UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ECE DEPARTMENT

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL LABORATORY DOCUMENTATION MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER

Members: GARVIDA, SHAYNA MAE R. MENDEZ, AUGUST CARL T.

Date of submission: OCTOBER 16, 2013

_________________________________ ENGR. BERNADETH B. ZARI, PECE

OBJECTIVES
1. To measure a value of voltage with a voltmeter. 2. To be familiar with the working principle of various electric meters like the multirange voltmeter. 3. To have a meter that will measure a dc or ac voltage. 4. To test a circuit that has a value of 8V maximum.

Theoretical background What is a meter? A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in a form readable by a human being. Usually this "readable form" is visual: motion of a pointer on a scale, a series of lights arranged to form a "bargraph," or some sort of display composed of numerical figures. In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters designed to accurately measure the basic quantities of voltage, current, and resistance. There are many other types of meters as well, but this documentation primarily covers only the design and operation of the voltmeter. What is a multimeter? A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter, multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches. For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range. As an example, a meter movement that required 1 milliampere for full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance. For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1 mA, 500 ohm movement on a 1 Ampere range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms. Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. To measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of current is non-zero. Since the rectified average value and the root-mean-square value of a waveform need not be the same, simple rectifier-type circuits may only be accurate for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate

RMS and average value. Since practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low values. To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so full-scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values. Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. The internal resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range resistors; the series network becomes a voltage divider. Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed after the amplifier stage, improving precision at low range. Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles as analog instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements, usually a small constant current is passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop; this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant current. An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so that the measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter. In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate measurements. Stability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the long-term accuracy and precision of the instrument. An instrument designed to measure electrical quantities. A typical multimeter can measure alternating- and direct-current potential differences (voltages), current, and resistance, with several full-scale ranges provided for each quantity. Multimeters originated when all electrical measuring instruments used analog techniques. They were generally based on a moving-coil indicator, in which a pointer moves across a graduated scale. Accuracy was typically limited to about 2%, although models achieving 0.1% were available. Analog multimeters are still preferred for some applications. For most purposes, digital instruments are now used. In these, the measured value is presented as a row of numbers in a window. Inexpensive hand-held models perform at least as well as a good analog design. High-resolution multimeters have short-term errors as low as 0.1 part per million (ppm) and drift less than 5 ppm in one year. Many digital multimeters can be commanded by, and send their indications to, computers or control equipment.

Resolution The resolution of a multimeter is the smallest part of the scale which can be shown. The resolution is scale dependent. On some digital multimeters it can be configured, with higher resolution measurements taking longer to complete. For example, a multimeter that has a 1mV resolution on a 10V scale can show changes in measurements in 1mV increments. Absolute accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to a perfect measurement. Relative accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to the device used to calibrate the multimeter. Most multimeter datasheets provide relative accuracy. To compute the absolute accuracy from the relative accuracy of a multimeter add the absolute accuracy of the device used to calibrate the multimeter to the relative accuracy of the multimeter. Analog

Display face of an analog multimeter

Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer, parallax, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings obtained is also often compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and is usually adequate for the limited precision needed for most measurements). Resistance measurements, in particular, are of low precision due to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single resistance scale, seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery.

Accuracy Digital multimeters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their analog counterparts. Standard analog multimeters measure with typically 3% accuracy, though instruments of higher accuracy are made. Standard portable digital multimeters are specified to have an accuracy of typically 0.5% on the DC voltage ranges. Mainstream bench-top multimeters are available with specified accuracy of better than 0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies of a few parts per million. Accuracy figures need to be interpreted with care. The accuracy of an analog instrument usually refers to full-scale deflection; a measurement of 30V on the 100V scale of a 3% meter is subject to an error of 3V, 10% of the reading. Digital meters usually specify accuracy as a percentage of reading plus a percentage of full-scale value, sometimes expressed in counts rather than percentage terms. Quoted accuracy is specified as being that of the lower millivolt (mV) DC range, and is known as the "basic DC volts accuracy" figure. Higher DC voltage ranges, current, resistance, AC and other ranges will usually have a lower accuracy than the basic DC volts figure. AC measurements only meet specified accuracy within a specified range of frequencies. Multimeters used for critical measurements may be part of a metrology program to assure calibration. A multimeter can be assumed to be "average responding" to AC waveforms unless stated as being a "True RMS" type. An average responding mulimeter will only meet it's specified accuracy on AC volts and amps for purely sinusoidal waveforms. A True RMS responding multimeter on the other hand will meet it's specified accuracy on AC volts and current with any waveform type up to a specified crest factor. A meters AC voltage and current accuracy may have different specifications for different ranges of frequency. Sensitivity and input impedance When used for measuring voltage, the input impedance of the multimeter must be very high compared to the impedance of the circuit being measured; otherwise circuit operation may be changed, and the reading will also be inaccurate. Meters with electronic amplifiers (all digital multimeters and some analog meters) have a fixed input impedance that is high enough not to disturb most circuits. This is often either one or ten megohms; the standardization of the input resistance allows the use of external high-resistance probes which form a voltage divider with the input resistance to extend voltage range up to tens of thousands of volts. High-end multimeters generally provide an input impedance >10 Gigaohms for ranges less than or equal to 10V. Some high-end multimeters provide >10 Gigaohms of impedance to ranges greater than 10V. Most analog multimeters of the moving-pointer type are unbuffered, and draw current from the circuit under test to deflect the meter pointer. The impedance of the meter varies depending on the basic sensitivity of the

