Sample Self Study Workbook

OPTICAL TECHNOLOGIES
Self-study Guide

ATRICA, INC. 3255-3 SCOTT BLVD. SANTA CLARA, CALIFORNIA 95054
P/N# ATTP103-00-AB
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Document P/N: ATTP103-00-AB
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Table of Contents
Course Overview............................................................................................................................vi
Intended Audience......................................................................................................................vi
Prerequisites...............................................................................................................................vi
Unit 1 ...............................................................................................................................................1
Unit Overview..............................................................................................................................1
Objectives.....................................................................................................................................1
Benefits and History of Optical Networks.....................................................................................2
History..........................................................................................................................................2
Optical-Network Drivers.............................................................................................................4
Enabling Technologies....................................................................................................................6
Broadband WDM.........................................................................................................................6
Optical Amplifiers .......................................................................................................................7
Current Technologies......................................................................................................................7
Optical Amplifiers .......................................................................................................................8
Narrowband Lasers.....................................................................................................................8
Fiber Bragg Gratings ..................................................................................................................9
Thin Film Substrates ................................................................................................................10
Technologies on the Horizon ........................................................................................................11
Markets for Optical Networks ..................................................................................................14
Business-Access Networks ...........................................................................................................15
Design and Planning.................................................................................................................16
Restoration.................................................................................................................................17
Network Management ..................................................................................................................18
OSMINE ........................................................................................................................................20
NGNESS........................................................................................................................................21
Telcordia.....................................................................................................................................22
NEBS .............................................................................................................................................23
Definition of Requirements.......................................................................................................23
Network Evolution........................................................................................................................24
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ...............................................................................25
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (OADM) .................................................................................25
Optical Gateways.......................................................................................................................25
Optical Bidirectional Line Switched Rings..............................................................................26
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC) ...................................................................................................27
The Future of Optical Networks ..................................................................................................28
Unit 2 .............................................................................................................................................29
Unit Overview............................................................................................................................29
Objectives...................................................................................................................................29
Optical Ethernet Definition..........................................................................................................30
Technology Evolution................................................................................................................30
History ...........................................................................................................................................31
Optical Fast Ethernet ...............................................................................................................32
Optical Gigabit Ethernet ..........................................................................................................33
Optical Ethernet Today ................................................................................................................35
Recent Trends................................................................................................................................38
Optical Ethernet Switches........................................................................................................38
Resilient Packet Rings (RPR) ...................................................................................................39
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Future Expectations .....................................................................................................................40
Optical Ethernet Area Networks..............................................................................................41
Beyond 10 Gigabits .......................................................................................................................42
Unit 3 .............................................................................................................................................45
Unit Overview............................................................................................................................45
Objectives...................................................................................................................................45
DWDM Definition .........................................................................................................................46
The Challenges of Today's Telecommunications Network.........................................................46
Resolving the Capacity Crisis...................................................................................................48
Capacity Expansion and Flexibility: DWDM..............................................................................50
Capacity Expansion Potential ..................................................................................................52
DWDM Incremental Growth........................................................................................................52
The Optical Layer as the Unifying Layer....................................................................................53
Unified Infrastructure...............................................................................................................54
Unit 4 .............................................................................................................................................55
Unit Overview............................................................................................................................55
Objectives...................................................................................................................................55
Performance Management ...........................................................................................................56
Requirements.............................................................................................................................56
the Future of Performance Management ....................................................................................56
The Key Functional Areas of Performance Management...........................................................57
Challenges of Integrating a Performance Management Solution..........................................58
Scalability ..................................................................................................................................58
Flexibility.......................................................................................................................................60
Integration.....................................................................................................................................60
Unit 5 .............................................................................................................................................63
Unit Overview............................................................................................................................63
Objectives...................................................................................................................................63
SNMP Overview............................................................................................................................64
SNMP Elements ........................................................................................................................65
SNMP RFCs ..................................................................................................................................69
Introduction to (CMIP) .................................................................................................................70
The Advantages to the CMIP Approach......................................................................................71
Disadvantages of CMIP................................................................................................................71
Operations Support Systems (OSSs) ...........................................................................................72
The Basics of OSSs........................................................................................................................72
Workflow Engine .......................................................................................................................72
Ordering.....................................................................................................................................73
Inventory....................................................................................................................................74
Engineering and Provisioning ..................................................................................................75
Element Management and Activation and Field Service Management....................................76
Network and Trouble Management.............................................................................................77
OSS Interconnection.....................................................................................................................78
Regulations ................................................................................................................................78
Interconnection Challenges ......................................................................................................78
OSSs...............................................................................................................................................79
Gateway/API Functions ............................................................................................................80
Operations Support of Data Services.......................................................................................81
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Data Service Provisioning ............................................................................................................82
Data Service Activation ............................................................................................................83
Advent of Broadband Access ........................................................................................................83
Business Impact of an OSS Solution ...........................................................................................85
QoS .............................................................................................................................................85
Data Warehousing.....................................................................................................................86
Operational Efficiencies............................................................................................................86
The Importance of Flexibility.......................................................................................................86
Appendix A ....................................................................................................................................87
Standards.......................................................................................................................................87
Appendix B ....................................................................................................................................89
Optical Networking Glossary ...................................................................................................89

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Course Overview
Intended Audience
The intend audience for this course is technical professionals who will be
attending courses in pursuit of a better understanding of Optical technologies
or completing the following curriculums:
Atrica Sales/SE Curriculum
Atrica CSE Curriculum
Atrica Installer Curriculum
Atrica NOC Curriculum
Atrica Customer Sales Curriculum

Prerequisites
There are no course prerequisites:

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Unit 1 Introduction to Optical Metro Networking Solutions
Unit 1
Introduction to Optical Metro Networking
Solutions
Unit Overview
This unit is an introduction to optical networks, based on the emergence of
the optical layer in Metro Networks. Metro Optical networks provide higher
capacity and reduced costs for applications such as the Internet, video and
multimedia interaction, and advanced digital services.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Historical evolution of optical metro networks
Functionality of metro devices
OSMINE/NEBS Requirements
Overview of metro network management systems
requirements
RBOC/ILECs, IXC/CLEC, BLEC optical networking
requirements defined
Standards Organizations and Consortia
RBOC/ILECs, IXC/CLEC, BLEC optical networking
requirements defined
Standards Organizations and Consortia
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Introduction to Optical Metro Networking Solutions Unit 1
Benefits and History of Optical Networks
In the early 1980s telecommunications networks began using a relatively
unassuming technology, fiber-optic cable. Since then, the tremendous cost
savings and increased network quality has led to many advances in the
technologies required for optical networks, the benefits of which are only
beginning to be realized.
History
Telecommunication networks have evolved during a century-long history of
technological advances and social changes. The networks that once provided
basic telephone service through a friendly local operator are now
transmitting the equivalent of thousands of encyclopedias per second.
Throughout this history, the digital network has evolved in three
fundamental stages:
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Optical.
Asynchronous
The first digital networks were asynchronous networks. In asynchronous
networks, each network element's internal clock source timed its transmitted
signal. Because each clock had a certain amount of variation, signals arriving
and transmitting could have a large variation in timing, which often resulted
in bit errors.
Unfortunately, no standards existed to mandate how network elements
should format the optical signal. A myriad of proprietary methods appeared,
making it difficult for network providers to interconnect equipment from
different vendors.
Synchronous
The need for optical standards led to the creation of the synchronous optical
network (SONET). SONET standardized line rates, coding schemes, bit-rate
hierarchies, and operations and maintenance functionality. SONET also
defined the types of network elements required, network architectures that
vendors could implement, and the functionality that each node must perform.
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Optical
The one aspect of SONET that has allowed it to survive during a time of
tremendous changes in network capacity needs is its scalability. Based on its
open-ended growth plan for higher bit rates, theoretically no upper limit
exists for SONET bit rates. However, as higher bit rates are used, physical
limitations in the laser sources and optical fiber begin to make the practice of
endlessly increasing the bit rate on each signal an impractical solution.
Additionally, connection to the networks through access rings has also had
increased requirements. Customers are demanding more services and options
and are carrying more and different types of data traffic. To provide full end-
to-end connectivity, a new paradigm was needed to meet all the high-capacity
and varied needs. Optical networks provide the required bandwidth and
flexibility to enable end-to-end wavelength services as illustrated here in
Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. End-to-End Wavelength Services

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Optical networks began with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM),
which arose to provide additional capacity on existing fibers. Like SONET,
defined network elements and architectures provide the basis of the optical
network. However, unlike SONET, rather than using a defined bit-rate and
frame structure as its basic building block, the optical network will be based
on wavelengths. The components of the optical network will be defined
according to how the wavelengths are transmitted, groomed, or implemented
in the network. Viewing the network from a layered approach, the optical
network requires the addition of an optical layer. To help define network
functionality, networks are divided into several different physical or virtual
layers. The first layer, the services layer, is where the servicessuch as data
trafficenter the telecommunications network. The next layer, SONET,
provides restoration, performance monitoring, and provisioning that is
transparent to the first layer.
Emerging with the optical network is a third layer, the optical layer.
Standards bodies are still defining the optical layer, but it will eventually
provide the same functionality as the SONET layer, while operating entirely
in the optical domain. The optical network also has the additional
requirement of carrying varied types of high bit-rate Non-SONET optical
signals that bypass the SONET layer altogether. Just as the SONET layer is
transparent to the services layer, the optical layer will ideally be transparent
to the SONET layer, providing restoration, performance monitoring, and
provisioning of individual wavelengths instead of electrical SONET signals.
Optical-Network Drivers
Many factors are driving the need for optical networks. A few of the most
important reasons for migrating to the optical layer are described in this
unit.
Fiber Capacity
The first implementation of what has emerged as the optical network began
on routes that were fiber limited. Providers needed more capacity between
two sites, but higher bit rates or fiber were not available. The only options in
these situations were to install more fiber, which is an expensive and labor-
intensive chore, or place more time division multiplexed (TDM) signals on the
same fiber. WDM provided many virtual fibers on a single physical fiber. By
transmitting each signal at a different frequency, network providers could
send many signals on one fiber just as though they were each traveling on
their own fiber.
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Restoration Capability
As network planners use more network elements to increase fiber capacity, a
fiber cut can have massive implications. In current electrical architectures,
each network element performs its own restoration.
For a WDM system with many channels on a single fiber, a fiber cut would
initiate multiple failures, causing many independent systems to fail. By
performing restoration in the optical layer rather than the electrical layer,
optical networks can perform protection switching faster and more
economically. Additionally, the optical layer can provide restoration in
networks that currently do not have a protection scheme. By implementing
optical networks, providers can add restoration capabilities to embedded
asynchronous systems without first upgrading to an electrical-protection
scheme.
Reduced Cost
In systems using only WDM, each location that demultiplexes signals will
need an electrical network element for each channel, even if no traffic is
dropping at that site.
By implementing an optical network, only those wavelengths that add or
drop traffic at a site need corresponding electrical nodes. Other channels can
simply pass through optically, which provides tremendous cost savings in
equipment and network management. In addition, performing space and
wavelength routing of traffic avoids the high cost of electronic cross-connects,
and network management is simplified.
Wavelength Services
One of the great revenue-producing aspects of optical networks is the ability
to resell bandwidth rather than fiber. By maximizing capacity available on a
fiber, service providers can improve revenue by selling wavelengths,
regardless of the data rate required. To customers, this service provides the
same bandwidth as a dedicated fiber.
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Enabling Technologies
The cornerstone of an optical network is the advanced optical technologies
that perform the necessary all-optical functions. Optical technologies
continue to advance by ingenious techniques and implementations to improve
the performance and capabilities of the optical network (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2. Development Milestones
Early Technologies
As fiber optics came into use, network providers soon found that some
improvements in technology could greatly increase capacity and reduce cost
in existing networks. These early technologies eventually led to the optical
network as it is today.
Broadband WDM
The first incarnation of WDM was broadband WDM. In 1994, by using fused
biconic tapered couplers, two signals could be combined on the same fiber.
Because of limitations in the technology, the signal frequencies had to be
widely separated, and systems typically used 1,310-nm and 1,550-nm signals,
providing 5 Gbps on one fiber. Although the performance did not compare to
today's technologies, the couplers provided twice the bandwidth out of the
same fiber, which was a large cost savings compared to installing new fiber.
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Optical Amplifiers
The second basic technology, and perhaps the most fundamental to today's
optical networks, was the erbium-doped optical amplifier. By doping a small
strand of fiber with a rare earth metal, such as erbium, optical signals could
be amplified without converting the signal back to an electrical state. The
amplifier provided enormous cost savings over electrical regenerators,
especially in long-haul networks.
Current Technologies
Systems deployed today use more efficient and precise devices than earlier
devices. Flat-gain optical amplifiers have been the true enabler for optical
networks by allowing the combination of many wavelengths across a single
fiber. As optical filters and laser technology improved, combining more than
two signal wavelengths on a fiber became a reality. Dense wavelength
division multiplexing (DWDM) combines multiple signals on the same fiber,
ranging up to 40 or 80 channels. Figure 1-3 shows by implementing DWDM
systems and optical amplifiers, networks can provide a variety of bit rates
(i.e., OC48 or OC192), and a multitude of channels over a single fiber.

Figure 1-3. DWDM Systems and Optical Amplifiers
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Two basic types of DWDM are implemented today: unidirectional and
bidirectional DWDM (see Figure 1-4). In a unidirectional system, all the
wavelengths travel in the same direction on the fiber, while in a bidirectional
system the signals are split into separate bands, with both bands traveling in
different directions.

Figure 1-4. Unidirectional and Bidirectional DWDM
Optical Amplifiers
The performance of optical amplifiers has improved significantlywith
current amplifiers providing significantly lower noise and flatter gainwhich
is essential to DWDM systems. The total power of amplifiers also has steadily
increased, with amplifiers approaching +20dBm outputs, which is many
orders of magnitude more powerful than the first amplifiers.
Narrowband Lasers
Without a narrow, stable, and coherent light source, none of the optical
components would be of any value in the optical network. Advanced lasers
with narrow bandwidths provide the narrow wavelength source that is the
individual channel in optical networks. Typically, long-haul applications use
externally modulated lasers, while shorter applications can use integrated
laser technologies.
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These laser sources emit a highly coherent signal that has an extremely
narrow bandwidth. Depending on the system used, the laser may be part of
the DWDM system or embedded in the SONET network element. When the
precision laser is embedded in the SONET network element, the system is
called an embedded system. When the precision laser is part of the WDM
equipment in a module called a transponder, it is considered an open system
because any low-cost laser transmitter on the SONET network element can
be used as input, as shown here in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5. Embedded vs. Open DWDM Systems
Fiber Bragg Gratings
Commercially available fiber Bragg gratings have been important
components for enabling WDM and optical networks. A fiber Bragg grating is
a small section of fiber that has been modified to create periodic changes in
the index of refraction. Depending on the space between the changes, a
certain frequency of lightthe Bragg resonance wavelengthis reflected
back, while all other wavelengths pass through. This is illustrated by Figure
1-6 on the next page.
The wavelength-specific properties of the grating make fiber Bragg gratings
useful in implementing optical add/drop multiplexers. Bragg gratings also are
being developed to aid in dispersion compensation and signal filtering as
well.
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Figure 1-6. In-Fiber Bragg Grating Technology: Optical A/D Multiplexer
Thin Film Substrates
Another essential technology for optical networks is the thin film substrate.
By coating a thin glass or polymer substrate with a thin interference film of
dielectric material, the substrate can be made to pass through only a specific
wavelength and reflect all others. By integrating several of these components,
many optical network devices are created, including multiplexers,
demultiplexers, and add/drop devices.

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Technologies on the Horizon
Key functions have been identified as requirements for the emerging optical
network ( shown in figure 1-7). As component technologies advance, each of
the functions required, such as tunable filters, space switches, and
wavelength converters, will become more cost effective and practical.

Figure 1-7. Key Functional Blocks for WDM Transport Systems
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One of the most promising technologies for optical networks is the
semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA). By integrating the amplifier
functionality into the semiconductor material, the same basic component can
perform many different applications.
SOAs can provide integrated functionality of internal switching and routing
functions that are required for a feature-rich network. As seen in figure 1-8,
Space switches, wavelength converters, and wavelength selectors all can be
made from SOAs, which will lead to large cost reductions and improved
performance in future optical-network equipment.

Figure 1-8. Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Technology

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Promising new gain-switching technology makes possible optical-space
switches, selectable filters, and wavelength converters. Today's transmission
systems employ NRZ at OC48 (2.5 Gbps) and OC192 (10 Gbps) data rates.
However, new transmission technologies are being studied to open the way to
OC768 (40 Gbps). These new systems might be based on either electronic
time division multiplexing (ETDM) or optical time division multiplexing
(OTDM) 4X10Gbps technologies. Advances are being made with integrated
laser modulators that provide lower-cost narrowband transmitters.

Soliton transmission, first deployed in submarine links, might find
application in terrestrial networks to improve transmission performance or in
some types of all-optical signal processing such as 3R regeneration. Research
dealing with polarization-mode dispersion mitigation, phase-shaped binary
transmission (PSBT), and fiber-grating technologies promise significant
advances in the near future with regard to increasing system performance
and network capacity.

All of these technologies aim to reduce the network cost and provide valuable
new services to customers who are constantly demanding more bandwidth-
intensive and flexible features from their network providers.
Regardless of the component technologies that are implemented in the
system, the optical network must perform several specific functions in order
to achieve maximum efficiency.

Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexers
The first element to be integrated into the optical network is the optical
multiplexer. The multiplexer combines multiple wavelengths onto a single
fiber, which allows all the signals to be routed along the same fiber. The
initial application for multiplexers has been to increase capacity on existing
fiber routes without adding more fiber, but they will serve as entry points to
the optical layer in many more aspects, including add/drop multiplexers and
optical cross-connects.
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Wavelength Switches
The ability to switch individual wavelengths is crucial to maximizing the
capacity and efficiency of optical networks. A wavelength switch provides
functionality similar to an electrical switch by routing an incoming
wavelength to a variety of physical output ports.
Wavelength Converters
The final element in optical networks is the wavelength converter, which
converts an incoming signal's wavelength to a different outgoing wavelength,
entirely in the optical domain. This will allow the network traffic to be
groomed to optimize for traffic patterns or network architecture.
Markets for Optical Networks
The evolution to the optical layer in telecommunications networks will occur
in stages in different markets because the traffic types and capacity demands
for each are different. Overall, the growth is predicted to be enormous (see
Figure 1-9). This module will review each potential market, including the
main drivers for deploying optical networks, and issues that might arise.
Figure 1-9. Optical Networks Market ($Millions)
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Long-Haul Networks
Nowhere else is bandwidth devoured so quickly as in the long-haul network.
Spanning for thousands of miles in many cases, long-haul networks are
different from all other markets in several important regards: long spans
between nodes and extremely high bandwidth requirements.
Long-haul networks were the first to have large-scale deployment of optical
amplifiers and widebandWDM systems mainly because of cost reductions.
Optical amplifiers are a cheaper alternative to a large number of electrical
regenerators in a span. In addition, using WDM, interexchange carriers
increased the fiber capacity by using WDM, which avoids the large
expenditures of installing new fiber.
Metro Interoffice (IOF) Networks
Networks in the metro interoffice (IOF) market have different needs for
optical technologies. IOF networks are typically more interconnected and
geographically localized. Because of the traffic patterns and distances
between offices, optical rings and optical cross-connects will be required much
earlier. IOF networks not only need to distribute traffic throughout a region,
but also must connect to the long-haul network. As the optical network
evolves, wavelength add/drop and interconnections will add the flexibility
and value that IOF networks require.
Business-Access Networks
The last mile of the network to business customers has gone by many names:
wide-area networks (WANs), metropolitan-area networks (MANs), and
business-access networks. Regardless of the name, these networks provide
businesses with connections to the telecommunications infrastructure. It is
these networks where the application of optical networks is not so clear.
Many more complexities arise in these networks, including variable bit-rate
interfaces, different cost structures, and different capacity needs. Similar in
architecture to IOF networks, business-access network sites are much closer
together, so fiber amplification is not as important.
An important component for optical networks in business-access networks is
the asynchronous transponder, which allows a variety of bit-rate signals to
enter the optical network. Optical networks designed for the business access
environment will need to incorporate lower-cost systems to be cost effective
and enable true wavelength services. The challenge will be proving when and
where DWDM is effective in access networks.
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Design and Planning
One of the largest challenges facing network planners who are implementing
optical networks is the task of designing and planning the optical layer. Only
when providers begin to plan the optical network do some of the more
intricate and difficult issues arise.
Span Designs
Ideally, the optical network will provide end-to-end services entirely in the
optical domain, without ever converting signals into electrical format.
Unfortunately, for at least a decade, it is probable that technology will not
progress to the point that it is possible to transmit signals for long distances
without electrical regeneration. Even as optical regenerators become
commercially viable, network spans will still need to be designed to maintain
signal quality throughout the entire signal path.
Planners must design optical networks so that signals traveling on the fiber
between one network element site and another, called a span, maintain their
quality. Many factors must be taken into account, including the optical
signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) chromatic dispersion (see Figure 1-10 ), and a
myriad of nonlinear effects introduced by the interaction of the fiber with the
optical signal. The challenge of designing optical networks increases with the
introduction of optical cross-connects and add/drop multiplexers, which could
dynamically change a signal path to travel across a different physical route.
Wavelength Routing Plans
The basic element in the optical network is the wavelength. As many
wavelengths of signals are transported across the network, it becomes
important to manage and switch each one individually. One of the benefits of
optical networks is that they allow the network architecture to be different
for each wavelength. For example, one wavelength may be established in the
network to be part of a ring configuration, while another wavelength, using
the same physical network, can be provisioned as a point-to-point system.
The flexibility of provisioning the network one wavelength at a time has led
to two definitions of end-to-end services: wavelength paths (WPs) and virtual
wavelength paths (VWPs).
Wavelength Path
The simplest implementation of a wavelength service in the optical network
is a WP. Using a WP, a signal enters and exits the optical layer at the same
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wavelength, without ever changing to a different wavelength throughout the
network. Essentially a wavelength is dedicated to connect the two endpoints.
Virtual Wavelength Path
Although a WP is simple to implement, it can impose some limitations on the
bandwidth available in the network and the cost of implementing it. One
method by which to overcome this limitation is to use a VWP, in which a
signal path can travel on different wavelengths throughout the network. By
avoiding a dedicated wavelength for an end-to-end connection, the network
can reuse and optimize wavelengths to provide the greatest amount of
capacity.
Restoration
As optical networks evolve, performing restoration at the optical layer can
provide one of the greatest potential cost savings. By implementing a
restoration scheme at the optical layer, optical nodes can perform protection
for all the wavelengths on a path, with switching times similar to that of
current electrical SONET rings (see Figure 1-10 on next page). Because
protection is performed in the optical layer, the electrical systems do not need
the extensive protection architectures that have been required historically,
which provides tremendous cost savings to network providers. In addition,
optical-layer restoration allows better wavelength utilization by
implementing 1:N protection in the SONET/SDH layer.

Figure 1-10. Optical Reconfiguration Performance

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Several methods of protection can be implemented in the optical network, all
of which are logically similar to their electrical counterparts.
Link
Link restoration is perhaps the simplest to implement in the optical network.
A link restoration routes the optical path across an alternate link between
sites, providing protection in case of a fiber or equipment failure. Although
providers can dedicate fibers for a protection link, it is usually not cost
effective to do so. While a link restoration scheme can provide full restoration
for a single link failure, when fibers are shared for working or protection, it
provides less than full protection for multiple failures.
Path
Using a 1:N path-restoration scheme allocates a disjointed path for an end-to-
end connection, but the alternate path is not dedicated for each connection.
So again, although this method provides full restoration for single link
failures, it can provide less than full protection for multiple link failures.
Hybrid
A restoration similar to link protection is hybrid restoration. Hybrid
restoration provides protection for each link but attempts to improve fiber
utilization by eliminating the backhauling of traffic. To accomplish this, the
switching near the failed link takes place on nodes that might not be adjacent
to the failure.
Ring
Perhaps the most robust protection architecture for optical networks is the
optical ring. Optical rings operate identically to their electrical ring
equivalents, with the same architectures and alternatives available.
Although they require more fiber than other restoration schemes, optical
rings provide the highest level of availability. By partitioning wavelengths
into groups, network planners can switch certain wavelengths in the optical
layer while still performing switching for existing systems in the SONET
layer. The partitioning allows a smooth evolution to optical rings.
Network Management
One of the most important and difficult issues involved with the optical
network is network management for several reasons: restoration,
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performance, and wavelength services. Although network management of
optical networks is a topic too large to cover extensively in an optical network
tutorial, some of the important issues are briefly discussed in this module.
First, the optical network is evolving and being implemented on top of an
existing SONET architecture, which provides its own restoration and
protection schemes. Without a highly intelligent network-management
system (NMS), it becomes extremely difficult to ensure that restoration
schemes between the electrical and optical layer do not conflict. In addition to
mediation between the optical and SONET layer, the network management
system must be able to prevent possible conflicts or, at the minimum, enable
the service provider to identify conflicts.
In addition to managing the overall network architecture, NMSs must be
able to monitor signal performance for each wavelength. With the addition of
optical add/drop multiplexers and optical cross-connects, the end-to-end
performance of wavelengths becomes more difficult. NMSs for the optical
network must assist providers in troubleshooting the network by isolating
questionable wavelengths and the possible location of degradation. As the
number of wavelengths on each fiber approaches 40 or more, it is important
to have an intelligent method to monitor all of them.
Finally, and perhaps most important to the service providers, the ability to
manage and provide new services to customers quickly is crucial. As
discussed earlier, provisioning end-to-end services can be difficult, especially
as network capacity decreases. An intelligent NMS can help providers
establish and monitor new end-to-end wavelength services to maximize their
bandwidth revenues.
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OSMINE
( Operations Systems Modifications for the Integration of Network Elements )

Equipment manufacturers that offer Network Elements (NEs) and
Operations Systems (OSSs) to the RBOCs must be certain that these
products interoperate with the RBOCs' large embedded base of operations
systems. These operations systems provide mechanized support for the
various services. To help meet these requests, a modification procedure for
Telcordia, called Operations Systems Modifications for the Integration of
Network Elements (OSMINE) was established. OSMINE is a process that
integrates equipment manufacturers' network elements or products with
Telcordia developed operations systems.

The focus is almost exclusively on legacy or heritage equipment

Cross connects, ATM, SONET
Most OSMINE applications do not understand Layer 3/IP
type of information
An additional interface for NMA has been developed to
address this issue with minimal success
The OSMINE Process has four stages of implementation:

1. Request for Work
2. Operations System Impact Analysis (OSIA)
3. Detailed Requirements
4. OSS Modification and Test
Elapsed time varies from a few months to over twelve months, depending on
product complexity, OSSs involved, and timeliness of NEP-provided product
documentation
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NGNESS
NGNESS ( Next Generation Network Element Solutions Services )
provides solutions for interoperability between network equipment provider
products and element management systems and the Telcordia NGN OSSs.

Definition of interface adaptors via CORBA, SNMP,
ASCII/FTP or TL1
Equipment and network modeling characterization for the
purposes of inventory management, event correlation,
performance analysis, capacity management and service
level management
Equipment and network modeling for specific services,
such as ADSL, ATM, VDSL, Voice Over IP, Enhanced
Internet, Virtual Private Network and Data Services that
are supported by the NGN OSSs
Equipment behavior modeling for fault management
Interoperability testing between the network technology
and the NGN OSSs as well as between multiple NGN
OSSs
Development of Methods and Procedures (M & P) for the
end user at the service providers operations
These two products are OSS customization services which address NE-
specific functionality, as opposed to functionality which may be applicable to
multiple Network Equipment Providers NE's (generic functionality). This
is critical for service providers to :
Provision high volume flow through solutions across
Legacy and Next Generation Network OSSs
Reduce risk of managing large, multi-vendor networks
Allow for automation of business processes
Develop formal relationship with suppliers to ensure
quality integration
Ensures consistent keep current support
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Telcordia
OSMINE/NGNESS is a development of Telcordia General. They are an
independent unit of Science Applications International Corp. (SAIC) that
provides software, engineering, consulting and training services to optimize
the performance of communications networks worldwide. Telcordia provides
80% of U.S. RBOC Operations Support Systems, holds over 1,400 patents,
and is renowned for its research and development which led to: ADSL, AIN,
ATM, ISDN, Frame Relay, PCS, SMDS, SONET / SDH and Video-On-
Demand. Additionally they are the worlds largest telecommunications
trainer (30,000 students annually from 1,300 companies.
Service Offerings
Telcordia provides the following offerings to service providers allowing the
ability to manage and provide new services to customers quickly. These OSS
customization services address NE-specific functionality, as opposed to
functionality which may be applicable to multiple Network Equipment
Providers NE's (generic functionality)

Billing & Negotiation -Automated customer care and
billing and seamless interconnection
Network Design & Inventory -Create and inventory
efficient, effective network designs
Service Provisioning & Activation -Accomplish flow-
through provisioning and activation
Performance Management -Monitor network performance
Fault Management -Detect, collect and isolate alarms and
generate trouble tickets
Work & Force Management -Schedule field forces, assign
workloads

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NEBS
The Network Equipment-Building System (NEBS) is a generic requirement
for US telecommunications facilities and covers operational continuity and
safety for property and personnel. Your company may be obliged to comply
with this Bellcore standard if you supply devices to the RBOCs (Regional Bell
Operating Companies) or other service providers.

Definition of Requirements
NEBS is a family of documents, FR-2063, developed by Bellcore to define
guidelines for telephone facility buildings and equipment. This family
consists of several documents. As noted in SR-3580; "all the NEBS criteria
are important for efficient equipment deployment, and reliable and safe
operation". However, the documents, GR-63-CORE and GR-108g-CORE, are
most commonly referred to as the "NEBS Criteria".

GR-63-CORE (NEBS) Requirements: Physical Protection - addresses physical
and environmental criteria such as spatial humidity, fire resistance,
earthquake and vibrations, airborne contaminants, acoustic noise and
illumination.

GR-1089-CORE (Electromagnetic Compatibility and Electrical Safety -
Generic Criteria for Network Telecommunications Equipment) - is concerned
with the generic criteria for system level electrostatic discharge,
electromagnetic emissions and immunity, lightning and AC power faults,
steady state power induction, DC potential difference, electrical safety,
corrosion, and bonding and grounding.

SR-3680 (NEBS) Criteria Levels - allows for three levels of conformance using
the above standards.
Level 1 ensures minimum facility, network, and personnel
safety.
Level ll adds minimum requirements for equipment
operability.
Level lll adds further minimum requirements in order to
assure maximum equipment operability.
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These are generic standards in which the end-user determines the
requirements and levels, which must be met. However, in order to declare
compliance with a level, all requirements of that level must be implemented.
An objective, on the other hand, is a desirable feature that should be
implemented. However, some end-users may insist that objectives are met as
well.
During the design stage for product offerings, it is important that the end-
customer's expectations for compliance are understood. Each end-customer
will have an individual view of which criteria are most important. The NEBS
standards should be referred to throughout the design process. By working
with your NEBS test lab and end-customer, you can develop a practical test
plan and test schedule.
Network Evolution
As the optical network evolves, network planners must understand a
dilemma in best utilizing the optical network. On the one hand, access
networks require a transparent optical network that is bit-rate and format
independent. This would provide flexibility and allow connection to the
network directly with asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), transmission
control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP), SONET, or any other signal
format without additional equipment costs. It also would allow wavelengths
be added and dropped completely optically without affecting the original
signal format.
Unfortunately, this transparent model for the access network falls completely
apart when applied to metropolitan or long-haul networks. As the distances
increase, carriers need to maximize the capacity to reduce costs, and allow
any signal data rate onto the network would greatly increase costs. Therein
lies the dilemma: networks need the flexibility to provide a variety of end-
user services without inefficiencies in the long-haul network. The solution is
the optical gateway, which will integrate with existing optical-network
elements.
Discussed below are some of the optical-network elements that make end-to-
end wavelength services a reality, and how they will be integrated into the
network.
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Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Many network providers are already deploying DWDM on a large scale.
Fiber-congested, point-to-point segments of long-distance networks were one
of the first applications for WDM terminals. Today, 16-channel dense WDM
terminals are widely deployed to enhance the bandwidth capacity of the long-
haul network backbone. Throughout 1998, the industry will shift to 32 and 40
channel systems, and in following years even more.
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (OADM)
The OADM enhances the WDM terminals by adding several significant
features. The OADM systems have the capacity of up to 40 optical
wavelengths. They efficiently drop and add various wavelengths at
intermediate sites along the networkresolving a significant challenge for
existing WDM.
Most important, OADM technology introduces asynchronous transponders to
allow the optical-network element to interface directly to high revenue
generating services. It is now possible for ATM, frame relay (FR), native
local-area networks (LANs), high-bandwidth Internet protocol (IP), and
others to connect directly to the network via a wavelength in the optical
layer. Transponder technology also extends the life of older lightwave
systems by accepting its bandwidth directly into the optical layer, converting
its frequency to an acceptable standard, and providing protection and
restoration. The OADM also is the foundation of optical bidirectional line
switched rings (OBLSRs), which are described in the next module.
Optical Gateways
In order to access the optical network efficiently and maximize bandwidth
capacity and transport-protocol transparency, the optical gateway becomes a
critical network element (see Figure 17). As a variety of bit rates and signal
formats, ranging from asynchronous legacy networks to 10Gbps SONET
systems, a common transport structure must groom and provision traffic
entering the optical layer. The emerging basic format for high-speed
transparent transport is ATM, and optical gateways will allow a mix of
standard SONET and ATM services. By providing a link between the variety
of electrical protocols and allowing flexible deployment of any mix of them,
optical gateways provide networks the maximum benefits of optical networks.
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The optical gateway will be the key element to allow smooth transition to
optical networks. As more intelligence is added to the optical layer, costs can
be reduced in the SONET layer. For example, as optical rings are
implemented, the optical gateway can interface lower cost 1:N protected
SONET system with the optical ring. By partitioning wavelengths, existing
SONET rings can be kept intact, while new systems are lower-cost integrated
1:N tributaries to the optical layer.
Optical Bidirectional Line Switched Rings
Optical-ring architectures utilize reconfigurable OADMs; the ring
architecture is a familiar scheme to the telecommunications industry and
now applied to the optical domain. The optical ring uses the same principles
as the fiber ring to provide protection against equipment and network
failures , as shown here in Figure 1-11.

Figure 1-11. Optical Rings

Network elements have intelligent software that senses a module failure or
break in its fiber connection and automatically routes traffic in the opposite
direction around the fiber ring. This architecture allows service providers to
guarantee that customers' connection will not go out of service. However, the
network elements now support multiple optical wavelengths as opposed to
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multiple DS3 circuits. In the case of a fiber break, the optical network will
automatically reroute up to 40 optical signals in less than 50 milliseconds.
Because optical rings are most cost effective over large networks, the
switching time is critical. One technology planned for implementation is
called network protection equipment (NPE), which significantly reduces the
switching time required in large optical networks. Instead of routing traffic
from network elements adjacent to a fiber cut, the OBLSR using NPE
redirects the traffic from the node where it enters the ring. This redirection
prevents the traffic from being backhauled across the network, which greatly
improves overall switching time.
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC)
Efficient use of fiber facilities at the optical level obviously becomes critical as
service providers begin to move wavelengths around the world. Routing and
grooming are key areas that must be addressed. This is the function of the
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC).
Digital cross-connect systems are deployed en masse and provide the critical
function of grooming traffic (DS0, DS1, and DS3) to fill output ports on
the system efficiently. Today, output ports can be at the DS3, OC3, or OC
12 level. For this reason, it is critical to ensure that those pipes are full of
traffic when they exit the cross-connect system. In the optical domain, where
40 optical channels can be transported on a single fiber, a network element is
needed that can accept various wavelengths on input ports and route them to
appropriate output ports in the network. To accomplish this, the OXC needs
three building blocks (See Figure 1-12):
fiber switchingthe ability to route all of the wavelengths
on an incoming fiber to a different outgoing fiber
wavelength switchingthe ability to switch specific
wavelengths from an incoming fiber to multiple outgoing
fibers
wavelength conversionthe ability to take incoming
wavelengths and convert them (on the fly) to another
optical frequency on the outgoing port; this is necessary to
achieve strictly nonblocking architectures when using
wavelength switching
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Figure 1-12. Optical Cross-Connects
The Future of Optical Networks
The impact of the new optical layer in the telecommunications network is
astounding. It can be measured in two wayseconomic impact and carriers'
ability to offer new services. Optical-layer technology will increase network
capacity, allowing network providers to transport more than 40 times the
traffic on the same fiber infrastructure. Consumers will have access to new
high-bandwidth services made possible by the increased capacity afforded by
the optical layer. Services that today are considered prohibitively expensive,
such videoconferencing to the desktop (or home), electronic commerce, and
high-speed video imaging, will become commonplace because they will be
technologically and economically feasible.
In essence, optical-layer technology will improve the way we live.

