James Phelan B.E.

Energy Systems Engineering Project Report

4BSE1

Wind Turbine Simulator

April 2013

Abstract
The aim of this project is to design and build a model of a wind turbine generator which will be one part of a model of a smart grid system for a house or a building on an island. A DC shunt motor will be used in place of a 3 blade rotor. This will drive a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator through a 3 to 1 reduction gearbox. The output of the generator will be connected to a three phase bridge rectifier to produce a DC voltage. A Boost Converter will be used to match the output of the generator to the input of a 48V bus. This report details the work carried out to design the system. The system will also be simulated using MatLab SimPowerSystems.

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Declaration of Originality

I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work except where stated.

Signature _______________________

Date _______________________

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my project supervisor Prof. Gerard Hurley for giving me the opportunity to work on this project and for his help throughout the year.

I would also like to thank my project co-supervisor Dr. Liam Kilmartin for his valuable input.

Lastly I would like to thank Myles Meehan and Martin Burke, Lab technicians in the Electronic Engineering Department.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i Declaration of Originality ........................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... iii Table of Figures .......................................................................................................................... v Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 Wind Energy in Ireland......................................................................................... 3 Wind Turbine Simulator ....................................................................................... 4 DC Shunt Motor ................................................................................................... 5

DC Shunt Motor Torque .............................................................................................. 6 DC Shunt Motor Speed Control ................................................................................... 6 DC Shunt Motor Selection ........................................................................................... 7 DC Shunt Motor Characteristics .................................................................................. 8 DC Shunt Motor Speed Control with PWM................................................................. 9 PWM Generator ........................................................................................................ 10 DC Shunt Motor PSU ................................................................................................. 11 Motor PSU Transformer ..................................................................................... 11 Motor PSU Bridge Rectifier ................................................................................ 13 Motor PSU Capacitance Filter ............................................................................ 13 PMSG, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator ......................................... 17 Boost Converter ................................................................................................. 22 Boost Converter Switch Closed. ......................................................................... 24 Boost Converter Switch Open ............................................................................ 25 Arduino UNO ...................................................................................................... 28 MatLab Simulation ............................................................................................. 32 Arduino Code and Information ...................................................................... 34 Parts Lists........................................................................................................ 37 Current Sensor ............................................................................................... 38 Project Images ................................................................................................ 39

4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.8 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.2 7.1 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D

DC Shunt Motor PWM Speed Control Circuit ........................................................... 14

Boost Converter Analysis .......................................................................................... 24

Boost Converter Design............................................................................................. 27 Current and Voltage Sensors..................................................................................... 30

References ............................................................................................................................... 42

