Lecture Week 1: logic

Learning objectives:
The student be able to determine the propositional logic. The student be able to understand the logical connectives. The student be able to construct the truth tables. The student will be able to validate the arguments.

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Propositional logic
Logic is sometimes defined as science of necessary inference science of reasoning What the rational behind this? Can You Explain?
Logical analysis won't help you to determine the intrinsic merit of an argument's content but analyze an argument's from to determine whether the truth of the conclusion follows necessarily from the truth of the premises.
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Proposition
A proposition (or a statement) is a sentence that is true or false but not both.

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Example 1:
1. Two plus two equals four
It is True

2. Two plus two equals five

It is False

BOTH ARE STATEMENTS

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Example 2:

He is college students
He depends on context. He can be either true or false

IT IS NOT A STATEMENT
If reference to he are made clear when preceded by other sentences the sentence could be a statement
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Are the following propositions?

1. Sydney is the capital of Australia.

2. Do Tutorial 11 now. 3. Today is Wednesday. 4. x is a prime number.

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Logical Connectives
Logical Connectives are transitional words and phrases.
They mentally link one idea to another. They do not serve a grammatical function. They do not link main clauses of equal value as coordinate connectives do. They do not de-emphasize a less dominant idea as subordinate connectives do.

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Partial list of logical connectives

accordingly afterwards also besides consequently finally furthermore however moreover nevertheless otherwise still then therefore thus first second third finally for example in conclusion in other words of course on the other hand
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Compound Proposition
Three symbols that are used to build more complicated logical expressions out of the simplers ones.
not q negation of q (not q) and p q p and q or p p or q

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Hierarchy Among Logical Connectives

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Translating from English to Symbols: But and Neither-Nor

Write each of the following sentences symbolically, letting h = It is hot and s = It is sunny.
It is not hot but it is sunny.

It is neither hot nor sunny.

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Suppose that x is a particular real number. Let p, q, and r symbolize 0 , x 3, x 3, and x 3, respectively. Write the following inequality symbolically:
a. x 3 a. 0 x 3 a. 0 x 3

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Compound Statement
Create new (compound) propositions from existing ones (elementary proposition) The five connectives:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Negation (not ) Conjunction ( and ) Disjunction ( or ) Implication (if then ) Equivalence ( if and only if )
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Truth Values - Negation

Definition If p is a statement variable, the negation of p is not p or It is not the case that p and is denoted by . It has the opposite truth value from p: if p is true, is false; if p is false, is true.

T F

F T

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Truth Values - Conjunction

Definition If p and q are statement variables, the conjunction of p and q is p and q , denoted . It is true when, and only when, both p and q are true. If either p or q is false, or if both are false, is false. T T F F T F T F T F F F
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Truth Values - Disjunction

Definition If p and q are statement variables, the disjunction of p and q is p or q , denoted . It is true when either p is true, or q is true, or both p and q are true; it is false only when both p and q are false. T T F F T F T F T T T F
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Truth Values Compound Statements

Truth Table for Exclusive Or If p and q are statement variables, the Exclusive Or means p or q but not both which translates into symbols as ~ . Also abbreviated as p or .

T T F F

T F T F

T T T F

T F F F

~ F T T T

~ F T T F
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Logical Equivalence
Two statement forms are called logically equivalent if, and only if, they have identical truth values for each possible substitution of statements variables. The logical equivalence of statement forms P and Q is denoted by writing

Test Whether Two Statement Form P and Q are Logically Equivalent 1. Construct a truth table with one column for the truth table values of P and another column for the truth values of Q. 2. Check each combination of the statement variables to see whether the truth value of P is the same as the truth value of Q.

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Example 3:
Show that the statement forms ~ and ~ ~ are not logically equivalent T T F F T F T F ~ F F T T ~ F T F T T F F F ~ F T T T ~~ F F F T

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De Morgans Law
De Morgans Laws
The negation of an and statement is logically equivalent to the or statement in which each component is negated. The negation of an or statement is logically equivalent to the and statement in which each component is negated. ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~

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De Morgans Laws
1. ~ ~~
p T T F F q T F T F ~~ F F T T F T F T T T T F ~ F F F T

~~
F F F T

Conditional Statements in programming use logical connectives with statements. Example

if((outflow inflow) and not(pressure 1000))
do something;

else
do something else;
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Applying De Morgans Laws

Write negations for each of the following statements:
a. John is 6 feet tall and he weighs at least 200 pounds. b. The bus was late or Toms watch was slow.

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Solution:
a. John is not 6 feet tall or he weighs less than 200 pounds. b. The bus was not late and Toms watch was not slow.