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Unit 2 Optical Ethernet
Unit 2
Optical Ethernet
Unit Overview
This unit discusses the relationship that exists between Optical networks and
Optical Ethernet. While Ethernet LANs are almost exclusively used within
the enterprise, optical Ethernet technology can be used as a service provider
offering. This unit explores the history and potential of optical Ethernet
technology, focusing specifically on its impact on service-provider networks
and services.

Objectives
Market and Technology Trends Shaping Optical Ethernet
Brief History of Optical Ethernet
Physical Layer
Gigabit Ethernet Transceiver Technology
10 Gigabit Ethernet Transceiver Technology
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Optical Ethernet Unit 2
Optical Ethernet Definition
Optical Ethernet is the technology that extends Ethernet beyond the local-
area network (LAN) and into metropolitan-area networks (MANs) and wide-
area networks (WANs). While Ethernet LANs are almost exclusively used
within the enterprise, optical Ethernet technology can be used as a service
provider offering.
Technology Evolution
Ethernet was defined as an open standard in the early 1980s by a consortium
comprised of Digital Equipment Corp., Intel, and XEROX; the resulting
standard was called the DIX Ethernet Spec. The goal was to promote a
relatively high-performance and low-cost LAN implementation using digital
(baseband) signaling on a shared coaxial cable.
In 1983, the IEEE 802 Local-Area Network/Metropolitan-Area Network
Standards Committee (LMSC) released the 802.3 standard for Etherneta
shared medium for LANs using a distributed media access control (MAC)
mechanism called carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).
Ethernet has proven to be a highly flexible standard. It has evolved to include
point-to-point signaling, full-duplex (unshared) links, and very-high-speed
networks. Several Ethernet characteristics have persisted, the most
important of these being the framing format itself (see Figure 1). An Ethernet
frame specifies a minimum and maximum packet size, a protocol-type field
(expanded by 802.3 to function sometimes as a packet-length field), and both
a destination and a source MAC address. The address fields have been
particularly valuable, as the globally unique MAC addresses (each 48 bits
long) have enabled the creation of new devices (Ethernet switches) that have
simplified the development of large Ethernet networks.
Optical links have been a part of Ethernet standards since the early 1980s.
The needs and potential of optical transport, including point-to-point and full-
duplex links, have driven some of the evolution of Ethernet. Optical Ethernet
technologies are providing the longest spans and greatest speeds used in
LANs today, and they will undoubtedly; continue to do so in the future.
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Figure 2-1. Ethernet Frame
History
The First Optical Ethernet Repeaters
The first Ethernet standard included a provision for a single 2-km optical
repeater in an Ethernet LAN that was expected to be used to link different
buildings in a large LAN. As parts of a shared LAN, these links were not only
half-duplexthey also propagated collisions (the signals used to limit access
to a single sender at a time). Their spans were limited by the maximum delay
that could be allowed on an Ethernet LAN and still detect collisions. They
were true Layer-1 repeaters.
Campus Optical Ethernet
The advent of the Ethernet bridge, now commonly called an Ethernet
switch, changed the game. The purpose of an Ethernet bridge is to connect
two different Ethernet LANs (the name switch evolved to denote
interconnecting more than two). This occurs at the MAC layer, Layer 2 of the
7-layer OSI protocol model, and there are two important features involved.
First, not all traffic on either end is transported only traffic destined for
the other LAN. Second, collisions (and collision-detection signals) are not
transported; each side is its own Layer-1 LAN. Together, these features not
only improve network performance by isolating LAN segments but also
greatly increase the maximum size of an Ethernet LAN.
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The Ethernet bridge enabled large LANs to be deployed because a network of
campus bridges could interconnect all of the building LANs. Instead of
forming a simple star network, these were implemented as meshes, with
multiple connections to each LAN. This required the development of the
spanning-tree protocol (802.1D), which works by disabling redundant paths
and which implements a form of path protection for the LAN.
People quickly realized that if both ends of an optical link terminated on a
bridge port, then the normal limits on the size of an Ethernet LAN segment
no longer applied. The optical link could be operated as full-duplex, thereby
doubling the bandwidth of the link. And with only one transmitter on a LAN
segment, there could be no collisions; thus, the need to limit the size of the
span for collision detection vanished, allowing an optical Ethernet segment to
span as far as the lasers could reach. In the early days, this still meant only a
few kilometers because light emitting diodes and multimode fibers were used;
but this was still enough to enable large campuses to be fully connected. The
loss of collisions as a flow-control mechanism required the development of a
new protocol, 802.3x, to handle that need.
Optical Fast Ethernet
In 1995, a new standard emerged for 100megabits-per-second (Mbps)
Ethernet transmission (or Fast Ethernet) over Category-5 (Cat-5)
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper cable. Actually, several standards were
proposed and implemented, but only one gained significant acceptancethat
was 100BASETX using two Cat-5 UTPs at distances up to 100 meters.
Following close on the heels of the copper Fast Ethernet standards
development was the optical side. The first standards to emerge were
adapted from fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) technology. The
transceiver design and encoding technique were the same, simplifying the
work of the standards committee and ensuring that the standardized
technology would actually work. While there were some differences,
considerable effort was expended to make sure that FDDI transceivers could
be readily adapted to optical Fast Ethernet.
As on the copper side, several standards were ratified on the optical side. The
first standard was for medium-range multimode fiber transmission at 1310
nm (100BASEFX), based upon the FDDI standards. This provided for a
normal range of about 2 kmadequate for most campus environments.
100BASEFX was part of the original 802.3u Fast Ethernet specification
back in 1994. The second optical fast-Ethernet standard was 100BASE-SX,
ratified in June of 2000 (a full six years later). This standard enabled
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backward compatibility with 10BASEFL by using the same 850 nm
wavelength and an auto-negotiation protocol.
Note that there was no single-mode fiber standard for optical Fast Ethernet
transmission (and there is still none at the time of this writing, nor is one
expected). This lack of a formal standard has not stopped equipment
manufacturers from implementing longhaul (10 km 100 km) fast-Ethernet
links, and in practice they are likely to be interoperable, at least when
operating at the same wavelength. They are available both at 1310 nm (the
wavelength used in 100BASE-FX, FDDI, and SONET equipment) and 1550
nm (the wavelength used in wavelength division multiplexing [WDM]
systems). This de facto compatibility has resulted from the evolution of
Ethernet devices, which originally separated the digital logic from the analog
logic. This distinction was formalized in the Fast Ethernet standard as the
media independent interface (MII). Today, the chip sets that handle Ethernet
are generally independent of the chips that handle the media, be they copper,
fiber, or potentially something else. Moreover, the fiber-optic drivers
themselves dont know (or care) if the fiber is multimode or single-mode, what
the type of connector is, or what wavelength is being used. The bottom line is
that the approach used by Ethernet component manufacturers has led to a
great deal of flexibility and interoperability, often transcending the standards
that were created for that very purpose.
Optical Gigabit Ethernet
The 802.3z gigabit Ethernet standard describes multiple optical
specifications. 1000BASESX describes short wavelength (850 nm)
transmission using multimode fiber with a maximum range of 550 meters on
new fiber, or 220 meters on older fiber (with poorer dispersion
characteristics). 1000BASELX describes long-wavelength (1310 nm)
transmission using either multimode fiber (with a range of 550 meters) or
single-mode fiber (with a range of 5000 meters). As before, the standards
committee took full advantage of existing technology and borrowed the
transceivers and encoding formats of fiber channel. Specifically, the FC0
fiber driver/receiver was copied, along with the FC1 serializer/deserializer.
The 8B/10B encoding format was used, which specifies the framing and clock-
recovery mechanism. The significant changes were the signaling rate, which
was increased to 1.25 gigabits per second (Gbps) from fiber channels 1.06
Gbps, and the frame content and size, which are the same as previous
Ethernet implementations.
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Much of the early gigabit Ethernet standards work was in specifying half-
duplex operation in a collision detection environment equivalent to the
shared LANs of ordinary and Fast Ethernet. However, that work was
effectively wastedall commercial Gigabit Ethernet implementations today
are point-to-point, full-duplex links.
Just as in Fast Ethernet, the range of commercially available optical Gigabit
Ethernet interfaces exceeds the limits outlined by IEEE 802.3z. There are
devices available that operate at 1550 nm and devices that operate at much
greater distances than 5km. In fact, 150km spans are possible without
repeaters or amplifiers. Again, this was enabled by the separation of
Ethernet control logic from media control logic, which has now been
formalized in a new way. It is not the formal definition of an MII (called
gigabit MII [GMII] in the Gigabit Ethernet standards), but rather a new
standard for a GigaBit Interface Converter (GBIC).
GBIC modules
Originally specified for fiber channel, the GBIC standards have evolved to
support Gigabit Ethernet, and these modules have become the de facto
standard for gigabit Ethernet interfaces. They provide hot-swappable
modules that can be installed to support LAN, campus area network (CAN),
MAN, and even WAN transport interchangeably, as needed. And they are
available from a large number of suppliers, keeping prices competitive and
capabilities expanding.
The GBIC revolution is one of the best examples of industry consortia
creating a new market by consensus, yielding a net increase in the revenues
of all the participants. The modules themselves, by virtue of being small and
plugging into a standardized slot, challenged the transceiver manufacturers,
who responded with technological innovations and features beyond all
reasonable expectations. The chip manufacturers contributed readily
available chip sets that support these GBIC modules, simplifying and
speeding up the task of the hardware engineers.
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Figure 2-2. Ethernet Timeline
Optical Ethernet Today
Optical Ethernet systems are evolving beyond mere optical links that
interconnect isolated LANs. Rather, they are becoming systems in
themselves, providing scale and functionality that is simply not feasible with
copper-based Ethernet, including those linked by routers.
LAN
Today, few optical Ethernet links are implemented within a computer room
or small building. But there are exceptions for electrically noisy
environments, highly secure transmissions (no EMI), and ground isolation.
And even in a small building, it is easier to run fiber-optic conduit than
electrical wires because there are fewer issues with building codes.
This situation is likely to change, as very-short-reach optics support much
higher speeds than copper does. It is important to note that gigabit copper
links are limited to about 30 meters and that the next generation of Ethernet
at 10 Gigabits would drop this already inadequate distance dramatically.
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CAN
Today, virtually all Ethernet links greater than 200 meters are implemented
optically. The CAN is dominated by multimode fiber, although most CANs
are really multiple LANs interconnected by routers that use optical links.
This situation is changing, as the scale and functional capabilities of
Ethernet switches increase. Ethernet 10BASET hubs, once dominant, no
longer offer a sufficiently lower cost to justify their use. More and more LANs
are being implemented with Ethernet switches, providing separate switch
ports to every node on the LAN. Traditionally, these Ethernet switches
aggregate traffic into a high-speed uplink port (once Ethernet, then Fast
Ethernet, and now Gigabit Ethernet), which feeds a router that itself
interconnects the LANs and provides WAN access. But today, when the cost
of a router is weighed against the cost of a GBIC module, it loses every time.
This trend is being accelerated by the proliferation of virtual LAN (VLAN)
capable Ethernet switches and by the development of even larger and more
capable routers that understand and route to VLAN IDs in the now larger
LAN.
MAN
Optical Ethernet in the MAN is a relatively recent development. Gigabit
optical Ethernet has the capacity to provide direct Ethernet services as a
carrier offering, with service switches that limit actual delivered bandwidth
as needed. Multiple vendors now offer direct Ethernet services to subscribers,
with only a few core routers linking those subscribers to the outside world
(the Internet).
But Ethernet services is not the leading reason to implement an Ethernet
MAN today. Rather, the desire to reduce the number of routers in the
network is becoming the most compelling reason to use a Layer-2 technology
(Ethernet) in the metro area. The reason is simpleevery router in a path,
many of which are unnecessary, adds delay to the packet transport. In an
ideal world, routers provide a buffer between management domains, which
are generally companies or network providers. They provide a place to control
access, provide security (via firewalls) and manage addresses. But within a
management domain, layers of routers generate excess complexity and
require large staffs of router guys. They also bypass a primary tenet of
many routing protocolsthat every router should have a direct link to every
other router that it knows about. The routing network is much more effective
(and easier to manage) if all of the entities routers are directly
interconnected, which is easily done today using optical Ethernet.
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WAN
Ethernet transport has not yet taken off in the long-haul network, but this is
expected to change as 10-Gigabit Ethernet interfaces become available. Some
of those are expected to operate at SONET OC192 speeds and at the
distances needed for long-haul networks. The distance limitations are not a
serious concern because most long-haul networks use dense wavelength
division multiplexing (DWDM) systems to combine multiple circuits over a
single fiber, each on its own wavelength, and these DWDM systems provide
the long-haul capability themselves.
Still, wide-area Ethernet networks are expected to be implemented, the main
reasons being speed, cost, and simplicity. Consider a nationwide 10-gigabit IP
SONETstyle ring implemented as OC192 packet-overSONET (POS) links
between a dozen cities. Each city would need a large router with two
relatively expensive POS ports, and the average packet would traverse half a
dozen routers as it crossed the network. In the event of a link failure, the
routers would spend a significant span of time converging on a new set of
routing tables to bypass the failure. Now consider the same network with
each city containing an Ethernet switch with two 10Gigabit Ethernet switch
ports and a 1-gigabit port connected to the local router. Total costs here
would be much lower because 10Gigabit Ethernet switch ports are expected
to be much less expensive than the equivalent router ports, and 1-gigabit
router ports are relatively inexpensive. Each router sees a direct connection
to every other router, simplifying table lookups. And in the event of a link
failure, the Ethernet switches themselves reroute the traffic more quickly at
Layer 2the routers do not need to be involved.
Today, several vendors have products that aggregate and transport Ethernet
traffic at 10-gigabit speeds suitable for the WAN. These are proprietary,
requiring matching devices from the same vendor at each end normally not
a problem in a full-duplex, point-to-point network.

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Figure 2-3. LANCANMANWAN

Recent Trends
Optical Ethernet Switches
A true all-optical network is not likely to happen in the Ethernet space in
the foreseeable future. The reason for this is that there are no technologies
that enable packet switching at the optical layer today. However, purely
optical Ethernet switches have already been demonstrated, in the sense that
all of the Ethernet interface ports are optical (while the internal switching
remains electrical). This is todays technology optimized for carriers selling
Ethernet services. When a carriers customers are spread over metropolitan
distances (10 km 50 km), then the lowest-cost service-provider network is
Ethernet with all of the device ports themselves being optical. Also,
businesses are requesting native Ethernet services to interconnect their
facilities into VLANs. This trend will be accelerated by the fiber-to-the-
consumer move, as the lowest-cost optical service will once again be Ethernet.
So the bulk of early fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), and possibly the majority of
fiber-to-the-business (FTTB) services, may well be optical Ethernet (at least
as viewed by the carrier).
GBIC Modules
The latest GBIC innovation is a miniGBIC, also known as the small form-
factor pluggable multisource agreement (SFP MSA) module. The miniGBIC
is only about half the size, effectively doubling the available capacity that can
be designed into the face of an equipment shelf. New designs are quickly
taking advantage of this space savings.
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Resilient Packet Rings (RPR)
While not formally a part of Ethernet, the IEEE 802.17 committee is creating
a standard for packet transport over fiber-optic rings. Current directions
include using Ethernet framing in SONETstyle rings. The goal of RPR is
simple: to define a high-performance, high-availability optical transport
suitable for carrier networks in metropolitan service areas. Note that it is
easier to implement a fast and robust link-failure recovery in a ring topology
than in a mesh topology; this is because in a ring, the alternate route is
always known.
The IEEE 802.17 committee does not view RPR as Ethernet, and indeed
there is no intent that an IEEE 802.3 device could be directly connected to an
802.17 interface. To a degree, a metro Ethernet is a competing mesh (not
ring) technology with relatively slow spanning-tree failover, instead of
SONETstyle, fast (50 ms) failure recovery. Still, RPR implementations are
likely to become a popular transport mechanism for Ethernet packets,
especially for telecommunications service providers.
10-Gigabit Ethernet Standards
The 10GEA (10-Gigabit Ethernet Alliance) is an industry consortium of about
100 members working to promote the acceptance and success of 10-gigabit
Ethernet. This group is not the same as the IEEE 802.3ae standards
committee, which proposed standards for 10-Gigabit Ethernet ratification
March 2002. Of course, vendors hope that their products will be one of the
standards, and they promise that they will conform once those standard
interfaces are defined.
10-Gigabit Ethernet May Be Optical Only
There are real challenges to making electrical signals carry a significant
distance at those rates, and the implementations may simply be more
expensive than their more capable optical cousins (meaning that they simply
wont happen).
One of the proposed standards uses very-short-reach optics, to be
implemented as parallel data streams over a fiber-optic ribbon containing 12
multimode fibers. This was proposed as a low-cost method to interconnect
devices in a room.
A second proposed standard uses a very compact package (about 1" x 0.75" x
3") containing a coarse WDM device, four receivers, and four lasers operating
approximately 25 nm apart in wavelengths near 1300 nm. Each
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transmitter/receiver pair operates at 3.125 gigabaud (data stream at 2.5
Gbps). The proposed device has very aggressive engineering challenges and a
very aggressive target-price point.
A third proposed standard is a serial interface using 64B/66B encoding
(instead of the 8B/10B used in gigabit Ethernet), a data stream of 10.000
Gbps, and a resulting clock rate of 10.3 Gbps. This is a favorite of the
Ethernet purists, who like the simplicity of just moving the decimal place;
moreover, the resulting optical data stream may be directly interoperable
with some of todays DWDM systems.
A fourth proposed standard is a SONET OC192 compatible stream, which is
therefore clocked at 9.953 Gbps. The disadvantage is that it is not a pure 10
times 100 megabit Ethernet. There may also be disadvantages of cost
SONET is not the least expensive transport method. The advantages,
however, are that it would be guaranteed to interoperate with all of the OC
192 SONET devices, including the networks of all of the major telephone
companies, and all of the OC192 compatible DWDM systems. And the
reality is that 9.953 Gbps is close enough to 10.000 that no real applications
are likely to notice the difference.

