Product Design

Factors Influencing Design

CONTENTs

Introduction Fitness for purpose Choice of materials Durability Ease of maintenance Efficiency Running costs Fashion

Safety Obsolescence Environmental and Social considerations Technological opportunity Consumer demand Social behaviour Economics Commercial enterprise
Craft and Design Support Materials: Factors that Influence Design

Introduction

This resource covers the factors that influence the design of products. esthetics and Ergonomics have each been covered in separate boo!lets as they re"uire more detailed consideration.

#hen designing products the designer has to $%uggle& 'ith a large number of factors and attempt to organise them in the design solution in a 'ay that satisfies the design brief and specification.

professional designer 'ith many years of e(perience 'ill be able to balance the factors intuitively. Students of design must ta!e more care to consider all the relevant factors ) perhaps by using a chec!list.

n e(cellent illustration of ho' the designer handles these factors is given by Dic! *o'ell in the E"uino( T+ programme ,$Designing Dream -achines&. .ere the process is described as /an e(plosion in reverse0.

,The video of Designing Dream -achines is the recommended source of case)study material for this course.

Approaches to Teaching and Learning Students follo'ing this course 'ill be re"uired to have a good !no'ledge and understanding of each of the factors that are listed in the course rrangements. The factors contained 'ithin this boo!let are referred to throughout the course. Further information concerning the timing of these aspects of the course can be in forthcoming support materials.

#hile it might be possible to consider these factors through a series of case studies1 this could prove to be cumbersome. It 'ould be much more effective to consider each factor separately ) illustrating each factor 'ith e(amples and then consolidating understanding through case studies and2or through e(amination type "uestions.

Design Factors (FACTORS that influence design

Fitness for Purpose It is perhaps obvious to us all that a product should do the %ob it 'as designed to do. can opener should open a tin and a car should be able to transport people from one place to another. 3ut ho' 'ell should a product do its %ob4 Should a light'eight portable can opener for camping 'or! as 'ell as an electric opener designed for use in a restaurant2canteen4 Should a small light'eight city car be as comfortable and as fast as an e(ecutive saloon4

Clearly these products are designed to carry out similar functions. .o'ever in reality 'hat is e(pected from each product is "uite different. In the case of the camping can opener ) as long as it opens cans then it is fit for its purpose providing1 in addition1 that it is compact and light 'eight.

3y contrast an industrial can opener should 'or! very "uic!ly and efficiently. It should be very reliable and durable. Cost 'ill be a secondary consideration1 as 'ill si5e and 'eight.

#hen considering fitness for purpose the designer should begin by establishing a chec!list of features that are essential and desirable. On completion the design must be able to achieve all essential features. ny desirable features the product has 'ill be a bonus and may assist in placing the product above its competitors in the mar!et place.

Question Choose a simple household product and describe in what way it is and is not suited to its purpose. A sketch of the product should accompany your answer to illustrate the points made.

Choice of Materials #hen choosing the materials for a product the designer must consider a number of factors use of product "uantity to be manufactured mar!et niche 6cost7

Use of the product The choice of material has to ta!e into account ho' the product2component 'ill be used and 'hat environment6s7 it 'ill be used in. Ta!e for e(ample a plastic 'ing mirror body for a car. The plastic chosen 'ill have to 'ithstand 'ear and tear from stone chips etc. 'ashing 'ith detergents1 sharp !noc!s from passing vehicles and at the same time tolerate temperatures from sub)5ero to over 899: C. On some vehicles this component is painted to match body colour therefore material 'ill also have to accept paint.

Quantity to be manufactured Some products could be manufactured in more than one 'ay. Often the decision depends on the "uantity to be manufactured. -etal castings for e(ample can be made one at a time by sand casting or produced in high volume by die)casting. lthough sand casting is labour intensive tooling costs are relatively lo' and so this process is ideal 'hen small numbers are to be produced1 say less than 899. s soon as volume increases into hundreds or thousands a more mechanised process becomes more appropriate 6die)casting7. .ere tooling costs are very high ) but as long as volume is high enough the cost of producing a single item becomes very lo'.

