TOOL MAKING::1.

WORK BENCH
The work bench is the main kind of work place equipment used for Bench work. It is essentially a special table on which fitting jobs are carried out. It is strong and stable shown in fig.1 is the sketch of a commonly used Work Bench. The bench frame is a weldment of steel or iron tubing or angles. The bench top is made of hard wood boards 5 ! " mm thick depending upon the operating conditions. The top is co#ered by a steel 1$%mm thick. &itter's benches are normally 1 $1% mm in length( ) !* mm wide and * ! + mm in height. ,s shown in the figure( marking instruments( filing tools and other accessories required for work on the bench are segregated and kept in order. , bench -ice is fitted on the work bench( which is at a distance of appro.imately 1/0th the length of the table from one edge. ,lso( shown in is the adjustment of a bench #ice according to the height of the work$ man. The height is correct( if the fingers of the workman touch the chin( with the elbow placed on top of the #ice jaws as shown.

Work Bench

Work Bench 1. &rame( %. Bench top( 1. -ice( 0. 2rotecti#e screen( 5. Blueprint holder( ". 3amp( ).Tool tray( *.Tool rack( +. 4rawers 1 . 5hel#es( 11. 5eat

General Safet
1. ,lways wear shoes in the workshop. %. ,lways maintain discipline and do not indulge in mischief with co$workers. 1. 4o not walk below the load carried by a crane. 0. 4o not run in the workshop while going for an urgent call. 5. 4o not work alone in the workshop.
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". 4o not keep long hair. ). 4o not play with the machines. *. 4o not work during ill health. +. 4o not lift hea#y jobs without the uses of cranes. 1 . 2rotect yourself from welding arcs. 11. 6eport to the doctor in case of any injury and learn first aid treatment. 1%. Take care of mo#ing machines and walk within the prescribed work belt. 11. Wear a helmet in a big fabrication shop. 10. Wear proper workshop dress. 15. Wear safety goggles while working in a machine shop. 1". Wear glo#es while mo#ing sheet metal or stock with sharp edges.

!. "ICES
-ices are holding de#ices e.tensi#ely used for clamping of work pieces in a work shop. 7ost f the manual operations like sawing( filing( tapping( reaming etc are done by holding the work pieces in the #ice.

T #e$ of "%ce$: 1. Bench "%ce. 1. Bench "%ce

It is the most commonly used #ice. The bench #ice is firmly fi.ed on the bench. The #ice consists of a cast iron body( a fi.ed jaw and a mo#able jaw( both made of cast steel. 8ther parts of the #ice include a handle( a square threaded screw and a nut( all made of mild steel. 5eparate cast steel plates called as jaw plates( are fi.ed to the jaw by means of a screw and they can be replaced when worn out. The holding faces of the jaw plates ha#e teeth for holding the work firmly( but this has some disad#antages for clamping of soft metals as they may get damaged. 2rotecti#e grips made of &iber( Tin plates( 3ead or ,luminium( must be fitted o#er the jaws to pre#ent the serration's from damaging the finished surface of the work piece. Bench #ices may be either of the fi.ed type or the 5wi#eling type. Both types are shown in the figure. The mo#ement of the #ice is caused by the mo#ement of the screw through the bo. nut fi.ed under the mo#able jaw.
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!. Mach%ne "%ce.

1. Bench "%ce

(%) S*%+el%n' Bench "%ce (%%) ,%-e. /arallel Bench "%ce 1.5tationary support disc(%.Turning le#er( 1.5wi#el plate(0.Base plate(5.<andle( ".7o#able jaw().=awplates(*.&i.edjaw(+.Bo.nut( 1 .>lamping screw(11.>ircular slot(1%.,n#il( 11.Base(10.>oupling plate

&e$%'nat%on of a "%ce:
The designation of a #ice indicates9 1. The commonly used name. %. The nominal si:e. ;.g. Bench #ice9 1 mm 3eg #ice9 1%5mm etc. The si:e of the #ice is known by the width of its jaws. The width suitable for common work #aries from * $10 mm( the ma.imum opening being +5mm and 1* mm.

/art$ of a ,%-e. /arallel Bench "%ce:

, Bench #ice consists of the following main parts9

,%-e. 0a*:
The fi.ed jaw as the name indicates is fi.ed to the base or cast along with the base of the #ice. The top portion of the fi.ed jaw are fitted with jaw plates to help in gripping the job. The bottom portion of the &i.ed jaw e.tends to form three lugs which help in fastening the #ice to the bench. The &i.ed jaw is made from ?rey cast iron.

Mo+a1le 0a*:
It is a hollow in#erted channel section that slides in the body of the fi.ed jaw and is shaped to form a jaw at its outer end. It is also made from ?rey cast iron.

Ba$e:
The base is cost along with the body of the fi.ed jaw. The three lugs e.tended on the base help to fi. the #ice on the bench.

Scre* or S#%n.le:
-ice 5pindles or 5crews usually ha#e square or ,cme threads but a quick grip #ice has buttress threads. It is located in the mo#able jaw and engages with the fi.ed nut or bo. nut( which is housed in the body of the &i.ed jaw. The screw or 5pindle is made of 7ild steel.

Bo- N2t or ,%-e. N2t:

The bo. nut is located in the base and holds the spindle. Bo. nuts are made of phosphorous bron:e or ?rey cast iron.

0a* /late$:
They are made from tool steel and hardened to 5 $5%<6>. The jaw plates are serrated suitably to hold the work.

Han.le:
, <andle is used to rotate the spindle. ?enerally the length of the handle is %.5 times the normal si:e of the #ice. This slides freely in the spindle hole and does not come out because of the collar fitted at the two ends. This is made from 7ild steel.

!. Han. "%ce:
The hand #ice is used for gripping screws( ri#ets( keys( small drills and other small objects that are difficult to hold by hand. This is a #ery common tool used by key smiths.

Han. "%ce 1.=aws(%.=aw plates(1.5pindle( 0. <andle 5. Wing nut.

3. Le' "%ce

This kind #ice is usually used for forging and hammering works. The #ice is secured to the top of the bench by a stop fastened to a plate bolted to the bench top. The leg of the #ice is fastened to the bench leg with staples and its end fits into a hoe in the floor. There fore( the name leg #ice. The construction of the #ice makes it suitable for hea#y work.

.
Le' "%ce 1.&i.ed jaw(%.<inged jaw(1.<andle(0.5pring( 5.2i#ot pin(5.leg(".3ugs on base().>lamp

4. Mach%ne "%ce
9

7achine #ices are designed for machining of precision work on 7illing and 4rilling machines to meet strenuous production requirements. The body of a machine #ice is made of ?rey cast iron. The body is well proportioned to absorb stresses uniformly and gi#es a rigid base for clamping any kind of work to the table of the machines.

Mach%ne "%ce 1.<andle(%.5crew(1.7o#able =aw(0.=aw plates( 5.&i.ed jaw(".>lamping bolt().Base plate(*.Bracket(

5. Mach%ne "%ce *%th S*%+el Ba$e

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This is a special type of #ice made with a swi#eling base. The job( after mounting in the jaws can be adjusted in any angle hori:ontally or #ertically. The base is graduated for a full circle of 1" .

Mach%ne "%ce *%th S*%+el Ba$e 1.<andle(%.5crew(1.7o#able =aw( 0.=aw plates(5.&i.ed jaw(".>lamping bolt( ).Base plate(*.Bracket(+.?uide way(1 .5wi#el base

6. /%#e "%ce:
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1) ,%-e. t #e. !) O#en t #e 2ipe #ices are used for clamping pipes( mostly for threading( fitting and remo#ing of joints. Two types of pipe #ices are commonly used. They are9 open type and the fi.ed type.

/%#e "%ce
1.<andle(%.5pindle with square thread( 1. - =aws( 0. Base

7. Sha#er8$ "%ce9
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,s the name suggests this #ice is used to hold jobs on a 5haping machine. This #ice is strong and rigid in construction and hence permits the use of hea#y depths of cut and faster of feed to be gi#en of the job.

Sha#er8$ "%ce 1. &i.ed jaw( %. 7o#able jaw(1. =ob seating space( 0. 5crew( 5. 5wi#el base.

:. Tool Maker8$ "%ce

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The Tool 7akers #ice is commonly used by the Tool 7aker for tool room work. It is similar to a machine #ice but it is less rigid. It helps in holding and machining of small precision jobs.

Tool Maker8$ "%ce 1. >lamping groo#es( %. 5crew

Safet /reca2t%on *h%le 2$%n' a "%ce:

1.The bench #ice should ne#er be used as an ,n#il. If the cast iron body cracks up( it becomes difficult to weld and be used again.
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%. , hammer and other such means should ne#er be used for e.tra tightening of the #ice jaws as this may result in the breaking of the screw of wear out of threads. 1. Where#er possible the work should be held in the center of the jaws. This results in better gripping of the job. 0. @se soft jaws for clamping of finished components or softer materials to a#oid serration marks of the jaws from falling on the work piece. 5. ,lways lea#e a small gap in between the jaw plates when the #ice is not in use. The eliminates the force which would otherwise be acting on the jaw plates as well as on the spindle when the #ice jaws are kept tightly joined.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is a #iceA 7ention the different types of #icesA %. Write a brief note on bench #iceA 1. Beatly draw the sketch of bench #ice and mention its different partsA 0. Briefly e.plain each part of bench #iceA 5. <ow #ices are designatedA ?i#e two e.amplesA ". Beatly sketch hand #ice and e.plain brieflyA ). ;.plain briefly leg #ice with a neat sketchA *. Write a brief note on machine #iceA +. Write a brief note on machine #ice with swi#el baseA 1 . 7ention differences between machine #ice and machine #ice with swi#el baseA
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11. Write a brief note on CaD pipe #ice CbD shaper's #ice CcD tool makers #ice. 1%. 7ention some important safety precautions while using a #ice.

3. ,ILES

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, &ile is a hand cutting tool used to remo#e e.cess aterial and to produce a finished surface. It is made up of <igh >arbon 5teel and has teeth cut on its face in slanting rows. It is hardened to about " $"% <6> and the tang portion is left soft. The tang portion of the file fits into handle made of plastic or wood.

,ILE 1. Tang( %.5houlder( 1.<eel( 0. ;dge(5.&ace( ".Belly ).Tip or 2oint

/art$ of a ,%le:
1. Tan': The narrow portion of the file where the handle is fi.ed. !. Sho2l.er: The radius portion adjacent to the face formed between the edge of the file and the tang is called as 5houlder. 3. Heel: The uncut portion on the face near the shoulder of the shoulder of the file is termed as the <eel.
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4. E.'e: It is the perpendicular side of the face. The edge is always single cut. 5ome times the teeth are not cut on the edge and are called as 5afe edge files. 5. ,ace: It is the surface of the file where the teeth are cut .

T #e$ of ,%le$. a. ,lat ,%le

It is rectangular in cross section and is tapered towards the tip in both 1*idth and thickness. Teeth are cut on both faces of the file and also on its edges. It is widely used for general purpose work.

1.Han. ,%le
These are similar to flat files but are parallel in width and thickness. They are some times tapered in thickness only. 8ne of its edges do not ha#e teeth cut on them. This file is used for filing flat surfaces( the safe edge being useful when filing up to the shoulder.

c.Half Ro2n. ,%le

This file is flat on one side and cur#ed on the other side. 5o( it can be used on both flat and cur#ed surfaces.

..Kn%fe E.'e ,%le

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This file is shaped like a knife and is tapered in width and thickness with two faces at 15 angles each. It is mainly used by lock smiths for filing acute angles more than 15 .

e.Ro2n. ,%le
It has a round cross section and is tapered diametrically from the tip to the shoulder. 5mall round files are also called as 6at Tail &iles and files without taper are called as parallel round files. This is used for the filing of circular openings( cur#ed surfaces and for making conca#e surfaces.

f.S<2are ,%le
It has got four filing sides and is used to make key ways( groo#es and slots.

