are ones that affect internal organs such as sweating. They both, however, do not involve the brain.

Neurons
Sensory Neurons Carry messages signals from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain. There are 12 pairs of Cranial nerves that are the only nerves that send messages directly to the brain. The rest of the 31 pairs are spinal verves that send their message first to the spine and are then sent to the brain. Relay Neurons Carry messages from one part of the central nervous system to another. In reflex actions, relay neurons carry messages from the sensory neurons straight to the motor neuron bypassing the brain. Reflex actions occur in emergencies where quick action is required (e.g. when you touch something hot). Motor Neurons the purpose of motor neurons is to carry signals from the CNS to the effectors (e.g. muscles) that produce actions.

BY: Amal Vivek :D The structure of each neuron:

Synapses
A synapse is a junction between nerve cells. Nerve cells dont meet directly. There is a tiny gap where they meet called a Synaptic Cleft. Signals cross this gap using chemicals called Neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are stored in Synaptic Vesicles clustered at the tip of an axon. The crossing of impulses of a synaptic cleft takes approximately 0.5 1 millisecond. One the action is complete, the neurotransmitters get absorbed back into the vesicles or diffuse in to the cleft.

Nerves
Nerves are enclosed cable like bundles of neurons/axons (covered in a myelin sheath that protect and speed up the responses) in the peripheral nervous system. They are the path that nerve impulses follow. Nerves can be categorised into 3 groups: Afferent (Sensory) From sensory receptors to spinal cords Efferent (Motor) From CNS to motor neurons/effectors

BY: Amal Vivek :D Mixed (Relay) Impulses travel both ways receiving sensory information and conduct outgoing response to the motor cells

Brain

Part of the Brain Brain Stem

Medulla Oblongata

Midbrain

Function This area connects to the spinal cord. It act as a relay centre for the brain, but its main function is for involuntary actions such as heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure Closest to the spinal cord; involved in involuntary actions; regulation of heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, etc. Located in the Brain Stem which leads to the Spinal Cord. Is a very small section that is commonly used in association for

BY: Amal Vivek :D auditory and visual information. It also controls some body movements and eye movements Pons has similar function to the midbrain. It is involved in sleep, respiration, swallowing, hearing, taste, eye and facial movements, and posture. It is located in the lower back of the head. It is the second largest structure in the brain and is composed of two hemispheres. It controls complex motor functions such as walking, running, posture, and general motor coordination. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It associated with conscious thought, movement and sensation. It is made up of 2 halves each controlling opposite sides of the body (i.e. left half of cerebrum controls right side of body and vice versa). The cerebrum is then divided in to 4 sections called lobes: Frontal Lobe controls attention, behaviour, abstract thinking, problem solving, imagination, emotion, intellect, coordinated movements, physical reactions, and personality Parietal Lobe controls some movements, orientation, perception of internal stimuli, and some language, reading, and visual functions Temporal Lobe Control auditory and visual memories, and some language functions Occipital Lobe at the back of the head and controls vision

Pons

Cerebellum

Cerebrum

Grey Matter Vs. White Matter

The CNS is composed of two types of matter: Grey Matter This is the major part of the CNS consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and un-myelinated axons), glial cells, and capillaries. White matter this is the minor part of the CNS that consist of only myelinated axons and not that many un-myelinated axons. The difference is that grey matter contains neural cell bodies where white matter does not. White matter also contains myelinated axons unlike grey matter.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Endocrine System
The endocrine system is a system of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream to regulate the body. The word endocrine derives from the Greek words endo meaning inside and crinis meaning secrete. The endocrine system is similar to the nervous system except that its responses rather than being instantaneous are prolonged and last much longer. Hormones are substanes (chemical mediators) that are released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to their targeted tissue in pursuit of a response. They generally result in changes in mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is used in regulating blood sugar levels in order to keep the body in homeostasis

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a progressive, degenerative brain disease that causes trembling, stiffness, slowness of movement and a loss of fine motor control. The disease destroys neurons in an area of the brain called the substantia nigra. Without these dopamineproducing cells, the brains ability to control movement is progressively reduced.

Neuroscience Australias Research:

Because much of the damage to the brain in Parkinsons disease occurs over several years before symptoms become noticeable, early diagnosis is a critical issue, particularly as more effective treatments become available. Lead by Assoc Prof Kay Double, we are currently developing several methods to diagnose Parkinsons disease earlier than is currently possible, including a novel blood test and a technique using ultrasound to identify a change in the appearance of the substantia nigra. We are also looking at why specific cells are more vulnerable to death in Parkinsons disease, the role of copper in Parkinsons disease, and the regulation of an enzyme involved in dopamine production. We are conducting research to gain a better understanding of the formation of new neurons in healthy ageing. Such knowledge is important for current research which aims to develop novel therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative disease based upon stimulating the formation of or transplanting new neurons into the human brain. The disease progresses at different rates and in different patterns in each person. Lead by Prof Glenda Halliday, we are determining whether genetic factors contribute to these differences. In particular, we are looking at a gene called LRRK2, which has been identified as causing Parkinson's disease in some people. Our research is identifying the proteins that interact with LRRK2 to cause Parkinson's disease. These proteins may be amenable to future therapeutic manipulation.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Physics
Newton and His Three Laws
Sir Isaac Newton was an English Physicist who discovered gravity and the three laws of motion. He is considered the most influential science that ever lived. He discovered gravity when an apple fell on his head. His three laws of motion are: i. ii. The Law of INERTIA this law states that an object will remain stationary or at a constant velocity unless acted upon by a force. The relationship between the mass of an object, the acceleration and force applied is F = ma where: a. F = Applied Force b. m = Mass of an object c. a = Acceleration For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

iii.