Market Niche nother factor in choice of materials can be the end cost of the product. If the product being designed is at the bottom end of the mar!et 'here cost is very important then the material has to be as cheap as possible. s long as the material is able to carry out its function for a reasonable period them it 'ill be deemed satisfactory. .o'ever 'ith an up)mar!et product cost becomes less of an issue. -aterials chosen should perform 'ell1 should be long lasting and reflect the "uality image of the product.

Question When choosing materials for a product the designer has to consider use of product quantity to be manufactured market niche

Choose one household product and discuss how these three factors will have affected the choice of materials.

Finish The choice of finish of a product is influenced by similar factors to those affecting the choice of materials1 i.e. use of product "uantity to be manufactured mar!et niche

Question A designer has designed a gardening trowel. The trowel is designed for the cheaper end of the market but is to be sold in superstores that have a reputation for selling inexpensive products that are of good quality. Discuss the factors the designer will have to consider when selecting a finish for this product.

urability Durability of a product or component depends on a number of factors; planned obsolescence use of product mar!et niche.

The durability of a product2component depends directly on the materials chosen1 the manufacturing process used and fi(ing methods employed 6see section on selection of materials7.

In a sense it is planned obsolescence 'hich is the !ey factor as it is this that dictates the performance of the product2component 6see section on obsolescence7.

.aving decided on the intended life span of the product1 the designer must define the mar!et niche and the use of the product 6see materials section7.

This should lead to a definition of the properties re"uired of the product1 and hence the choice of material.

!ase of Maintenance -aintenance of a product is a factor that can easily be overloo!ed. t the forefront of the designer&s mind 'ill be function and aesthetics. #hilst maintenance is an aspect of function1 it is secondary to function in use. Consideration of maintenance depends to a large e(tent on the life e(pectancy of the product. cheap do'n)mar!et product 'ill often sacrifice maintenance to cost. In this instance the designer intends that the product 'ill be thro'n a'ay 'hen it ends its useful life. In contrast1 more e(pensive up)mar!et products 'ill generally have much longer life e(pectancy and therefore may re"uire periodic maintenance to maintain optimum efficiency of the product. 3uilding in maintenance obviously adds to the cost of the product but can be %ustified in higher cost products.

Question n the design of a family saloon car the design of the clutch can be such that replacement can be done quickly and easily but this adds cost to the vehicle. Assuming typical clutch replacement after ! years use" discuss the factors the designer will have to consider.

!fficiency The efficiency of a product in use depends directly on the "uality of the product. One 'ould e(pect that a cheap do'n)mar!et product 'ould serve its purpose1 but only %ust. In contrast1 one 'ould e(pect a high "uality product to fulfill its function 'ith ease giving the user pleasure in its use 6see section on fitness for purpose7. cheap !ettle 'ill boil 'ater. more e(pensive model 'ill boil 'ater "uic!ly1 use less energy1 be aesthetically pleasing and so on. The designed efficiency of the product 'ill depend upon its intended mar!et niche.

Question A man buys a disposable ra#or. $e finds the ra#or unpleasant to use and the quality of the shave isn%t good. Discuss in terms of efficiency whether or not this product can be considered good design or not.

"unning Costs To the consumer1 the running costs of a product may or may not be an issue. .o'ever the designer must consider this factor balancing it 'ith all other factors in relation to the intended mar!et niche.

In general1 'ealthy individuals buy products 'ithout considering secondary factors such as running costs. Their primary concern 'ill be factors such as efficiency and aesthetics.

The less 'ealthy individual 'ill be much more concerned about running costs. Running costs are generally made up of energy2fuel use and maintenance. To reduce running costs it is not uncommon for less 'ealthy individuals to carry out their o'n maintenance.

Question When buying a cycle lamp a teenager can choose between a cheaper model with disposable batteries and a more expensive version that has rechargeable cells but is more expensive. Discuss the issues the teenager will have to consider in making a choice.

Fashion *roduct Design li!e all other areas of creativity follo's patterns or trends in style. These trends are closely lin!ed to fashion.