'.Tr%an'2lar ,%le
It has Triangular cross section with each face at " degrees. It is used for filing acute angles more then " degrees. It is used for cleaning square corners and repairing damaged screw threads pro#iding notches etc.

h.War.%n' ,%le
It is rectangular in cross section but it is thinner than the flat file. It is mainly used by 3ock smith for filing notches in keys. &%fferent T #e$ of ,%le$
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The f%'2re a1o+e $ho*$ the a##l%cat%on of the .%fferent f%le t #e$ a. <and file( b. &lat file( c. 5quare file( d. Triangular file( e. 6ound file (f. <alf round file h. Enife edge &ile. &%fferent T #e$ of ,%le$

Cro$$ Sect%on of ,%le$

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Cro$$ Sect%on of ,%le$ aD &lat( bD <and( cD <alf$round( dD 6ound ( eD Triangle (fD 5quare( gD Warding (hD Enife

Ele;ent$ of the ,%le:

1.Safe E.'e:

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The flat file will ha#e single cut teeth on its edges. <and files usually ha#e teeth cut on one of its edges. The other end is ground and left uncut or safe. This uncut edge of a file is termed as safe edge. !.Con+e-%t Of ,%le$: ,ll the files are made with the face slightly con#e. on the thickness and along the length. It is done so because( while filing a broad surface( the application of pressure will be on both the ends of the file. There is a tendency of the file to bend towards the pressure e.erted and hence flatness of the job may not be achie#ed. 3.Ta#er of the ,%le: The reduction in width of the file from the tip portion towards the belly is called as the Taper of the file.

Metho.$ of ,%l%n':
aD >ross &iling(.bDstraight &iling( cD4raw &iling.
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1.Cro$$ ,%l%n' In >ross filing the filing strokes run alternati#ely from left to right and right to left at an angle of 0 $" to hori:ontal. This is a common method adopted in the workshop to remo#e e.cess material and to get a fine surface finish. ,lso in this method( the possibility of rounding off of the edge of the job is minimi:ed and the score marks made in the work by the file teeth are crisscrossing. 4ue to the increased contact area ma.imum amount of material can be remo#ed. !. Stra%'ht ,%l%n': In straight filing( the file is remo#ed at right angles to the length of the job. 8n the back stroke( the pressure on the file is lifted clear of the work in order not to blunt the teeth. 5traight filing is especially useful on long and narrow pieces of work whose width is less than that of the file. The filing speed #aries from 1 $0 strokes per minute.

3.&ra* ,%l%n':

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When it is desired to file a piece of work length wise( it may be done by draw filing. In this method the handle of the file is not held. Instead( both ends are placed close together on the file as shown in the figure. The file is placed at right angles across the work piece while the hands and especially the thumbs grip the file and mo#e it up and down the length of the material. It does not remo#e much material( but a smoother cutting action is achie#ed than with a cross or straight file. This method is mainly used to remo#e the material from thin sheets #ery lightly. 5ingle cut files are used for 4raw filing.

Metho.$ of ,%l%n':
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aD >ross &iling(.bDstraight &iling(cD4raw &iling

a) Cro$$ ,%l%n'

1)$tra%'ht ,%l%n'

c)&ra* ,%l%n'

Safet Wh%le ,%l%n':

25

1. ,pply pressure while filing only in the forward direction as retaining the pressure on the re#erse direction causes the teeth to become blunt. %. ,fter filing( clean the file using a file brush. This enables the clogged material to clear off the cutting edges of the file. 1. 4o not apply e.cessi#e pressure while working with a smooth file. 0. 4o not use one kind of file for all types of work. 5. 4o not use a file without a handle as this may result in injury to the hands. ". @se a new file gently on metals like gun metal( bron:e( aluminum etc. the first few strokes.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is a fileA 7ention the different parts of file and e.plain each part brieflyA %. 4raw a neat sketch of flat file and mention the parts A 1. 7ention different types of filesA ;.plain each in briefA 0. Beatly sketch the different types of files with their cross sectionA 5. ;.plain briefly the elements of a fileA ". Briefly e.plain methods of filingA 7ention some important safety precautions while filing

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4. HACKSAW
The <and <acksaw is a hand cutting tool generally used for cutting materials like( thick metal sheets( round bar stock and other sections( and to cut slots( contours etc. /art$ of a Han. Hack$a*: The <acksaw mainly consists of two parts. They are9 1. &rame( %. Blade 1. ,ra;e: The &rame is that part is the <acksaw( which holds the blade. The &rame is a#ailable as a &lat type( Tubular type or 4eep cutting type. ,mong all these three types( &i.ed and ,djustable #arieties can also be found. The parts of an ,djustable &lat &rame are e.plained below.

/art$ of the ,ra;e:

a.Bo. : The body of the frame is made from either a tube( a solid flat strip or a round bar and may be of the fi.ed type or adjustable type. Wooden handles are generally used. 2istol grip steel frame handles are also used for the frame.

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1.Ten$%on Scre*: ,s the name suggests this screw is used to adjust the tension of the blade. It is present opposite to the handle. The wing nut tightens on the tension screw. c.W%n' N2t: It is so named because it has the appearance of a housefly wing. This is dri#en by the thumb on the tension screw and this pressure is enough to keep the blade in tension. Bo e.tra le#erage is necessary. ../%n$: Two pins are pro#ided at the ends of the frame. These pins enable the blade to be fi.ed to the frame.

28

Hack$a*:

Hack$a*
The abo#e figure shows the &i.ed and ,djustable <acksaw with parts. 1.Wing nut(%.&rame(1.,djustable blade <older 0.<acksaw Blade(5.&i.ed Blade <older( ".<andle().2ins(*.5lits

!. Bla.e

29

Bla.e

A 1la.e con$%$t$ of the follo*%n' #art$: a)./%n Hole$: The blade has two holes made at the ends to enable the blade to be fitted to the frame. , clearance is pro#ided on the holes as the blade can be freely inserted on to the pins and then tightened with the help of tension screws. 1).Teeth: The serrations cut across the thickness of the blade( generally on one of its edges( are called as the teeth of the blade. The teeth pro#ide the cutting edges of the blade. There are different types arrangements or placement of the teeth on the blade and are called as saw settings. These are e.plained later in this chapter. c).Toothe. E.'e The longitudinal edge along with the teeth is called as the toothed edge.

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&eta%l of Teeth.

&eta%l of Teeth 1.2itch(%.&ace(1.>utting ;dge(0.6oot 6adius(5.&lank

1. /%tch: The distance between the two adjacent cutting edges of the teeth is called as the pitch. !.,ace: The surface of the tooth adjacent to the cutting edge is called as the &ace. 3.C2tt%n' E.'e: The edge of the blade where the teeth are cut is called as the >utting edge of the blade. 4.Root Ra.%2$: The radius connecting the face and the flank in the root of the teeth space is called as the 6oot radius. 5.,lank: The surface behind the cutting edge upto the root radius is called as the &lank.
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&e$%'nat%on of a Bla.e:
1.

No;%nal Len'th:

The length between the outer edges of the pin holes measured along the center line of the blade is the blade's nominal length. !. W%.th: It is the distance between one edge to the other edge of the blade. T #e$ of Bla.e$: Blades may be of the following types9 1. ,ll hard blade 9 It is fully hard e.cept near the pin holes. %. &le.ible blade9 It is hardened at the teeth portion only. 1. &le.ible center blade 9 It is hardened at the back and at the teeth only. 0. 5pring back blade 9 It is hardened at the teeth and the remaining portion is spring tempered.

32

Cla$$%f%cat%on of a Bla.e:
<acksaw blades are classified according to the following9 1. The commonly used name whether hand or machine operated %. The nominal length( width and thickness. 1. The pitch or teeth per inch. 0. The material whether <.5.5 C <igh speed steelD( <.>.5 C<igh carbon steelD or 3.5.5 C 3ow alloy steelD. 5. The type of bladeF whether ,ll hard( &le.ible( &le.ible center or 5pring back. E-a;#le: The hacksaw blade for hand operation ha#ing a length of 1 mm( a width of 11mm( thickness of ."1mm and a pitch of .*mm of 3ow alloy steel and ,ll hard( shall be specified as9 G<and saw blade %5 H 11 H ."1/ .*$3.,. ,ll hardI. G<and saw 1%I . JI . 1mm . 1* T.2.I C<.5.5DI

33

Sa* Sett%n':
The arrangement of the saw teeth in a regular fashion is called as 5aw setting. 5etting the teeth of the 5aw blade is done in order that the width of the slot cut may be slightly larger than the blade thickness. This pro#ide a clearance between the blade and the slot and thus pre#ents the jamming of the blade. This makes cutting much easier. ,ccording to the pitch of the blade( there are different types of 5aw settings9 There are three different types of saw setting C&ig 1*D9 1. ,lternati#e 5aw set C&ig. 1* aD %. 5taggered of 6aker 5aw set C&ig. 1* bD 1. Wa#y 5aw set 1. Alternat%+e Sa* Set This type of setting is generally used on blades ha#ing a pitch of 1." mm. In this type( the teeth are set alternati#ely that is 1 teeth is bent on one side and the ne.t teeth on the opposite side. ! .Sta''ere. or Raker Sa* Set This type of setting is used in blades ha#ing a pitch of 1to 1.%5mm. <ere( one teeth is bent to one side( the ne.t teeth is straight and unset( the third teeth is bent to the opposite side of the first teeth and the fourth teeth is again straight and unset. The same pattern is found along the entire length of the blade barring 1 mm from either edge of the blade. 6aker set blades is used for general purpose sawing.

34

3. Wa+ Sa* Set <ack saw blades with a pitch of .*mm are wa#y set that is two or three consecuti#e teeth are bent alternati#ely to opposite sides by .%5 to ."mm. The teeth of the blade look like a wa#e and hence the name wa#y set. This type of set is used on blades to cut thin sheet metal sections.

1. ,lternati#e 5aw set( %. 5taggered of 6aker 5aw set( 1. Wa#y 5aw set Sa* Sett%n'
35

Mater%al of the Bla.e:

Blades are made by different materials( depending upon the cutting surface or the job to be cut. 1. H%'h Car1on Steel Bla.e$: These blades ha#e a hardness of " to"% <6>. It is used to cut mild steel( brass( copper( aluminum etc. , cutting sped of 15 strokes per minute is specified for these blades !. H%'h S#ee. Steel Bla.e$: These blades ha#e a #ery high wear resistance and an ability to cut harder material. These blades ha#e an <6> of "% to "5. It is used to cut alloy steels and tool steels. , cutting speed of "5 strokes per minute is specified for these blades. 3. Lo* T2n'ten Allo Steel$ Bla.e$: These blades ha#e an hardness of "1$ "5 <6> and is used to cut mild steel and carbon steel. These blades are wear resistant( cut faster and last longer. <ence they are much economical than carbon steel blades. , cutting speed of 0 to 55 strokes per minute is specified for these blades.

36

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is a hacksawA 4raw a neat sketch of hand hacksaw and mention the different partsA %. Briefly e.plain the parts of the frame of the hacksawA 1. Briefly e.plain the parts of the blade that is used while hacks awingA 0. 7ention the types of bladesA 5. <ow blades are classified. ;.plain with an e.ampleA ". ;.plain briefly saw settingA ). What are the different types of saw setting. ;.plain briefly each with a neat sketchA *. What are the different types of materials used to manufacture the blade. ;.plain each in briefA +. 7ention some important safety precautions while sawingA

37

Safet /reca2t%on$ Wh%le Sa*%n':

1. Before sawing( make a groo#e or notch with a triangular file to position the blade on the marked for cutting the slot. %. ;nsure that the blade is properly tightened( and the job is held securely in the #ice. 1. &ine pitch blades should be used while cutting hard materials and coarse pitch blades for soft materials. 0. 6elie#e the cutting pressure on the return stroke. 5. 6educe the cutting pressure when the blade is almost about to cut the job. ". 5tart cutting from a new edge if the blade breaks in the middle. ). To pre#ent chattering( cut as close as possible to #ice jaws. *. @se full length of the blade during sawing. +. While sawing( make continuous strokes. 1 . While sawing thin sheets( keep wooden boards as support.11.While sawing( ensure that at least three teeth are in contact with the job.