Glossary
Distance is a scalar measure of the total distance an object has travelled Displacement - is a vector measurement of how far an object is out of place from its original position and direction in which it has gone. For example, in the diagram to the right, if an object travelled from A to B via C, the distance would be 140m, but its displacement would be 100m North-East. Scalar quantities describe by a numerical value alone (i.e. distance travelled) Vector quantities described by a numerical value and a direction Velocity Velocity is again a vector measurement measured by the formula and refers to the rate at which an object changes position. Speed Speed is a scalar measurement which is measured by and refers to how

fast an object is moving rather than how far an object has moved in a certain amount of time. Instantaneous Speed the speed of an object at certain point in time Average Speed The speed of an object over a span of time

Acceleration a vector measurement that measures the rate at which an object changes its velocity. It is measured by the formula

BY: Amal Vivek :D This formula can be presented algebraically as in the previous formula. Acceleration will change when you are turning even if you have not lost or gain any speed due to the change in direction. where the terms correspond with the words

Motion motion is not always in a straight line as when acceleration comes at an angle to motion, it results in a turning

Distance-Time Graphs
Distance-time graphs show the relationship between time and distance

BY: Amal Vivek :D

These graphs depict changes in speed over time. Displacement-time graphs have exactly the same principal except it depicts the relationship of velocity and time. To calculate the average speed or velocity, you find the gradient of the graph.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

The Unit of Acceleration

The unit of acceleration is Metres per second per second. This is general written as either or

More Equations

Acceleration due to gravity is -9.8m/s2 v = final velocity u = initial velocity s = displacement a = acceleration t = time These equations are used to show the relationship between displacement, velocity, time and acceleration.

Cars and Physic

Breaking Distance When calculating breaking distance, you can assume that the final velocity is 0m/s, therefore you can manipulate the above equations to tell you the displacement and distance and time when breaking. Formula for braking distance is Starting and Stopping When starting a car from a resting position, it first has to overcome static friction. Static friction is the interlocking of irregularities in surfaces. Static friction will be overcome when the car reaches the threshold of motion. After this point, the car is affected by a constant kinetic friction. Stopping a car is not immediate when you press the brakes due to momentum and inertia the car continues to move forward. It is stopped by the frictional force between the brake pads and the tyres. There are many variables involved in stopping a car such as the slope it is on, individual starting time, type of tyres and so on.

BY: Amal Vivek :D Acceleration Acceleration has nothing to do with speeding up as it is measured by velocity not speed. A car going at a constant speed but turning is changing its magnitude and therefore is an accelerating object. Acceleration has an inverse relationship with mass. Reaction Time On average, for drivers in emergencies, the time taken to react is 1.5 seconds which will mean an extra 25m approximately when travelling at 60km/h.

Application of Newtons Laws

Seat Belts Everything in a car has its own separate inertia. Seatbelt protect people from inertia that is active in a car. When a car comes to an abrupt stop, everything inside continues to move forward due to inertia. In the event of an accident, a seatbelt protects people from flying through the front windscreen. Moving Space Inertia ??? Tangential Motion of Cars The tangential motion of cars occurs due to inertia and inward force. The inward force of the cars door moves towards the direction you are turning, but as, due to inertia, we are still going in a straight line, we feel like we are being thrown in the opposite directions, is the reason why cars flip over. The Apparent Ease of which Satellites Orbit Earth The only force that acts upon a satellite is gravity. This is due to the fact that most satellites are orbiting earth at a point high enough that it is outside the atmosphere. If gravity wasnt in effect on a satellite, the satellite would continue in its straight trajectory on the tangent to Earth. But since gravity is in effect, the satellite is pulled away from its path and orbits Earth. The reason that a satellite doesnt fall to the surface is because of the speed its travelling at. Earth is round, and so every 8000m the Earth curves 5m downwards. So at a certain speed, the satellite will fall at the same rate as the earth. 5m every 8000m.

Contact and Non-contact Forces

A force is a pull, push or twist that changes the speed, direction or shape of an object Contact Forces o Friction o Resistance/Drag o Applied o Tensional

BY: Amal Vivek :D Non-contact Forces o Magnetic o Nuclear o Gravitational

Objects always have more than one force acting upon them stated by Newtons third law, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. To find the overall effect of all the forces in effect on an object (called the Resultant Force) you add forces working in the same direction and subtract forces working in opposite directions.