Table of Figures
Figure 1. Block diagram of wind turbine system ....................................................................... 4 Figure 2. Diagram of a DC Shunt Motor ..................................................................................... 5 Figure 3. Current-Torque characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor ................................................. 5 Figure 4. Speed-Torque Characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor ................................................... 6 Figure 5. Parvalux DC Shunt Motor............................................................................................ 7 Figure 6. Speed-Torque-Current characteristics of the Parvalux SD12 DC Shunt Motor .......... 8 Figure 7. Example of different duty cycles. Atmel Corporation ................................................ 9 Figure 8. Circuit diagram of speed control PWM generator. .................................................. 10 Figure 9. DC Shunt Motor PSU. ................................................................................................ 11 Figure 10. 500VA Isolation Transformer .................................................................................. 11 Figure 11. Waveform for full-wave rectifier with capacitance filter. (1) ................................. 13 Figure 12. Motor PWM speed control circuit. ......................................................................... 14 Figure 13. IRF820 MOSFET (2) ................................................................................................. 15 Figure 14. IRF820 MOSFET, Gate to Source Voltage Vs Drain Current (2) ............................. 15 Figure 15. Three-phase full-bridge rectifier (1) ....................................................................... 17 Figure 16. Source and Output voltages (1) .............................................................................. 18 Figure 17. Currents in each diode for a resistive load (1) ........................................................ 18 Figure 18. Three-phase rectifier currents when the output is filtered (1) .............................. 19 Figure 19. Windzilla three-phase PMSG .................................................................................. 19 Figure 20. Generator Rectified Open Circuit Output Voltage Vs RPM, curve. (4) ................. 20 Figure 21. Generator Rectified Voltage and Current Vs RPM curves under load. (4) ............ 21 Figure 22. Boost Converter Circuit Diagram ............................................................................ 22 Figure 23.Equivalent boost circuit for the switch (MOSFET) closed. (1) ................................. 24 Figure 24. Equivalent boost circuit for the switch (MOSFET) open. (1) .................................. 25 Figure 25. Boost Converter waveforms, (a) Inductor voltage, (b) Inductor current, (c) Diode current, (d) Capacitor current (1) ............................................................................................ 26 Figure 26. Arduino-UNO connection diagram. ........................................................................ 28 Figure 27. Current and Voltage sensor circuit diagram ........................................................... 30 Figure 28. Allegro ACS712 Current Sensor (6) ......................................................................... 31 Figure 29. MatLab SimPowerSystems model of system without boost converter. ................ 32 Figure 30. Generator Voltage(top) and current (bottom) at start-up. .................................... 33 Figure 31. Generator Voltage (top) and current (bottom) at steady state. ............................ 33 Figure 32. Arduino UNO Pinout Diagram ................................................................................. 36 Figure 33. Image of completed project ................................................................................... 39 Figure 34. Image of control panel. ........................................................................................... 40 Figure 35. Image of 3 to 1 reduction gears .............................................................................. 41

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Glossary
PMSG PWM PSU Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Pulse Width Modulation Power Supply Unit

Chapter 1 Introduction
Decarbonisation of electricity in the Irish system will result in annual savings of over 13 million tonnes of CO2 by 2050. Eight million tonnes of this will be derived directly from the implementation of smart grid. A further five million tonnes will come from the displacement of fossil fuels due to the electrification of transport and thermal loads, facilitated by the smart grid. (1)

Greater integration of indigenous renewable energy sources will see a net reduction in energy imports of over 4.3 Mtoe, [equating to savings of 2.4 - 5.2bn in direct fuel offset by 2050] (1)

Overall annual electrical final energy demand will be in excess of 48,000 GWh by 2050 with a corresponding peak demand of 9 GW. Onshore wind generation will be able to supply up to 33,000 GWh of the total demand. (1)

The above three quotations are taken directly from the SEAI, (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland) Smart Grid Roadmap to 2050. They help to highlight a global problem. The human contribution to CO2 levels in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels needs to be reduced dramatically. Added to the problem of global warming is the fact that oil reserves are shrinking rapidly with corresponding rises in oil prices and therefore oil derived electrical power.

Part of the solution to the above problems is the implementation of intelligent power delivery systems or Smart Grid.

A Smart Grid is an electricity network that can cost efficient ly integrate the behaviour and actions of all users connected to it, generators, consumers and those that do both, in order to ensure an economically efficient, sustainable power system with low losses and high levels of quality and security of supply and safety. (2)

Part of the solution to the above problems is the increased use of renewable energy sources. Ireland is ideally situated to take advantage of its location in the north-east Atlantic. The mean annual wind speed along most of the west coast of Ireland is 7m/s. The SEAI estimates that by 2050, 33,000 GWh will be provided by onshore wind generation.

The aim of this project is to simulate a wind turbine and its associated voltage output converter. This is part of a larger project to create a simulation of a Smart Grid system for an individual house or a building on an island.

Chapter 2 Wind Energy in Ireland

The first wind farm in Ireland was commissioned in 1992 at Bellacorick, Co. Mayo. It comprises 21 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 6.45MW. Today there are 159 wind farms in operation in Ireland, with a total capacity of 1763MW, which is enough to power 1.14 million homes. The largest of these is at Meentycat, Co. Donegal with an installed capacity of 84.96MW. 15.5% of Irelands electricity came from wind power in 2012. EU legislation has set a target of 40% of electricity from renewables by 2020 and wind power will play a significant role in this. To meet this target Ireland would need to install approximately 275MW per annum between now and 2020. At certain times wind energy has produced up to 50% of Irelands electricity demand. (3) Figure 1 shows the growth in wind capacity in Ireland from 2003 to 2012.