38

5. CHISELS
, chisel is a hand cutting tool used to chip off e.cess layers of stock from the surfaces of work pieces by using a hammer. The chisel is considered outdated today( due to the ad#ent of modern machine tools. <owe#er there are occasions when a chisel becomes indispensable. >hipping is resorted to when machining is impractical and high accuracies are not required. Typical chipping applications include remo#al of large surface irregularities( hard skins( burrs( sharp edges from castings and stampings( cutting key ways( oil groo#es( preparing the edges of cracks for welding up( cutting of the heads of ri#ets for their remo#al( making holes in sheet metal and so on.

Co;;on T #e$ of Ch%$el$:

The following are the common types of chisels that we can come across in a machine shop9 1. &lat %. >ross$cut CcapeD 1. 4iamond point 0. 6ound nose 5. >ow mouth C ?ougeD ". 5ide cut

39

1. ,lat Ch%$el$
They are commonly used chisels.

,lat Ch%$el$ 1.>utting angle(%.Taper head( 1.3ength of the taper portion(0.>utting edge( 5.Width of the cutting edge CBominal si:eD ".4ia of the head().5i:e of chisel body( *.3ength(+.Body

40

!. Cro$$ C2t Ch%$el:

This chisel is normally used to cut key ways( >hannels and groo#es. The cutting edge is narrow in this chisel.

Cro$$ C2t Ch%$el 1.Width of cutting edge(%.4ia of head(1. 5i:e of body 0.3ength( 5.>utting angle(". 5i:e of the chisel body

41

3. &%a;on. /o%nt Ch%$el9

The diamond point chisel has cutting edge like a diamond. It is used for making sharp corners( remo#es metal from corners( cutting oil groo#es( etc.

. &%a;on. /o%nt Ch%$el 1. Width of cutting edge( %.4ia of head( 1.3ength of the taper portion( 0. 5i:e of chisel body( 5.3ength( ".>utting angle

42

4. Half Ro2n. No$e Ch%$el:

It is used for cutting groo#es( forming flutes( bringing drill holes in the correct position when set out inaccurately( etc. Half Ro2n. No$e Ch%$el 1.Width of cutting edge(%.4ia. of head(1.5i:e of body( 0.3ength(5.>utting angle

5. Co* Mo2th Ch%$el:

This chisel is used for remo#ing the material from hollow jobs( cutting circular blanks from sheets( etc.

1.>ross section of cutting point(%.Body( 1.Taper hand(0.>on#e. portion of head

6. S%.e C2t Ch%$el:

43

This chisel is specially made for remo#ing the metal from cotter ways or slots which are to be cut by hand after drilling. They are also used for remo#ing e.cess material from the sides of the casting formed by a runner and a raiser on the surface.

&e$%'nat%on of a Ch%$el:

44

The chisel is designed by the width of the cutting edge( length and the commonly used name. &or esample a &lat chisel ha#ing a cutting edge width of K&lat chisel % . %5 mm' The figure below shows a chisel with it is #arious angles.

1. 6ake angle.%.>utting angle.( 1.&orging angle(0.>hip torn cut(5.<olding angle( ". >learance angle

Safet Wh%le Ch%$el%n':

1. ,lways chip towards the fi.ed jaw of the #ice. %. Before chipping( it is necessary to file a chamfer on the job to gi#e seating to the chisel.
45

1. >hamfer the job from both the sides in case of a cast iron block( if the chipping to run up to the other end. 8therwise( due to the brittle quality of the metal( the corner of the job will be rooted out in the end. 0. 4o not take too deep a cut. , cut appro.imately 1 J mm deep is enough. 5. &or hea#y chipping( use a leg #ice. ". To cut off the hea#y ri#et head( cut a groo#e in the head with a hacksaw frame or a cross cut chisel and then remo#e the e.cess metal with a &lat or side cut chisel.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is a chiselA Why it is usedA %. 7ention the common types of chisel. ;.plain each in brief with a neat sketch and name the partsA 1. <ow chisels are designatedA 0. 7ention some safety while chiseling

6. HAMMERS
<ammers are one of the most primiti#e tools that are in use today. They ha#e a metallic head with a wooden handle. They are used for punching( bending( striking( ri#eting and forging.
46

They are made of alloy steel ha#ing ." percent of carbon and are usually drop forged. <ammers ha#e hardness 01 ! 51 <6>.

T #e$ Of Ha;;er$:
The following are the common types of hammers in use9
47

T #e$ Of Ha;;er$ ,. Ball pein hammer( B. >ross pein hammer( >. 5traight pein hammer( 4. >law hammer( ; 5ledge$ hammer Cdouble facedD. &. 5oft faced hammer(?. 7allet( <. >ross pein sledge$hammer( I. 6ipping hammer

T #e$ of Ha;;er$

48

1.Ball /e%n Ha;;er

The Ball pein hammer is a common type of hammer used for striking while doing general work in the shop or at home. The pein or the head of the hammer is ball shaped and hence the name. It is used for forming the ri#et head by spreading the shank of the ri#et.

Ball Pein Hammer

1. Ball pein( %.2ein neck( 1.>heek( 0.;ye hole( 5.2ole neck( ". 2ole( ).&ace *. <andle +. 3ength of handle

!.Cro$$ /e%n Ha;;er:

49

The pein of this hammer is flat and is perpendicular to the handle. It is used for bending sheet( binding( pro#iding collars etc.

3.Cla* Ha;;er 9
This hammer head has a cut in the center and is bent to a sharp cur#e. It is used for pulling nails out of wood with the help of the head while the face is same as that of a ball pein hammer. This is mostly used by cobblers and carpenters. 5ome times the pein has a small cur#e on the claw and is called as a 6ipping hammer.

4.Mallet Ha;;er:
, wooden hammer is called a mallet. It is used by carpenters to dri#e their tools and by sheet metal workers for bending thin sheets.

5.Stra%'ht /e%n Ha;;er:

The pein of this hammer is parallel to the handle. It is used for stretching of metal( working of corners etc.

6. Sle.'e Ha;;er:
5ledge hammer are used by black smiths( wood cutters( stone breakers( fabricators( etc. &or hea#y jobs. There are Three types of sledge hammer. They are 91(4ouble faced(%.ross pein(1.5traight pein

:.Soft Ha;;er :It is made up of soft metals like

copper( aluminum( lead etc. It is used for hammering finished jobs specially in an assembly shop.
50

The ,ollo*%n' are the Ma%n /art$ of a Ha;;er 1. Cheek: The flat portions on both sides in the middle of the hammer head are called as cheeks. <ere the manufacturer's name( weight etc. is stamped. !. E e Hole: The hole pro#ided for fi.ing( the handle is called as the ;ye hole. It is o#al and tapered from both the ends to the middle. The hole is o#al so that the hammer should not rotate in the handle and it is tapered for better grip. 3. ,ace: The flat portion in the front which strikes the job is called as the &ace. This is hardened and tempered to 01 to 51<6> to a ma.imum of 11mm length. The face has a small cur#e that helps in striking at the e.act position. 4.Han.le: It is the holding portion and is made of wood and is introduced in to the eye hole and is secured firmly with the help of the handle wedges.

5./e%n: It is that part of the hammer which is opposite to the face. The 2ein is used for ri#eting( and peening.
51

6./e%n Neck: It is the radius portion joining the pein and the center of the metallic head. 7./ole Neck: It is the radius portion joining the pole and the center body of the metallic head. :./ole: The cylindrical portion adjacent to the face is called the pole. It is hardened near the face. Ha;;er$ are follo*%n' : .e$%'nate. accor.%n' to the

aD Type of hammer
bD Weight of hammer and cD 2ein ;g. K .5 kg. 5traight pein hammer' <ammers are a#ailable in #arious weights like .%5kg( .5kg and 1kg for common hammers and %$1 kg for sledge hammer.

Safet /reca2t%on$ *h%le Ha;;er%n':

1. <andle should be properly fi.ed.
52

%. 5elect a hammer of correct weight for a suitable job. 1. >heck the handle head for cracks. 0. The face of the hammer should be free from oil.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is hammerA Why it is usedA %. What is the percentage of carbon present in the hammer and mention its hardnessA 1. What are the different types of hammers. ;.plain each in brief with a neat sketchA 0. 4raw a neat sketch of ball peen hammer and e.plain its parts in briefA 5. <ow hammers are designatedA ". 7ention hammeringA some safety precautions while

7. SCRA/ERS
53

5crapers are special cutting tools usually made of <igh carbon steels. The cutting end is hardened. With out tempering to 5"$"0 <6>. 5craping is an operation of remo#ing #ery thin layers of metal with a 5craper. The purpose of scraping is to ensure a tight leak proof contact of mating surfaces in a joint. 5craping is applicable to both flat and cur#ilinear surfaces. 5craping is uslly done by hand. 5crapers are a#ailable in #arious froms and are e.plained below.

1.,lat Scra#er
This is the most commonly used scraper. The body of this scraper is forged or machined from mild steel. The length of blade is about 1 $15 mm. The blade must ha#e a slight cur#ature of the cutting edge and the corners are round which help the user to scrape e.actly the high spots desired. 5crapers are manufactured in different lengths. % and 1 mm scrapers are most commonly used.

!.Hook Scra#er
This is similar to a flat scraper e.cept that its cutting end is bent to form a cutting edge. This is used for frosting( flanking and producing #arious designs on the bed parts( surface plates( machine columns and other jobs.

3.Half Ro2n. Bear%n' Scra#er

54

This scraper is called half round because the body is cur#ed. This scraper is used for scraping cur#ed and cylindrical surfaces( split bearings( big bush bearings( etc.

4.Tr%an'2lar Scra#er
The shape of this scraper is triangular. This scraper is used for scraping cur#ed surfaces( holes and bores. It is also used for remo#ing sharp edges which are formed after machining. 5crapers can be made in the shop floor by grinding the worn out faces of triangular files.

Tr%an'2lar Scra#er
55

Tr%an'2lar Scra#er
A. 5craper made out of a blunt triangular file by grinding of the teeth B. &orged scraper 1.>onca#ity formed due to the circular face of the grinding wheel !.This conca#ity is pro#ided in forging

T #e$ of Scra#er$
56

a.&lat 5craper( b.<ook 5craper( c.<alf 6ound Bearing 5craper

57

/art$ of a Scra#er

/art$ of Scra#er$ 1. Tang( %.;dge 1.Body 0.2oint 5.&ace or ;nd( ". <eel().>utting ;dge

58

Mark%n' Me.%a:
, marking media is #ery important in a scraping operation to find the high spot. The marking media is usually a paste or a powder and is #ery fine. It should spread uniformly on the surface plate. 2russian blue is the most commonly used marking media. It is a concentrated blue oil paint used for colouring by artist. This substance gi#es clear( sharp( distinct markings.

1. 5craper held at 1 to the work( %. <igh spots( 1. Work(0.Table

59

Scra#%n' /roce.2re:
L >learance angle L Wedge angle 5craper cutting geometry for working CaD>ast iron and bron:e CbD( 5teel CcD 5oft metals.

Hol.%n' of the $cra#er

60

Scra#%n' /roce.2re:
1. >lean the surface plate thoroughly. %. 6ough scrape the job with the scraper held at an angle of 1 ! 1 to the surface of the work. 1. , thin layer of marking medium is applied on the surface plate. 0. The rough scraped job is cleaned and then slid on the surface plate to check for the high spots. The marking medium sticks on to the high spots on the job. 5. ,fter the high spots are found( scrape of a little larger area then that occupied by the high spots. ". 6epeat the operation of applying the marking medium and scraping. ).2ress the scraper on the surface of the job with one hand and make short strokes of 1 $%5 mm holding it at the proper angle. *. Take the strokes with the scraper in one direction and keep on changing the direction after completion of one stroke. +. ,s the process is carried out gradually it will be found that the whole area will be co#ered by spots of marking medium.
61

1 . The distance between the high spots called( as the pitch should be about 0$"mm. =obs with such a pitch of high spots are considered to be scraped well.