meter movement and the range which is selected. On every range, at full scale voltage of the range, the full current required to deflect the meter movement is taken from the circuit under test. Lower sensitivity meter movements are acceptable for testing in circuits where source impedances are low compared to the meter impedance, for example, power circuits; these meters are more rugged mechanically. Some measurements in signal circuits require higher sensitivity movements so as not to load the circuit under test with the meter impedance. Sensitivity should not be confused with resolution of a meter, which is defined as the lowest signal change (voltage, current, resistance...) that can change the observed reading. For general-purpose digital multimeters, the lowest voltage range is typically several hundred millivolts AC or DC, but the lowest current range may be several hundred microamperes, although instruments with greater current sensitivity are available. Multimeters designed for (mains) "electrical" use instead of general electronics engineering use will typically forego the microamps current ranges. Measurement of low resistance requires lead resistance (measured by touching the test probes together) to be subtracted for best accuracy. This can be done with the "delta", "Zero", or "null" feature of many digital multimeters. The upper end of multimeter measurement ranges varies considerably; measurements over perhaps 600 volts, 10 amperes, or 100 megohms may require a specialized test instrument. Analog meter advantages & disadvantages One of the key points of knowing how to use an analog multimeter is understanding the relevant advantages and disadvantages. Like any item of test equipment an analogue multimeter or test meter has its limitations. Knowing what they are and how to overcome them is a key stage in understanding how to use an analogue multimeter to its best. Advantages Analogue movement: The meter needle gives a continuous movement from which it is very easy to gain a fast idea of the order of magnitude, or of trends for slowly moving changes. Availability: Analogue test meters may well be available when digital ones are not. Disadvantages Multiple scales: Any multimeter will have a number of different scales and these can cause confusion. They were often a cause of error. Lower input resistance: Using analogue technology, analogue multimeters did not provide such a high input impedance as a digital one.

Understanding when this may be an issue is a key element of knowing how to use an analogue multimeter. Polarities of test leads: Analogue multimeters do not have an autopolarity function. Therefore it necessary to correctly connect the test leads, otherwise the meter could deflect in a negative direction and quickly hit an end stop.

How To Connect A Voltmeter To connect a voltmeter to a source of electricity, use the following procedure. 1) If possible, disconnect the power to the circuit you're measuring. 2) Choose a point on the circuit where you want to measure the voltage (note that voltage can vary widely at different points of a circuit). 3) Using a length of wire properly rated for the circuit you're working on, cut two lengths of it and strip the insulation from both ends of each wire about 1 inch wide. 4) Fasten one end of each wire to the voltmeter using the screw terminals and the other ends to the points on the circuit you want to measure. Connect the meter's ground wire to any ground connector or ground wire. 5) Reconnect the power to the circuit. This should verify that the circuit is functional and give a meter reading. Uses For Voltmeters Although the measurement of voltage is very important, stand-alone voltmeters are not used that often. The preferred instrument is the multimeter, which is capable of measuring resistance in ohms and current in amperes as well as voltage. A multimeter will perform the functions of a voltmeter and those functions are quite important. It can be used to measure efficiency of any source of electricity and help determine when it requires replacement. That's true of either battery sources or something like a solar panel. As a general rule, the efficiency of an electric current goes up with voltage. A higher voltage allows a given current strength (measured in amperage) to do more work than the same current strength at a lower voltage. (Remember that voltage is analogous to water pressure; with high voltage a given amount of electric power is like a higher-pressure hose, so it can do more.) Measuring the voltage of an electricity source can tell us how efficiently it is applying the power that it's able to generate.

Design computation For DC: Rm=5.6 Ifs=10mA SDC= = =100

@2V: RS = SDC(range)- Rm = 100 (2) - 5.6 RS = 194.4 Series: 180 & 15

@4V: RS = SDC(range)- Rm = 100 (4) - 5.6 RS = 394.4 Series: 390 & 5

@6V: RS = SDC(range)- Rm = 100 (6) - 5.6 RS = 594.4 Series: 560 & 36

@8V: RS = SDC(range)- Rm = 100 (8) - 5.6 RS = 794.4 Series: 750 & 47

For AC: Rm=5.6 Ifs=10mA SAC=0.9(SDC)=0.9(100)=90

@2V: RS = SAC(range)- Rm = 90 (2) - 5.6 RS = 174.4 Series: 180

@4V: RS = SAC(range)- Rm = 90 (4) - 5.6 RS = 354.4 Series: 360

@6V: RS = SAC(range)- Rm = 90 (6) - 5.6 RS = 534.4 Series: 500 & 36

@8V: RS = SAC(range)- Rm = 90 (8) - 5.6 RS = 714.4 Series: 680 & 36

Materials and components

UNITS DESCRIPTION

1 1
2

Panel Meter PCB (3x4) Rotary switch Binding post (pairs)

ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms ohms 1N4002

2
1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

Schematic Diagram

Implementation
@0V (OFF) @4V

@6V

@8V

Picture of Instrument

MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER