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Magnetism

Bar Magnet

Poles of bar magnet
Magnetic property is confined at the points at the ends of the bar magnet. These
points are called poles. One of the poles always seeks geographic north, and
other always seeks geographic south. The pole which always seeks geographic
North Pole is called North pole and that always seeks geographic South Pole is
called South pole.
Effective length (2l):
The poles of a bar magnet just lie within its ends. The distance between the
poles of a bar magnet is called effective length and is equal to 85% of real
length.
Magnetic axis:
A straight line passing through poles of magnet is called magnetic axis.
Magnetic equator:
A straight line passing through mid point of the magnet perpendicular to
magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.


Coulombs law Magnetism

Coulombs law Magnetism
a. Like poles repel each other
b. Unlike poles attract each other
c. Force between two poles is directly proportional to product of pole strength
and inversely to the square of distance between them.
2
2 1 0
4
r
m m
F

=
Here the proportionality constant
0
is called magnetic permeability of free
space and has the value
1 7
0
10 4

= Am
Magnetic Intensity at a point:
Magnetic Intensity at a point due to a pole of the strength m at a point at the
distance r is given by:
2
0
4
r
m
B

=
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Moment acting a bar magnet:
When a bar magnet is suspended in magnetic field it may experience torque.
The moment due to torque is given by:
sin MB sin B ) l 2 m ( = =
Magnetic moment:
It is the torque acting on a bar magnet when it is placed normally in the
magnetic field B and given by:
l 2 m M =
Tangent law:
In the crossed magnetic field
H
F
tan =
Magnetic field due to a Bar magnet:
The magnetic field due to a bar magnet at an
(a) axial point is given by:
2 2 2
0
) r (
Mr 2
4
B

=

(a) equatorial point is given by
2 3 2 2
0
) r (
Mr 2
4
B
+
=

Terrestrial magnetism

Magnetic meridian
It is the imaginary vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of
horizontally suspended bar magnet.
Declination
It is the angle between the geographic and magnetic meridian at a place.
Angle of Dip
It is the angle by which N-pole of a vertical compass dips below or above the
horizontal line when it is placed in magnetic meridian.
Horizontal component
It is the horizontal component of earths magnetic field at a place.
Neutral point
It is the point where magnetic field of bar magnet just balances the horizontal
component of the earths magnetic field.
Calculation of dip
Angle of dip at a point is given by
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H
V
B
B
tan =
B
V
and B
H
are vertical and horizontal component of the earths magnetic field at
the point.
Apparent dip
It is dip at a place when dip circle is out of magnetic meridian. If is the angle
by which dip circle is out of magnetic meridian then apparent dip is given by,

cos
tan
tan =
If
1
and
2
are apparent dip at a place at two mutually perpendicular positions
then true dip is given by
2
2
1
2 2
cot cot cot + =

Magnetic Properties

Magnetic field in a material
In a material the total magnetic field, B, is due to external applied magnetic
field, B
0
, and magnetic field due to magnetization of material, B
M
.
B = B
0
+ B
M

External magnetic field, B
0
:
This field is due to external current. In the case of toroid having n turns per unit
length and current I
0
is given by:
0 0 0
nI B =
Magnetizing field:
The product of number of turns per unit length and current in the toroid is called
magnetizing field, H.
0
nI H =
Magnetization and magnetization current
When a material is subjected to external magnetic field it is magnetized more or
less. Magnetization of the material gives rise to magnetic field. This field is the
contributions of the fields due to microscopic current loop of the atoms of the
material. The microscopic current loops sum up to give an equivalent current,
I
M
, that circulating on the surface of the body, which is called magnetization
current.
In the case of material in the form of ring placed inside a toroid, the magnetic
field due to magnetization current is,
M 0 M
nI B =
Magnetic moment and Intensity of magnetization
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Magnetic moment due to current loop of area A and having turns N, is given
by:
A NI m
M
=
Intensity of magnetization of a material is defined as,
M
M
nI
Al
A NI
Volume
moment magnetic Total
M = = =
) M H ( ) nI nI ( nI nI B B B
0 M 0 0 M 0 0 0 M 0
+ = + = + = + =
Permeability of vacuum:
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic field in free space to magnetizing field:
H
B
0
0
=
The value of
0
is
7
0
10 4

= Henry m
-1
.
Permeability of medium:
It is the factor which shows how easily a given medium permeates magnetic
field in it and is defined as:
H
B
=
Relative permeability:
It is defined as the ratio of permeability of medium to permeability of free
space:
0
r

=
Susceptibility:
It is the degree how easily a material can be magnetized and defined as the ratio
of intensity of magnetization to magnetizing field:
H
M
=
Relation between and
r