Safet *h%le Scra#%n'9

1. Before starting to scrape checks and makes sure the amount of stock to be scraped. %. 4ipping the scraper occasionally in turpentine or kerosene will help to cut easier and better. this cleanse the scraper of accumulated dust( dirt and metal cuttings. 1. The master plate are straight edge should be kept at a controlled temperature.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. Briefly e.plain what are scrappersA %. What are the different types of scrappers. ;.plain each in briefA 1. Briefly e.plain the procedure of scrappingA 0. 7ention some safety while scrappingA

62

:. SCREW &RI"ERS
5crewdri#ers are one of the most commonly used hand tools in a workshop and at home. 5crewdri#ers are used to loosen and tighten socket head screws.

T #e$ of Scre*.r%+er$: 1.Ca1%net Scre*.r%+er$:

>abinet screwdri#ers are used for dri#ing wooden screws. The handle is made flat on both the sides to get an e.tra grip to dri#e the screws in wood. These screwdri#ers are generally used by carpenters.

!.Electr%c%an8$ Scre* &r%+er$

This screw dri#er is similar to a standard screw dri#er but as longer and thinner shank and is insulated. These screwdri#ers ha#e a mechanism in them to test the current flow.

3.Off= Set Scre*.r%+er

It has a bent shank with points on the both ends. It is used for dri#ing screws that cannot be reached with a straight shank screwdri#er.

4./h%ll%#$ Scre* &r%+er9

The tip of the screwdri#er has slots and is cross$shaped. This is commonly referred to as a star screwdri#er. It has a better grip than a standard screwdri#er and also pre#ents damages to heads.
63

5.Ratchet Scre*.r%+er
This screwdri#er is used for obtaining a faster motion while rotating the screw. The ratchet is fitted to the handle. The hand is not lifted for a fresh motion to turn the screw clockwise or anti clockwise. 5ome screwdri#ers ha#e a worm type shank and are operated by pushing the handle down. 5uch screwdri#ers are called as quick motion screw ratchet screwdri#ers.

6.Stan.ar. Scre* &r%+er

the standard screwdri#er is used for general purpose work. 5ome standard screwdri#ers are equipped with strong shanks and rigid handles for hea#y$duty work. The figure below shows the #arious types of screwdri#ers

Stan.ar. Scre* &r%+er

64

Stan.ar. $cre* .r%+er

Electr%c%an $cre* .r%+er

Stan.ar. $cre* .r%+er Electr%c%an $cre* .r%+er 1.<andle(%.&errule( 1. 6ound shank(0 Blade( 5.2oint( ".3ength of shank( ). 3ength of handle A. 5crew dri#er with a thick shank B.5crew dri#er for testing li#e wires

65

Stan.ar. Electr%c%an $cre* .r%+er 1.<andle made of plastic( %.Thin insulated shank( 1.. 2ocket clip( 0.5hank insulated with poly#inyl chloride

66

Off$et $cre* .r%+er 1.2oint straight to the shank. %. 2oint cross to the shank

1.&errule( %.5hank Ca1%net $cre* .r%+er Han.le ;a.e flat $ho*n %n the center

67

Ratchet Scre* &r%+er &r%+er

/h%ll%#$ Scre*

1.<andle( %. 5witch for changing direction( 1.Blade

68

Mater%al of the Scre* &r%+er9

The screw dri#er blade is made of >hrome -anadium stell and through hardened 5 !55 <6>. The handle of the screw dri#er is made of hard plastic( narmally cellulose acetate.

S%>e of the /o%nt an. S#ec%f%cat%on of a Scre* &r%+er9

The point of the blade of a screw dri#er should not be more than the length of the slot on the screw head. , screw dri#er may be specified by the type( length of the shank( and the dimensions of the point. ;g9 standard screw dri#er 1 mm . 1 . ".5' Where 1 mm is the length of the shank( 1mm is the thickness of the point and ".5mm is the width of the point.

Safet *h%le &r%+%n':

1. 4o not use the screw dri#er as a pin punch and do not hammer on the handles. %. 4o not use the screw dri#er as a le#er. 1. 4o not use the flat blade screw dri#er on a phillips screw head and #ice #ersa. 0. @se the right si:e of screw dri#er for each screw. 5. @se only the electrician screw dri#er while working with electrical wires and equipment's.
69

A$$%'n;ent:
1.7ention the different types of screwdri#ersA %.Briefly e.plain types of screwdri#ers with a neat sketch with labeled partsA 1.What is the material of screwdri#ers are specifiedA screwdri#erA <ow

0.7ention some safety while dri#ing screwsA

70

?. WRENCHES AN& S/ANNERS

Wrenches or spanners are used mainly for fastening purpose. They are use for tightening and loosening of nuts and bolts( pipes etc. There are different type of wrenches. 5ome wrenches are also called spanners. 5panners are made from >hrome -anadium steel and are usually dropped forged. They are specified by their type and the si:e of the jaw opening. This differs for fi.ed and adjustable wrenches. 5panners are of the following type9

O#en En. Wrench

The open end spanner has its head positioned straight or angular to the a.is of the centre line. It is used where there is suffcient space for its insertion and where the nuts and bolts are freely accessible

O#en En. Wrench

71

Socket Wrench
These ha#e detachable parts such as the head and its shafts of different si:es. This wrench is rused where it is difficult to use an open end wrench. It is generally inserted into the parts where it is to be used. <ence the neccicity of lengthier shafts arise. It is used in assembly shop( automobile shop etc.

1.>lose end wrench(%.5haft(1.<ead

72

/%#e Wrench
It is used for fastening or unfastening of pipes( pipe fittings round bars etc. it is commonly used by the plumber. The jaws of the pipe wrench ha#e serration's to ha#e a better grip on the job. The pipe wrench can be adjusted to #arious openings by means of an adjusting screw and tightened on the job.

/%#e Wrench 1.2i#ot( %.5pring( 1.<andle or 3e#er( 0.5pring( 5.,djusting But ".7o#able =aw

73

Monke Wrench
The jaw of this wrench open parallel and can be mo#ed using a screw and hence can be adjusted to a range of openings. The jaws being flat( do not damage the sides of the nut. Monke Wrench 1.&i.ed jaw( %.7o#able jaw( 1.Enurled nut on screw

Clo$e En. Wrench

This is similar to single end wrench but it encloses the nut entirely. It is also called as a bo. wrench.

Clo$e En. Wrench

T*el+e=/o%nt Bo- Wrench or R%n' S#anner

74

The ring spanner has twel#e notches in the hole. The point of the nut may be gripped by si. notches in case of he.agonal nut and four notches in case of a square nut. This is commonly known as a ring spanner. It can be used where a #ery little turn of the spanner is only possible and is easy to handle.

T*el+e=/o%nt Bo- Wrench or R%n' S#anner

Tee=Socket Wrench
75

This wrench has the appearance of the letter KT'. It has a socket opening which helps for applying greater force for dri#ing the nut. It is used at all places where single end and double end wrenches are difficult to use.

Tee=Socket Wrench 1.<andle( %.5hank( 1.<ead

Off=Set Socket Wrench

76

This is similar to a KT' socket wrench but is used for light duty work.

Off=Set Socket Wrench

A.@2$ta1le Wrench
This type of wrench can be used where the nut si:e is ha#ing an odd dimension. <ere one end of the wrench can be adjusted with the help of a screw.

1. Enurled nut on screw

/%n Hook S#anner

77

It is used to dri#e round nuts ha#ing holes or notches in a cylindrical or a flat surface.

1.pin A &or flat surfaces( B &or cylindrical surfaces

Allen Wrench
78

It is an e.truded he.agonal bar of a standard si:e which fits into the socket of a standard ,llen head screw. It is commonly known as an ,llen key. It is bent to dri#e an ,llen head screw.

1.<e.agon

Safet Wh%le A$%n' Wrenche$:

1. If the wrench has got burrs( grind off the rough spots to a#oid injury to the hands. %. It is safer to pull the wrench towards the worker than to push it away. 1. 5elect an open end wrench or a socket wench where e#er possible. ,#oid the use of a adjustable wrench. 0. To get an e.tra force( ne#er strike the wrench with a hammer. @se a mallet or a soft hammer if needed. 5. When the nut is not coming out due to rusting( etc with a normal pull( gi#e sudden but controlled jerks.

A$$%'n;ent:
79

1. &rom what material are the wrenches made up ofA What is the purpose of using a wrenchA %. <ow are spanners specifiedA 1. What are the types of wrenches( e.plain briefly each with a neat sketchA

1B. /LIERS
80

, 2lier is a hand tool for gripping or holding of small work pieces. It is also used for cutting of thin sheets( wires etc. The follo*%n' are the ;o$t co;;on t #e$ of #l%er$ %n 2$e. 1. &lat plier %. >ombination plier 1. >utting plier 0. Bose plier 5. 2oly grip plier

1.,lat /l%er
This plier has flat jaws with serrations. It is used for gripping and bending of thin sheets and wires.

!.Co;1%nat%on /l%er
It is a combination of &lat and >utting pliers. It is used for both gripping and cutting. 5o it is called as a >ombination plier.

3.C2tt%n' /l%er
The jaws of this plier are like blades. ;lectricians use them for cutting wires.

4.No$e /l%er
81

Bose pliers are made with a tapering nose( or jaws. This tool can be used for placing and remo#ing small items in narrow spaces. It is mostly preferred for electrical and radio repair works.

5./ol Gr%# /l%er

2olygrip plier are mainly used for firm gripping of jobs on which some operation has to be performed while it is being held. The follo*%n' are the ;o$t co;;on t #e$ of #l%er$ %n 2$e. 1. &lat plier( %.>ombination plier( 1.>utting plier( 0.Bose plier( 5.2oly grip plier

82

3.C2tt%n' #l%er

4.No$e #l%er 5./ol 'r%# #l%er

Safet Wh%le A$%n' /l%er$:

83

1. The correct types of plier should be used for the correct job. %. Be#er use diagonal pliers for cutting steel sheets as this may destroy the cutting edges and damage the tool's joints. 1. Be#er use the plier as a hammer. 0. 7ake sure that proper insulation material is wound round the handle of a plier used for electrical purposes.

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What are the uses of pliersA %. 7ention different types of pliersA 1. ;.plain in brief types of pliers with a neat sketchA 0. 7ention different safety while using pliersA

84

11. &RILLS
4rilling is an operation of producing a hole in a solid material by means of a cutting tool called as a drill. Twist drills and flat drills are commonly used for producing holes. 4rills are normally made of <igh 5peed 5teel.Tungsten carbide drills are also a#ailable.

T #e$ Of &r%ll$: The follo*%n' are three ;a%n t #e$ of .r%ll$:

A. &lat drill B.5traight fluted drill C.Twist drill The other t #e$ of .r%ll$ are 1. >arbide tip drills %. >ounter sink drills 1. >ounter bore drills 0.1 or 0 fluted drills 5. 3ong series drills ". 8il hole drills ). 5tub series drills *. 5ubland or step drills
85

A. ,lat &r%ll:
, &lat drill has the cutting lips ground at an included angle of + ! 1% .The relief for the clearance at the cutting edges is 1 ! " . &lat drills do not ha#e flutes cut along the body and hence pose difficulty for chip remo#al. <ence deep holes cannot be drilled by using these drills. , flat drill is preferred for drilling of Brass as it dose not dig into the material. The flat drill is shown in the figure.

,lat &r%ll B.Stra%'ht ,l2te. &r%ll:

, straight fluted drill is a drill ha#ing its flutes running parallel to its a.is. , straight fluted drill has a Mero rake. >hip remo#al is affected due to the straight nature of the flutes. The drill has to be often remo#ed for clearing the chips during drilling. In drilling of soft materials like Brass( the drill tends to ad#ance faster than the rate of feed and the drill digs into the material. 5uch problems are not encounted when using a 5traight fluted drill. When drilling sheet metal( the straight fluted drill does not tend to lift the sheet from the table as in the case of a twist drill.

