CHAPTER 4 Rotating Machine Fundamentals: Vibration, Balancing, and Noise

4.1 Vibration: general model

Vibration is a subset of the subject of dynamics. It has particular relevance to both structures and machinery in the way that they respond to applied disturbances. The most common model of vibration is a concentrated spring-mounted mass that is subject to a disturbing force and retarding force, see Fig. 4.1. The motion is represented graphically as shown by the projection of a rotating vector x. Relevant quantities are frequency (Hz) = (k/m)/2 k = spring stiffness m = mass

Fig. 4.1 Vibration: the general model

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The ideal case represents simple harmonic motion with the waveform being sinusoidal. Hence the motion follows the general pattern: vibration displacement (amplitude) = s vibration velocity = v = ds/dt vibration acceleration = a = dv/dt

4.2 Vibration formulae

The four most common vibration cases are as shown below (see Fig. 4.2).

Free vibration: linear (Fig. 4.2 (a))

mx + kx = 0 x = A sin ( n t ) k g n = = m

Free vibration: torsional (Fig. 4.2 (b))

J + k t = 0

= A sin ( n t )
k n = t J

Free damped vibration (Fig. 4.2 (c))

mx + cx + kx = 0 x = Aent sin (dt + ) d = n(1 2) cc = 2mn x x 2 = 1n 0 = 1n 1 = x1 x2 (1 2 ) mx + cx + kx = F sin t x = Aent sin (dt + ) + Xsin (t )

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Forced vibration with damping (Fig. 4.2 (d))

X = D= F /k

[(1 r 2 ) + (2 r )2 ]
2

[(1 r ) + (2 r ) ]
2 2 3

X X0

tan =

2 r 1 r2

X is maximum when r = (1 2 2) X max 1 = X0 2 (1 2 ) 1 (1 2 2) at resonance, r = 1 F X = 0 X re = c n 2 tan = m k x A n , kt J c cc d F X0 mass spring constant static deflection displacement constant natural frequency phase angle torsional stiffness of shaft mass moment of inertia of flywheel angular displacement = c/cc damping factor damping coefficient critical damping coefficient logarithmic decrement natural frequency of damped vibration maximum periodic force equivalent static deflection = F/k

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Xmax Xre r D

peak amplitude amplitude at resonance = /n, frequency ratio dynamic magnifier

Fig. 4.2 Vibration modes

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4.3 Machine vibration

There are two main types of vibration relevant to rotating machines: bearing housing vibration. This is assumed to be sinusoidal. It normally uses the velocity (Vrms) parameter. shaft vibration. This is generally not sinusoidal. It normally uses displacement (s) as the measured parameter.

Bearing housing vibration

Relevant points are: only vibration at the surface is measured; torsional vibration is excluded; Vrms is normally measured across the frequency range and then distilled down to a single value, i.e. Vrms = [(amplitudes angular frequences)].

Acceptance levels
Technical standards and manufacturers practices differ in their acceptance levels. General rule of thumb acceptance levels are shown in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, and Fig. 4.3. Table 4.1 Balance quality grades (ISO 1940)
Balance quality grade G G 4000 G 1600 G 630 e* Rotor types general examples (mm/s) 4000 1600 630 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted, slow marine diesel engines with uneven number of cylinders Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted, large, two-cycle engines Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted, large, four-cycle engines Crankshaft drives of elastically mounted marine diesel engines G 250 G 100 250 100 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted, fast, four-cylinder diesel engines Crankshaft drives of fast diesel engines with six or more cylinders Complete engines (gasoline or diesel) for cars, trucks, and locomotives G 40 40 Car wheels, wheel rims, wheel sets, drive shafts Crankshaft drives of elastically mounted, fast, four-cycle engines (gasoline or diesel) with six or more cylinders

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Table 4.1 Cont.

Crankshaft drives for engines of cars, trucks, and locomotives G 16 16 Drive shafts (propeller shafts, cardan shafts) with special requirements Parts of crushing machinery Parts of agricultural machinery Individual components of engines (petrol or diesel) for cars, trucks, and locomotives Crankshaft drives of engines with six or more cylinders under special requirements G 6.3 6.3 Parts of process plant machines Marine main turbine gears Centrifuge drums Fans Assembled aircraft gas turbine rotors Flywheels Pump impellers Machine-tool and general machinery parts Normal electrical armatures Individual components of engines under special requirements G 2.5 2.5 Gas and steam turbines, including marine main turbines. Rigid turbogenerator rotors Rotors Turbocompressors Machine-tool drives Medium and large electrical armatures with special requirements Small electrical armatures Turbine-driven pumps G 1 1 Tape recorder and phonograph (gramophone) drives Grinding-machine drives Small electrical armatures with special requirements G 0.4 0.4 Spindles, disks, and armatures of precision grinders Gyroscopes * = 2 x N/60 n/10, if n is measured in r/min and in rad/s. e is the eccentricity of the centre of gravity.