Throughout design history there have been very distinctive styles that can be lin!ed to a period in time. +ictorian 8<=9&s ) 8<>9. rt ?ouveau 8<>9 ) 8>9@. rt Deco 8>A@ )8>=>. *op rt 8>B9&s

Each one of these styles 'as fashionable during the periods indicated and has features that ma!e each one easily recognisable1 as can be seen in the e(amples belo'.

rt ?ouveau Camp 8>98

rt Deco 3ron5e

Child&s Chair

IDE E8=

s a conse"uence of pop music and fashion becoming an important part of modern 'estern culture good design has become more readily available to everyone. lthough products designed by leading designers are still "uite e(pensive1 mass produced products tend to follo' the style set by these designers and are available at a much more accessible price. This has been the case for clothing since the 8>B9&s but more recently furniture and household goods have follo'ed the same pattern. Furniture stores such as IDE sell designer $style& products 'hich are ine(pensive.

Today products are available in many different styles. Designers are able to emulate styles of the past and manufacturers produce these products using modern materials and manufacturing processes e.g. Retro Car 6only available in Fapan7 produced by ?issan 'hich is in the style of a 8>@9&s model. This approach to design actually produces a ne' style 'hich could be considered the style of the 8>>9&s. In addition designers are also able to utilise modern technology to produce totally ne' styles that 'ould not have been possible in the past.

The trend in the 8>>9&s then seems to be to mi( styles1 often to render these styles in ne' materials in a functional manner. Colour and decoration tend to be subdued 'ith combinations of .igh Tech and Traditional materials being used together e.g. *astel coloured in%ection moulded plastic 'ith galvanised steel or brushed aluminium creating a very subtle contrast as used in the Dr Globb chair designed by *hilippe Star!.

n increased concern over the environment has also influenced today&s products. -any ne' products are designed to be easily recycled e.g. -!. III +ol!s'agen Golf. Often products are made from recycled materials. This has in itself become fashionable.

Designers can ta!e advantages of fashion trends to design products that fit into a particular mar!et $niche& 'hich has been identified by mar!et research. lso since trends tend to change "uite rapidly it is possible for designers2manufacturers to cash in on these changes by updating products in !eeping 'ith the latest fashion. -otor car manufacturers do this by producing limited edition models in special colours and styling details. Clothing manufacturers use the changing seasons 6spring1 summer1 autumn and 'inter7 to encourage people to buy ne' clothes. Each ne' season creates the opportunity for designers to introduce a ne' style or colour. Designers also use trends set by pop groups or cult figures to create ne' fashions.

For further reading see Design Source 3oo! IS3? 9)=@B)8A99@)<.

!uestions

&uestion '

During the past () years many domestic products were designed with a particular look or style in mind e.g. the *high tech look% or the *country cottage look%.

a. +xplain what each of these particular *looks% were with particular reference to two products which embodied each look. b. ,ame one other *look% of the last twenty years.

-'..( /+0 1aper ' question '.2

&uestion ( a. Distinguish between fashion and style. b. Describe one example of each.

-'..3 /+0 1aper ' question (.2

#afety -any products have to be designed to comply 'ith regulations laid do'n by la' or by recommendations made by organisations such as 3SI 63ritish Standards Institution7 and ISO 6International Standards Organisation7. Often ISO1 3SI and the Government 'or! together to set standards. The government 'ill for e(ample state that car seat belts must be fitted to all cars and that the belt design should be to 3SI2ISO standards. #hen a product is manufactured to these standards it 'ill be clearly indicated that this is the case some'here on the product 'ith a number and the 3SI2ISO logo.

The designer of a product is responsible for ensuring that products are safe to use. There are a number of 'ell documented cases 'here designers have been sued for negligence1 i.e. designing a product 'hich proves to be unsafe and causes in%ury to the user. The driver 'as badly burnt1 sued the designer and 'on. s a conse"uence of such cases designers must ma!e every effort to design products that 'ill be safe in use by carrying out stringent functional tests.

Occasionally products are found to be unsafe after they have been put on the mar!et and have to be redesigned1 e.g. plastic pen tops such as those manufactured by 3IC caused a number of deaths in young children 'hen accidentally s'allo'ed. The pen top 'as modified so that it is open at both ends so that if s'allo'ed the air'ay does not become bloc!ed.

For further reading see dvanced Design and Technology pp. 88=)88H.

Questions

&uestion ' n the evaluation of any product" *safety% is an important general criterion.

a. 4ist four general criteria. b. 4ist four specific aspects of safety which should be considered in the evaluation of a portable" electric hair dryer.

$%&&' #!( Paper % )uestion *+, -bsolescence #hen designers consider the materials and the method of construction of a product they obviously have to ta!e into account the follo'ing.