Figure 1. Wind capacity in Ireland 2003-2012.

Chapter 3 Wind Turbine Simulator

A wind turbine utilizing a PMSG can be divided into three main parts. 1) Rotor (Typically 3 blades). 2) Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator. 3) Power electronics and control. This arrangement can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Block diagram of wind turbine system

In the model, the torque that would normally be provided by the rotor blades is provided by a DC shunt motor.

The three main parts of the model are then,

1) DC shunt motor + speed control 2) Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator 3) Power Electronics and control

These 3 parts of the model will be detailed separately in the following sections.

The DC shunt motor will be used in place of a 3 blade rotor. This will drive a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator through a 3 to 1 reduction gearbox. The output of the generator will be connected to a three phase bridge rectifier to produce a DC voltage. A Boost Converter will be used to match the output of the generator to the input of a 48V bus.

Chapter 4 DC Shunt Motor

The type of motor used in the model is a DC shunt motor. A shunt motors speed remains almost constant up to its rated load. Its speed will only reduce drastically when it is drawing a current above its rated value. Figure 2 shows a diagram of a DC shunt motor

Figure 3. Diagram of a DC Shunt Motor

The current-torque characteristics of a DC shunt motor connected as a series motor and as a shunt motor are compared in Figure 3.

Figure 4. Current-Torque characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor

4.1 DC Shunt Motor Torque

For the shunt connected motor With Where

( )

(3.1)

T = Torque Ia = Armature winding current If = Field winding current = Magnetic Flux K = Motor constant
With k constant, Torque is proportional to armature current.

4.2 DC Shunt Motor Speed Control

Analysing the circuit in Figure 2. Gives

V = Ea + RaIa
Therefore

with

Ea = k (
)

(3.2) (3.3)

As can be seen the speed of a shunt motor will change with any change in V or .

For this model voltage control is used to control the speed of the shunt motor. This will be implemented using PWM. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) will be explained in a later section.

Figure 5. Speed-Torque Characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor

4.3 DC Shunt Motor Selection

The DC shunt motor selected for this project is a Parvalux Type MSD12-0001/CONT. This motor is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 6. Parvalux DC Shunt Motor

Specifications: Product code: SD12C Voltage: 200/220 DC Current: 1.0 Amps Power: 125 Watts Speed: 3000 rpm Field Inductance: 15.5H Armature Inductance: 52mH Field Resistance: 1.785k Armature Resistance: 41 Rating: continuous

Given the system output power specification of 100W, the 125W power rating of the motor will allow for inefficiencies in the drive chain, generator and boost converter.

4.4 DC Shunt Motor Characteristics

The Speed-Torque-Current characteristics were supplied by Parvalux and it can be seen that the plots are very similar to those of the theoretical motor in Figures 3 & 4.

Figure 7. Speed-Torque-Current characteristics of the Parvalux SD12 DC Shunt Motor

4.5 DC Shunt Motor Speed Control with PWM

Pulse Width Modulation is a technique whereby a device produces a digital pulse train at a constant frequency, but where the ratio of On Time to Off Time can be varied. The ratio of the On Time to the period of the pulse is called the Duty Cycle and is given as a percentage of the period. Figure 7 shows some examples of different PWM duty cycles.

Figure 8. Example of different duty cycles. Atmel Corporation

PWM is the method used to control the speed of the motor in this project.

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4.6 PWM Generator

The circuit used to provide the PWM is shown in Figure 8. This circuit is based on a 555 Timer.

Figure 9. Circuit diagram of speed control PWM generator.