86

Stra%'ht ,l2te. &r%ll

C.T*%$t &r%ll
These drills are the most commonly used drills for general purpose drilling. The parts of a Twist drill are e.plained below9 The Twist drill is typically a two flute cutting tool ha#ing two main parts9 1. The Body %. The 5hank

T*%$t &r%ll

87

1. The Bo. :
The body consists of the cutting point and the cylinder and with two opposite helical groo#es( or flutes. The flutes ha#e a special profile forming the cutting edges and pro#iding the necessary space for the flow of chips( which come up along the flutes from the hole being drilled. Two narrow margins running along the flutes on the cylinder of the body guide the drill in the hole and reduces its friction against the hole surface. The body consists of the following parts9

a. &ea. Center an. /o%nt

The point is the conical portion at one end of the drill opposite to the shank. Bormally this point is ground at 11* with each cutting lip or edge shaped at an angle of 5+ with the a.is af the drill. The point tapers down to a sharp edge and is the e.treme point of the drill. This is called as the 4ead center of the drill. The dead center is usually 1/1 rd the diameter of the drill. The dead center should always lie in the e.act center of the drill a.is.

&ea. Center an. /o%nt

88

1.,l2te$:
The helical groo#es pro#ided throughout the entire length of the body are called as the flutes of the drill. They pro#ide a pathway for the chips to escape from the hole during the drilling process. 4rills for cutting hard materials are sometimes pro#ide with three of four flutes. ,n increase in the heli. angle of the drill flutes tend to weaken the drll body particularly so in smaller drills.

C.L%#$ or C2tt%n' E.'e$:

It is that part which acutally cuts the material when drilling a hole. 3ips are formed by the intersection of the flutes and the point. The length of the lips should be ground always equal( as otherwise only one lip will take the cutcausing a rough hole and damage to the drill.

89

The follo*%n' f%'2re $ho*$ no;enclat2re of a t*%$t .r%ll %n .eta%l.

the

, lip clearance is often pro#ided on the lips. 3ip clearance is that surface of the point that is ground away or relie#ed just back of the cutting lip of the drill. The lip clearance allows the drill to enter the metal with less friction and resistance.

No;enclat2re of a t*%$t .r%ll %n .eta%l.

a. Bo. Clearance:
The portion of the land that has been cut away so that it does not rub the walls of the hole being drilled is called as the Body clearance.

1.Mar'%n or Lan.:
The margin is the narrow strip shown in &ig. 51 and &ig. 50. It ensures the finish 4iameter of the drill and e.tends along the ensure length of the flute.
90

c.We1:
Web is the central portions of the drill body that owns the lands of the drill. It runs throughout the length of the flutes. The web is thicker at the ends than at the point to gi#e enough strength to the drill.

!.Shank:
7ost taper shank drills are pro#ided with a groo#e like neck between the shank and the body. The neck is utili:ed for stamping the si:e( material of the drill and the manufacturer's name or trade mark. There are three types of shanks in common use. They are straight( taper and square shanks. The drill is held at the shank and rotated. Taper shanks( generally in 7orse tapers are made in drills from " to * mm in diameter and 5traight shanks in those upto % mm in diameter. Taper shank drills are placed directly into the bore of the drilling machine spindle of through taper slee#es and held in the spindle by a drill chuck.

91

The other t #e$ of .r%ll$:

1. >arbide tip drills( %.>ounter sink drills( 1.>ounter bore drills(0.1 or 0 fluted drills( 5.3ong series drills( ".8il hole drills().5tub series drills( *.5ubland or step drills

1.Car1%.e &r%ll
a. >arbide tipped twist drill with a taper shank b.>arbide tipped 5traight fluted drill The drill has a straight flutes and a straight shank. The drill is used for making holes in hardened steel in range of 0*$"% <6>. It has a bra:ed carbide tip on the point.

Car1%.e &r%ll a. >arbide tipped twist drill with a taper shank b.>arbide tipped 5traight fluted drill

92

!.Center &r%ll
, combined drill and countersink commonly referred to as a >enter drill( is used to produce both a short drilled hole and a countersunk hole in one operation. The angles on these drills are always " . This is used for drilling of center holes in work to be turned between centers in a lathe and for starting holes in the correct location on the drilling machine.

Center &r%ll

3.Co2nter S%nk &r%ll:

93

This drill is used for making cones shaped enlargment of hole mouth for counter sunk screw heads to seat. The point comes with different angles. The common angles are " ( + ( and 1%

4.Co2nter Bore &r%ll

This drill is used for enlarging predrilled holes for the seating pf ,llen screw heads. The drill is equipped with integral pilots which helps in proper alignment of the drill.

o2nter Bore &r%ll

1.Tang(% 5hanks(1.Beck(0 &lute(5 2ilot

5.Three Or ,o2r ,l2te. &r%ll$

94

These drills are used for enlarging core and punched holes. The ad#antage of more flute is proper location( impro#ed finish( increased accuracy in the hole si:e and increased rate of metal remo#al . These are also called core drills or multifluted drills.

6. Lon' Ser%e$ T*%$t &r%ll

The fluted part of this drill is more than the length of a twist drill. This drill is used for drilling deep holes. This drill comes in straight shanks only. Lon' Ser%e$ T*%$t &r%ll

Three Or ,o2r ,l2te. &r%ll 1. Tang( %. 5hank( 1. Beck( 0. 3ip 7.O%l Hole &r%ll

95

The oil hole drill is used in large scale production units. There are holes in the flutes through which oil is forced to the cutting edges. This helps in efficient cooling of the point and also forces the chips out of the drilled hole.

O%l Hole &r%ll

:.STAB SERIES &RILL9

This drill has a short body. Therefore it dose not wobble or #ibrate. This drill is used for centering work and so is called centering drill. They come in parallel shank only.

STAB SERIES &RILL 1.5traight shank( %. 5hort flute length

?.S21lan. or Ste# &r%ll:

96

, 5tep 4rill may ha#e two or more diameters( produced by grinding #arious successi#e steps on the lands of the drill. These steps are usually separated by square or angular cutting edges( as the indi#idual jobs may require. The step drill is useful for most of the jobs requiring multiple$diameter drilling. It is e.tensi#ely used because it can be made by grinding down and stepping an ordinary drill. 5ome thinning of the web is usually required when so made. 5ub land drillsF perform the same function as the step drill( while its construction is somewhat different. The step drill has its steps or different diameters on the same land( while the 5ub land drill has two distinct lands running substantially to the entire length of the flutes. This is shown in the figure.

1!. &RILLING MACHINES:

97

, 4rilling machine is one in which the following operations can be performed9 1. 4rilling of through or blind holes. %. Boring with a single point tool( counter boring and countersinking. 1. 6eaming for high grade accuracy and surface finish. 0. >utting of internal threads with Taps. 5. 5pot facing on e.ternal and internal bosses( lugs etc.

The .%fferent t #e$ of .r%ll%n' ;ach%ne$ are:

1. ?ang 4rilling 7achine %. <and 4rilling 7achine a. <and ?rip 4rilling 7achine b. 2istol ?rip 4rilling 7achine . 1. <and 4rilling 7achine 0. 7ulti 5pindle drilling 7achine 5. 6adial 4rilling 7achine ". 5ensiti#e 4rilling 7achine ) @pright 4rilling 7achine

1. GANG &RILLING MACHINE

98

, number of drilling machine heads along with the pillars are mounted on the same table. This machine is used for large scale production work where different si:es are done on the same job. It is done without remo#ing the job from the table. 5uch machines are called ?ang 4rilling 7achines.

Gan'=t #eC $%- $#%n.le .r%ll%n' ;ach%ne *%th 1oth han. an. #o*er=fee..

!. Han. &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

99

This machine is held manually there are two types of hand drilling machine. 1. 2istol ?rip drilling machine %. <ea#y ?rip drilling machine 1. /ISTOL GRI/ &RILLING MACHINE: They are used for drilling holes less than diameter "mm. !. HEA"D GRI/ &RILLING MACHINE: They are used for drilling holes between diameter "mm$diameter 11mm. The pistol grip drilling machine is held in one hand and this machine has a finger press retaining button switch( while hea#y duty hand grip drilling machines are held in two hands.

The co;;on t #e$ of han. .r%ll%n' ;ach%ne$

100

The co;;on t #e$ of han. .r%ll%n' ;ach%ne$ A. <and drilling machine ! 3ight duty( B.<and drilling machine $ <ea#y duty C.<and drilling machine ! 7anually operated 1. 5witch( %.<andle( 1.4rill$>able( 0.,ir$holes( 5. 7otor(( "(Enurledgrip().>huck(*.4rill(+.<andle( 1 . <and wheel( 11. Body( 1%. Be#el gear wheel( 11. >huck mounting threads( 10. >huck( 15.4rill

4. M2lt% S#%n.le Mach%ne

This machine has number of spindles run by a motor mounted on it. This drilling machine is used when a number of holes of the same si:e or of different si:es are to be drilled on the same surface.
101

M2lt% S#%n.le Mach%ne

5. Ra.%al &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

This machine is used for working on hea#y and large components. The arm of the machine is capable of mo#ing in the radius of its column. This machine has the following special features. 1. <igh capacities of drill large holes
102

%. 3arge clamping surface and a wide range of heights between spindle and base. 1. , wide range of spindle feeds which enables to drill large and small holes as well as to perform reaming and tapping. 0. 7ostly the ele#ation of the arm is carried with the help of motor. 5. ,mple rigidity which a#oids #ibration. , few radial drill machines ha#e uni#ersal head mo#ements.

6. Sen$%t%+e &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

103

, 5ensiti#e 4rilling 7achine is a belt dri#en general purpose drilling machine used to produce a range of small holes. These drilling machines are made in the &loor model( Bench model and 7ultiple spindle models. It is called as a sensiti#e drilling machine because of its accurately balanced spindle.

Sen$%t%+e &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

7. A#r%'ht &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

104

This is a hea#y structured machine and therefore larger si:ed holes than that are possible on a sensiti#e drilling machine are drilled on this machine. They are equipped with slower speeds than sensiti#e drilling machines and the spindle is dri#en by stepped pulley through G-I belt or a flat belt. This has both manual and automatic feed mechanism.

A#r%'ht &r%ll%n' Mach%ne

S#ec%f%cat%on$ of a &r%ll%n' Mach%ne:

1. >olumn diameter9 ;.g. 1
105

mm

%. >apacity$ma.imum si:e of drill that can be drilled on the machine( say( 1*mm. 1. >apacity swing$ The ma.imum diameter of the job can be held on the machine table while drilling( ;.g. %5 mm. 0. 4istance from the center of the spindle to the center of the column. 5. &eed$ whether manually operated or automatic( feed range ;.g. . 5$ .1*. ". <eight of the machine. ;.g.%1 ). 7a.imum ;.g.15 mm #ertical tra#erse mm of the spindle

*. 7a.imum distance from the table to the highest point of the spindle ;.g. %1*mm +. 7otor capacity ;.g. <.2. of motor( 6.2.7$1% ,.>. or 4.>. and #oltage$00 #. 1 5peeds$6ange of rpm. ;.g. 5 ( )5( 1 " ( )5 ( * (1 rpm. ( %15( 0 ( (

11. 5pindle hole taper$ type and number of taper holes. ;.g. 7.T.1. C7orse Taper 1D. 1%. Table si:e. ;.g. 1 .15 mm. 11. T$slots in the table.;.g." slots . 10<) 10. Type of starter( whether supplied with drill chuck and key are coolant pump. 15. Type$whether 5ensiti#e( @pright( 6adial etc.
106

&r%ll%n' Acce$$or%e$:
The common types of drilling accessories are mentioned below9 1. 4rill chuck %. 5lee#es 1. 4rill drift

&r%ll Ch2ck:9
The drill chuck is the most common accessory used in drilling machines for holding of mostly drills and reamers with straight shanks. These chucks come in two #arieties( The keyless chuck and the keyed chuck. Both these types are illustrated in the

Three @a* $elf center%n' ke le$$ .r%ll ch2ck

107

2ct% 1.

a.Con$tr on Sett%n'

1.5hank(%.5lee#e(1.5pring(0. =aws( 5. Body

Three @a* $elf center%n' Ke t #e .r%ll ch2ck

108

Three @a* $elf center%n' Ke t #e .r%ll ch2ck 1.=awnut( %.5lee#e(1.Eey hole(0.Eey

109

Slee+e$
,ccording to the type of shank( Twist drills( 6eamer( >ounterbores(etc.are held in the drilling machine spindle by three methods. 4irectly in the taper bore of the spindle( in Taper slee#es and in the drill chucks. The placement of the drill in the 5pindle bore directly is shown in the fig.)%. 7orse taper is the most commonly used taper in the drilling machine spindle. 7orse tapers are designated in numbers $". Taper slee#es are used when the taper diameter of the drill or reamer is less than the bore diameter of the machine spindle. The slee#e with the drill is inserted into the spindle bore and held there by the self locking 7orse taper. This is illustrated in the &ig.)%.5lee#es are a#ailable in sets according to the increase in the taper bore diameter. a. 4irectly In spindle hole taper Tool holding methods b. set of taper slee#e c.5etting a drill in a slee#e

110

a.4irectly In spindle hole taper Tool holding methods b. set of taper slee#e( c.5etting a drill in a slee#e

&r%ll &r%ft$:
The drill drift is an accessory on the drilling machine used to remo#e the taper shank drills or slee#es from the spindle. The drill drift is introduced into the slot pro#ided in the spindle and a light tap is gi#en to push out the drill or slee#e thus releasing the self locking. shows the drill drift in use.

111

A$a'e of .r%ft$ to re;o+e a tool fro; the $#%n.le

A$a'e of .r%ft$ to re;o+e a tool fro; the $#%n.le a. A$%n' #lane &r%ft 1. A$%n' a Safet .r%ft

112

Tro21le Shoot%n' In &r%ll%n':

SDM/TOMS /ROBABLE= CAASES 1. Breaking 1.Blunt drill of the drill. %.3ess clearance 1.3ess cutting speed 0.>hip blocking in the flutes !. Burning 1.4ry drilling marks in the %.<igher feed cutting rate. edge. REME&IES 1.6esharpen the drill %.2ro#ide proper clearance 1. @se correct speed. 0. 3ift the drill more often during work.

1.use coolant %. @se optimum feeds.

3. 4rill 1. 4ull drill. 1.5harpen the drill refuses to %.Too little lip %. 2ro#ide.proper.lip. enter work. clearance. clearance 4. <ole 1. @nequal lip 1. ?rind the lip length larger than length. equally. the drill si:e.

113

Safet Wh%le &r%ll%n':

1. clean the machine spindle thoroughly before mounting the drill chuck to ensure proper seating. %. >lamp the job rigidly to the #ice or table before starting to drill. 1. 4o not lea#e the drift in the machine spindle after remo#ing the slee#e or drill chuck. 0. 4o not force the drill into the work. @se optimum cutting speeds and feeds. 5. 4o not change gears while the machine is in the running condition. ". Be#er try to hold the work in hand. ). Be#er remo#e the clips by hand. brush for cleaning the chips. ,lways use a

*. @se a proper coolant while drilling( otherwise the hot chips may cause injury.

114

A$$%'n;ent:
1. What is drillingA %. 7ention different types of drillsA 1( Write notes on iD &lat drill. iiD5traight fluted drill iiiDTwist drill with a neat sketchA 0. Briefly e.plain the body of the drillA 5. 7ention the different parts of the body of the drillA ". Briefly e.plain the dead center and point in the body of the drill with a neat sketchA ). Write notes on iD&lutes iiD 3ips or cutting edges IiiD Body clearance i#D 7argin or land -ID Web. *. Write a note on shank of the drillA +. Write a note on carbide drill( center drill( counter sink drill( center bore drill with a neat sketchA 1 . Write a note on( three or four fluted drills( long series twist drills( oil hole drills( stub series drills with a neat sketchA
115

11. Write a brief note on sub land or step drill with a neat sketchA 1%. What are the different operations that can be performed in a drilling machineA 11. What are the different types of drilling machinesA 10. ;.plain gang and hand drilling machinesA 15. ;.plain with a neat sketch with sensiti#e drilling machineA 1". <ow are drilling machines specifiedA 1). 7ention the different drilling accessories and e.plainA 1*. 7ention some safety while drillingA 1+. 7ention some symptoms( probable causes and remedies in drillingA

116

13. REAMERS
, reamer is a rotary cutting tool( generally of cylindrical or conical shape( intended for enlarging and finishing holes to accurate dimensions. It is usually equipped with two or more peripheral channels or flutes either parallel to its a.is or in a right hand or left$ hand heli. as required. The reamers ha#ing helical flutes are subject to less chatter( pro#ide a smoother cutting action and produce a better finish. The flutes form the cutting teeth and pro#ide a pathway for remo#ing the chips. /art$ Of A Rea;er , 6eamer consists of the following main parts9 1. >utting edge %. &lutes 1. 3and 0. 5hank 5. Tang

C2tt%n' E.'e:
The edge formed by the meeting of the flank and the face is called as the cutting edge.

,l2te$:
The longitudinal channels formed in the body of the reamer to pro#ide cutting edges( permit the passage of chips and allow the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges are called as the flutes.

Lan.:
117

The section of the reamer between the adjacent flutes i.e.( the black portion of the cutting edge is called as the land.

Shank:
5hank is the portion of the reamer by which it is held and dri#en.

Tan':
Tang is the flattened end of the tapered shank that fits a slot in the slee#e or machine spindle.

T #e Of Rea;er$: Rea;er$ are 'ro2#e. %nto t*o cate'or%e$.

1. <and reamers %. 7achine reamers.

118

1.Han. Rea;er$
These are finishing tools used when a hole must be finished to a high degree of accuracy and finish. , square shank allows the wrench to be used for rotating the reamer in the hole. The teeth on one end of the reamer are tapered slightly for a certain distance( so that it can enter the hole and act as a guide whereas in machine reamers this taper is absent( but a chamfer at the tip is pro#ided for easy entry. <and reamers should ne#er be turned back wards while reaming as this may damage the cutting edges. Both roughing and finishing tapered hand reamers are a#ailable for all standard si:es. 5ince the chip does not fall readily( tapered hand reamers should be remo#ed from the hole and the flute should be cleaned frequently.

!. Mach%ne Rea;er$ or Ch2ck%n' Rea;er$

These reamers may be used in drilling and milling machines for both roughing and finishing of holes. 7achine reamers normally ha#e taper shanks( but straight shank reamers are also a#ailable. They are also called as chucking reamers because of the method used to hold them. 7achine reamers are a#ailable in a wide #ariety of types. 5ome of the types are straight shank helical flute reamer( e.pansion reamer( rose reamer( stub screw machine reamer( jobber reamer( taper finishing reamer( taper shank bridge reamer( die makers reamers with high spiral flutes( taper shank combination drill and reamer etc. these reamers are illustrated in the figure.

119

<and 6eamers and 7achine 6eamers.

120

7achine 6eamers or >hucking 6eamers.

S#ee.$ for Rea;%n':

The speed or 6.2.7. for reaming is normally 1/1 rd the speed used for drilling.

Safet Wh%le Rea;%n':

121

1. ,lways store reamer in separate bo.es or containers to pre#ent the cutting edges from nicking and burning. %. >utting fluids should be used while reaming to impro#e hole finish. 1. 4o not turn the reamer backwards while taking it out of the hole for cleaning the chips. This may damage the cutting edges . 0. 4o not use a hand reamer as a machine reamer and #ice$#ersa. 5. Be#er rotate the reamer backwards. damage the cutting edge. This will

". Be#er roll or drop the reamer on a metal surface. ). When it is not in use keep it oiled to pre#ent it from rusting.

14. MARKING AN& LADOAT TOOLS:

The following are the common types of marking and layout tools in a workshop that is of rele#ance to a toolmaker.
122

1. >alipers and 4i#iders. %. 2unches. 1. 5urface plates. 0. 5cribers. 5. Try squares.

1. Cal%#er$ an. &%+%.er$:

4i#iders are used to markout circles( arcs for di#iding straight and cur#ilinear lines and for plotting geometrical figures. They are also used to transfer dimensions from the rulers to the work pieces. >alipers are used as checking instruments and to measure the inside and outside diameters of workpieces generally. These instruments are finding less usage in the present days. The different types of calipers are shown in the figure below.

Cal%#er$ an. &%+%.er$.

123

Cal%#er$ an. &%+%.er$

!. /2nche$:

124

,s the name suggests these are used for punching on marked lines( hole centers( boundaries etc. 2unches are classified into three types depending on the included angle of the point. 1. 2rick punch C1 D. %. 4ot punch C" D 1. >enter punch C+ D 2rick punches are used to make small indent marks on layout lines. The dot punch is used to enlarge the mark made by the prick punch and enable it to last longer. >enter punches further enlarge the mark made by the dot punches and are used to guide the drill bits. &ig. )* shows the three different types of punches. 1.<ead( %.Enurled length of body

3. S2rface /late:

125

The surface plate is usually a 5easoned >ast iron block( which is scraped to a high degree of accuracy and flatness. The surface plate is mainly used for marking purposes. ,ngle plates( -ernier height gauges etc. are used on the surface plate for marking purposes. 5urface plate are also made of granite are hardened steel. The fig shows a surface plate.

126

S2rface /late

4. Scr%1er$:
5cribers are used for marking lines on work surfaces with the aid of steel rules( squares and templates. 5cribers are made of Tool steel. To layout on well$finished sheet surfaces( scribers made of brass are usually used. 5cribers come in three main #arieties. 5ingle point( double point and remo#able point type. The single point scriber is a steel rod of 15 to %5 mm in length and 0 ! 5mm in diameter. 8ne end is hardened to a length of % ! 1 mm from the tip and sharpened at an angle of 15 . The other end bent to form an eye %5 ! 1 mm in diameter.

127

The double point scriber is a steel rod with both the ends pointedF one point is bent at right angles to the shank. The shank is greater in diameter and knurled to pro#ide a better grip. The bent end is used in reaching through holes etc. The scriber with remo#able point is similar to a watchmaker's screwdri#erF the point is a ground and a sharpened steel rod. The &ig. indicates the abo#e mentioned scribers.

Scr%1er$.

128

Scr%1er$

5. Tr S<2are$:

129

Try squares are precision tools made of stabili:ed hardened steel( which are normally made of two pieces and ri#eted to each other. 2erfect right angle is maintained between the Beam and the Blade. The try square is mainly used for checking the right angles of machined jobs and also for setting jobs on the machine. The blade is thinner than the beam and is lengthier than the beam. Try squares are of the following types9 1. &i.ed try square. %. ,djustable try square. 1. Be#el edge try square. 0. Tool and die makers square.

,%-e. tr $<2are
&i.ed try squares( as the name suggests( ha#e the blade and the beam fi.ed to each other by means of ri#ets. ,djustable try squares ha#e an adjusting screw by which the length of the blade can be #aried forward or backwards depending as per requirements. Bevel edge try squares ha#e their edges be#eled at 05 and as such pro#ide an impro#ed perfect line contact with the job. Tool and die makers try squares are mostly used by toolmakers. They ha#e detachable blades and are useful for measuring small angles and slots on inserts and precision job surfaces. The four types of try squares mentioned abo#e are shown in fig

Tr S<2are$:

130

Tr S<2are$ ,. 8rdinary ;ngineers Try square( B. 2recision Be#elled edge Try square >. 2recision Try square with a light 4. ,djustable Try square ;. ,dj. Try square with a pair of blades used by die makers to check small 1.Blade(%.Botch( 1.5tock

15. TA/S AN& &IES

131

Threa.:
, screw thread is a ridge of uniform section in the form of a <eli. cut around the circumference of a cylinder and ad#ancing along the a.is. The different types of threads and their terminologies are discussed in the ne.t chapter. Taps and dies are used to produce threads.

1. Ta#$
, tap is a cylindrical bar of steel with threads formed around it and groo#es or flutes running lengthwise on it( intersecting with the threads to form the cutting edges. It is used to cut internal threads. &ig.*% shows the principal parts of a tap used to cut 7etric threads. Tapping is the operation of producing threads in a material. Taps and dies are e.tensi#ely used to produce internal and e.ternal threads. Ta#$ Ta#$

/art$ of a Ta#:
132

C2tt%n' ,ace: The front part of the thread portion is the cutting face. The chip strikes on it while threading. ,l2te$: The longitudinal channels formed in a Tap to create the cutting edges on the thread profile and to pro#ide chip space and cutting fluid passages are called as the flutes. 8n parallel or straight thread taps( the flutes may be straight( angular( or helicalF on a taper thread tap( they may be straight( angular or spiral. Heel: It is the back portion of the thread on the land. Lan.: 8ne of the threaded sections between the flutes of the tap is called as the 3and. Shank: The uncut cylindrical portion behind the cutting length of the body is called as the shank. The top portion of the shank has the tang.

Tan':
133

The Tang is the topmost portion of the tap shank used for dri#ing the tap. The tang portion of the tap fits into the Tap wrench. <and taps ha#e square tangs pro#ided on them. 7achine taps ha#e a shank similar to that of a Taper shank drill. Threa. Rel%ef 3ike all cutting tools( the tap thread is backed off to gi#e relief to the cutting edge. This allows the tap to penetrate into the metal easily.

K%n.$ of Ta#$
There are two common types of taps in use. They are hand taps and 7achine taps.

Han. Ta#$:
,s the name suggests these taps are used to produce threads manually using a tap wrench. These are taps with the thread and the shank appro.imately of the same length( and a square tang to accommodate a dri#ing mechanism. <and taps usually come in a set of three. They are called as Taper( 2lug and Bottoming taps. They are also called as 1st( %nd and 1rd taps. The 1st tap or taper tap has about 1/1rd the end of the portion tapered. This enables the tap to enter in the hole and cut the starting threads. The %nd tap tapers upto three to four teeth and the 1rd tap has a one thread taper. ,ll the three taps are necessary to cut the threads to get good finished threads.

Han. Ta#$
134

Han. Ta#$

Mach%ne Ta#$

7achine screw taps are small taps( usually lesser than "mm in diameter. They are usually manufactured in sets of two. Taper and bottoming taps. They are a#ailable as Two flutes or Three flute taps Mach%ne Ta#$

Mater%al of the Ta#$:

135

<igh 5peed 5teel C<.5.5D is mainly used for manufacturing taps. ,lso( <igh >arbon <igh >hromium 5teel containing 1.05 ! 1.)N of carbon( .% ! .0N manganese and 11 ! 1%.5N chromium is used. The hardness of <igh 5peed 5teel taps should be " ! "1 <.6.>( while for <igh >arbon <igh >hromium 5teel <.6.> should be "% ! "5 <.6.>.

Ta# Wrenche$:
Tap wrenches are de#ices used to hold and dri#e the hand taps while tapping. Tap wrenches are usually made from 7ild steel. The following types are commonly used.

Ta# Wrenche$ a.Tap wrench fi.ed Csmall typesD( b.Tap wrench adjustable

&%e$:

136

, die is metal piece usually made of <igh 5peed 5teel that has internal threads in it. It is used for cutting e.ternal threads on a cylindrical work piece. 4ies are of many types. The most common types in use are 5olid dies and 5plit dies.

Sol%. &%e$
, solid die is <igh 5peed 5teel hardened nut ha#ing a.ial clearance holes that from the cutting edges and accommodate the chip remo#ed. >hamfer 1 with a length of 1.5 ! % threads are pro#ided in a threaded portion % on both sides such dies are used for cutting threads upto 5%mm in diameter in a single pass.

S#l%t &%e$
&le.ible dies( as distinct from solid dies( ha#e a slit C .5mm ! 1.5mmD which allows the diameter of the thread to be adjusted within the range of .1 ! .%5mm. When hand operated( the split are solid dies are held in a 4iestock. The commonly used dies are of 6ound cross section although rectangular dies are also a#ailable.

&%e Stock:
137

4ie stock is de#ice used to encase( hold and dri#e the die while cutting threads. It is normally made of 7ild steel and has a screw to tighten the seating position of the die in the die stock. &ig. ** shows the die stock being used to cut threads and its parts.

Sol%. &%e$

&%e Stock

S#l%t &%e$

Safet *h%le 2$%n' Ta#$ an. &%e$:

138

1. ,lways chamfer the hole to be threaded. This helps the Tap or the 4ie to start easily. %. 4o not e.ert too much force while cutting threads( as this may cause the die or the tap to break. 1. ;nsure that the correct si:e of core drill has been drilled( as an undersi:ed hole may make tapping difficult and result in breakage due to forcing. 0. &i. the job to be threaded securely in the work holding de#ice. 5. @se the correct si:e Tap wrenches as an unnecessarily long le#erage for a small tap might cause its breakage. ".@se proper cutting fluids while cutting threads as this helps in lubrication and easy chip clearance. ). While tapping blind holes( take care to clear the chips often.

16.THREA&S AN& THREA&ING

139

Threa.:
, thread may be defined as a ridge of uniform section in the form of a <eli. cut around the circumference of a cylinder and ad#ancing along the a.is.

Threa.%n':
Threading is the operation of producing threads in work pieces.

/art$ of a Scre* Threa.:

There are many types of threads( out of which the 7etric thread is the most commonly used. The terms of a 7etric screw thread are shown in &ig. *+ and e.plained below. The terms e.plained below apply to all types of threads irrespecti#e of the thread form. An'le Of The Threa.: The angle included between the sides of the thread( measured in an a.ial plane. Cre$t: The top surface joining the two sides of a thread.

&e#th Of Threa.:
140

, single depth of the thread is equal to half of the difference between the 7ajor and 7inor diameters of the thread.

Hel%- An'le: The angle made by the heli. of the thread at the pitch diameter( with a plain perpendicular to the a.is. Lea.: The distance ad#anced by the screw a.ially in one turn. 8n a single thread screw( the lead and the pitch are identicalF 8n a double thread screw( the lead is twice the pitchF on a triple thread screw the lead is thrice the pitch and so on. Ma@or &%a;eter: The largest diameter of the thread of the screw or nut. M%nor &%a;eter: The smallest diameter of a thread( screw or nut. /%tch: The distance from a point on a screw thread to a corresponding point on the ne.t thread measured parallel to the a.is. /%tch &%a;eter:
141

8n a straight screw thread it is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder( the surface of which would pass through the threads at such points so as to make equal the width of the threads and the width of the spaces cut by the surface of the cylinder. Root: The bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads. S%.e or ,lank: The surface between the >rest and the 6oot. No;enclat2re of Threa.9 No;enclat2re of Threa.$

T #e$ or ,or;$ of Threa.$:

5crew threads are of the following types depending on the cross sectional form they take.
142

1. 7etric threads %. ,cme threads. 1...Buttress threads.. 0. 2ipe threads. 5. 6ound threads or Enuckle threads. ". 5quare threads 1. Metr%c Threa.$ :The metric screw thread has an included angle of " and is the most commonly used type of thread. These screw threads are designated by the capital letter G7I and GHI sign between the pitch and the diameter. The threads form a sharp G-I profile. &or coarse threads pitch is not indicated and standard tables ha#e to be referred. ;.g. 71 ( 71% etc. The crest is recommended to be cleared by a width of 2/*. The &ig. shows the cross section of a 7etric thread.

Metr%c Threa.$ !.Ac;e Threa.$:

143

,cme screw threads ha#e been de#eloped to carry hea#y loads without causing e.cessi#e radial bursting pressure in the nut. They are also used to produce tra#ersing motion on the machines and tools and is largely used in the &eed screw and the 3ead screw of machines. ,n ,cme thread is a modification of the square form of the thread. It is preferred for many jobs( as it is fairly easy to machine. It has a %+ included angle. The thread form and the symbols used are shown in &ig.+ .

Ac;e Threa.$

3. B2ttre$$ Threa.$:

144

, buttress thread is cut square on one side and slanting on the other side to an angle of 05 . It is used where a thread requiring great strength in one direction is necessary( as in certain type of #ices. In some cases( the load resisting side may be inclined from 1 ! ) to a#oid cuts or tool interference in cutting the threads.

B2ttre$$ Threa.$

4. /%#e Threa.$ :

145

2ipe threads as the name suggests are used in pipes fitting. ,mong pipe threads the most common in use world wide are the British 5tandard 2ipe threads. They ha#e an included angle of 55 and are tapered 1/1"'' per inch on the diameter. This pro#ides for a tighter fit and reduces the chances of leakage in the pipe.

/%#e Threa.$

5. Ro2n. Threa.$ or Kn2ckle Threa.$:

146

The profile of this thread is yet another modification of the 5quare thread. The sharp corners of the square threads that are liable for damage are rounded off as shown in &ig. +0. This thread is used where hea#y were and rough use is e.pected as in a 6ailway carriage coupling screw. The ad#antage of this thread is that it can be rolled in a sheet metal or cast to ha#e shallow depths that make it useful on electric bulbs and sockets( Bottle tops etc. The knuckle thread shown in the &ig.+0 a is the I58 thread profile adopted by the Bureau of Indian standards in preference to the basic knuckle thread. , knuckle thread is designated by the letter K'k'' followed by the nominal diameter and pitch( the two being separated by the GHI sign. &or e.g. a knuckle thread of Bominal diameter 1 mm and pitch %.50mm is designated as E1 . %.50. Ro2n. Threa.$ or Kn2ckle Threa.$

6.S<2are Threa.$:
147

5quare threads are not in common use owing to the difficulty in manufacturing as the thread is not strong enough as the ,cme thread. These are normally used for worm screw forms and some other work holding de#ices. The sides of the thread are at an angle of + to the a.is. In this type of thread the width( depth and the space between the threads are equal. , recent #ersion of this is the modified square thread that has an included angle of 1 . ,part from the profiles of threads e.plained abo#e( threads are of different types depending on whether they are cut internal( e.ternal( the number of starts( and turn. They are of the following types. S<2are Threa.$

1. Internal Threa.$:
148

Threads cut inside the job are called Internal threads or female threads. !.E-ternal Threa.$: : Threads cut on the circumference of a job are called as ;.ternal threads or male threads. 3.r%'ht= han. hel%- threa.: , right$handed thread is one which the nut must be turned in the right$hand direction to screw it on. 4.Left= Han.e. Threa.: , left$hand thread is one in which the nut must be turned in the left$ hand direction( to screw it on. 5.S%n'le Start An. M2lt% Start Threa.$: : &or one complete turn of the screw or bolt( if the ad#ancement is by one thread the screw is termed as a single start thread. &or one complete re#olution of the screw if the ad#ancement is by more than one thread then the screw is termed as a 7ulti start thread.

149

1:. MEASARING INSTRAMENTS

7easuring instruments are a part and parcel of any manufacturing process. 4iscussed below are the measuring instruments used commonly by a Tool maker in the shop floor.

1. Steel R2le:
, steel rule is the simplest and the most commonly used measuring instrument on the shop floor. The steel rule comes in common si:es like one foot or 1 cm( and 1meter. The one$foot rule has marking in both inches and 7illimeters. It measures 1 inches or 1 cms. The minimum measurement possible in mm is 1mm and 1/1"th inch in inches. It is used in the shop floor for taking measurements of 6aw materials and checking the length or diameters of jobs that ha#e an accuracy of 1mm. 5hown below is the sketch of a steel rule. Steel R2le

150

!. "ern%er Cal%#er
-ernier calipers are measuring instruments that ha#e a -ernier scale incorporated on the mo#able jaw. The -ernier scale is used for measurement of outside dimensions( inside dimensions( depth of slots( key $ ways and steps. The least count of the commonly used -eniers are . % or . 5mm. There are special types of -ernier calipers for specific uses like inside -ernier caliper( outside -ernier caliper( gear tooth -ernier caliper( dial -ernier( ;lectronic digital caliper( height gauge etc. The material of the -ernier is a <ardened and stabili:ed steel.