Figure 2-4. Bandwidth-Growth Timeline
Future Expectations
Ethernet is (by a huge margin) the most successful networking technology
ever. After all, 99 percent of all TCP/IP packets (including Internet traffic)
traverse an Ethernet somewhere (and more likely five or six Ethernet LANs
in the World Wide Web). A carrier that runs fiber to a business enables the
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delivery of all of todays communications services and, likely, all of
tomorrows. And Ethernet services are the least expensive services that can
be provided over that fiber today.
It seems clear that Ethernet services will be coming soon to businesses near
youand to residences soon after. The only questions are how soon, how fast,
and how expensive? In many metropolitan areas, some service providers
already provide Ethernet services by the megabit of capacity: you can buy
from 1 to 100 megabits, as needed. A few service providers already sell Fast
Ethernet (100 megabit) Internet access for $1,000 per montha truly
compelling price when compared to the Old World SONET or ATMbased
services.
Still, is Fast Ethernet fast enough? Of course, that depends upon the
business, but the cost of laying FTTB dominates the capital expenditures,
and todays Fast Ethernet infrastructure can be readily upgraded tomorrow.
The switching cost and Internet-access cost are still much higher for Gigabit
speeds, but those costs are rapidly declining. For Ethernet services between
locations for a business, Gigabit Ethernet may already be needed to support
file servers, backup servers, and other intranet applications. After all, most
workstations installed today come with fast Ethernet built-in, implying that
the switching and office-services infrastructure should be significantly faster
to avoid bottlenecking.
Residential applications are more limited. 10-Megabit Ethernet should be
adequate for Web browsing for the near future, and the bandwidth needed for
telephony is negligible. The most bandwidth-hungry application recognized
today is TV, especially premium services such as video-on-demand. A single
channel or movie at broadcast quality requires about 4 Mbps; DVD quality
requires only about 9 or 10 Mbps; and even HDTV will probably only require
20 Mbps. Of course, these figures are per-channel-viewed, and the industry
should plan on an average capacity of perhaps two channels per household at
a time. Still, even the most aggressive of these numbers imply that a single
Fast Ethernet service to each home (not shared) is more than adequate for
the services we know of today.
Optical Ethernet Area Networks
Large optical Ethernet networks are changing the definition of the LAN.
Local might even be global. The original barriers in an Ethernet LAN (3-
km span, 1023 nodes, 1 optical repeater) have long since been vanquished.
Today, the practical limits are more because of the need to terminate
broadcast traffic or to provide security between management domains, or
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because of todays limits to the number of MAC addresses that an Ethernet
switch might support. Note that VLANs already start to address these issues;
and larger VLANenabled switches in the future are at least likely to control
the problems and isolate them for a really large router to handle.
The practical limits to the size of an optical Ethernet are not geographic;
rather, they involve bandwidth, node count, and overlying protocol (broadcast
traffic, routing-table size, etc.). As VLAN and other Ethernet services become
more common, we may even see large corporate networks simplify into a
single, optically connected Ethernet LAN, with only a few large routers
providing the necessary functions of security, address management, and
interdomain routing.
The largest optical Ethernet networks are likely to belong to carriers,
interconnecting all of their points of presence (POPs). Even todays optical
Ethernet technology could be used to create a nationwide (or even global),
very-high-speed optical Ethernet that can be used to interconnect the large
core routers in each POP. Such a network would have fewer router hops,
faster link-failure recovery, and lower cost than todays normal network of
OC192 POS routers.
Beyond 10 Gigabits
Just as the growth of 10-Megabit Ethernet led to the need for 100-Megabit
Fast Ethernet, and just as the growth of Fast Ethernet led to the need for
Gigabit Ethernet, the growth of Gigabit Ethernet is now driving the market
to 10-Gigabit Ethernet. This trend is not likely to stop anytime soon.
Serverswhether Web servers, file servers, e-commerce servers, or others
must have greater bandwidth than the customers they serve, otherwise,
those customers will feel frustrated with inadequate performance and
possibly go elsewhere for service. The best example is Web servers. If the
average Web browser is using a 56k modem, a server on a T1 line can
simultaneously handle approximately 30 customers. But the broadband
movement has already started, and millions of consumers are now accessing
the Internet from DSL and cable networks. These consumers access the
Internet at speeds up to 10-Megabit Ethernet (typical connectivity for a
cable-modem service), and for them, a service provider limited to a T1 line is
already unacceptably slow. This requirement to always be faster than your
customer (and by a factor of the number of simultaneous accesses) drives the
need for T3 (45 megabits) or even greater speeds today and will drive the
need for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet tomorrow.
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Gigabit Optical-Ethernet Services
Some carriers are already deploying gigabit optical-Ethernet services today.
They may limit their customers to a few megabits per second, but the links
are gigabit-capable; and someday the fees for gigabit-scale Ethernet services
will be affordable. Then, even a 10-GigabitEthernet transport will be
inadequate. Engineers are already dreaming of the next step, and arguing
over what speed it will be. 40-gigabit speeds (SONET OC768) have already
been demonstrated, so that is a possible Ethernet target. But the Ethernet
purists insist that the only logical next step is to move the decimal point
one more timeto 100 gigabits.
In the meantime, the protocols and techniques for bandwidth sharing over
parallel links exist, work well, and are used in thousands of sites. It is a
simple step to run parallel optical-Ethernet trunks, each on a separate
wavelength, all multiplexed over a single fiber pair using DWDM technology.
In this way, a point-to-point Ethernet link could have scores of 10-gigabit
channels, with an aggregate Ethernet bandwidth of perhaps 400 gigabits,
today! Using recently announced DWDM capacity of 160 wavelengths, 1600-
gigabit-per-second links could be implemented. So in a sense, Terabit
Ethernet is already availableof course, this kind of network requires very
large Ethernet switches at the ends of that fiber.
The limits on optical-Ethernet bandwidth may just be the limits of fiber-optic
bandwidth perhaps 25 Terabits per second for the available spectrum on
todays fiber, which is still well beyond the capabilities of todays lasers and
electronics. Still, extrapolating from recent trends gets us to that level in only
5 or 10 years.

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Unit 3 DWDM
Unit 3
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Unit Overview
This unit discusses the importance of scalable DWDM to accommodate
consumer demand. DWDM is explained as a component of optical networks
that allows the transmission of e-mail, video, multimedia, data, and voice
carried in Internet protocol (IP), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), and
synchronous optical network/synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH),
respectively, over the optical layer.
Objectives
DWDM System Characteristics
Resolving the Capacity Crisis
Capacity Expansion and Flexibility
Optical Add Drop Mux (OADM)
The Optical Layer as the Unifying Layer
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DWDM Unit 3
DWDM Definition
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic
transmission technique that employs light wavelengths to transmit data
parallel-by-bit or serial-by-character.
The Challenges of Today's Telecommunications Network
To understand the importance of DWDM and optical networking, these
capabilities must be discussed in the context of the challenges faced by the
telecommunications industry, and, in particular, service providers. Most U.S.
networks were built using estimates that calculated bandwidth use by
employing concentration ratios derived from classical engineering formulas
such as Poisson and Reeling. Consequently, forecasts of the amount of
bandwidth capacity needed for networks were calculated on the presumption
that a given individual would only use network bandwidth six minutes of
each hour. These formulas did not factor in the amount of traffic generated by
Internet access (300 percent growth per year), faxes, multiple phone lines,
modems, teleconferencing, and data and video transmission. Had these
factors been included, a far different estimate would have emerged. In fact,
today many people use the bandwidth equivalent of 180 minutes or more
each hour.
Therefore, an enormous amount of bandwidth capacity is required to provide
the services demanded by consumers. For perspective, in 1997, a long-
distance carrier made major strides when it increased its bandwidth capacity
to 1.2 Gbps (billions of bits per second) over one fiber pair. At the
transmission speed of one Gbps, one thousand books can be transmitted per
second. However today, if one million families decide they want to see video
on Web sites and sample the new emerging video applications, then network
transmission rates of terabits (trillions of bits per second [Tbps]) are
required. With a transmission rate of one Tbps, it is possible to transmit 20
million simultaneous 2-way phone calls or transmit the text from 300 years
worth of daily newspapers per second.
No one could have predicted the network growth necessary to meet the
demand. For example, one study estimated that from 1994 to 1998 the
demand on the U.S. interexchange carriers'(IXCs) network would increase
sevenfold, and for the U.S. local exchange carriers' (LECs) network, the
demand would increase fourfold. In actuality, one company indicated that its
network growth was 32 times that of the previous year, while another
company's rate of growth in 1997 alone was the same size as its entire
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Unit 3 DWDM
network in 1991. Yet another has said that the size of its network doubled
every six months in that four-year period.
In addition to this explosion in consumer demand for bandwidth, many
service providers are coping with fiber exhaust in their networks. An
industry survey indicated that in 1995, the amount of embedded fiber already
in use in the average network was between 70 percent and 80 percent. Today,
many carriers are nearing one hundredpercent capacity utilization across
significant portions of their networks. Another problem for carriers is the
challenge of deploying and integrating diverse technologies in one physical
infrastructure. Customer demands and competitive pressures mandate that
carriers offer diverse services economically and deploy them over the
embedded network. DWDM provides service providers an answer to that
demand (see Figure 3-1).

Figure 3-1. Optical Transport to Optical Networking: Evolution of the Phototonics
Layer

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DWDM Unit 3
Use of DWDM allows providers to offer services such as e-mail, video, and
multimedia carried as Internet protocol (IP) data over asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) and voice carried over SONET/SDH. Despite the fact that these
formatsIP, ATM, and SONET/SDHprovide unique bandwidth
management capabilities, all three can be transported over the optical layer
using DWDM. This unifying capability allows the service provider the
flexibility to respond to customer demands over one network.
A platform that is able to unify and interface with these technologies and
position the carrier with the ability to integrate current and next-generation
technologies is critical for a carrier's success.
Resolving the Capacity Crisis
Faced with the multifaceted challenges of increased service needs, fiber
exhaust, and layered bandwidth management, service providers need options
to provide an economical solution. One way to alleviate fiber exhaust is to lay
more fiber, and, for those networks where the cost of laying new fiber is
minimal, this will prove the most economical solution. However, laying new
fiber will not necessarily enable the service provider to provide new services
or utilize the bandwidth management capability of a unifying optical layer.
A second choice is to increase the bit rate using time division multiplexing
(TDM), where TDM increases the capacity of a fiber by slicing time into
smaller intervals so that more bits (data) can be transmitted per second (see
Figure 3-2). Traditionally, this has been the industry method of choice (DS1,
DS2, DS3, etc.). However, when service providers use this approach
exclusively, they must make the leap to the higher bit rate in one jump,
having purchased more capacity than they initially need. Based on the
SONET hierarchy, the next incremental step from 10 Gbps TDM is 40
Gbpsa quantum leap that many believe will not be possible for TDM
technology in the near future. This method has also been used with transport
networks that are based on either the synchronous optical network (SONET)
standard for North America or the synchronous digital network (SDH)
standard for international networks.

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Unit 3 DWDM

Figure 3-2. Increased Network CapacityTDM

The telecommunications industry adopted the SONET or SDH standard to
provide a standard synchronous optical hierarchy with sufficient flexibility to
accommodate current and future digital signals. SONET or SDH
accomplishes this by defining standard rates and formats and optical
interfaces. For example, multiple electrical and optical signals are brought
into a SONET terminal where they are terminated and multiplexed
electrically before becoming part of the payload of an STS1, the building
block frame structure of the SONET hierarchy. The STS1 payloads are then
multiplexed to be sent out on the single fiber at a single rate: OC3 to OC12
to OC48 and eventually to OC192. SDH has a similar structure with STM
n building block resulting in signal rates of STS1 through STM64.
SONET and SDH, two closely related standards, provided the foundation to
transform the transport networks as we know them today. They govern
interface parameters; rates, formats, and multiplexing methods; and
operations, administration, maintenance, and provisioning (OAM&P) for
high-speed transmission of bits of information in flashing laser-light streams.
A synchronous mode of transmission means that the laser signals flowing
through a fiber-optic system have been synchronized to an external clock. The
resulting benefit is that data streams transmitting voice, data, and images
through the fiber system flow in a steady, regulated manner so that each
stream of light can readily be identified and easily extracted for delivery or
routing.
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DWDM Unit 3
Capacity Expansion and Flexibility: DWDM
The third choice for service providers is dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM), which increases the capacity of embedded fiber by
first assigning incoming optical signals to specific frequencies (wavelength,
lambda) within a designated frequency band and then multiplexing the
resulting signals out onto one fiber. Because incoming signals are never
terminated in the optical layer, the interface can be bit-rate and format
independent, allowing the service provider to integrate DWDM technology
easily with existing equipment in the network while gaining access to the
untapped capacity in the embedded fiber.
DWDM combines multiple optical signals so that they can be amplified as a
group and transported over a single fiber to increase capacity (as seen in
Figure 3-3). Each signal carried can be at a different rate (OC3/12/24, etc.)
and in a different format (SONET, ATM, data, etc.) For example, a DWDM
network with a mix of SONET signals operating at OC48 (2.5 Gbps) and
OC192 (10 Gbps) over a DWDM infrastructure can achieve capacities of over
40 Gbps. A system with DWDM can achieve all this gracefully while
maintaining the same degree of system performance, reliability, and
robustness as current transport systemsor even surpassing it. Future
DWDM terminals will carry up to 80 wavelengths of OC48, a total of 200
Gbps, or up to 40 wavelengths of OC192, a total of 400 Gbpswhich is
enough capacity to transmit 90,000 volumes of an encyclopedia in one second.

Figure 3-3. Increased Network CapacityWDM

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Unit 3 DWDM
The technology that allows this high-speed, high-volume transmission is in
the optical amplifier. Optical amplifiers operate in a specific band of the
frequency spectrum and are optimized for operation with existing fiber,
making it possible to boost lightwave signals and thereby extend their reach
without converting them back to electrical form. Demonstrations have been
made of ultrawideband optical-fiber amplifiers that can boost lightwave
signals carrying over 100 channels (or wavelengths) of light. A network using
such an amplifier could easily handle a terabit of information. At that rate, it
would be possible to transmit all the world's TV channels at once or about
half a million movies at the same time.
Consider a highway analogy where one fiber can be thought of as a multilane
highway. Traditional TDM systems use a single lane of this highway and
increase capacity by moving faster on this single lane. In optical networking,
utilizing DWDM is analogous to accessing the unused lanes on the highway
(increasing the number of wavelengths on the embedded fiber base) to gain
access to an incredible amount of untapped capacity in the fiber. An
additional benefit of optical networking is that the highway is blind to the
type of traffic that travels on it. Consequently, the vehicles on the highway
can carry ATM packets, SONET, and IP.

Figure 3-4. Capacity Expansion Evolution
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DWDM Unit 3
Capacity Expansion Potential
By beginning with DWDM, service providers can establish a grow-as-you-go
infrastructure, which allows them to add current and next-generation TDM
systems for virtually endless capacity expansion. DWDM also gives service
providers the flexibility to expand capacity in any portion of their networks
an advantage no other technology can offer. Carriers can address specific
problem areas that are congested because of high capacity demands. This is
especially helpful where multiple rings intersect between two nodes,
resulting in fiber exhaust.
Service providers searching for new and creative ways to generate revenue
while fully meeting the varying needs of their customers can benefit from a
DWDM infrastructure as well. By partitioning and maintaining different
dedicated wavelengths for different customers, for example, service providers
can lease individual wavelengthsas opposed to an entire fiberto their
high-use business customers.
Compared with repeater-based applications, a DWDM infrastructure also
increases the distances between network elementsa huge benefit for long-
distance service providers looking to reduce their initial network investments
significantly. The fiber-optic amplifier component of the DWDM system
enables a service provider to save costs by taking in and amplifying optical
signals without converting them to electrical signals. Furthermore, DWDM
allows service providers to do it on a broad range of wavelengths in the
1.55m region. For example, with a DWDM system multiplexing up to 16
wavelengths on a single fiber, carriers can decrease the number of amplifiers
by a factor of 16 at each regenerator site. Using fewer regenerators in long-
distance networks results in fewer interruptions and improved efficiency.
DWDM Incremental Growth
A DWDM infrastructure is designed to provide a graceful network evolution
for service providers who seek to address their customers' ever-increasing
capacity demands. Because a DWDM infrastructure can deliver the necessary
capacity expansion, laying a foundation based on this technology is viewed as
the best place to start. By taking incremental growth steps with DWDM, it is
possible for service providers to reduce their initial costs significantly while
deploying the network infrastructure that will serve them in the long run.
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Unit 3 DWDM
Some industry analysts have hailed DWDM as a perfect fit for networks that
are trying to meet demands for more bandwidth. However, these experts
have noted the conditions for this fit: a DWDM system simply must be
scalable. Despite the fact that a system of OC48 interfacing with 8 or 16
channels per fiber might seem like overkill now, such measures are necessary
for the system to be efficient even two years from now.
Because OC48 terminal technology and the related operations support
systems (OSSs) match up with DWDM systems today, it is possible for
service providers to begin evolving the capacity of the TDM systems already
connected to their network. Mature OC192 systems can be added later to
the established DWDM infrastructure to expand capacity to 40 Gbps and
beyond.
The Optical Layer as the Unifying Layer
Aside from the enormous capacity gained through optical networking, the
optical layer provides the only means for carriers to integrate the diverse
technologies of their existing networks into one physical infrastructure.
DWDM systems are bit-rate and format independent and can accept any
combination of interface rates (e.g., synchronous, asynchronous, OC3, 12,
48, or 192) on the same fiber at the same time.
If a carrier operates both ATM and SONET networks, the ATM signal does
not have to be multiplexed up to the SONET rate to be carried on the DWDM
network. Because the optical layer carries signals without any additional
multiplexing, carriers can quickly introduce ATM or IP without deploying an
overlay network. An important benefit of optical networking is that it enables
any type of cargo to be carried on the highway.
But DWDM is just the first step on the road to full optical networking and
the realization of the optical layer. The concept of an all-optical network
implies that the service provider will have optical access to traffic at various
nodes in the network, much like the SONET layer for SONET traffic.
Optical wavelength add/drop (OWAD) offers that capability, where
wavelengths are added or dropped to or from a fiber, without requiring a
SONET terminal. But ultimate bandwidth management flexibility will come
with a cross-connect capability on the optical layer. Combined with OWAD
and DWDM, the optical cross-connect (OXC) will offer service providers the
ability to create a flexible, high-capacity, efficient optical network with full
optical bandwidth management.
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DWDM Unit 3
These technologies are today's reality: DWDM has been utilized in the long-
distance network since 1995, OWAD was available in products in 1998, and
the first OXC was showcased at industry conventions in 1997.
Unified Infrastructure
Optical networking provides the backbone to support existing and emerging
technologies with almost limitless amounts of bandwidth capacity. All-optical
networking (not just point-to-point transport) enabled by optical cross-
connects, optical programmable add/drop multiplexers, and optical switches
provides a unified infrastructure capable of meeting the telecommunications
demands of today and tomorrow.
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Unit 4 Managing Optical Networks