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Types of Compound Propositions

Tautology

Always true! Always false! Neither a tautology nor a contradiction

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Contradiction

Contingency

Example 4:
Show that the statement forms p ~ is a tautology and the statement form p ~ is a contradiction T F ~ F T p ~ T T p ~ F F

If t is a tautology and c is a contradiction, show that p and p T F T T p T F p T F F F p F F

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Logical Equivalences
Commutative Law Associative Laws Distributive Laws Identity Laws Negation Laws Double Negative Law Idempotent Laws Universal bound laws De Morgans Laws Absorption Laws Negations of t and c:
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Conditional Statements
Definition If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is If p then q or p implies q and is denoted by . It is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true. We call p the hypothesis (or antecedent) of the conditional and q the conclusion (or consequent) T T F F T F T F T F T T ~p

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Negation of Conditional Statements

~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~

~ ~

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Contrapositive of Conditional Statements

Definition The contrapositive of a conditional statement of the form If p then q is If ~ then ~ Or symbolically, The contrapositive of is ~~

~~
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Converse and Inverse of Conditional Statements

Definition Suppose a conditional statement of the form If p then q is given. 1. The converse is If q then p 2. The inverse is If ~ then ~ . Or symbolically, The converse of p q is q p, And, The inverse of is ~~

Both are not logically equivalent to and to each other!!!

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Biconditional Statements
Definition Given statement variable p and q, the biconditional of p and q is p if, and only if, q and is denoted . It is true if both p and q have the same truth values. It is false if p and q have opposite truth values. Note: is a short form for The word if and only if are sometimes abbreviated as iff. T T F F T F T F T F F T
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Example 5:
Given that the truth values for propositions P, Q and R are T, F and T respectively. Determine the truth values of the following compound propositions: (a) P Q ~ R

T F ~ T T F F F F F
(b) ( P Q ) (Q R )

(T F ) ( F T ) F T F
(c) P R Q R

T T F T T T T
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Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Definition If r and s are statements: r is a sufficient condition for s means if r then s r is a necessary condition for s means if not r then not s r is a necessary and sufficient condition for s means r if, and only if, s

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Only If Statements
Definition If p and q are statements, p only if q means if not q the not p Or equivalently, if p then q. John will break the worlds record for the mile run only if he runs the mile in under four minutes. If John does not run the mile in under four minutes, then he will not break the worlds record. If John breaks the worlds record, then he will have run the mile in under four minutes.
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Something to ponder
sufficient condition? r s YES

If John is eligible to vote, then he is at least 18. s r Necessary condition? Compare to Sufficient condition? NO If John is at least 18, then he is eligible to vote. NO
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YES

Necessary condition?

Example 6:
If John is eligible to vote, then he is at least 18 years old John is eligible to vote is sufficient condition to ensure the truth of the condition John is at least 18 years old John is at least 18 years old is necessary condition for John is eligible to vote

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Example 6
If John is eligible to vote, then he is at least 18 years old John is eligible to vote is sufficient condition to ensure the truth of the condition John is at least 18 years old r = John is eligible for vote s = John is at least 18 years old if r then s If John is eligible for vote, then John is at least 18 years old John is at least 18 years old is necessary condition for John is eligible to vote r = John is at least 18 years old s = John is eligible for vote if not r then not s If John is younger than 18 years old, then John would not be eligible for vote
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Something to ponder
p: It is a cat. q: It is an animal. Being an animal is a sufficient condition for being a cat. Being a cat is a sufficient condition for being an animal.
NO

YES

If it is a cat then it is an animal

~~ p

p only if q

If it is not an animal then it is not a cat Being an animal is a necessary condition for being a cat.
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Valid and Invalid Arguments

An argument is a sequence of statements, and an argument form is a sequence of statement forms. All statements in an argument and all statement forms in an argument forms, except the final one, are called premises. The final statement or statement form is called the conclusion. The symbol which is read therefore is normally placed just before the conclusion. To say that an argument form is valid means that no matter what particular statements are substituted for the statement variables in its premises, if the resulting premises are all true, then the conclusion is also true. To say that an argument is valid means that its form is valid
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An Invalid Argument Form

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Solution:
T T T T F F F F T T F F T T F F T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F T T T F T T T F T T F T F F F F F T T F T T T T T T F T T F F T T T F T F T T T T

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Solution:
Construct a truth table as shown below, and indicate which volumes represent the premises and which the conclusion. premises
T T T T F F F F T T F F T T F F T F T F T F T F T T T F T T T F T T T T T T T F F T F T F T F T
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T T T

Critical rows

Modus Ponens
If p then q. p q
If 4,686 is divisible by 6, then 4,686 is divisible by 3. 4,686 is divisible by 6. 4,686 is divisible by 3

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Modus Tollens
If p then q. ~q ~p
If Zeus is human, then Zeus is mortal. Zeus is not mortal. Zeus is not human.

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Valid Argument Forms

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--The End for Today--

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