.o' long the product should last for. .o'1 and under 'hat conditions1 'ill the product be used1 i.e. function1 durability and safety.

Ci!e all factors that influence design these considerations have to be ta!en along 'ith all others.

In many instances it is possible to design product that 'ill last a lifetime. Is this necessary or even desirable4 If a manufacturer designs a product 'hich lasts forever1 say a 'ashing machine1 'hat impact 'ould this have on the manufacturer4 They 'ould not sell so many machines. The machines 'ould probably have to cost a lot more than current models. The buyer 'ould end up 'ith products 'hich are old fashioned but still functioning 'ell. The user 'ould not be in a position to ta!e advantages in advances in technology by purchasing the latest most economic2environmentally friendly design.

Designers and manufacturers have therefore to find a balance bet'een profit1 value for money1 durability and at the same time satisfying the customers desire to o'n the latest most fashionable products. This is called building in obsolescence. i.e. the product is designed to last for a set period of time. This allo's the manufacturer to be able to be constantly selling ne' products in the mar!et place 'hich is good for business and at the same time satisfies the mar!ets desire for the latest ne' products.

In general 'ashing machines are designed to be replaced after about si( years. Ordinary light bulbs are designed to last for a ma(imum of si( months of normal use. -ost products then have a built in life e(pectancy. Often similar products are available 'ith different lengths of planned obsolescence1 for e(ample up)mar!et cars are designed to last for as long as 89 years 'ithout the need for ma%or repairs 6'hich is one of the reasons 'hy they are so e(pensive7 against a cheaper models designed to last for only @ years.

Questions

&uestion ' 5ass produced cars have built6 in obsolescence. -a2 +xplain the implications of this for the consumer and the manufacturer. -b2 4ist two other products which you consider to have built6in obsolescence.

&uestion ( What do you understand by the concept 7designed obsolescence78 9ive two examples of products which illustrate this concept. a. What effect does designed obsolescence have on: i. the environment; ii. the consumer; iii. the national economy8

-'..3 /+0 1aper ' question <.2

!n.ironmental and #ocial Considerations The designer has a ma%or role in shaping the environment in 'hich 'e live. Designers therefore have a moral responsibility to ensure that the products they design contribute to'ards our environment in a positive 'ay.

ll products have an impact1 to a lesser or greater e(tent on society. This impact 'ill influence the follo'ing areas.

Environment ) aesthetic. s a conse"uence of the visual impact of the product in association 'ith its surroundingsI

Environment ) pollution. Created by the manufacture1 use and2or disposal of the product at the end of its lifeI

Social ) physical and social impact of the product on the user and society in general.

!n.ironment / aesthetics+ The designer has the ability to create products in any style. It is possible to design products that merge 'ell 'ith their environment or alternatively those 'hich stand out in star! contrast to their surroundings. *roducts 'hich harmonise 'ith their environment are pleasing to the eye but can be considered to be boring and not stimulating.

For e(ample a designer may choose to design a bus shelter in the Georgian style to match the surrounding architecture. This approach 'ould blend in 'ell and probably 'ould be acceptable to the ma%ority of people. .o'ever this $safe& approach to design can create an environment 'hich is monotonous. lternatively the designer may choose to design the bus shelter to contrast 'ith the Georgian buildings by producing a design 'ith modern materials such as steel and plastic 'ith simple geometric forms and shapes perhaps integrating bold lighting so that the shelter stands out day and night. This approach 'as ta!en 'hen designing the metro and subterranean gallery entrance at Ce Couvre in *aris 'hich is a glass pyramid and is in star! contrast to the decorative Renaissance sandstone architecture surrounding it. This bold approach to design can be shoc!ing and often attracts controversy particularly in relation to architecture.

Such an approach can be interesting and e(citing to some people and offensive to others. The designer then has to ma!e a decision concerning the impact that the design 'ill have in order to ascertain 'hether or not it 'ill be acceptable to society.