Unit 4
Managing the Optical Metro Network
Environment
Unit Overview
This unit discusses the challenges service providers face in managing
network performance and the key functional areas of performance
management.
Objectives
Evolution of Core/Access Technologies
Bandwidth Planning and Managing Optical Channels
Automated Provisioning and Grooming (OAMP)
Protection Schemes in Optical Networks
Automated Connection Restoration
Optical network Alarm Management
Optical Performance Monitoring and Management
Optical Performance Analysis
Performance Management and Control
Optical Network Configuration Management
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Managing Optical Networks Unit 4
Performance Management
Performance management for next-generation networks consists of two
components. The first is a set of functions that evaluates and reports on the
behavior of telecommunications equipment and the effectiveness of the
network or network element. The second is a set of various sub functions that
includes gathering statistical information, maintaining and examining
historical logs, determining system performance under natural and artificial
conditions, and altering system modes of operation.
Requirements
Service providers must now manage their network resources to optimize the
performance of the services they deliver that demands an integrated
performance management solution.
Sophisticated customers require complex, custom solutions. To meet these
demands, service providers must utilize a multitude of technologies,
including synchronous optical network (SONET), asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM), frame relay, time division multiplex (TDM), and Internet
protocol (IP). Consequently, autonomous silos in the network landscape can
no longer manage these converging networks. Only a truly integrated
performance management system can encompass all relevant technologies
from the voice and data worlds.
Unlike static TDM networks, traffic volume directly impacts the performance
and output of ATM and IP networks. There is a constant need to monitor and
manage traffic levels and concurrent network congestion to optimize its
performance. With the ability to constantly monitor and manage traffic
levels, service providers can then guarantee levels of service to their
customers.
the Future of Performance Management
Service providers must accommodate additional capacity requirements while
guaranteeing service quality. This requires that service providers must put
performance management applications to the test. These providers must be
able to monitor ongoing physical network performance effectively, analyze its
data to correlate end-to-end service performance, and take action based on a
complete understanding of network behavior.
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The ability to direct network performance effectively can be achieved with an
application that allows service providers to orchestrate the operation. The
application must monitor network performance, analyze relevant data, and
direct network action accordingly.
Using an integrated performance management solution, service providers can
effectively demonstrate their ability to deliver high-performance services in
terms that their customers will understand.
The Key Functional Areas of Performance Management
An ideal performance management solution must be platform independent
and extensible as well as able to provide integrated, total network coverage.
The ideal solution must allow service providers to monitor ongoing physical
network performance, analyze its data to correlate end-to-end service
performance, and finally, to take action based on a complete understanding of
network behavior. As shown in figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1. An Integrated Network and Service Performance Management Solution

To ensure that customers are getting what they pay for, service providers
must employ service level agreements (SLAs). With SLAs, service providers
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understand what their customers expect, and, by means of a customer-
oriented tracking system, can effectively prove performance. Service
providers who succeed will be those who deploy services that consistently
perform at high levels and who communicate that performance to their
customers.
Complete performance management must drill down through each layer of
network technology. With an integrated view of deployed technology, service
providers will be able to recognize the impact of performance management on
their customers. With performance management, customers will be able to
understand how their service is operating, while service providers will be able
to improve network infrastructureupgrade planning to better accommodate
their customer's evolving needs, and effectively prove that they honor their
SLAs.
Challenges of Integrating a Performance Management Solution
Deploying applications in a service provider environment creates rigorous
demands on network infrastructure and network operations staff. While
seemingly obvious, this observation is often lost on application vendors who
attempt to migrate solutions from the corporate enterprise space to the public
carrier space. Application vendors see service providers as easy targets for
large purchase orders. However, these vendors often see their applications
fail when they attempt to deploy them in complex network environments.
The service provider/carrier environment differs from that of an enterprise
environment in three ways. First, a service provider's environment must
scale to support extraordinarily large and complex networksnetworks that
often support thousands of demanding users. Second, the environment must
be flexible enough to support rapidly changing technologies and the
requirements of diverse groups of users. Third, the service provider's
environment must be able to integrate diverse applications easily to help
reduce operational cost and automate network management processes. If a
performance management application is to meet these demands, it must use
sophisticated data warehousing techniques in tandem with intelligent object
modeling and graphical analysis tools in a common object request broker
architecture (CORBA)based environment.
Scalability
There are two key aspects to scalability requirements: the size of the
networks being managed and the number of users. Service providers create
extreme demands on both dimensions, (as shown in Figure 4-2 ).
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Figure 4-2. Scalability Requirements
Service provider networks scale to orders of magnitude larger than enterprise
networks. A typical enterprise network may actively monitor tens or
hundreds of network objects, including routers and switches. However, an
enterprise network pales in comparison to that of a service provider, which
monitors thousands to millions of objects.
Large enterprise networks that resemble small service providers are the
exception. Service providers have a wide range of technologies to manage,
including SONET/SDH, ATM, IP, and frame relay. As a result of the
complexity and fundamental importance of the services they carry, service
providers dedicate abundant human and financial resources to monitor the
performance of their network.
Within an enterprise, there are usually only a limited number of users who
gather summary data and present it to their managers and executives. These
users are usually centralized in an information technology (IT) functional
group. Therefore, the total number of concurrent users in an enterprise
system might range from one to two and may reach as many as ten. An
enterprise that reaches 100 concurrent users is an exception. In contrast,
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hundreds of users access network performance information internally within
a service provider's environment. Extranet applications deliver network
performance information to customers and reach hundreds of thousands of
users in multiple groups throughout the organization.
Flexibility
Enterprise IT departments have a uniform set of requirements for a
performance management solution. However, service providers must take a
wide range of relevant parties into consideration as a result of an
extraordinarily large range of performance management needs, including
network operations, planning and engineering, management and executives,
marketing and sales, and customers. Consequently, the performance
management solution that a service provider chooses to integrate with its
environment must be correspondingly flexible.
The demands multiple groups create are diverse, as they include the need for
both real-time and historical data analysis, along with the need to forecast
performance trends for complete networks, subdomains, specific technologies,
and the services of specific customers. With the rapid pace of change in
technology and service provider organizations, these demands can be
unpredictable.
On occasion, individual departments deploy solutions for a specific purpose
without considering organization-wide requirements. While the chosen
application may satisfy short-term requirements, frustration will mount over
time as other departments within the organization inherit an application
that is not designed to satisfy everyone's needs.
Integration
Deploying a solution that can satisfy the diverse range of users without
increasing operational costs requires applications that can be readily
integrated into the operational environment. Enterprise systems tend to be
smaller and more centralized than their service provider counterparts, which
makes them easier to monitor and allows for control of the less mission-
critical applications they deliver during the deployment of a new solution.
The large number of systems within a service provider make the problem
more complex. Service providers require seamless integration to deploy new
services without manual intervention. Therefore, performance management
systems must integrate and interwork with ordering and provisioning,
billing, workflow, and trouble-administration systems, among others. It is
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essential that a performance management solution offer a clean, well-defined
interface strategy based on accepted standards such as CORBA.

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Unit 5 Optical Networks
Unit 5
Optical Networks, Legacy Networks and
Network Management
Unit Overview
This unit discusses the challenges of Multi-Technology Networks and
Management Systems. We key describe protocols like SNMP/CMIP in Multi-
vendor Networks. The conclusion explains current and near-future states of
OSS technology and its development to support new and emerging services
and technologies.

Objectives

Challenges of Multi-Technology Networks and
Management Systems
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP)
Multi-vendor Networks and NMS/OSS
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Optical Networks Unit 5
SNMP Overview
Created in 1988 as a short-term solution to manage elements in the growing
Internet and other attached networks, SNMP has achieved widespread
acceptance. SNMP was derived from its predecessor SGMP (Simple Gateway
Management Protocol) and was intended to be replaced by a solution based
on the CMIS/CMIP (Common Management Information Service/Protocol)
architecture. This long-term solution, however, never received the
widespread acceptance of SNMP.

SNMP is based on the manager/agent model consisting of a manager, an
agent, a database of management information, managed objects and the
network protocol. The manager provides the interface between the human
network manager and the management system. The agent provides the
interface between the manager and the physical device(s) being managed (see
the illustration above).

The manager and agent use a Management Information Base (MIB) and a
relatively small set of commands to exchange information. The MIB is
organized in a tree structure with individual variables, such as point status
or description, being represented as leaves on the branches. A long numeric
tag or object identifier (OID) is used to distinguish each variable uniquely in
the MIB and in SNMP messages.

SNMP basic messages
SNMP uses five basic messages (GET, GET-NEXT, GET-RESPONSE, SET,
and TRAP) to communicate between the manager and the agent. The GET
and GET-NEXT messages allow the manager to request information for a
specific variable. The agent, upon receiving a GET or GET-NEXT message,
will issue a GET-RESPONSE message to the manager with either the
information requested or an error indication as to why the request cannot be
processed. A SET message allows the manager to request a change be made
to the value of a specific variable in the case of an alarm remote that will
operate a relay. The agent will then respond with a GET-RESPONSE
message indicating the change has been made or an error indication as to
why the change cannot be made. The TRAP message allows the agent to
spontaneously inform the manager of an important event.

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Unit5 Optical Networks
As you can see, most of the messages (GET, GET-NEXT, and SET) are only
issued by the SNMP manager. Because the TRAP message is the only
message capable of being initiated by an agent, it is the message used by DPS
Remote Telemetry Units (RTUs) to report alarms. This notifies the SNMP
manager as soon as an alarm condition occurs, instead of waiting for the
SNMP manager to ask.
The small number of commands used is only one of the reasons SNMP is
"simple." The other simplifying factor is its reliance on an unsupervised or
connectionless communication link. This simplicity has led directly to its
widespread use, specifically in the Internet Network Management
Framework. Within this framework, it is considered robust because of the
independence of the managers from the agents, e.g. if an agent fails, the
manager will continue to function, or vice versa.
SNMP Elements
Each SNMP element manages specific objects with each object having specific
characteristics. Each object / characteristic has a unique object identifier
(OID) consisting of numbers separated by decimal points (i.e., 1.3.6.1.4.1.2.1).
These object identifiers naturally form a tree as shown in figure 5-1.

Figure 5-1. MIB tree structure
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The MIB associates each OID with a readable label (i.e., dpsRTUAState) and
various other parameters related to the object. The MIB then serves as a data
dictionary or code book that is used to assemble and interpret SNMP
messages.

When an SNMP manager wants to know the value of an object /
characteristic, such as the state of an alarm point, the system name, or the
element uptime, it will assemble a GET packet that includes the OID for each
object / characteristic of interest.

The element receives the request and looks up each OID in its code book
(MIB). If the OID is found (the object is managed by the element), a response
packet is assembled and sent with the current value of the object /
characteristic included. If the OID is not found, a special error response is
sent that identifies the unmanaged object.

When an element sends a TRAP packet, it can include OID and value
information (bindings) to clarify the event. DPS remote units send a
comprehensive set of bindings with each TRAP to maintain traditional
telemetry event visibility. Well-designed SNMP managers can use the
bindings to correlate and manage the events. SNMP managers will also
generally display the readable labels to facilitate user understanding and
decision-making.
Communication between Managers and Agents
Basic serial telemetry protocols, like TBOS, are byte oriented with a single
byte exchanged to communicate. Expanded serial telemetry protocols, like
TABS, are packet oriented with packets of bytes exchanged to communicate.
The packets contain header, data and checksum bytes.

SNMP is also packet oriented with the following SNMP v1 packets (Protocol
Data Units or PDUs) used to communicate:
1. Get
2. GetNext
3. Set
4. Trap
The manager sends a Get or GetNext to read a variable or variables and the
agent's response contains the requested information if managed. The
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manager sends a Set to change a variable or variables and the agent's
response confirms the change if allowed. The agent sends a Trap when a
specific event occurs.

Figure 5-2 shows the packet formats. Each variable binding contains an
identifier, a type and a value (if a Set or response). The agent checks each
identifier against its MIB to determine whether the object is managed and
changeable (if processing a Set). The manager uses its MIB to display the
readable name of the variable and sometimes interpret its value.

Fig. 5-2 - Packet Formats

An SNMP message is not sent by itself, it is wrapped in the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), which in turn is wrapped in the Internet Protocol (IP). These
are commonly referred to as layers and are based on a four-layer model
developed by the Department of Defense (DOD).
SNMP resides in what is called the Application layer, UDP resides in the
Transport layer and IP resides in the Internet layer. The fourth layer is the
Network Interface layer where the assembled packet is actually interfaced to
some kind of transport media (i.e., twisted pair copper, RG58 co-axial or
fiber). While this multi-layer model may seem a bit confusing, it effectively
isolates the tasks of communication and ultimately assists in designing and
implementing a network.

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Traversing the Layers
To illustrate the function of this layered model, let's look at a single SNMP
GET request from the agent's perspective. The SNMP manager wants to
know what the Agent's System Name is and prepares a GET message for the
appropriate OID. It then passes the message to the UDP layer. The UDP
layer adds a data block that identifies the manager port to which the
response packet should be sent and the port on which it expects the SNMP
agent to be listening for messages. The packet thus formed is then passed to
the IP layer. Here a data block containing the IP and Media Access addresses
of the manager and the agent is added before the entire assembled packet
gets passed to the Network Interface layer. The Network Interface layer
verifies media access and availability and places the packet on the media for
transport.

Figure 5-3 Protocol Layers.

After working its way across bridges and through routers based on the IP
information, the packet finally arrives at the agent. Here it passes through
the same four layers in exactly the opposite order as it did at the manager.
First, it is pulled off the media by the Network Interface layer. After
confirming that the packet is intact and valid, the Network Interface layer
simply passes it to the IP layer. The IP layer verifies the Media Access and IP
address and passes it on to the UDP layer where the target port is checked
for connected applications. If an application is listening at the target port, the
packet is passed to the Application layer. If the listening application is the
SNMP agent, the GET request is processed as we have discussed in previous
articles. The agent response then follows the identical path in reverse to
reach the manager.

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An Aid for Troubleshooting
Understanding this layered model makes it easier to troubleshoot
communication problems. When there is a problem, you can simply trace it
down, out one end, into, and up the other. LAN/WAN link and activity status
indicators provide some visibility to the Network Interface layer. ICMP echo
requests and responses (Pings) provide some information regarding the
proper functioning of the IP layer. SNMP processing indicators can be used to
verify the passage of the packet through the UDP layer and the functioning of
the Application layer. Each step can be verified independently until all steps
are working correctly for end-to-end communication.
SNMP RFCs
The Internet community uses RFCs for the discussion of issues and
dissemination of recommended and required standards. Through the RFC
process, new ideas are proposed and accepted as part of the standard Internet
suite of protocols. The following RFCs are the primary documents that define
SNMP.
RFC 1155Structure of Management Information (SMI)
Formerly RFC 1065, this RFC specifies the common structures and
identification scheme for the definition of management information. This
definition includes the description of an object information model and a set of
generic types that describe the management information.
RFC 1156Management Information Base (MIB-I)
Formally RFC 1066, this RFC specifies the objects that are managed,
including their naming, syntax, definition, access, and status. The MIB
describes 114 objects. They are defined using the rules described in the SMI
document. This RFC is now replaced by RFC 1213.
RFC 1157Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Formerly RFC 1098, this RFC specifies the protocol that communicates
between managers and agents.
RFC 1212Guidelines for Writing Concise MIB Definitions
This RFC defines how to write a concise and descriptive MIB. This RFC is a
new format for writing MIB definitions, designed to reduce the amount of
redundant information. This RFC augments the SMI definition.
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RFC 1213Management Information Base (MIB-II)
Formerly RFC 1158, this RFC is a revision of RFC 1156. It defines a new
MIB called MIB-II that expands the number of variables from 114 to 171.
These new variables are only extensions to MIB-I, are fully backward
compatible, and should not introduce any interoperability problems. This
version fully replaces MIB-I. Updated by RFCs 2011, 2012, 2013 Proposed
Standards (SNMPv2).
RFC 1215Concise Trap Definitions
This RFC defines how to write SNMP trap specifications. No previous format
was defined. The original traps for SNMP are defined in the SNMP RFC
(RFC 1157).
Introduction to (CMIP)
The Common Management Information Protocol ( CMIP ) protocol was
supposed to be the protocol that replaced SNMP in the late 1980's. Funded by
governments and large corporations, many thought that it would become a
reality because of its almost unlimited development budget. Unfortunately,
problems with its implementation have delayed its widespread availability
and it is now only available in limited form from its developers themselves.
CMIP was designed to build on SNMP by making up for SNMP's
shortcomings and becoming a bigger, more detailed network manager. Its
basic design is similar to SNMP, whereby PDU's are employed as variables to
monitor a network. CMIP however contains 11 types of PDU's (compared to
SNMP's five).
In CMIP, the variables are seen as very complex and sophisticated data
structures, with many attributes. These include :
1) variable attributes: which represent the variables characteristics (its data
type, whether it is writable).
2) variable behaviors: what actions of that variable can be triggered.
3) Notifications: the variable generates an event report whenever a specified
event occurs (e.g. a terminal shutdown would cause a variable notification
event.
As a comparison, SNMP only employs variable properties one and three from
above.
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The Advantages to the CMIP Approach
The biggest feature of the CMIP protocol is that its variables not only relay
information to and from the terminal (as in SNMP), but they can also be used
to perform tasks that would be impossible under SNMP. For instance, if a
terminal on a network cannot reach its fileserver a pre-determined amount of
times, then CMIP can notify the appropriate personnel of the event. With
SNMP however a user would have to explicitly keep track of how many
unsuccessful attempts to reach a fileserver that a terminal has incurred.
CMIP thus results in a more efficient network management system, as less
work is required by a user to keep updated on the status of their network.
Another advantage to the CMIP approach is that it addresses many of the
shortcomings of SNMP. For instance, it has built in security management
devices that support authorization, access control, and security logs. The
result of this is a safer system from the installation of CMIP; no security
upgrades are necessary (like SNMP).
The last advantage is that not only governments, but also large corporations
funded CMIP. One can deduce that CMIP not only has a very large
development budget, but also that when it becomes a widely available
protocol it will have numerous immediate users, namely the governments
and corporations that funded it.
Disadvantages of CMIP
One might wonder why CMIP hasn't been implemented already (after all, it
has been in development for about ten years). The answer is CMIP takes
more system resources than SNMP by a factor of ten. In other words, very
few systems on this planet would by able to handle a full implementation of
CMIP without massive network modifications (such as the installation of
thousands of dollars of memory and the purchase of new protocol agents).
This major disadvantage has no inexpensive workaround, and for this reason
many people believe that the CMIP protocol is doomed to fail. The only
possible workaround is to decrease the size of the protocol by changing its
specifications. Several protocols have been developed to run "on top" of CMIP
and thus use less resources, but none of these have gathered enough
momentum to challenge SNMP.
Another problem with CMIP is that it is difficult to program. The variables
require so many different parameters that only a few skilled programmers
would be able to use the variables to their full potential.
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Operations Support Systems (OSSs)
The term operations support system (OSS) generally refers to the system (or
systems) that perform management, inventory, engineering, planning, and
repair functions for communications service providers and their networks.
Originally, OSSs were mainframe-based, stand-alone systems designed to
support telephone company staff members in their daily jobs. Essentially,
these systems were designed to automate manual processes, making
operation of the network more error-free and efficient.
Todays "next-generation service providers" are required to manage a much
more complex set of products and services in a dynamic, competitive
marketplace. As a result, these service providers need next-generation OSS
solutions that take advantage of state-of-the-art information technology to
address their enterprise-wide needs and requirements. Next-generation OSSs
help service providers maximize their return on investment (ROI) in one of
their key assetsinformation. OSSs ultimately help enable next-generation
service providers to reduce costs, provide superior customer service, and
accelerate their time to market for new products and services.
The Basics of OSSs
A good way to begin understanding OSSs is to familiarize yourself with the
fundamental systems involved in the typical ordering and service fulfillment
process for any next-generation service providerincluding voice, data, and
Internet protocol (IP)related products and services. The process flow from
placing an order for service to activating that service on the network leads
through workflow, ordering, inventory, circuit design/engineering,
provisioning, and activation systems.
Workflow Engine
An effective workflow engine is typically the nucleus of an integrated OSS
solution. The workflow engine helps the service provider organize and
manage the flow of information between the OSS and the service providers
workforce (employees) and even between disparate systems as appropriate.
The workflow engine organizes business processes into task flows and their
related subtasks, enabling the service provider to manually or automatically
complete tasks as needed. Some OSS vendors package workflow engines as
part of an integrated system, whereas other vendors specialize in workflow.
The process flow is illustrated in figure 5-4 on the next page.
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Figure 5-4. Process Flow
Workflow systems may be designed specifically for the communications
industry, whereas other workflow systems are general information
technology products that can function in any environment from
communications to financial services to manufacturing. The purpose of a
workflow engine is to manage business processes and task completion
between systems and an organizations workforce; the more effectively the
workflow engine addresses the needs of its user, the greater the potential
gain in productivity for the workflow engine and, as a result, the user.
Ordering
The ordering system is a key element of any service providers business.
Ordering is where the service provider enters and manages much of the
information necessary for providing service. The provider can keep track of
customers and manage relationships with suppliers and trading partners as
well. The products and services that need to be supported include wholesale
and retail local and long-distance services that may range from basic,
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residential plain old telephone service (POTS) lines to complex services such
as channelized, high-capacity T-1s carrying voice and data traffic, integrated
services digital network (ISDN), digital subscriber line (DSL), virtual private
networks (VPNs), and more. Next-generation ordering systems typically
feature an intuitive graphical user interface (GUI), which helps customer-
service representatives complete orders more quickly and accurately and can
even provide the capability for customers to place their own orders via Web
interfaces. Some ordering systems also automate some of the data entry that
is common to the types of products and services a provider offers, further
reducing the time to enter an order. Ordering systems also perform a certain
amount of error checking to notify users when required data has been
omitted or invalid data has been entered; this functionality helps maintain
overall process integrity and helps prevent incorrect/incomplete orders, which
can be both costly and time-consuming.
Once an order is entered, the system generates tasks that support the process
of completing service activation on the network. The ordering system passes
these tasks on to other systems, such as the workflow engine, which update
the ordering system as each appropriate task is completed. This processing
power gives the service provider an up-to-date status report for each service
order. The workflow engine generally manages task flows, ensuring that each
system performs its specified function in the proper sequence and within
established time parameters.
Inventory
Service providers need an inventory system to manage information about the
facilities and equipment within their network. When an order is placed, other
parts of the OSS, such as ordering, network design, and provisioning, must be
able to communicate with the inventory system to determine whether or not
the requested service can be supplied. The inventory system lets the service
provider know if the proper equipment is in place or if new equipment must
be installed. Inventory systems also lets the service provider know if the
proper facility circuits, such as the high-capacity circuits that provide
backbone transport, are already assigned, or if they need to be configured.
More sophisticated next-generation OSSs also enable the service provider to
manage ownership of inventory, identifying inventory that the provider owns
and leases ("on-net" and "off-net"). By maintaining a clear view of on-net and
off-net inventory, service providers can maximize their return on investment
(ROI) in network resources.
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Engineering and Provisioning
Engineering and provisioning systems enable service providers to manage,
track, and assign the equipment and circuits in their physical network. These
systems include network design and circuit design capabilities. Often
referred to as "design and assign," these systems specify the network routes
and network resources to be utilized in fulfilling the service requirements for
an order.
Many next-generation engineering and provisioning systems incorporate
graphical tools that allow the service provider to create services on a network
map with point-and-click capabilities rather than either drawing maps
manually or relying on an abstract set of equipment identifiers. State-of-the-
art OSSs provide even more advanced functionality, such as the ability to
overlay engineering and provisioning information on top of maps that follow
intuitive topologies, such as physical geography (mountains and rivers), city,
county, state, and province boundaries, and more. Some next-generation
OSSs also feature capabilities that enable service providers to automatically
design circuits based upon a predefined set of priorities.

Figure 5-5 Activation: "Manager of Managers"
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Element Management and Activation and Field Service Management
Once services have been ordered, engineered, and provisioned (or designed
and assigned), the services are activated, or turned up, on the network.
Activation requires several steps. If new equipment/lines must be installed or
configured manually, a field service/management system must be notified so
that technicians can be dispatched to make the proper physical assignments.
Field service systems must notify the technician of the service being installed
as well as the specific equipment involved and where it is located. For
example, services provided to a large office complex must be associated with a
building, floor, network, closet, and perhaps a certain equipment rack within
that closet.
Some aspects of the activation process can be performed automatically. Next-
generation OSSs enable service providers to achieve flow-through ordering,
provisioning, and activation, sharing information between systems to order,
design, and assign the proper facilities and equipment and issue the
appropriate commands to an activation system. The activation system then
automatically activates service on the proper network elements (network
hardware, such as a switch, multiplexer, or cross-connect system).
Many of todays network elements are designed with an intelligent element
manager that can receive and execute commands sent by activation systems.
Element managers also can feed equipment status data back to upstream
systems for network and trouble management functions.
Element managers use protocols such as common management information
protocol (CMIP), transaction language 1 (TL1), or simple network
management protocol (SNMP) for traditional data equipment to communicate
with activation and other systems. In this manner, an activation system often
acts as a manager of managers, overseeing and communicating with various
element managers and equipment types.

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Network and Trouble Management
Two vital elements of OSS are network and trouble management systems.
Network management systems are responsible for the overall supervision of a
network, utilizing protocols such as SNMP and CMIP to communicate with
network elements. They monitor traffic traversing the network and collect
statistics regarding performance. They also are responsible for spotting
trouble on a network and identifying the source of the problem. Network
management systems are the heart of a network operations center (NOC).
NOCs are often typified by the graphical network displays projected on large
screens on their walls.
Network elements are designed to provide varying levels of self-diagnosis.
Newer network elements feature intelligent functionality that is designed to
provide more precise trouble information. A problem in a network, such as
damage to a fiber-optic line or switch failure, can result in a chain reaction,
causing many network elements along one or more paths to produce alarms.
Network management systems are generally designed to correlate these
alarms to locate the source of a problem.

Figure 5-6. Trouble Management
Once the system identifies trouble, it passes information on to a trouble
management system that logs the problem and issues a trouble ticket to
begin the repair process.
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Some network elements have enough intelligent routing capability built in to
automatically reroute network traffic around problem areas. Where this is
not the case, trouble spots must be identified to allow human operators to
reroute traffic. A trouble management system in an integrated OSS
environment can send commands to the appropriate systems, such as field
service management, to dispatch technicians who physically repair
equipment. Next-generation OSSs enable service providers to define diversity
requirements within the engineering (network design) process to
automatically identify alternative network routes that can be accessed and
utilized when problems arise.
OSS Interconnection
Regulations
A critical portion of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 and its associated
orders deals with OSS interconnection. In this context, interconnection refers
to regulations requiring the regional Bell operating companies (RBOCs) to
allow competitors limited access to their customer databases and various
OSS functions, such as preordering, ordering, and provisioning. (Preordering
is the process by which a competitive local exchange carrier [CLEC], with
permission from the customer, requests data regarding that customer from
an RBOC.)
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) will not permit RBOCs to
enter the long-distance market until, among other things, they provide
interconnection that state regulatory commissions and the FCC have deemed
sufficient to enable competition. RBOCs and incumbent local-exchange
carriers (ILECs) have built, or are in the process of building, interfaces that
provide interconnection to CLECs.
Interconnection is an extremely complex and time-intensive issue that the
communications industry has been working several years to resolve. In the
meantime, carriers often rely on manual means, such as phone calls and
faxes, to exchange customer data and service orders. Manual processes are
highly error-prone and slow-insufficient in a highly competitive environment.
Interconnection Challenges
The largest problem RBOCs face is facilitating access to information residing
within their OSSs. Typically, the RBOC OSSs are standalone, proprietary
mainframe systems that were never designed to share information with
external systems or trading partners. The RBOCs have invested large sums
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of money in these systems and the data contained within them. As a result, it
is necessary to develop applications designed to extract information from
RBOC OSSs. RBOCs continue to work toward a solution that facilitates
information sharing that meets government requirements for fair competition
while retaining the integrity and proprietary design of RBOCs.
OSSs
RBOC legacy systems are not designed to partition customer datain other
words, to store data for RBOC customers that have sought service with a
CLEC, such as in a reseller arrangement. Additionally, external interfaces
must be added to facilitate integration with external systems. Without such
integration, next-generation functionality such as flow-through ordering and
provisioning cannot be achieved. To accommodate next-generation
interconnection, RBOC systems must also be able to respond to commands
coming from an interconnection gateway in order to fulfill CLEC requests for
customer data.
There are many conceptual and technological approaches to systems
integration between RBOCs and CLECs. These approaches involve
technologies such as middleware, transaction processors (TPs), workflow
systems, and object engines.

Figure 5-7.. Integration Technology
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Middleware is a term commonly applied to integration technology, and it is
often used interchangeably with TP. These technologies present a common
application programming interface (API) into which a system can be
integrated to manage data translation and exchange among disparate
systems. Workflow systems often work in conjunction with TPs, providing
multiple, dynamic APIs and managing data flow and task sequencing, while
the TP handles data conversion. Object engines use technologies such as the
Object Management Groups (OMG's) common object request broker
architecture (CORBA) or Microsofts distributed component object model (D
COM). Object engines abstract application interfaces into definable, flexible
software objects that allow applications to communicate in a uniform
manner.
While RBOCs work to make their systems accessible to CLECs, they must
also develop interconnection interfaces and integrate them with their systems
and business processes. Because there is no industry standard or consensus
about how this should be accomplished, RBOCs often rely on technologies
they already use for information exchange with large customers and
interexchange carriers (IXCs). These technologies are not necessarily
intended for interconnection but provide the most economical alternative for
RBOCs because a large amount of the required application code is already in
place. The most common protocol being used for interconnection includes
various versions of electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI was originally
designed to enable the exchange of business documents, but is now being
used for ordering and preordering.
Gateway/API Functions
Many vendors have brought flexible gateway and/or API products to market,
intended to help CLECs develop the interfaces necessary for interconnection
with RBOC OSSs. The TeleManagement Forum, an industry organization
devoted to the implementation of telecom standards such as the TMN, has
led an initiative to develop guidelines for a common interconnection gateway
platform (CIGP). The goal of the CIGP is to apply vendor-neutral, industry-
common technologies to OSS interconnection in order to assist CLECs in
developing interconnection interfaces. Most of the vendors that have
developed gateway products have been involved in the CIGP initiative.
The primary function of gateways and APIs is to manage the interfaces
between CLEC and RBOC OSSs. These interfaces handle data integrity and
security between carriers as critical customer and service data is exchanged.
One of the most important aspects of gateways and APIs is to perform error
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checking on service orders as they are passed between carriers. With manual
processes, a CLEC often sends service orders to an ILEC or RBOC that end
up lost in a pile of faxes for several days. When orders are reviewed, they are
rejected if they are incomplete or inaccurate, and this can happen frequently.
Incomplete and inaccurate orders are returned to the CLEC for reprocessing.
This can add days and even weeks to the ordering process. Gateways and
APIs can reduce these errors by reviewing all orders before submission to the
ILEC and returning any incomplete or inaccurate orders for instant review.
Another critical function of gateways and APIs is to facilitate the preordering
process. In this process, the CLEC secures permission from a potential
customer to obtain customer data from the ILEC. This data consists of a
customer profile, outlining all the service provided to the customer by the
ILEC. This data is often transferred in the form of universal service order
codes (USOC). There are thousands of codes, each of which is typically very
cryptic. Manual processing is extremely time-intensive, requiring a CLEC
customer representative to research a large catalog to determine the services
provided and to build sales quotes for similar offerings. Next-generation
gateways can read USOC codes and match them to a CLECs product catalog
database to automatically generate product offerings and sales quotes,
making the CLEC customer acquisition process far more efficient. Once this
information is obtained, next-generation OSS solutions also provide product
catalog capabilities that enable customer service representatives to up-sell
additional related products and services to customers, often in the form of
cost-effective service bundles, such as caller I.D., call waiting, and conference
calling.
Operations Support of Data Services
OSS solutions must be able to support increasingly complex requirements as
service providers add new and emerging service technologies to their product
offerings. Technologies such as IP, frame relay, asynchronous transfer mode
(ATM), and DSL are becoming increasingly prevalent network technologies.
While service providers have been managing Frame relay and ATM for
several years, the demand for more feature-rich services has necessitated
next-generation OSS solutions that support the complexities of service level
agreement (SLA) management, usage-based billing, and flexible quality of
service (QoS) parameters.
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Figure 5-8. Interconnection Process

IP, the technology that drives the Internet, is developing into a carrier-grade
technology that will enable a more advanced and widely available mix of
voice and data services. Like frame relay and ATM, IP services demand
support to ensure high QoS. Two major hurdles must be overcome to ensure
QoS. First, service providers must adopt QoS that can map to both
connection-oriented and connectionless protocols. Second, they must address
the integration of an IP address management system.
Data Service Provisioning
For broadband data service offerings, a service provider must address the
bandwidth between two locations as well as quality of service and/or service
category parameters as they relate to the particular permanent virtual
circuit (PVC), such as the ATM virtual circuit (VC) in the example below.
After provisioning the equipment, the provider defines a virtual layout for the
field to use for the actual mapping of the VC to the equipment.

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Data Service Activation
To support end-to-end automation, the service provider must be able to pass
virtual layout information to the network management layer (NML) for
activation purposes. This involves using an NML manager to activate the
appropriate equipment. Understanding the service providers network is key
to this process because service providers cannot activate a PVC for an
endpoint that is not under their control. State-of-the-art OSS solutions enable
service providers to achieve real-time activation and provide tight coupling
between the service management layer (SML) and NML.
Advent of Broadband Access
Broadband access technologies also are having a huge impact on a service
providers OSS. DSLs and cable modems are currently the leading data
access technologies being deployed in the United States.
The DSL technologies that enable existing local loops (the copper wires that
connect end users to the public network) to carry higher-capacity data
streams come in several flavors. They also permit simultaneous voice and
data streams to travel over the same wire pair. To support DSL technologies
successfully, incumbent service providers must have an accurate, up-to-date
view of their copper infrastructure, such as loading coils and bridge taps.
Internet service providers (ISPs) and CLECs also have major concerns about
getting access to unbundled loops and a clear view of the communication path
to the incumbent provider.
A central office (CO) must incorporate two components to enable DSL
technologies: a splitter and a DSL access multiplexer (DSLAM). The splitter
distributes the voice traffic to the POTS network and the data traffic to the
DSLAM. It is possible that the splitter will become obsolete as the demand
for an all-in-one box increases. The DSLAM communicates with a DSL
modem installed at the end-user location and aggregates multiple DSL
streams into a switch for transport on high-capacity circuits using various
multiplexing schemes. DSLAMs are managed and maintained much like
other end-office equipment, but many OSSs do not yet fully support DSL
technology. DSL modules must be added to older OSS systems to enable
automatic provisioning and management of DSL services.
DSL technology has several core functions that the OSS needs to support. For
example, the DSLAM and splitter, while specific to DSL technologies, are
very similar to existing equipment, such as routers and switches, in terms of
equipment inventory. Supporting customer premises equipment (CPE), on
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the other hand, may be a new challenge for the service provider. However,
providers with a managed service offering may find they also can handle the
CPE network aspects.
More complex broadband access scenarios involve incorporating VCs along
with voice services. Traditional OSSs have not viewed DSL as capable of
providing this type of service. One approach is to handle the cable pair as a
channelized T-1 circuit capable of handling both voice and data circuits. The
scenarios typically encountered range from offering DSL on the cable pair
with no voice service, to offering a small office with multiple users a DSL
solution involving voice channels as well as several VCs that each have
differing levels of service (such as an analog phone, a PVC for Internet access,
a PVC to corporate headquarters, and an Internet phone connection).