Net Force

This shows the effect of net force. It determines in which direction the displacement will occur. Acceleration occurs when there is a net force. When there is no net force, the forces will be balance and the object will either be at rest or at a constant speed.

Qualitative Relationship between Force, Acceleration, and Mass

Force and Acceleration Force and accelerations relationship is directly proportional. Provided that mass stays constant, doubling force will result in acceleration also doubling. This works vice versa that halving force will result in acceleration halving. Mass and Acceleration Mass and acceleration have a inversely proportional relationship. Provided that force is constant, doubling the mass will result in halving the acceleration. Halving the mass will result in doubling the acceleration.

Friction Vs. Motion

Friction opposes motion as it is an unbalanced force that is what changes inertia. A ball rolling on the ground would keep rolling unless acted upon by a force which in this case is kinetic friction. As energy cannot be created or destroyed, the kinetic energy of the rolling ball is turned into heat energy from the friction which intern causes the ball to stop rolling as all the kinetic energy as been converted.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Newtons Third Law and Rocket Propulsion

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction This is the theory behind rocket propulsion. Due to combustion in a rocket engine, there is a high outflow of energy in the form of gasses pushing into the ground at high speeds that flows through a rear nozzle. This has an opposite reaction of thrust pushing the rocket upwards.

Car Crashes

During a car crash, there are many stages as shown in the above timeline. The major force involved in car crashes is kinetic energy. The force of the crash depends on the speed and mass of the car. The force of a crash is measured as deceleration. The best way of reducing the impact of the crash is to slow down the process of decelearation. This is because of the directly proportional relationship involved in force and acceleration. The most pressure is felt around 75 milliseconds in the a crash.

BY: Amal Vivek :D Reducing Impact There are two ways of reducing impact: Active Safety this is where there are certain things in place to prevent a crash Passive Safety This is to reduce impact during a crash

Active safety features Anti-skid brakes Stop lights Mirrors Fog lights Demisters Power steering

Passive safety features Bumper bars Air bags Padded dash Crumple zones Seat belts Collapsible steering column Head rests Child restraint capsules Recessed door handles Laminated wind screen

Mass Vs. Weight

Mass is the amount of matter an object is made up of. Weight is the effect of gravity on that mass

Universal Gravitation
The formula:

Newtons law of Universal Gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Chemistry II
Compounds
Atoms of elements bod together to produce new substances called Compounds. These reactions occur when two or more atoms chemically bond resulting in a unique compound chemically and physically different to the parent atoms. An example of the uniqueness of compounds from their parent cells is table salt. Table salt, which is totally safe to eat, is produced from sodium (Na(S)) and chlorine (Cl(g)) that are two dangerous elements. Sodium reacts so violently with water, it results in flames, and chlorine is extremely poisonous used as a weapon in WWII. There are two main types of bonding: Ionic Covalent

Ionic Bonding
Ionic compounds are held together by electrostatic forces. These forces are due to the transferring of negatively charged electrons. One of the atoms in the reaction loses an atom making it positively charged and another atom in the reaction gains that lost ion making it positively charged. The charges of
different atoms are shown --------------- These charges determine how the electrons will be lost or gained. For a reaction to occur the charges must add up to 0. For example Sodium is in group 1, so its charge is +1, and Chlorine is in group 7, which has a charge of -1. +1 + -1 = 1 1 = 0. This proves that the charges must add up to 0. The features of Ionic Bonds are: Form between metals and non-metals When naming the bond, the metal always comes first These compounds dissolve easily in water and other polar solvents In solution, they can conduct electricity Tend to form crystalline solids with high melting points The solids that are made from the reaction are formed together with multiple molecules that have a crystalline/repeating pattern calle a crystal Lattice.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when two non-metals want to bond. Covalent bonding, unlike ionic bonding where there is a complete transfer of electrons, is where two atoms share atoms. It occurs between to negatively charged ions. As both nonmetals want to gain electrons they will merge and share their electrons as shown in the diagram ----- This occurs as the ions are trying to fill their shells in order to achieve a neutrally charged state. Some atoms are required to share multiple electrons to fill their shell. This means sometimes they require to share more than 1 pair of electrons resulting in Multiple Bonds. There are to subtypes of Covalent Bonding: Non-Polar occurs when the attraction between the atoms are equal. The first two examples in the diagram above are examples of non-polar bonds. This is because both atoms require the same amount of atoms to fill their shell. Polar occurs when the attraction is not equal between the atoms. The second two in the diagram above are polar bonds. In the carbon dioxide example, the carbon atom requires more electrons to fill its shell than the oxygen.

Properties of covalent bonds: Exist as gases, liquids, or solids with low melting points as their attraction is weaker than ionic bonds Do not conduct electricity Insoluble in water

Precipitation Reactions
These occur when an insoluble solid is formed when two solutions are mixed. Solubility is the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent Solute is the substance that is dissolved Solvent is the liquid in which the solute is being dissolved

BY: Amal Vivek :D Solute + Solvent = Solution

To predict a precipitation reaction, you check if any of the products of the reaction are insoluble using the solubility rules.