!n.ironment / pollution+ #hen designing products the designer must consider the effect on pollution levels that their design 'ill have. The product and its manufacture may also be influenced by legislation 'hich controls pollution outputs. This is further complicated by the fact that pollution controls vary from country to country. There has also been a ma%or shift in public interest in environmental issues and many people 'ill ta!e this into account 'hen purchasing a product.

t all stages in the development1 manufacture and disposal of a product environmental issues have to be considered. This also applies to the product 'hen in use. This 'ill clearly have considerable effect on the final price of the product. Cet us ta!e the e(ample of the -D lll +ol!s'agen Golf 'hich is advertised as being environmentally friendly.

For this to be the case the follo'ing conditions 'ould have to true.

The use of finite resources should be avoided 'henever possible. -ost materials used should be recyclable1 say >9J or more. The processes used to manufacture these materials should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits. The processes used to form the materials into car components should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits. The processes used to assemble the components should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits. Finishing processes such as painting should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits. The 'aste products from manufacturing processes should not pollute the environment. #ithin the EEC it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to dispose of all 'aste safely. The operation and maintenance of the vehicle should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits. The disposal of the product at the end of its life should not pollute the environment beyond legally acceptable limits.

It is clear then that these limits 'ill have ma%or implications for the design.

#ociological considerations The environment in 'hich 'e live1 'or! and play has a considerable effect on our state of mind and general 'ell being.

Studies sho' that1 for e(ample1 to simply alter the lighting levels from day to day in a factory 'ill improve the output of the 'or! force. It is not the "uality of light that creates the improvement but the fact that there has been a change. changing environment is more stimulating and therefore more motivating. This e(ample sho's that even very subtle changes to the environment can have dramatic effects on people. Clearly then1 designers have to very careful 'hen designing the products 'hich shape our environment. The impact that a ma%or ne' building has on those 'ho live and 'or! in and around is obvious. *roducts such as computers or even hair dryers all have a bearing on our general state of mind1 particularly in a society 'here people lead very busy lives. The feelings of frustration and even anger 'hen a product 'e are using doesn&t function in the 'ay e(pected are common place. This contributes to the stress of modern day living. #ell)designed products should be pleasing to useI they should be reliable and do the %ob they 'ere designed to do. s 'ell as functioning 'ell their aesthetic 'ill also effect us.

#hy is it that 'e have feelings of refreshment or contentment 'hen standing on top of a hill on a glorious day 'ith a spectacular vie' before us4 It is due in part to the fresh air but also the colours and shapes of the vie' i.e. the aesthetics of the vie' ma!es us feel good. Therefore it is clear that if 'e are surrounded by products 'hich are attractive 6in an aesthetically pleasing environment7 then 'e 'ill inevitably feel better 'ithin ourselves. To create this designers have to create a fine balance bet'een pleasant harmonising products 6'hich in e(treme cases can be boring7 and bold contrasting designs 6'hich can be irritating7.

In catering for the needs of the individual the designer must consider age1 culture and physical ability2disability. Each of these aspects 'ill effect the userKs reaction to a particular product. Often modern $.igh Tech& products can be threatening to older people ma!ing them feel insecure. designer must1 in such situations1 try to ma!e ne' technology as $user friendly& as possible. Care needs to be ta!en to ensure that products do not cause offence to a particular race or culture. Even something as simple as the name of a ne' model of car needs to be carefully selected to ensure that in a 'orld mar!et the name 'hich may be perfectly acceptable in Europe is not totally unacceptable in another continent.

-any available products do not ta!e into account the problems of the disabled1 old or very young. In particular handles and s'itches are often too small or too difficult to operate. #ith a little bit of thought many of these problems could be avoided. Good design should ta!e into account as many users as possible.

For further reading see dvanced Design and Technology pp. H)8@.

Questions

&uestion ' The designers of today are accepting a growing responsibility for the conservation of some of the world7s dwindling resources. =ecycling is one of the main ways in which this is being tackled and recycling is having a marked effect upon much of industrial design. This can be seen clearly in the way components for domestic washing machines are designed to be removed and then recycled when the machine has served its useful life.

0riefly describe how recycling has effected the following design situations.

a. /oft drinks packaging. b. The family car.

-'..( /+0 1aper ' question >.2

&uestion ( +nergy is often wasted in the home. 5any products have been designed to reduce this loss. /uggest four such products.