Figure 5-9. DSLAM

One of the challenges with DSL technologies is that they are susceptible to a
number of network pitfalls. For example, local loops that are equipped with
special noise filters or load coils will filter out the frequencies at which DSLs
operate, rendering them ineffective. Additionally, some services can create
interference on DSL lines. If a DSL loop rides in the same bundle as a loop
delivering one of these services, the DSL service can be disturbed. Also, some
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older copper wires, installed years ago, are simply insufficient to support DSL
service.
Some RBOC regions lack detailed line records that can alert service providers
to potential problems; this may be due to line records being kept on
spreadsheets or even by hand. As a result, detailed line records may be not
only lacking but also not up to date and accurate where they do exist. A
strong, next-generation network inventory system is thus critical to the
effective deployment of DSL services.
Business Impact of an OSS Solution
Next-generation OSS solutions are designed to help service providers by
delivering superior customer service and rapid time to market for new
products and services. A powerful OSS solution can also help service
providers meet these goals while controlling and reducing operating costs.
QoS
QoS is a measure of the service quality provided to a customer. This
measurement can be very subjective, and the ability to define it depends
upon the technology being used. For example, circuit networks utilize
dedicated, 64-kb connections to support service delivery. This provides high-
quality service because only the traffic for a specific session can utilize the
dedicated network path, but it also is bandwidth inefficient. For example, if
two people on a voice call are not speaking, bandwidth goes unused. In a
world where time is measured in milliseconds, even a half-second of unused
airtime is an enormous waste of resources, and may be considered poor QoS
by a customer. In contrast, consider IP, one of the leading technologies for
enabling next-generation communications services. An IP session can utilize
multiple paths to complete its delivery and only uses as much bandwidth as
it needs, allowing traffic to mix on network paths in order to maximize
bandwidth usage. The downside of IP telephony, however, is that its best-
effort delivery model does not guarantee delivery of packets in order, in a
timely manner, or at all. In this case, the inability to guarantee packet
delivery may be considered poor QoS by a customer, who may sacrifice
inefficient bandwidth usage to guarantee delivery. Acceptable QoS levels are
established and must be maintained in order to retain customers. As a result,
service providers must be able to deploy and successfully manage a solution
or combination of solutions that meet customer the customers QoS
requirements. For example, to provide real-time applications over IP
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networks that meet high customer QoS standards, such as for a financial
institution, a solution might include using VPNs and IP over ATM.
Data Warehousing
Measuring QoS compliance requires having access to accurate and timely
data. While traditional OSSs may be adequate for the service providers day-
to-day operations, they lack the ability to provide these vital performance
metrics. Next-generation OSSs can quickly and efficiently access historical
data by taking advantage of data warehousing technology. Data warehousing
consists of storing information from disparate systems in a central repository
or a single database and carefully managing the data to ensure its integrity.
Management can draw upon this valuable asset when access to the latest
business intelligence is necessary, not only for QoS analysis but also to
analyze market trends and adjust product strategies accordingly.
Operational Efficiencies
To provide ROI, an OSS solution must help the service provider execute and
hopefully realize productivity gains in their business processes. Most OSS
solutions today are considered commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) applications.
While some packages do offer out-of-the-box functionality, most are designed
to be customized to meet the unique needs and requirements of the service
provider. For example, a sophisticated OSS solution will offer workflow
management capabilities out of the box and also enable users to create
customized and automated processes that take further advantage of next-
generation OSS functionality. In this fashion, a next-generation OSS can
afford the service provider a realistic means of enhancing and/or re-
engineering business processes to reduce costs, increase productivity, and
accelerate time to market for products and services.
The Importance of Flexibility
Given todays dynamically changing marketplace, flexibility also is a key
requirement in a next-generation OSS solution. A technology-neutral OSS is
built upon an architecture that supports current, new, and emerging
technologies, enabling service providers to respond immediately to changes in
their business climatewhether the changes stem from marketing decisions,
new technologies, or regulatory requirements.
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Standards Appendix A
Appendix A
Standards
Standards
G.872: Architecture of Optical Transport Network (OTN)
Management Requirements from G.872 Standard
G.874: Management Aspects of OTN Element
G.875: OTN Management Information Mode
ANSI T1X1 Standards
IETF Standards
OIF Standards
ODSI Initiative
Telcordia 98
TMN Network Level Model
SNMP vs. CMIP

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Appendix B Standards
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Appendix B Glossary
Appendix B
Glossary
Optical Networking Glossary
100Base-T An Ethernet format that has a 100-Mbit/s
transfer rate over unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) cable with a length limit of 100m
(Fast Ethernet).
10Base-T An Ethernet format that has a 10-Mbit/s
(UTP) cable with a length limit of around
100m.
3R regeneration The process of amplifying (correcting loss),
reshaping (correcting noise and dispersion),
retiming (synchronizing with the network
clock), and retransmitting an optical signal.
Absorption The taking-in of energy, which can cause an
ion to move to a higher energy state or can
cause a material to heat up, for example. An
optical signal losing its energy to atoms in a
fiber is said to be absorbed.
Acceptance angle A measure of the different angles through
which light can be taken into an optical fiber.
Acceptance testing The testing of an optical network system to
make sure that it performs as required.
Acousto-optic effect A change in a materials refractive index
caused by acoustic pulses or waves.
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Active device A device that requires a source of energy to
function, unlike passive devices.
Active layer/Laser cavity The layer in a laser that is designed to
confine the light and allow it to build up
before being emitted.
ADM
Add Drop Multiplexer
All-wavelength fiber Optical fiber that removes the attenuation
peak at 1400nm to increase the range of
possible wavelengths that can be transmitted
at low loss.
Amplified spontaneous
emission (ASE)
Buildup of unwanted spontaneous emission
in an optical fiber amplifier. ASE is an
undesirable effect and adds noise to the
amplifier system.
Amplifier/Repeater/Optical
amplifier
Device that boosts the power of an optical
signal. An optical amplifier does this without
any conversion of the light into an electrical
signal.
Angstrom A length of 10 to the power of minus 10
meters, i.e. 0.0000000001m.
API Application programming interface
Arrayed waveguide gratings
(AWGs)
Integrated optical circuits formed by a series
of curved silica waveguides that can combine
(multiplex) or separate (demultiplex)
different wavelength signals in an optical
network.
ASCII American Standard Code for Information
Interchange a protocol for basic text.
ASPEN
Atrica Service Platform for Ethernet
Networks
Asynchronous transfer mode
(ATM)
A data-link layer protocol enabling
integration of voice and data with the ability
to provide QOS guarantees.
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Appendix B Glossary
Asynchronous transmission A system in which data is transmitted at
random times, as opposed to a synchronous
system.
ATM Asynchronous transfer mode
ATM adaptation layers
(AALs)
Convert information into ATM cells.
Atom Formed by a nucleus of positively charged
protons and neutral neutrons, with
negatively charged electrons orbiting the
nucleus.
Attenuation/Loss In an optical fiber, the absorption of light by
molecules in the fiber causing some of the
intensity of the light to be lost from the
signal. Usually measured in dB/km.
Available bit rate (ABR) A QOS level guaranteeing a minimum rate of
data transfer with the possibility of higher
rates if available.
Avalanche photodiode (APD) A semiconductor photodiode that can
generate as many as 100 excited electrons for
every incident photon.
Backward pumping/Counter-
pumping
Inserting the pump laser light at the end of
the fiber in a Raman amplified system.
Best effort The transmission of information through a
network by using any remaining bandwidth
not used elsewhere. No guarantees are
provided in terms of a minimum level of
service.
Binary A method to represent numbers by sequences
of 1s and 0s.
Bit (Binary digIT) The smallest piece of information,
transmitted as a flash of laser light
(represented by a 1 digit) or the lack of a
flash of laser light (represented by a 0 digit).
Sequences of bits (1s and 0s) represent all
the information transmitted in a digital
system.
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Bit error rate (BER) A measure of the accuracy of information
transmitted in a system, calculated as the
number of incorrect bits divided by the total
number of bits transmitted.
Bit rate The speed of information transfer the
number of bits that can be transmitted each
second (the number of on-off laser flashes
possible per second).
Bit-rate transparency A feature of a device enabling it to handle
optical signals regardless of their bit-rates.
Border gateway protocol
(BGP)
A protocol that establishes routes for IP
routers.
Bragg wavelength The wavelength of maximum reflection in a
fiber Bragg grating. The Bragg wavelength
depends on the amount of refractive index
change in the fiber core and the spacing of
these periodic changes.
Byte Eight bits.
Cable One or more optical fibers safely packaged
up to be laid in the ground or under the
ocean.
Carrier-sense multiple access
(CSMA)
The method used by Ethernet to access a
cable by sensing if anyone else is
transmitting on it before sending data from a
device.
C-band (Conventional band) In erbium doped fiber amplifiers, the region
of amplification approximately between
wavelengths of 1530nm and 1580nm.
Cell An envelope for data, as in an ATM cell.
CES
Circuit Emulation Services
Channel A signal in an optical network. Different
wavelengths can be referred to as different
channels.
Chirping Rapid changing of a lasers peak emission
wavelength.
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Appendix B Glossary
Chromatic dispersion The spreading out of light pulses in time, due
to different wavelengths traveling at
different speeds. A combination of material
dispersion and waveguide dispersion.
CIGP Common interconnection gateway platform
Circuit switching A protocol that enables communication
between devices by fixing in place a
connection (a "circuit") between them.
Continuous information streams, such as
phone calls, are best suited to circuits.
Cladding The section of an optical fiber surrounding
the core. The claddings lower refractive
index serves to guide light within the core.
Cladding mode Unwanted light waves that travel through
an optical fibers cladding rather than its
core.
CLEC Competitive local exchange carrier
Clock A timing signal in an optical network,
required so that devices know exactly at
what point to look for bits of information.
The clock signal is matched to the bit rate of
the system.
Clock recovery/Timing
recovery
The extraction of clock information from an
optical signal, used to know exactly when to
sample the signal to look for a 1 or a 0.
CMIP Common management information protocol
CO
Central Office
CO Central office
Coarse wavelength-division
multiplexing (CWDM)
A version of WDM that employs multiple,
widely spaced wavelengths, lying anywhere
in the transmitting region of an optical fiber
(1260 to 1620 nanometers).
Co-counter pumping Inserting pump laser light at both the
beginning and the end of the fiber in a
Raman amplified system.
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Coherent A set of light waves that are in-sync together
(known as being in phase).
Connectionless A protocol that does not require a connection
to be in place in order to send information
between two locations.
Connection-oriented A protocol that must establish a connection
between two devices before it can begin to
send information between them.
Constant bit rate (CBR) A QOS level giving a fixed and guaranteed
amount of network capacity to a circuit,
useful for time-sensitive information such as
voice.
Conventional fiber Optical fiber allowing only a single mode to
travel through it, due to having a very small
core diameter, relative to its cladding.
Provides lowest loss in the 1550nm region
and has zero dispersion at 1300nm. Has a
core with a higher refractive index than the
cladding.
Co-pumping/Forward
pumping
Inserting the pump laser light at the
beginning of the fiber in a Raman amplified
system.
CORBA Common object request broker architecture
Core The central part of an optical fiber, usually
made from silica and surrounded by the
lower refractive index cladding. Light travels
along the core of an optical fiber.
CoS
Class of Service
COTS Commercial off-the-shelf
Counter-pumping/Backward
pumping
Inserting the pump laser light at the end of
the fiber in a Raman amplified system.
Coupler Device that combines or splits light from
optical devices.
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Appendix B Glossary
Coupling efficiency The efficiency with which light can be
transferred between two devices that are
joined (coupled) together.
CPE
Customer Premises Equipment
CPE Customer premises equipment
Cross-phase modulation A nonlinear Kerr effect, whereby several
different wavelengths in a WDM system can
cause each other to spread out.
Crosstalk One optical signal being adversely affected
by the presence of another.
dB Decibel usually used as a figure of loss or
gain in an optical network. Calculated as one
tenth of the logarithm of the output power
divided by the input power.
dBm A unit of power, popular in optical networks,
showing the power with respect to 1
milliwatt (0.001W). Uses the dB equation,
with the input power set to 1 milliwatt. Zero
dBm is a power of 1 milliwatt.
DCOM Distributed component object model
Demultiplexing The separating of different wavelengths in a
wavelength-division multiplexing system.
The opposite of multiplexing.
Dense wavelength-division
multiplexing (DWDM)
A variety of WDM that uses multiple
wavelengths (or channels) in the 1550-
nanometer region of the infrared spectrum.
The wavelengths are closely spaced
usually evenly, on a grid.
Detector A device that detects laser light and converts
it back into electrical form.
Diffraction The deflecting of a light wave when it travels
through an object such as a grating.
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Digital wrapper An encapsulation method for traffic of all
protocols, allowing an optical network to be
protocol transparent, its functions to be
managed in an efficient manner, and its data
to be transmitted more reliably.
Diode laser Tiny salt-grain-sized semiconductor devices
giving out intense light at one specific color
when an electric current is passed through
them.
Discrete amplification Amplification that takes place at one
particular point in a system.
Dispersion Different wavelengths of light travel at
slightly different speeds in optical fiber, and
this causes optical pulses to spread out as
they travel through a system.
Dispersion slope Reflects the fact that different wavelengths
experience different amounts of dispersion in
an optical fiber.
Dispersion-compensating
fiber
Optical fiber with highly negative dispersion
at 1550nm to compensate for a buildup of
positive dispersion in that region in
conventional fiber.
Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) Optical fiber that has a point of minimum
dispersion moved towards its point of lowest
attenuation around 1550nm.
Distributed amplification Amplification that takes place over the
length of a system, rather than at one
discrete point.
Distributed feedback (DFB)
laser
Lasers giving out a very sharply defined
color of light. Similar to Fabry-Perot design
but with the addition of a corrugated
structure above the active layer. This feeds
back one specific wavelength into the cavity,
which is then amplified and emitted.
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Appendix B Glossary
Doping The adding of an impurity (dopant) to a
material. Used to change the optical
properties of optical fiber in erbium doped
fiber amplifiers.
DSL Digital subscriber line
DSLAM Digital subscriber line access multiplexer
DWDM Dense wavelength division multiplexing
ECM
A-8X00 Control Module; Processing element
of the SWC
EDFA
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
Edge emitter A regular design of laser (e.g. Fabry-Perot or
distributed feedback) which gives out light
from its edges. Opposite to a surface emitter.
EDI electronic data interchange
Electrical excitation In a laser, the achievement of population
inversion through an electric current exciting
electrons into higher energy states.
Electron A negatively charged particle present in all
atoms.
Electro-optic effect Phenomenon relating to light interacting
with an electric field.
Energy gap The amount of energy required to move an
ion/electron between specific excited or
ground states.
Energy-wavelength
relationship
The energy of a wave is a constant number
divided by its wavelength. So a large
wavelength has a low energy, and a short
wavelength has a high energy.
Erbium A rare earth element used to dope fiber in
erbium doped fiber amplifiers.
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Erbium doped fiber amplifier
(EDFA)
Optical amplifiers made of short lengths of
optical fiber doped with the element
erbium. A pump laser excites erbium ions
in the fiber, which can then give their energy
to optical signals passing through.
Ethernet A data-link layer protocol commonly used to
transfer Internet Protocol packets over
cables in local area networks.
Excited states/Excited levels The energy states to which ions and
electrons can be moved from the ground
state if they are given some energy.
Eye diagram/Eye pattern 1 and 0 signals in an optical system are
displayed on an oscilloscope to show how
clearly they are defined. An open eye shows
a good quality signal with clear differences
between 1s and 0s. A closed eye means that
some 0s could be confused for 1s and vice
versa, and therefore is a sign of a poor
transmission system.
Fabry-Perot laser The most basic design of laser, consisting of
two specially designed slabs of
semiconductor material on top of each other,
with another material between them forming
what is known as the active layer or laser
cavity. Electric current flows through the
device from the top slab through to the
bottom, and the emission of light occurs in
the active layer.
Fast Ethernet An Ethernet format that has a 100-Mbit/s
(UTP) cable with a length limit of 100m
(100Base-T).
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FE
Fast Ethernet
Feedback The return of some output back into the
input. The returning of light back into the
laser cavity in a distributed feedback laser.
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Appendix B Glossary
FIB
Forwarding Information Base
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) Small sections of optical fiber that act like
selective mirrors only reflecting back
specific wavelengths. This reflection is
caused by a periodic change of refractive
index in the fiber core, which reflects mainly
at the Bragg wavelength.
Fiber grating laser A cheaper alternative to DFB lasers; formed
from conventional Fabry-Perot lasers with a
fiber Bragg grating in the output that filters
out unwanted wavelengths.
Fiber pigtail/Pigtail A short section of optical fiber, constantly
connected to a device and transmitting light
from that device.
Fiber/Optical fiber Very thin strands of pure silica glass through
which laser light travels in an optical
network. Consists of a core surrounded by a
less refractive index cladding.
First window The 850nm region of wavelengths used in
optical networks.
FIT rate A measure of reliability for a device the
number of failures in one billion device
hours.
Forward equivalence class Identifies flows and classifies them in terms
of any QOS requirements in an MPLS
network.
Forward error correction
(FEC)
Mathematical algorithms performed on data
to be transmitted in a network create FEC
information that can be used at the receiving
end to detect and correct any errors in the
transmitted data.
Forward pumping/Co-
pumping
Inserting the pump laser light at the
beginning of the fiber in a Raman amplified
system.
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Four-wave mixing (FWM) A nonlinear Kerr effect in which two or more
signal wavelengths can interact to create a
new wavelength.
Frame An envelope for data, as in an Ethernet
frame.
Frequency The number of cycles per unit time,
measured in Hertz (Hz).
FSTP Fast Spanning Tree Protocol IEEE802.1w
Fusion splice/Splice The connecting of two optical fibers by
effectively melting their ends to join them
together.
Gain The ratio of output optical power to input
power, usually given in units of dB. Usually
represents an increase in an optical signal; a
negative gain means a loss of power.
Gain flattening The art of getting equal amounts of
amplification over a range of wavelengths in
an optical amplifier.
Gbit/s gigabits per second 1 gigabit per second is 1 billion bits per
second.
Gigabit Ethernet An Ethernet format that provides 1-Gbit/s
access rates on optical fiber over distances of
up to several kilometers.
Graded-index fiber Optical fiber with a core whose refractive
index changes with the distance from its
axis.
Grating A device designed to allow specific
wavelengths to be reflected, while others
pass through it.
Ground state The usual location of ions and electrons,
which can absorb energy and then move up
to excited states.
GUI Graphical user interface
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Appendix B Glossary
Humicubation Lying on the ground, especially as a sign of
penitence or humiliation.
IEC Interexchange carrier
IFC
Interface PCB(s)
ILEC Incumbent local exchange carrier
INF
Input Filter
Infrared The region of electromagnetic waves between
around 700nm and 0.1mm in wavelength.
Includes all the wavelengths that are
transmitted in optical networks. (Visible
light ranges from around 400nm to 700nm.)
Insertion loss The loss introduced into a system by the
connection of a device. Usually given in dB.
Integrated optical circuits Similar in principle to electrical integrated
circuits, but with the combining of many tiny
versions of current optical components onto
single silicon wafers.
Intensity Strictly speaking, intensity is the power per
unit area. Usually used just to mean the
amount of light the power.
Internet Protocol (IP) A network-layer protocol that puts Internet
data into packets and helps route them
through a local area network.
Ion An electrically charged atom.
IP Internet protocol
IP Internet protocol
IP address An address used in an IP network, given in a
so-called "dotted decimal" notation (eg.,
"129.67.219.9").
IP router A device for directing IP packets towards
their final destination.
IPv6 A new version of IP (version 6) that includes
16-byte addresses as one of its
improvements.
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ISDN integrated services digital network
Isolator A device designed to allow light through it in
only one direction.
ISP Internet service provider
ITU-Grid Each different wavelength in a wavelength-
division multiplexed system will be
separated by a multiple of 0.8nm. This is
sometimes referred to as 100GHz spacing,
which is the frequency separation, or as the
ITU-Grid named after the standards
body that set the figure.
IXC Interexchange carrier
LEC local exchange carrier
MPLS
Multi Protocol Label Switching
Nanometer (nm) Length of 0.000000001 (one billionth)
meters.
NC
Network Core
NCF
Network Core Functionality
NCI
Network Core Interface
NE
Network Edge
NEF
Network Edge Functionality
NEI
Network Edge Interface
NEP
Network Equipment Provider
NML network management layer
NOC network operations center
Node A point in an optical network where optical
signals can be processed and switched among
various links.
Noise Distortion of an optical signal that can affect
the accuracy of transmitted information.
Noise figure (NF) A measure of the amount of noise in a
system.
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Appendix B Glossary
Nonlinear effects High optical powers causing various effects
on signals in optical fibers, usually
detrimental. The output does not scale
linearly with the input, so if the input signal
doubles in power then the output is less than
double.
Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) A method of transmitting 1s (flashes of laser
light) and 0s (no light) whereby if several 1s
are to be transmitted in succession, the laser
light does not turn off in between 1s. It
would just remain on throughout and not
return to zero light. The opposite of a return-
to-zero (RZ) system.
Non-zero dispersion-shifted
fiber (NZ-DSF)
Optical fiber giving a small amount of
dispersion in the 1550nm region that can
reduce the effects of four-wave mixing.
OADM
Optical Add Drop Multiplexer
OAM&P Operations, administration, maintenance,
and provisioning
OMG Object Management Group
Open shortest path first
(OSPF)
A protocol that establishes routes for IP
routers.
Open systems interconnection
(OSI) model
The seven standardized layers of protocols
that combine to transport data around a
network.
Optical add-drop multiplexer
(OADM)
A device that can take in (add) or take out
(drop) individual wavelengths from an
optical fiber completely in the optical domain
(i.e., without any conversion of the light into
electricity).
Optical amplifier Device that boosts the power of an optical
signal without any conversion of the light
into an electrical signal.
Optical channel An individual wavelength in a system.
ATTP103-00-AB 103