Simplified Solubility Rules

All nitrates are soluble All group 1 metal compounds are soluble All chlorides (except silver, lead, and mercury) are soluble All sulphates (except silver, calcium, barium, and mercury) are soluble All carbonates (except group 1 metals) are insoluble All hydroxides ( except group 1 metals) are insoluble

Double Replacement
The general equation: AB Example:
Copper (II) Nitrate and Sodium Phosphate CuNO3 + NaPO4 CuP04

CD

AD

CB

Copper (II) Phosphate and Sodium Nitrate NaNO3

To find the subscript to write chemical formula, use the criss-cross method:

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases:

Acids
Contains Contains hydrogen in combination with other non metal elements, for example, hydrochloric acid (HCI). -Acids have a sour taste - Acids turn blue litmus paper red -Acids conduct electricity in water solution Common Uses Pain relievers, flavouring, and preserving food, herbicide, car batteries, herbicide, vitamin supplements and brick and metal cleaners.

Bases
Contain hydroxide (OH) in combination with metal elements, for example sodium hydroxide (NaOH). - Bases taste bitter - Bases have a soapy feel - Bases turn red litmus paper blue

Properties

Oil and grease dissolver, soaps, washing powder, cooking and neutraliser

Indicators
Indicators are chemicals that are used to measure pH or acidity. The universal indicator is the most common and effect way of testing pH. It changes colour depending the acidity/pH level.

Examples of Common Acids and Bases

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Classification Acid (1 pH)

Substances White vinegar, soda water, lemon juice

Neutral (7 pH)

Water

Properties Litmus colour change -Tastes sour Blue-purple to red -Attacks and dissolves some reactive metals - Attacks limestone -Does not react with fats - No taste Remains blue-purple -Does not react with most metals -Does no react with fats -Tastes bitter -Does not attack metals -Reacts slowly with fats Blue-purple to blue

Base (14 pH)

Ammonia solution, washing soda solution, baking soda solution, lime water

pH Scale
The pH scale is used to measure acidity.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Tracks Through Time

Darwins Natural Selection

Darwin is considered one of the most influential scientists of all time, particularly due to his work on his theory Natural Selection. He established that all species have evolved from common ancestors. Certain traits either become more or less common due to changes in environments requiring adaptation. Certain species died out as they could not adapt quick enough. The basic process of natural selection is as follows:

Members of a single species show variation in their characteristics, some of which is passes from parent to offspring Some members of a species will die before they reproduce The surviving members if a species possess the characteristics that best enable them to survive in their present environment Over time, organisms become better suited to their current environment

Natural selection is one of the cornerstones in modern day biology. Changes are caused by: Changes in the physical environment Changes in the chemical environment Competition (survival of the fittest) To help prove his theory, Darwin used a group of about 15 species of passerine birds from the Galapagos Islands known as Darwins Finches. He described the most distinguished feature, the beak, on each of the species. He concluded that each birds beak was suited to its preferred choice of food and evolved due to natural selection. The theory of natural selection has been applied to prove many other biological theories and findings. The term used for the unlimited applicability of his theory has been called Universal Darwinism.

Adaptations
Through adapting and evolving to suit the ever-changing environment, organisms have been able to survive through ice ages, giant meteors and other harsh conditions. Adaptation is a key aspect to survival and promotes the wellbeing of species in their environment (eg. Giraffes long neck to eat leaves at the top of trees is an adaptation to suit its environment. There are two types of adaptations: Structural (Physical) Behavioural Physiological

BY: Amal Vivek :D Structural Adaptations are anatomical developments that allow a species to survive in its environment. Examples: Giraffes neck Kangaroos pouch, hind legs Porcupines spines Chameleons ability to change colour

Behavioural Adaptations are actions that organisms have learnt to do in order to increase its chance of survival. Examples: Form groups, packs, herds to avoid attacks from predators Some have learnt to use tools like humans, chimpanzees Some are active only during certain times of the days, for example many desert dwelling animals are active at night to avoid the heat Some animals use intimidation to avoid predators

Physiological Adaptations are internal functions that have developed in order to increase chance of survival. Examples: Some orchids release the scent of a female bee to become pollinated Echidnas have sticky saliva to trap ants

However, some feature of organisms may be leftover adaptations from ancestors that lived in different environments and may be useless in their current environment. An example of this is the appendix in humans which the reason for is still unknown.

More Natural Selection

Natural selection can also be caused within species due to variations. As not all individuals in a species are the same, some may naturally be more suited to certain conditions. For example, some individuals within a species may tolerate the cold better and over several generations, the change will be notices as the offspring of these individuals will survive more while the other offspring may not reach breeding age. As natural selection becomes noticeable over several generations, it is easier to observe certain organisms like bacteria or insects. The picture to the left can help in understanding the process of natural selection. Which moth would survive in each environment?