-'..? /+0 1aper l question '.2 Technological -pportunity *roducts 'hich appear on the mar!et sometimes do so as the result of technological innovation. This is often referred to as technological push. Scientists1 engineers and designers are al'ays loo!ing for ne' 'ays of doing things and al'ays striving for the ultimate solution to a given problem. Often ne' technology is stumbled upon in this search. Sometimes the ne' technology has an obvious application and sometimes not. Sometimes technology is transferred from one application to another.

In other 'ords advances in technology create ne' products and therefore ne' mar!ets. Sometimes the products are simply better versions of e(isting products but occasionally products that have not e(isted before are produced creating a completely ne' mar!et niche.

E(amples of products that result from technological opportunity are;

The micro'ave oven ) developed as a conse"uence of research done by physicists into 'ave energy. Ceramic !nives 6the edge 'ill last a lifetime7 and ceramic engine components developed from research carried out by engineers 'or!ing on the space shuttle at ? S . The shuttle nose cone is covered 'ith ceramic tiles. The only material that 'ould 'ithstand the impact of reentry into the Earth&s atmosphere. The Sony #al!man ) this product 'as only possible through advances in microelectronics ma!ing it possible for a cassette tape player to be manufactured in a si5e that 'ill fit in the poc!et.

For further reading see dvanced Design and Technology pp. 88=)88H.

Questions

&uestion ' 1roducts can reach the market place because of *market pull% or *technology push%. 5arket pull is when a need is recognised in the market for a particular product. Technology push occurs when technology produces a new or improved product for which a demand has to be created.

@or each of the above categories name one product and explain how each was identified and developed. -'..) /+0 1aper ' question ?.2

&uestion ( @or each of the following give two examples of how products have been developed: a. from technological opportunity as a result of scientific discovery; b. from market research. -'..( /+0 1aper ' question A.2

Consumer emand Consumer demand1 sometimes referred to as mar!et pull1 produces products that derive from the demands of the mar!et. In general this demand is identified through mar!et research. -anufacturers and designers are al'ays loo!ing for ne' mar!ets in 'hich to sell their products1 or mar!ets for 'hich they can design ne' products 6mar!et niche7. Specialist mar!et research consultancies are constantly gathering data on the re"uirements of the mar!et place. This data is often gathered through the use of "uestionnaires. It is "uite commonplace to see mar!et researchers 'ith their clipboards on our high streets particularly on a Saturday. Sometimes the mar!et research 'ill involve gathering together general information 'hich 'ill be offered $for sale& by the mar!et research company. lternatively the mar!et researchers may be given a specific area to research for a client. ny designer2manufacturer that does not carry out thorough mar!et research is ta!ing a great ris!. To invest large sums of money in design1 setting up a manufacturing facility and producing the product 'ithout chec!ing out 'hether or not that it is 'hat the public 'ants is very foolish.

classic e(ample of this is the Sinclair C@ 'hich 'as developed by Sir Clive Sinclair. The C@ 'as developed on the bac! of enormous success 'ith personal computers by Sinclair Industries. The C@ 'as a small electric three 'heeled vehicle intended to be an alternative to the bicycle. It is true to say that the C@ 'as e(tremely innovative and technologically a success. .o'ever1 detailed mar!et research 'as not done to establish 'hether or not people 'ould use such a vehicle. The C@ did not sell. This error lead to the failure of Sinclair Industries.

In contrast to this many products have been introduced or redesigned follo'ing detailed investigation of the mar!et and have been a great success. For e(ample +ol!s'agen introduced the +# Golf 'hich 'as the first real hatchbac! car. This design satisfied the need for a small economical utility vehicle fitting in perfectly 'ith the lifestyle of the modern European. The Golf 'as a ma%or success and has had a ma%or impact on the design of cars today and has resulted in the enormous e(pansion of the +#2 udi Group. *rior to the Golf1 +# only manufactured the

3eetle and the +# +ariant. In other 'ords +# identified 'hat the mar!et 'anted and then designed it.

Other successes in this area have been products that satisfy the need to provide for a healthy1 environmentally sound1 lifestyle. E(amples of these are organic foods1 biodegradable detergents and sports e"uipment such as home e(ercise e"uipment.

For further reading see dvanced Design and Technology pp. A9)AL.