CONFIDENTIAL
Optical crossconnect
(OXC)/Optical switch
Device that can move optical signals
between different optical fibers, without the
need for conversion to electrical signals.
Optical excitation In a laser, the achievement of population
inversion through light from another laser
exciting electrons into higher energy states.
Optical fiber/Fiber Very thin strands of pure silica glass
through which laser light travels in an
optical network. Consists of a core
surrounded by a less refractive cladding.
Optical network Optical fibers connecting locations many
miles apart, carrying information in the form
of on-off flashes of laser light.
Optical packet switch/router A device of the future that can route
individual packets through a network
without needing to convert the signal into
electrical format first, as in conventional
routers.
Optical pulse/Pulse A short burst of light energy.
Optical signal/Signal Light energy in a system, carrying
information.
Optical switch/Optical
crossconnect (OXC)
Device that can move optical signals
between different optical fibers, without the
need for conversion to electrical signals.
Optical time-division
multiplexing (OTDM)
The interleaving of optical signals from
different sources to make a higher composite
bit-rate, e.g., combining four 10-Gbit/s
signals to give one 40-Gbit/s signal.
Optical time-domain
reflectometer (OTDR)
Device used to inspect optical fiber links by
sending optical pulses down them and
monitoring the light reflected back to the
device. Can calculate overall fiber
attenuation and highlight points of high loss
in the fiber, or even fiber breaks.
Optoelectronic devices Devices converting electrical energy to
optical energy or vice-versa.
104 ATTP103-00-AB

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Appendix B Glossary
OSS operations support system
OWAD optical wavelength add/drop
OXC optical cross-connect
Packet An envelope for data, as in an IP packet.
Packet switching A protocol that enables the sending of data
in packets, to be routed through the network
based upon address information contained
within their headers. Sporadic data
exchanges, such as Web traffic, are best
served by packets.
Passive device A device that does not require a source of
energy to function, unlike active devices.
Passive optical network
(PON)
Enables a single fiber access line to support
a cluster of buildings through use of a
passive splitter close to the cluster, so that
light from a single fiber can be split into
different wavelengths and steered to
individual buildings via short lengths of
fiber.
Path overhead (POH) An overhead in an SDH frame whose
function is to monitor the quality of the link
and indicate the type of data payload the
frame is carrying.
Permanent virtual circuit
(PVC)
A connection that is constantly in place.
Photodetector/Photodiode A device that converts optical signals
(photons) into electrical signals (electrons).
Photon A single particle of light.
Photonics The field dealing with photons, including
device and system design for optical
networks.
Pigtail/Fiber pigtail A short section of optical fiber, constantly
connected to a device and transmitting light
from that device.
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P-i-n photodiode A semiconductor photodiode that excites one
electron per incident photon.
Polarization The direction of the electric field in an
electromagnetic wave.
Polarization mode dispersion
(PMD)
Dispersion of an optical signal due to the
different polarizations of light traveling at
different speeds through optical fiber, caused
by imperfections in fiber symmetry and
fluctuating fiber stresses.
Polarization-maintaining
fiber
Optical fiber in which the different
polarizations of light do not interfere with
each other.
POP
Point of Presence
Population inversion In a semiconductor laser, the situation
where the majority of electrons are in the
excited state.
POTS plain old telephone service
Power The rate of transfer of energy per unit time
in a system.
Power amplification Amplifying optical signals just after they
have left the laser.
Power budget/Loss budget The amount of optical power launched into a
system that will be lost through various
mechanisms, e.g., insertion losses and fiber
attenuation. Usually given in dB.
Praseodymium A rare earth element that can be used in the
same way as erbium in erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers (EDFAs). Praseodymium provides
gain in the 1300nm region.
Pre-amplification Amplification of optical signals at the end of
the system just before they reach the
detectors.
Pre-amplifier Adds an EDFA before a p-i-n photodetector
to give better detection performance.
106 ATTP103-00-AB

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Appendix B Glossary
Pre-emphasis Altering the initial powers of different
wavelengths in a system, so that they all
arrive at the end of the system with equal
powers. This can counteract the effects of
stages in a system that may incur different
amounts of loss or gain at different
wavelengths.
Protection switching Automatic switching between fiber links,
should one become unavailable.
Pulse/Optical pulse A short burst of light energy.
Pump laser A laser used to excite ions in a material,
usually used in optical amplifiers.
PVC permanent virtual circuit
QoS quality of service
Quality of service (QOS) The level of service provided to a customer
through a network connection.
R1
Fiber with no WDM inside - supports VLAN
R2
Wavelength connecting two devices -
supports VLAN and MPLS
Raman amplification Optical amplification process throughout the
actual transmission fiber in an optical
network, caused by a carefully selected
pump-laser wavelength scattering from
atoms in the fiber and changing its
wavelength to that of the optical signal.
Performs stimulated Raman scattering.
Rayleigh scattering Light scattering in an optical fiber due to
slight changes in the cores refractive index.
RBOC regional Bell operating company
Reamplification/1R
regeneration
Boosting the power of an optical or electrical
signal.
Receivers Devices placed at the end of an optical
network with detectors to convert the laser
light back into electrical form.
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Reed-Solomon Mathematical algorithms that can be used
for forward error correction.
Refraction The change in direction of light due to its
passing between two different materials.
Refractive index A property of a material that determines
how fast light travels through it.
Repeater/Amplifier/Optical
amplifier
Device that boosts the power of an optical
signal. An optical amplifier does this without
any conversion of the light into an electrical
signal.
Reshaping Removing noise from a digital signal and
shaping it into clear 1s and 0s.
Retiming Adjusting the precise locations of 1s and 0s
in a detected signal in order to match them
to the bit-rate of a system.
Return-to-zero (RZ) A method of transmitting 1s (flashes of laser
light) and 0s (no light) whereby if several 1s
are to be transmitted in succession, the laser
light turns off in between 1s. It therefore
flashes each time it wants to give out a 1,
returning to zero light in between 1s. The
opposite of a non-return-to-zero (RZ) system.
ROI return on investment
SDH synchronous digital hierarchy
Second window The 1300nm region of wavelengths used in
optical networks.
Section overhead (SOH) The first 9 columns of an STM1 frame in
SDH. Provides a comprehensive range of
facilities such as error monitoring, network
management, and protection switching.
Self phase modulation A nonlinear Kerr effect, whereby a
wavelength can spread out onto adjacent
wavelengths by itself.
108 ATTP103-00-AB

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Appendix B Glossary
Semiconductor A material that can behave as an insulator
(not conducting electricity) or as a conductor
(conducting electricity).
Semiconductor laser Tiny salt-grain sized semiconductor devices
giving out intense light at one specific color
when an electric current is passed through
them.
Semiconductor optical
amplifiers (SOAs)
Similar to regular lasers, but with non-
reflecting ends and broad wavelength
emission. An incoming optical signal
stimulates emission of light at its own
wavelength, therefore amplifying it.
Signal/Optical signal Light energy in a system, carrying
information.
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) Ratio of the amplitude of the optical signal
to the amplitude of the noise.
Silica Very pure glass from which optical fibers
are manufactured, a combination of silicon
and oxygen Si0
2
.
Singlemode fiber A mode is one of the various light waves
that can be transmitted in an optical fiber.
Each optical signal generates many different
modes, but in singlemode fiber the aim is to
only have one of them transmitted. This is
achieved through having a core of a very
small diameter (usually around 10
micrometers). A.k.a. conventional, standard,
or step-index fiber.
SLA
Service Level Agreement
SML service management layer
Snells law A law of physics that allows light to be
guided within the core of an optical fiber due
to the lower refractive index of the
surrounding cladding layer.
SNMP simple network management protocol
ATTP103-00-AB 109

CONFIDENTIAL
Soliton pulse A specially designed optical pulse that takes
advantage of nonlinear effects to reverse the
effects of dispersion, and travel through a
system while maintaining its shape and
integrity.
SONET synchronous optical network
Spectral width/Linewidth Any optical signal is spread at least a small
amount onto neighboring wavelengths.
Spectral width is the range of wavelengths
over which one particular signal is
transmitted.
Splice/Fusion splice The connecting of two optical fibers by
effectively melting their ends to join them
together.
Spontaneous emission of light Light given out by ions or electrons
naturally falling from excited states to
ground states.
Stimulated Brillouin
scattering
A nonlinear effect whereby light in fiber can
create acoustic waves, which then scatter
light to different wavelengths.
Stimulated emission of light Light given out by ions or electrons falling
from excited states to ground states, caused
by other light in the system.
Stimulated Raman scattering A nonlinear phenomenon whereby an optical
signal scatters from atoms in an optical fiber,
loses some energy to those atoms, and
therefore increases in wavelength. Used in
Raman amplification.
Submarine systems Optical fiber links connecting countries
through the worlds oceans.
Supervisory signals Signals used for the control of various
devices within an optical network, e.g.,
amplifiers.
110 ATTP103-00-AB

CONFIDENTIAL
Appendix B Glossary
Surface emitter A design of laser that gives out light from its
surface, usually with a vertical cavity (as in
the vertical cavity surface emitting laser).
Opposite of an edge emitter.
SWC
Switch PCBs
Switched virtual circuit (SVC) Connection that can be dynamically created
and destroyed as required by the network.
Synchronous digital hierarchy
(SDH)
Physical-layer protocol for packaging data to
send through an optical network. U.S.
version is called Sonet.
Synchronous optical network
(Sonet)
Version of SDH primarily used in U.S.,
Canada, and Japan.
Synchronous transmission A system in which data is transmitted at
regular time intervals, as opposed to an
asynchronous system.
Synchronous transport
module (STM)
The SDH frame.
Tag switching See: Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS).
Tapered fiber An optical fiber with a shaped end to allow
more light to be coupled into its core.
TCP/IP The protocol suite installed on desktop
computers to enable interfacing with
networks.
TDM
Time Division Mutiplexing
Third window The 1550nm region of wavelengths used in
optical networks. This is the point of
minimum attenuation in conventional optical
fiber.
Threshold current The specific value of electrical current
applied to a laser at which the stimulated
emission of light really takes over from the
spontaneous emission.
ATTP103-00-AB 111

CONFIDENTIAL
Thulium A rare earth element that can be used in the
same way as erbium in erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers (EDFAs). Thulium provides gain
in the 1400nm region.
Time to live (TTL) A field in an IP packet header that will be
decreased by one every time the packet
passes through an IP router in the network,
until it reaches zero and the packet is then
discarded.
Time-division multiplexing
(TDM)
A constant stream of data traveling through
the network, created by multiplexing several
low bit-rate streams into one high bit-rate
stream.
Time-division multiplexing
(TDM)
The interleaving of signals from different
sources to make a higher composite bit-rate.
Timing recovery/Clock
recovery
The extraction of clock information from an
optical signal, useful to know exactly when to
sample the signal to look for a 1 or a 0.
TL1 transaction language 1
TLS
Transparent LAN Services
TMN telecommunications management network
TP transaction processor
Trans-Atlantic Telephone
cable (TAT)
A series of submarine systems placed across
the Atlantic Ocean connecting the U.S. with
Europe. The most recent cable is TAT-14.
Transmission The sending of optical signals through
optical fibers, and associated effects and
phenomena.
Transmission control protocol
(TCP)
A protocol used to track IP packets and
make sure that they arrive where they
should.
Transmitters Devices placed at the beginning of an optical
network to transmit light representing
information. Usually consisting of lasers and
modulators.
112 ATTP103-00-AB

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Appendix B Glossary
Transponder A device that takes an optical signal,
performs electrical 3R regeneration, and
then retransmits the signal in optical form.
The output can be of a different wavelength
than the input if so required.
Tunable lasers Lasers that can be adjusted to emit one of
several different wavelengths, usually on the
ITU-Grid.
UE
User Edge
UEF
User Edge Functionality
UEI
User Edge Interface
Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP)
A cable used in Ethernet.
Unspecified bit rate (UBR) A QOS level providing whatever spare
capacity the network has at any one time.
USOC universal service order code
Variable bit rate (VBR) A QOS level having the ability to grow and
shrink in size with data needs, but with the
possibility for some loss of cells if
requirements cannot be met due to higher
priority traffic from other sources.
VC virtual circuit
Vertical cavity surface
emitting lasers (VCSELs)
Lasers with a vertical cavity that emit light
from their surface, in contrast with regular
edge emitters.
Virtual channel (VC) A connection established for information
exchange in an ATM network. Many virtual
channels are contained in a virtual path.
Virtual channel identifier
(VCI)
An element in the ATM header specifying
which channel is being used.
Virtual container (VC) The data-carrying part of an SDH frame. In
the case of an STM1 it's known as a VC4.
ATTP103-00-AB 113

CONFIDENTIAL
Virtual path In ATM, a route between two points
containing many (up to several thousand)
virtual channels that are initiated for each
specific information exchange.
Virtual path identifier (VPI) An element in the ATM header specifying
which path is being used.
Virtual private network
(VPN)
A network over which a group of locations
have exclusive connections with each other,
although many other customers use the
same physical infrastructure.
VLAN
Virtual LAN
VPN
Virtual Private Network
VPN virtual private network
WAN Wide-area network.
Waveguide A material that can guide optical energy
(light).
Waveguide dispersion Contributes to the overall chromatic
dispersion of a system. Caused by a portion
of the light traveling in the cladding of the
fiber, which has a different refractive index
to the core and therefore propagates light at
a different speed.
Wavelength All electromagnetic radiation (radio waves,
microwaves, ultraviolet light, visible light,
etc.) is transmitted in waves, and the
wavelength is the distance between
successive crests of the waves. In optical
networks, you can think of different
wavelengths as being different colors of light.
Wavelength-division
multiplexing (WDM)
Transmitting many different colors
(wavelengths) of laser light down the same
optical fiber at the same time, in order to
increase the amount of information that can
be transferred.
Xanthism Abnormal or excessive yellowness.
114 ATTP103-00-AB

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Appendix B Glossary
Yapok A semi-aquatic South American opossum.
Zero-dispersion slope The rate of change of dispersion with respect
to wavelength at the point of zero dispersion
in an optical fiber.
Zero-dispersion wavelength The wavelength of transmission in an
optical fiber at which no overall dispersion
occurs.

ATTP103-00-AB 115

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ATRICA, INC. 3255-3 SCOTT BLVD. SANTA CLARA, CALIFORNIA 95054
P/N# ATTP103-00-AB
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