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Lamarcks Theory of Evolution

Lamarck believed that there were some creative forces pushing organisms to evolve and overcome adverse environmental conditions. He came to this conclusion by noticing the similarities and differences between different species. He stated two laws: Organs are improved with repeated use and weakened by disuse Any improvements in or weakening of organs (acquired characteristics) due to the environment are preserved by reproduction and pass to the new individuals that arise (offspring)

Lamarck pictured evolution as a ladder of life, where the most simple organisms evolve into the most complex ones. Lamarcks theory is similar to Darwins theory of Natural Selection although Lamarck was unable to produce real experimental evidence to help prove his case.

Survival of the Fittest

The survival of the fittest is a term that implies that those organisms that are most suited to a particular environment will thrive there whereas other wont show as much success in those locations. The term fittest here doesnt mean most physically dominant but by who are most likely to survive in their environment.

Types of Evolution
There are three types of evolution: Divergent Convergent Parallel

Divergent evolution is defined by many new organisms evolving from a common ancestor; for example, all mammals are thought to have descended from a shrew like being. This form of evolution occurs due to a phenomenon known as adaptive radiation. As the common ancestors evolve in different environments, the slowly, over many years, begin to take alternative forms and thus resulting in many forms. Divergent evolution is also associated with the tree of life where the simplest form of an organism braches out into more and more complex forms.

BY: Amal Vivek :D Convergent evolution is when organisms that begin from different organisms evolve into similar ones. This can occur due to: Living in similar environments Having similar habitats and lifestyles

Natural selection has to do with this form of evolution. This is because those adaptations which resulted in similarities have been selected for. These organisms have analogous structures (structures that look similar but which have come from different ancestors).

The final form of evolution is parallel evolution. This occurs where related species evolve similar features while separated from each other. The result is organisms that look alike and have common ancestry but are found in different location.

Evidence for Evolution

The main evidence for evolution comes from palaeontology (the study of fossils). The fossil record allows palaeontologists to study over 3500 million years of fossil evidence and developments of life. Fossils are preserved evidence of past life which is used to examine evolution. It is thought that life began around 3500 million years ago by single-cell anaerobic organisms that slowly evolved into photosynthesizing bacteria and algae which release oxygen creating an atmosphere. This created some form of safety against harsh radiation for newer forms of organisms to develop. Comparisons of the Anatomy also provide evidence of evolution in various organisms. Homologous structures are fundamentally similar structures where the differences reflect adaptations to different environmental conditions.

BY: Amal Vivek :D Comparisons of organism embryos show many similarities as well, further proving evolution to be a correct theory. The embryos and there development have been significantly linked to the process of evolution.

Human Evolution
Humans belong to the order of the primates and are most closely related to chimpanzees. The most recent group of primates to evolve are known as the Hominoids. These include lesser apes (Gibbons), great apes (Gorillas, Chimpanzees and Orang-utans) and humans. The oldest fossils of a Homo sapien to be discovered are in Ethiopia and dates back to about 195,000 years ago. The oldest organism that is thought to be a common ancestor for modern day appeared approximately 25 million years. The picture to the right are two species that are thought to be common ancestors

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Genetics
Mendels Work
Mendel, known as the father of genetics, was the most successful in proving how characteristics are inherited. He proved it by growing garden peas. The traits he examined were: Seeds that were round or wrinkled Seeds that were yellow or green Pods that were smooth or constricted Pods that were green or yellow Stems that were long or short

BY: Amal Vivek :D After studying his results, he concluded that there were two traits that he kept coming across. He called the: Dominant trait this is the trait that when paired with a recessive trait will be the one that is shown Recessive trait is the one that when paired with another recessive will be show, otherwise the dominant trait will be shown

Mendel concluded that the parent cells possess two hereditary factors for each characteristic. The factors do not blend but work as separate units. Each unit is referred to as an allele.

Genes and Chromosomes

A Gene is a hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic. Many thousands of genes are located in each of the cells of your body. Together, your genes can be thought of as a set of instructions or genetic program that determines your eye colour, body size, skin type and the many other characteristics that make you what you are. Each gene is made of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Genes are located in structures called chromosomes. These are found in the nucleus of your body cells. Chromosomes are long, coiled, thread-like structures made of DNA and protein. Each chromosome has many thousands of genes along its length. Chromosomes exist as pairs with a total of 46 chromosomes. One half of the pair comes from the mother cell, while the other half comes from the father half. Once paired it is known as a homologous pair. Most cells contain both parts of the pairs except for gametes which only contain 23 chromosomes.

Gametes
Gametes are the reproductive cells called ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males. They combine to make the first cell of a new organism. Each gamete in humans consists of 23 chromosomes while other cells consist of 46 chromosomes.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Alleles
Alleles refer to the different forms of the same gene. A capital case letter refers to a dominant allele whereas a lower case letter refers to a recessive allele. In the case of Mendels experiment, punnet squares can be used to show how he formed his results. Punnet squares for the green or yellow pods. Let G represent green Let y represent yellow (notice the change to lower case representing a reciessive allele) Parent 1 -> G y G GG Gy y yG yy

Parent 2

Above is an example of punnet squares. As you can see, there is a 3:1 (Green:Yellow) probability ratio. The dominant gene will appear when there are paired, only when two recessives are paired together, will it show. GG/yy are called Homozygous as both alleles are the same Gy/yG are called Heterozygous as the two alleles are different

The appearance produced by a genotype is called the Phenotype of the organism. The genotypes GG and Gy would both be green since G is a dominant allele while yy would by yellow. Hence there are two possible phenotypes: Green (GG & Gy) or Yellow (yy)

Meiosis & Mitosis

Meiosis and mitosis are different methods of cell division. Mitosis is the process where both halves of the chromosome split in the cells nucleus into two identical sets in two separate nuclei. The result of mitosis is two daughter cells that receive duplicates of the chromosomes in the parent cell. Each daughter cell is the exact replica of the parent cell.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Meiosis occurs in the cells of the ovaries and testes (gametes). The process of meiosis is the opposite of fertilisation as meiosis involves creating gametes with only 1 set of 23 chromosomes whereas fertilisation is when to gametes combine to create a cell with 2 sets of chromosome (total = 46). There are two important differences between mitosis and meiosis: During the process of meiosis, the chromosomes may undergo a recombination The outcome of meiosis is four genetically unique haploid cells, compared with the two genetically identically diploid cells produced from mitosis

Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of two gametes to produce new organisms. In animals the female gamete is known as ovum and in males is known as sperm. The combination leads to the development of an embryo.

Note:
Each characteristic is generally controlled by two or more genes. Very rarely does one gene control one characteristic. This is why so many variations exists, including height, weight, eye colour, hair colour and so on.

Pedigrees
Pedigrees are representative of a family tree: Circles for female Squares for males Shaded dark for one who has a genetic condition Shaded grey for one who is a carrier with no symptoms Unfilled signify the unaffected

BY: Amal Vivek :D

DNA
Genes are built from DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) that forms a helical (double helix) structure.

DNA is a molecule that is made up of smaller units called Nucleotides (also an essential part of RNA) that are strung together in a row. Each nucleotide has three parts: A Phosphate molecule A Sugar molecule A structure called a Nucleobase (Nitrogenous Base) o Adenine o Thymine o Guanine o Cytosine o Uracil

Adenine will always pair with Thymine Guanine will always pair with Cytosine Example: o A-G o G-A o A-G o C-T o T-C o A-G o CT Uracil takes the place of Thymine in RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

In the reproduction of DNA, the two strands that make the double helix structure unwind. The strands are separated as the leading strand and the lagging strand. DNA polymerase replicates each of the strands to duplicate them. The leading strand is synthesised continuously whereas the lagging strand is synthesised discontinuously (with gaps). Synthesis comes as a result of the DNA Polymerase which is an enzyme that acts as a catalyst (a chemical that helps speed up chemical reactions) for nucleobases joining the separated strands.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

mRNA
Messenger RNA is a copy of DNA and acts of a gene by having a sequence complementary to one strand of DNA and identical to the other strand. The mRNA carries information stored in the DNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where the ribosomes can make it into proteins like hair and fingernails.

Watson and Crick

The discovery of DNA by Watson and Crick was the foundations for heredity as we know it. It contains the patterns for constructing proteins in the body and various enzymes. The impact of the paper in which the structure of the double helix was proposed immediately showed connections and similarities between parent and child. The discovery was key in further research of molecular and biochemical biology. It led to many other things like protein synthesis and other key aspects of biology.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Mutations
Mutations are the accidental changes in genomic sequences. These random sequences can be defined as sudden and spontaneous changes in a cell. Mutations are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals as well as errors in DNA replication. Advantages Resulted in the X-MEN May enable the mutant organism to withstand there environment better and takes effect through natural selection Can result in resistance to certain diseases/infection, for example resistance to HIV is becoming more common Disadvantages Can result in genetic disorders Can result in hereditary diseases Can result in cancer

Some inherited genetic disorders include: Cystic Fibrosis Sickle Cell Anemia Tay-Sachs Disease Phenylketonuria Colour Blindness

Most inherited genetic disorders are recessive, which means that a person must inherit two copues of the mutated gene to inherit a disorder. This is one reason that children of close relatives are more likely to inherit a genetic disorder; two genetically similar adults are more likely to give a child two copies of a defective gene. Sickle Cell Anemia is a recessive genetic disorder that is harmful when both recessive genes are present but when only one cell is present, it can protect the possessor from malaria.