Since,

+ =
+
= =
H
M
1
H
) M H (
H
B
0
0

So,

+ = = 1
0
r

) 1 (
0
+ =
Diamagnetism
It is the phenomenon by which a material is weakly magnetized in the direction
opposite to the applied magnetic field.
Origin of Diamagnetism
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Diamagnetism can be explained in terms of variation of angular velocity of
electron of the atoms of diamagnetic material. In the absence of applied
magnetic field the necessary centripetal force is provided by electrostatic
attractive force between electron and nucleus. When magnetic field is applied,
the electron experience additional magnetic force which may be acting towards
or away from centre of the path depending upon direction of applied magnetic
field. So, the effect of applied magnetic field is to increase of decrease angular
speed of the electrons which leads to increase or decrease in magnetic moment
due to circulation of electron. According to Lenzs law, the change in magnetic
moment always takes place in direction opposite to applied magnetic field. This
is the reason that gives rise to diamagnetism.
Diamagnetic materials
Bismuth, Copper, Zinc, Water, Sodium chloride, etc
Properties of Diamagnetic materials
1. The susceptibility for these materials is negative and its absolute value is
very small.
2. Relative permeability is positive but slightly less one.
3. The susceptibility for these materials is independent of temperature
4. When place in non uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from strong
to weak part of the magnetic field.
5. Diamagnetic effects are present in all material but very hard to detect.
Paramagnetism
It is the phenomenon by which a material is weakly magnetized in the direction
of the applied magnetic field.
Origin of Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism can be explained in terms of magnetic moment of electron. In
the atoms of paramagnetic material the electrons may possess magnetic moment
due to orbital and spin motion. For the atoms having many electrons, magnetic
moment of electrons may contribute to resultant magnetic moment. In such case
atoms may be treated as short dipole. These dipoles orient randomly in the
absences of external magnetic field. When the magnetic field is applied the
atomic magnetic dipoles tend to orient in the direction of the applied field. But
this alignment is disturbed by the collision of atoms in by thermal vibration.
Paramagnetic materials
Oxygen, Antimony, Aluminum, etc
Properties of Paramagnetic materials
1. The susceptibility for these materials is positive and less than one.
2. Relative permeability is positive but slightly greater than one.
3. The susceptibility for these materials depends on temperature.
4. When place in non uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from weak
to strong part of the magnetic field.
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Ferromagnetism
It is the phenomenon by which a material is strongly magnetized even the
applied magnetic field is weak. In some cases, ferromagnetic materials exhibit
large magnetization even when there is no external applied field at all. They are
permanently magnetized and known as magnets.
Paramagnetic materials
Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Gadolium, Dysprosium, etc
Properties of Ferromagnetic materials
1. The susceptibility and the relative permeability for these materials are fairly
large but not constant. They vary with the applied magnetic field. The Fig
shows typical variations of , B
0
, M and B with magnetizing field H for a
ferromagnetic material.









2. The permeability depends on H, and it has peak value for some value of H
3. The intensity of magnetization M at first increases with H and after certain
value of H, it remains constant even H is increased. At this stage material is
said to attain saturation.
4. After saturation increase in the total field in the material is due to increase in
H alone.
5. The susceptibility for these materials depends on temperature such that it
decreases with increase in temperature.
6. If the ferromagnetic material is heated above certain critical temperature,
called Curie point, the ferromagnetic behaviour disappears and the material
just shows paramagnetic behaviour.
Exchange coupling:
Ferromagnetism of solid iron is not a property of individual atoms, rather a
property of the crystal. Particular ions of iron that make up a ferromagnetic
material have an excess of two uncompensated electrons so that magnetic
moment do not cancel each other. When crystal is formed a special form of
interaction, called exchange coupling, occurs between the atoms resulting in
rigid parallelism of magnetic moments. This is completely quantum effect.

Hysteresis

H H H
B
0
H
M

B

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For a ferromagnetic material the relation
between B and H is nonlinear and the variation
of B
M
with H is shown in diagram.
a. On increasing H, B
M
increases and finally
attains a steady value beyond some value
of H. At this stage the material is said to be
saturated.
b. On decreasing H, B
M
also decreases but
more slowly than it has increased. So, B
M

takes some value B
r
when H = 0. That is
once the material is magnetized to
saturation it remains magnetized. The field
B
r
is called Remanence field.
c. The lagging of B
M
behind H once the material is magnetized to saturation
is called Hysteresis.
d. In order to demagnetize the material magnetizing field is applied in reverse
direction. At H = H
C
, the material is demagnetized completely. The field
H
C
is called Coercive force.
e. On increasing H in reverse direction beyond H
C
again saturation is
attained. The same process is repeated if H is decreased. The complete
process forms a closed loop which is called Hysteresis cycle.
f. The area bounded by the loop gives the energy lost within the specimen
during magnetizing and demagnetizing process.
g. A soft material has narrow hysteresis loop and a hard one has wide loop.
h. To make a permanent magnet the material should have high remanence
and high coercivity.

Domain theory
Strong magnetization of ferromagnetic material can be explained in terms of
Domain theory. The material is divided into small regions called Domain. In
each domain atomic magnetic moments are aligned parallel to each other, so
there is a resultant moment. However, moments of domains are randomly
oriented so that moment of the substance as a whole is zero. When the material
is subjected to external magnetic field, the moments of domain tend to aligned
parallel each other and to the field. Hence, the material shows strong
magnetization.
As the moments aligned parallel to each other saturation is attained. When the
field is removed the moments tends to remain parallel orientation. This is the
reason of remanence field.


H
B
O
P
B
r
H
C
H
C
B
r
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Gravitation