/art$ of a "ern%er Cal%#er:

Bea;: The Beam is that part of the -ernier on which the graduations in mm or inches are marked. The front side of the beam has the main scale di#isions marked on it. The -ernier scale slides on the beam. The beam has a channel machined on its backside which aids in the sliding of the depth scale. 8ne end of the beam has a fi.ed jaw and the other end has a stopper that pre#ents the -ernier scale from sliding out when the -ernier jaws are opened to its ma.imum position. "ern%er Scale: The -ernier scale has the -ernier di#isions marked on it. The least count of the -ernier depends on the number of di#isions marked on the -ernier scale. &inding the least count of the -ernier has been e.plained further in this chapter.
151

0a*$: The -ernier contains two jawsF The &i.ed jaw and the 7o#able jaw. The &i.ed jaw is a part of the beam. The 7o#able jaw( the -ernier scale( the Thumb rest and the slider are made as an assembly and this assembly slides on the Beam. N%1$: The &i.ed and the 7o#able jaws of the -ernier narrow down the reduce in thickness to form sharper edges. These narrowed down edges of the -ernier help in taking accurate measurements and are known as the nibs of the -ernier. Cla;#%n' Scre*$: >lamping screws are used to clamp the 7o#able jaw assembly to the beam and retain the position of measurements e#en after the -ernier is lifted outside the area of measurement. &e#th Scale: 5ome -ernier calipers are equipped with a blade for measuring the depth of holes and groo#es. This blade is called as the 4epth scale of the -ernier. The 4epth scale slides in a channel machined in the back face of the Beam.

152

/art$ of a "ern%er Call%#er

/art$ of a "ern%er Cal%#er

153

The Lea$t Co2nt of The "ern%er Scale:

3east count of the -ernier is a least possible measurement that can be made on the -ernier caliper. In the 7etric system of measurements( -erniers with . %mm and . 5mm least counts are the most commonly used. The method to find out the least count of both these -erniers is e.plained below.

"ern%er W%th B.B!;; Lea$t Co2nt:

The -ernier scale is di#ided into 5 di#isions. The 5 th di#ision of the -ernier scale coincides with the 0+th di#ision of the 7ain scale. The least count of the -ernier can be found out by the following method9 The number of -ernier scale di#isions are di#ided by the number of coinciding 7ain scale di#isions. The resultant #alue is subtracted from one unit of the main scale di#ision. 0+/5 L .+*mm 1$ .+* L . %mm. <ence the 3east count of the -ernier is found out as . %mm.

154

"ern%er W%th B.B5;; Lea$t Co2nt:

The -ernier scale is di#ided into % di#isions. The % th di#ision of the -ernier scale coincides with the 1+th di#ision of the 7ain scale. The least count of the -ernier can be found out by the following method. The number of -ernier scale di#isions is di#ided by the number of coinciding 7ain scale di#isions. The resultant #alue is subtracted from one unit of the main scale di#ision. 1+/% L .+5mm. 1$ .+5 L . 5mm. Therefore the 3east count of the -ernier is found out as . 5mm.

Metho. of Rea.%n' a "ern%er Cal%#er :

In the first &ig.( the :ero of the -ernier scale has mo#ed right to %1 full mm on the 7ain scale. The nearest coinciding di#ision of the -ernier scale is taken and multiplied with the 3east count of the -ernier. <ere( the 1*th di#ision of the -ernier scale is the nearest di#ision that coincides with a reading of the 7ain scale. <ence 1* . . %mm C3east countD gi#es .1". This #alue is added to the 7ain scale reading. Therefore the reading is 11.1". 5imilarly the second reading is %*.50.

155

Metho. of Rea.%n' of a "ern%er Call%#er

Metho. of Rea.%n' a "ern%er Cal%#er

T #e$ of "ern%er Cal%#er$:

1. 4ial -ernier. %. ;lectronic 4igital -ernier. 1. -ernier 4epth ?auge. 0. -ernier <eight ?auge.
156

,ll the abo#e mentioned caliper work according to the same principle as the -ernier caliper e.plained before. The only difference being the presence of e.tra pro#isions like a 4epth scale( 4ial( ;lectronic digital assembly( etc. as per the use. The #arious types of -erniers are e.plained with sketches in the succeeding pages .

1. &%al "ern%er.

&%al +ern%er

!. Electron%c &%'%tal "ern%er.

157

Electron%c &%'%tal "ern%er.

3. "ern%er &e#th Ga2'e:

158

"ern%er &e#th Ga2'e:

4. "ern%er He%'ht Ga2'e:

159

-ernier height gauge consists of an upright steel bar fitted to a steel base. 8n the bar is a mo#able jaw with a -ernier scale. , clamp on the bar is connected to the mo#able jaw by a screw. This screw is used to adjust the -ernier scale to the required position. @ses9 @sed to scribe #ertical distances from plane surface like the ordinary height gauge( but to an accuracy of . %mm. It is also used for measuring between two points. Where e.treme accuracy is required( an indicator may be attached to the mo#able jaw.

"ern%er He%'ht Ga2'e

3. M%cro;eter$

160

These are precision instruments used to measure outside and inside diameter( thickness( etc. in accuracies of . 1 and . 1mm. , micrometer is based on the principle of the screw thread( therefore it is called as a screw gauge also. The main ad#antage of this instrument is the reliability of measurement( ease of handling and better reading. 4ifferent types of 7icrometers are used depending on the application.

Lea$t Co2nt of the M%cro;eter:

The least count of a micrometer( is the least possible measurement that can be made on a 7icrometer. The most commonly used 7icrometer has a 3east count of . 1mm. the arri#al of this #alue is e.plained below. The circumference of the 7icrometer thimble is di#ided into 5 equal di#isions. ;ach turn of the screw mo#es equal to its pitch in single ! start threads. The pitch of the slee#e is .5mm. The pitch of the thimble is di#ided by the total number of di#isions on the slee#e. .5/5 L 5/5 L 1/1 L . 1mm. Thus the least count of the 7icrometer is . 1mm.

T #e$ of M%cro;eter$:
1. 8utside micrometer( %.Inside micrometer
161

1. 4epth micrometer( 0.Internal tri point micrometer 5. 4igital micrometer( ".5crew thread micrometer ). &lange micrometer( *.Tubular micrometer The commonly used types of micrometers are e.plained below. 5ketches are gi#en for the remaining types of micrometers.

Ho* to Rea. a M%cro;eter:

When reading from the 7etric micrometer( first take total reading in full millimeters and half millimeters if #isible on the slee#e. ,dd this reading to the reading in hundredths of a millimeter indicated by the graduation on the Thimble( which coincides with the 4atum line on the slee#e. ;.g. 1. To measure 1".5+mm with the help of a 7etric micrometer. The 15mm graduation is #isible representing 15mm. There is 11/%mm additionally #isible( representing 1.5mm. 3ine + on the thimble coincides with the 4atum line on the slee#e( each line representing . 1mm. I.e.( . 1 . + L . +mm Therefore the total reading in mm is 15 O 1.5 O . + L 1".5+mm 5imilarly the second reading is % .1%mm.

162

Ho* To Rea. A M%cro;eter

1. O2t$%.e M%cro;eter:
O2t$%.e M%cro;eter It is used to measure the outside diameter( width( thickness( flatness etc. The following are the main parts of an outside 7icrometer. An+%l: It supports the job and pro#ides a reference point. The an#il is pressed permanently or screwed in the frame. The an#il is generally made of carbide.

,ra;e:

163

The &rame is a G>I shaped structure. 8n one side it has the ,n#il and on the other side it has the spindle( thimble( slee#e and its assemblies. The frame is sometimes tapered on the side of the an#il to enable measurements to be taken in narrow slots. The si:e of the outside micrometer is generally engra#ed on the &rame( such as ! %5( %5 ! 5 mm and soon. S#%n.le: It is made from a special steel( hardened to "% <.6.> stabili:ed and precision ground. Slee+e: The slee#e is fitted with a highly rigid frame. The #ertical line where the measurement is taken is called datum line. Lock N2t: ,s is the name it helps in locking the spindle and thus retaining the reading measured. It is fitted on the frame towards the spindle. Ratchet: This helps to rotate the spindle while taking measurements( resulting in accuracy and limitation of pressure on work considerably.

1. O2t$%.e M%cro;eter:
164

O2t$%.e M%cro;eter:

!. In$%.e M%cro;eter:
165

This micrometer is used to measure the inner diameter of holes( cylinders( slee#es( ring( gauges etc. It is similar to outside micrometer but there is no frame and spindle. The measurement is by the end points of the micrometer. ,s the thimble opens and closes( the contact points mo#e to gi#e the readings. It consists of a micrometer head ha#ing a range of different standard lengths. They usually co#er a range from 0 ! 1 mm. <owe#er( smaller ranges are also a#ailable. In$%.e M%cro;eter

3.&e#th M%cro;eter :
166

This micrometer is used to measure a blind hole slot under cut and projections. It consists of a flat base attached to micrometer scale. ,n e.tension rod of required lengths fit to the slee#e pro#ided to the base. This rod is screwed on top of the thimble. ;.tension rods are a#ailable in #arious lengths up to %55mm and has a range of %5mm.

&e#th M%cro;eter

4. Internal M%cro;eter

M%cro;eter

or

Tr%#o%nt

This 7icrometer is equipped with three contact points that allow self$centering for measuring bores. The measuring range is usually from % ! % mm. <owe#er smaller ranges are a#ailable and depend on the requirements.
167

Internal M%cro;eter or Tr%#o%nt M%cro;eter

5. &%'%tal M%cro;eter:
The digital micrometer has an accuracy of . 1mm. It is used to measure mostly finished jobs. , sketch of the digital micrometer is shown in the figure. The ad#antage of this type of micrometer is that the reading can be directly read to an accuracy of . 1mm without ha#ing to count for the di#isions like in an ordinary micrometer.
168

&%'%tal M%cro;eter

Be+el /rotractor

169

Be+el /rotractor

A##l%cat%on of a Be+el #rotractor.

170

A##l%cat%on of a Be+el #rotractor

Ho* to Rea. a Be+el /rotractor:

1. Bote the number of whole degrees :ero of main scale and :ero of -ernier scale.
171

%. 2roceeding in the same direction between :ero of -ernier scale. Bote the -ernier line which co$ insides with the main scale line. 7ultiply the number with 5 and added with their number of degrees on the main scale. The :ero line on the -ernier scale is positioned slightly beyond %% . 3ooking to the same side C6ightD( on the -ernier scale( we notice that the ninth line coincides e.actly with a line on the 7ain dial. Thus + . 5 L 05' are to be added to %% ( which makes the reading of %% 05'. Bote9 5ometimes there is a confusion regarding towards which direction the -ernier scale should be read. This confusion is eliminated by remembering that EAlways read the Vernier scale in the same direction as the Main scale. The 7ain scale reading is taken from the :ero of the 7ain scale. 5o %% are taken from the right direction of the 7ain scale :eroF Therefore( the coinciding -ernier reading of the right direction is to be taken( which is 05'. 5imilarly the second reading is 1" 15'.

172

Ho* to Rea. a Be+el /rotractor

Co;1%nat%on Set S<2are:

173

It is e.tensi#ely used for marking purposes. It mainly consists of three parts. 1. /rotractor Hea.: The steel rule with a slotted face can be fi.ed to any of these heads. The protractor head is used to mark and measure #arious angles. The protractor head can be adjusted from ! 1* degree. The accuracy of the combination set is 1 . !. S<2are Hea.: It is used for checking and marking parallel lines and perpendiculars lines with reference to the edge. It can also be used for checking and marking of 05 angles. 3. Center Hea.: It forms a center square when mounted on a rule. This can be used for locating center of round( square( and octagonal jobs.

Co;1%nat%on Set S<2are

174

Co;1%nat%on Set S<2are

175