Questions

&uestion ' Designers recognise the market force of people wanting to buy products which they feel will boost their personal image. a. 9ive two examples of products which you feel may be bought for this purpose. b. 9ive one reason for each of your choices. -'..? /+0 1aper ' question (.2

/ee also the questions in the following section on Technological Bpportunity

#ocial (eha.iour

Changes in patterns of social behaviour must be considered by the designer 'hen 'or!ing on ne' products. Factors that 'ould have been considered important in the design of products @9 years ago 'ould not be seen as important today. Today lifestyles are such that leisure time is very important. Generally both adults in the family unit 'or!. Therefore tas!s such as coo!ing and cleaning need to made much "uic!er and easier to do. .ence the increase in the use of products that permit this1 such as food processors and fully automatic 'ashing machines 'ith combined tumble dryers. The increase in the use of precoo!ed foods1 free5ers and micro'ave ovens have also contributed to increased efficiency in carrying out domestic chores.

This has in turn lead to a situation 'here people have more spare time 'hich has increased demand for home entertainment such as stereo systems1 video and more recently home cinema. Cin!ed to this desire for good use of leisure time has also seen an increase in the use of sports2leisure e"uipment such as e(ercise bi!es and sun beds.

!conomics The motor industry is a good e(ample of an increase in the importance of this factor. t one time the price of petrol 'as such that the fuel consumption of a vehicle 'as not important. In the late 8>H9&s the price of oil increased sharply ma!ing large gas gu55ling vehicles impractical. This brought about the development of lean burn engines and an increase in the use of diesel engines 'hich are more economical 6diesel fuel is also less e(pensive7. The aerodynamics of cars has

also been significantly improved. Today it is not uncommon for vehicles to be able to do @9 mpg compared to A9 mpg or less 'hich 'as the norm before the fuel crisis.

Generally products today are cheaper to buy than in the past. This is largely due to the economies of scale. -ost products no'adays are produced in large "uantities using manufacturing processes that are e(pensive to set up but 'hich1 once established1 can produce products "uic!ly and very cheaply. The more products that are produced the cheaper the price of a single product.

The development of modern materials such as plastics and composites means that highly comple( components1 that may have been constructed from a number of components in the past1 can no' be made as a single item by processes such as in%ection moulding.

Designers also ma!e use of standard components to reduce costs. #hether the product is something as simple as a torch or as comple( as a motor car1 standard components are available from such things as simple fi(ings 6special scre's1 bolts etc.7 to bulbs1 s'itches1 alternators and even 'hole engines. The current +au(hall Omega Turbo Diesel is in fact fitted 'ith a 3-# turbo diesel engine. This practice is effective

because the standard component manufacturer is able to produce the parts in large "uantities ma!ing them cheaper.

Savings can also be made by carefully selecting the best material and manufacturing process for the item being designed. 3ecause most mar!ets are so competitive the price can not afford to be unnecessarily high as this could prevent the product from selling. Often manufacturers 'ill set up factories in countries 'here costs are lo'. -any products today are manufactured in countries li!e China 'here labour costs are very lo'1 compared to Europe1 and efficiency is high.

The price of a product depends on creating a balance bet'een; -anufacturing costs 6materials and processes7I dvertising and distribution costsI Design and development costsI *rofit1 overheads and reinvestmentI *rices set by other manufacturers.

For further reading see dvanced Design and Technology pp. 8B.

Commercial !nterprise *robably the single most important factor the designer must consider is cost. This obviously effects the volume of sales and conse"uently the profit for the shareholders.

#hen designing products the designer should see! to ta!e advantage of any factor 'hich creates a mar!et niche. This 'ill give the product an advantage in the mar!et place as it ensures reduced competition. Creating a mar!et niche can be achieved in a number of 'ays;

utilising ne' technology ma!ing it possible to produce a ne' and better product than before. Ceramic edge to !itchen !nives stays sharp for a lifetime.

innovative cost savings through the use of ne' materials1 manufacturing processes etc. Mse of in%ection moulded panels in car body manufacture. creating a ne' use or image for a product giving it a ne' lease of life. Storing te(t and film images on CD&s 'hich 'ere originally created for the music industry.

use of innovative mar!eting1 advertising and sales techni"ues to encourage the customer to buy. Cin!ing products to fashion trends1 bloc!buster films etc. such as boo!s and toys that use the characters from the latest film.

Ceramic Dnife by Seymour)*o'ell

AB
Craft and Design Support Materials: Factors that Influence Design