Biotechnology
Genetically Modified Foods: These are foods that have been produced from Genetically Modified crops and fish. There is controversy over: o Its safety o Whether it should be labelled o Whether it can help address world hunger o Environmental effects

Transgenic Species: These are organisms whose genes are altered through genetic engineering techniques Organisms that have been genetically modified include: o Bacteria o Yeast

BY: Amal Vivek :D o Plants o Fish o Mammals There is controversy over: o Whether it is ethical o Whether food produced from them is safe o Whether medical practices (using insulin, vaccines, growth hormones, haemoglobin produced by the GMOs) are safe o Can create unwanted mutations resulting in uncontrollable circumstance like weed growth. o May accidently be release and end up competing with natural life

DNA Fingerprinting Is used to identify people and typically used in forensics and parental testing Some issues: o Doesnt give a 100% match as there are some consistencies with peoples DNAs, particularly in regards to families. Unlike fingerprints, it is not absolutely unique to each individual. o Not very accurate and prone to errors

Artificial Selection This in contrast to Natural Selection where certain traits are bred intentionally. Has resulted in superior agriculture Mainly in domesticated animals, like dogs and racehorses Some issues: o Has resulted in the negligence towards naturally selected breeds and their downfall o Has resulted in a range of health issues like decreased life span

Cloning Is the process of artificially producing genetically identical organisms from DNA fragments Some issues: o Very low success rate o Problems can occur during the process o Cloning of embryos have been successful but none have yet been implanted into a womans uterus. Possibility of health issues from these embryos. o Can create psychological problems for the clone

Genetic Engineering Is the direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology Some concerns: o Ethical, ecological and environmental issues o Health risks o Long-term environmental effects possible

BY: Amal Vivek :D o o Can be used to end world hunger Prevent and treat diseases

Human Genome Project

Is an international scientific research project in regards to DNA Aims: o Identify all the approximately 20000 25000 genes in human DNA o Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA o Store this information in databases o Improve tools for data analysis o Transfer related technologies to the private sector o Address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project It can significantly improve the treatment and prevention of many human and genetic conditions

Electricity
Currents
The flow of electricity through a conductor or conductive medium is known as an electric current.

Currents move through wires freely, losing very little energy. This is similar to water travelling through a pipe.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Flow of Electricity vs. Flow of Water

There are three important values used to measure circuits: Current is defined as the rate of flow of the moving charges/electrons. The unit for a current is Amperes (I) which is measure by an ammeter Voltage is the measure of how much energy (measured in volts): Is available from the battery or power pack to push current through the circuit Is used when current passes through a load Resistance is the measure of how much a load (e.g.) globe, motor, resistor) restricts and reduces the flow of current. Resistance is measured in Ohms (). In formulas, it is known as R.

The flow of water follows a very similar process. There is a pump which drives the water around (current). The water flows at a certain rate (voltage). The water wheel slows

down the force (resistor).

Resistance
Resistance occurs when a load restricts the flow of current and reduces the voltage. The load changes the electrical energy into other forms such as kinetic or light. Variables in resistance: The length of the wire a current travels across has a direct relationship with amount of resistance encountered by the charge. After all, if resistance occurs as the result of collisions between charge carriers and the atoms of the wire, then there is likely to be more collisions in a longer wire. More collisions mean more resistance.

BY: Amal Vivek :D The width of the wire also affects the amount of resistance. Wider wires have a greater crosssectional area. Looking back at the water analogy, more water can travel through a wider pipe resulting in a higher rate of flow (voltage). Same occurs with electricity. The wider the wire, the more freely electricity can move around without losing voltage. The light globe works in this way; the light struggles to pass through the extremely thin wires present inside a globe losing some of its energy. This energy is turned into light and heat energy.

Ohms Law
Ohms Law describes the relationship between the current, voltage and resistance in a circuit. Current is directly proportional to Voltage Voltage = Current Resistance o V = IR

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Series and Parallel Circuits

A series circuit operates in a line where the current is not split (as shown on the right). In the image, there are two globes in the same circuit. This means that the globe will glow dimmer than if there was only one globe. If any one of the globes fails to work, the other one will stop working as well as the circuit breaks

A parallel circuit is when you arrange the globes/load next to each other yet not on the same branch (as shown on the right). In this type of circuit, the voltage is split equally along all the branches and if one of the loads fails to work, the other one still works as the circuit hasnt fully broken.

Electromagnetism
A magnetic field is created around electrical currents o Known as Electromagnetism

BY: Amal Vivek :D

AC and DC
The difference in these is in the way the electrons/charges act: In Direct Current (DC) the electrons flow in one direction only (like water in a hose). In Alternating Current (AC) the electrons shuttle back and forth along the wire (imagine water flow constantly changing directions). This occurs as the voltage is constantly changing from positive to negative to positive and so on. This is done through changes in the magnetic field by putting rotating magnet along the wire. This form of current is generally used over DC as it is safer, travels further distances and gives more power.

Electromagnets in Television
Electromagnets in televisions are responsible for creating the image. They control which pixel is illuminated and what colour it is.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

LOOK AT ASSIGNMENT!!
Ecosystems and Resources
Food Chains, Webs and Pyramids
A food chain is linear sequence of species showing feeding patterns of an ecosystem A food web is a more complex for of a food chain as it is a web of many chains There are three types of food pyramids: o Pyramid of Numbers this pyramid graphically presents the population of each level of a food chain o Pyramid of Biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the weight of the total number of organisms (grams per meter squared) present in an ecological community o Pyramid of Energy this pyramid is similar to the pyramid of biomass but rather than graphing a snapshot in time, it measures the turnover of biomass over a period of time

Ecosystems
Definition: An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and how they systematically interact with their non-living counterparts (i.e. their environment soil, air, water, etc.)