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Table 4.2 General rules of thumb acceptance levels

Machine Precision components and machines gas turbines, etc. Helical and epicyclic gearboxes Spur-gearboxes, turbines General service pumps Long-shaft pumps Diesel engines Reciprocating large machines
Typical balance grades; from ISO 19401 Balance grade Type of rotor (general examples)

Vrms (mm/s) 1.12 1.8 2.8 4.5 4.57.1 7.1 7.111.2

G G G G G G

1 2.5 6.3 16 40 100

Grinding machines, tape-recording equipment Turbines, compressors, electric armatures Pump impellers, fans, gears, machine tools Cardan shafts, agriculture machinery Car wheels, engine crankshafts Complete engines for cars and trucks

Fig. 4.3 Vibration balance grades ISO 10816-1

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4.4 Dynamic balancing

Almost all rotating machines (pumps, shafts, turbines, gearsets, generators, etc.) are subject to dynamic balancing during manufacture. The objective is to maintain the operating vibration of the machine within manageable limits. Dynamic balancing normally comprises two measurement/correction planes and involves the calculation of vector quantities. The component is mounted in a balancing rig which rotates it at near its operating speed, and both senses and records out-of-balance forces and phase angle in two planes. Balance weights are then added (or removed) to bring the imbalance forces to an acceptable level (see Fig. 4.4). Figure 4.5 shows how to interpret the corresponding vibration readings.

Fig. 4.4 Dynamic balancing

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Fig. 4.5 How to interpret vibration readings

Balancing standards
The international standards ISO 1940-1 (1984) Balance and quality requirements of rigid rotors and ISO 10816-1 are frequently used. Finer balance grades are used for precision assemblies such as instruments and gyroscopes. The nearest American equivalent is ANSI/ASA standard ANSI S2.42 (1997) Balancing of flexible rotors. This also classifies rotors into groups in accordance with various balance quality grades.

4.5 Machinery noise

Principles
Noise is most easily thought of as airborne pressure pulses set up by a vibrating surface source. It is measured by an instrument that detects these pressure changes in the air and then relates this measured sound pressure to an accepted zero level. Because a machine produces a mixture of frequencies (termed broad-band noise), there is no single noise measurement that will fully describe a noise emission. In practice, two methods used are:

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The overall noise level. This is often used as a colloquial term for what is properly described as the A-weighted sound pressure level. It incorporates multiple frequencies, and weights them according to a formula that results in the best approximation of the loudness of the noise. This is displayed as a single instrument reading expressed as decibels dB(A). Frequency band sound pressure level. This involves measuring the sound pressure level in a number of frequency bands. These are arranged in either octave or one-third octave bands in terms of their mid-band frequency. The range of frequencies of interest in measuring machinery noise is from about 30 Hz to 10 000 Hz. Note that frequency band sound pressure levels are also expressed in decibels (dB). The decibel scale itself is a logarithmic scale a sound pressure level in dB being defined as dB = 10 log10 (p1/p0)2 where p1 = measured sound pressure p0 = a reference zero pressure level Noise tests on rotating machines are carried out by defining a reference surface and then positioning microphones at locations 3 ft (0.91 m) from it (see Fig. 4.6).

Typical levels
Approximate rule of thumb noise levels are given in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 Typical noise levels
Machine/environment A whisper Office noise Noisy factory Large diesel engine Turbocompressor/gas turbine dB(A) 20 50 90 97 98

A normal specification level is 9095 dB(A) at 1 m from operating equipment. Noisier equipment needs an acoustic enclosure. Humans can continue to hear increasing sound levels up to about 120 dB. Levels above this cause serious discomfort and long-term damage.

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Fig. 4.6 Noise tests on rotating machines

4.6 Useful references

Standards: balancing
1. API publication 684: (1992) First edition, A tutorial on the API approach to rotor dynamics and balancing. 2. SAE ARP 5323: (1988) Balancing machines for gas turbine rotors.

Standards: vibration
Table 4.4 shows the status of some relevant technical standards dealing with vibration.

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Table 4.4 Technical standards vibration

Standard BS 4675-2: 1978, ISO 2954-1975 Title Mechanical vibration in rotating machinery. Requirements for instruments for measuring vibration severity. Code of practice for foundations for machinery. Foundations for reciprocating machines. Mechanical vibration. Testing of mobile machinery in order to determine the whole-body vibration emission value. General. Safety of machinery. Guidance for the drafting of vibration clauses of safety standards. ISO/DIS 14839-1 Mechanical vibration of rotating machinery equipped with active magnetic bearings. Part 1. Vocabulary. Mechanical vibration in rotating machinery. Basis for specifying evaluation standards for rotating machines with operating speeds from 10 to 200 rev/s. Status Current

CP 2012-1: 1974

Current

BS EN 1032: 1996

Current Work in hand

BS EN 12786: 1999 00/710581 DC

Current

Current Draft for public comment Withdrawn Superseded

BS 4675: Part 1: 1976, ISO 23721974

See also Table 13.11 showing harmonized standards relevant to the machinery directive.

Standards: noise
1. ANSI/ASA S12.16: (1997) American National Standard Guidelines for the specification of noise from new machinery. 2. ANSI/ASA S12.3: (1996) American National Standard Statistical methods for determining and verifying stated noise emission values of machinery and equipment. 3. ISO 10494: (1993) Gas turbine and gas turbine sets measurement of emitted airborne noise engineering (survey method).