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Abiotic vs. Biotic

Biotic means of or related to life, (prefix 'Bio' literally meaning life). Plants, animals, fungi, protists and bacteria are all biotic or living factors and other stuff like competition, disease, and overpopulation are all biotic factors. Abiotic are nonliving factors that affect living organisms. Environmental factors such as habitat (pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain, etc.) or weather (temperature, cloud cover, rain, snow, hurricanes, etc.) are abiotic factors. o Abiotic factors can be measured by many things like thermometers, barometers, etc.

Water Cycle
Describes the continuous flow of water on Earth.

Carbon Cycle
This is the biochemical process by which carbon constantly moves between the biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere and oceans.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Nitrogen Cycle
This is the cycle by which nitrogen is converted into its many forms

Ozone Layer
Ozone (O3) is a naturally occurring gas that formed a layer approximately 20 30 km above sea level. This layer is caused by Ultraviolet lights splitting the oxygen molecules into single atoms which then join together in triplets forming ozone. This is a critical process as it prevents radiation from reach the Earths surface as the UV light is absorbed in the process. The thickness of the ozone is measure by Dobson Units (DU). This thickness has gradually depleted creating a large hole over Antarctica. This whole during summer time shifts over Australia and New Zealand.

This whole can be fixed and is expected to do so by 2045.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

To help prevent climate change from getting worse, people and governments can look for greener alternatives for everything

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect occurs as greenhouse gases create a barrier/atmosphere around the earth. These gases allow heat to enter but make it harder for it to escape (kind of like light and a tinted window). Greenhouse gases provide a blanket that if too thin can cause Earth to freeze, and if too thick can cause the Earth to become too hot to sustain life.

Fossil Fuels are one of the largest contributors to excessive greenhouse emissions being released into the atmosphere. Coal and other forms of fossil fuels are commonly burned to produce energy and in this process, they release a lot of CO2 Other gases: o Methane (CH4) o Nitrous Oxide (N2O) o CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) Human activity and demand has significantly increased the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere each year. Demand for fossil fuels, land (deforestation), and excessive use of cheap non-renewable resources have resulted in shitloads of greenhouse gases accumulating in the atmosphere (about 13 billion tonnes each year). By the end of this century, the average surface temperature is expected to go up by 1oC 4oC Estimated increase in sea level 0.5m Many island nations will disappear The more greenhouse emissions released into the atmosphere, the more volatile the weather will become with changing temperatures, more storms and cyclones, etc. Different pollutants come from different sources, for example CFCs come from aerosols, Methane comes from cow farts, nitrous oxide comes from car exhausts and so on.

BY: Amal Vivek :D

Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation is the process of toxins building up in an organisms body over time o It occurs either when these toxins/pollutants are absorbed at a faster rate than at which it is being lost or when a toxin cannot be metabolized Causes of bioaccumulation: o Human Activities Pesticide and Herbicide use Deforestation Air Pollution (Emissions released by cars and factories,) This can result in acid rain that can also cause bioaccumulation o Natural pollutants Mercury is an example that affects many organism as it builds up over time and can cause many health issues Effects of bioaccumulation: o Can affect population o Can threaten biodiversity in ecosystems o Example: DDT is a chemical that causes bird egg shells to become thinner o Chemicals/Toxins/Pollutants can effect more than one ecosystem (known as Grasshopper Effect) as they can be moved to different ecosystems via wind, the water cycle, etc.

Resource
A biological resource is a substance or object required by an organism for normal growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Resources can be consumed by one organism and, as a result, become unavailable to another organism. For plants key resources are sunshine, nutrients, water, and place to grow. For animals key resources are food, water, and territory. Excessive use of these resources can make them unavailable for other species. It is important to ensure moderation when using biological resources as many of them are also non-renewable. There are two types of resources: o Renewable This type is one that can be replenished or reproduced at a sustainable and efficient rate (e.g. timber). The use of these must be managed in order to ensure that they do not go beyond the natural worlds capacity to replenish them o Non-renewable These are resources that cannot be replenished, grown, generated or be used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate (e.g. coal, oil, natural gas). Once these resources are depleted, there is no more available in the future. To sustain and prolong the availability of non-renewable resources, measures should be put in place to reduce usage to the bare minimum or a sustainable amount. Use of renewable resources is also very beneficial for the sustainability of non-renewable resources

BY: Amal Vivek :D Examples of Renewable resources: o Solar energy o Wind energy o Air o Hydro energy o Timber o Farmed goods o Geothermal energy o Bio energy o Light These renewable resources are extremely important not only for the environment, but for the economy. Economic Advantages: Lower energy bills Increasing energy efficiency Can help with future growth in economy

Ores
Methods for extracting ores o

BY: Amal Vivek :D