The circuit in Figure 8 shows a 555 timer configured as an astable multivibrator. Astable simply means that it will generate a continuous stream of pulses without any external trigger. The duty cycle is calculated as follows D = 1 + P2/P1 The frequency is calculated as follows F = 0.69/((2*P1 + P2 + 4.7k)*C1) (The components below give a frequency of 20kHz) IC1 C1 C2 C3 R1 & R2 D1 & D2 P1 P2 NE555 0.1uF 10uF 0.1uF 4.7k 1N4148 10K 10k (3.5) (3.4)

P2 is a potentiometer mounted on the front panel of the control unit.

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4.7 DC Shunt Motor PSU

Figure 9 shows the circuit diagram of the PSU that was designed and built to power the DC shunt motor.

Figure 10. DC Shunt Motor PSU.

4.7.1 Motor PSU Transformer The Parvalux MSD12 DC Shunt Motor used for this project has a voltage rating of 200V DC and a current rating of 1.0Amps. This gives a specification for a minimum power rating of 200VA for the power supply transformer. In theory it would be possible to simply rectify the available mains voltage directly and reduce/ regulate it down to 200V, but regulations require that equipment be isolated from the mains supply. Also it is far safer not to be connected directly to the mains. So an isolation transformer is required. Figure 10 shows the isolation transformer chosen for the motor PSU as it exceeds the minimum requirement.

Figure 11. 500VA Isolation Transformer

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Transformer Specifications Power Rating Primary Voltage Rating Secondary Voltage Rating Maximum Operating Frequency Minimum Operating Frequency 500VA 230V AC & 400VAC 230V AC 60Hz 50Hz

13 4.7.2 Motor PSU Bridge Rectifier The maximum secondary voltage from the transformer is 230V RMS. After rectification the peak voltage would be So the bridge rectifier must be able to withstand 325.26V or more. The rated current of the motor is 1.0 Amps. The Bridge rectifier chosen has the following specifications Rated Voltage Rated Current 600V 3Amps (3.6)

4.7.3 Motor PSU Capacitance Filter Figure 1 shows the output voltage waveform for a full-wave rectifier with capacitance filter. The darker line shows the output ripple voltage after with the capacitive filter in circuit.

Figure 12. Waveform for full-wave rectifier with capacitance filter. (4)

The value of the capacitance is calculated to minimise the ripple (Vo) to an acceptable level. The ripple is calculated as follows. Vo = Q/C = I*t/C, t = 1/f f = 100Hz t = 0.01s (3.8)

For Vo = 2.5V & rated motor current of 1.0Amps C = (1 * 0.01)/2.5 = 0.004 = 4000uF At 800mA the ripple would be 2V. (3.9)

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4.8 DC Shunt Motor PWM Speed Control Circuit

Figure 12 shows the PWM drive circuit for the DC shunt motor. It shows the resistance and inductance values for both the field and armature windings.

Figure 13. Motor PWM speed control circuit.

The field winding is connected across the 200V DC supply permanently. This guarantees maximum flux and therefore maximum torque for a given Ia, which allows the motor to accelerate as fast as possible. T = kIa (3.1)

The armature connection is different. One side of the armature winding is connected directly to the 200V DC supply. The other side of the armature winding is connected to the Drain of a MOSFET as can be seen in Figure 12. The source of the MOSFET is connected to ground completing the circuit. When the MOSFET is turned on the motor is connected to ground through the MOSFET and current flows through the motor. The torque that develops as a result of Ia flowing through the motor causes the rotor to accelerate from standstill and a back EMF (Ea) develops across the armature. Ea = k As Ea increases it opposes the supply voltage resulting in a decrease in Ia. (3.2)

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By switching the MOSFET on and off rapidly the motor speed can be controlled. This is because the motor will see the average voltage that appears across it in one period. If the duty cycle of the pulse which is used to switch the MOSFET on and off is 50% and the supply voltage is 200V DC then in one period the average voltage across the motor is 100V DC.

As motor speed is proportional to voltage accurate speed control is achieved. The MOSFET used in this PWM speed control circuit is a Fairchild Semiconductor IRF820. The IRF820 is a 2.5A, 500V, N-Channel Power MOSFET. Figure 13 shows the symbol for the IRF820 N-Channel MOSFET.

Figure 14. IRF820 MOSFET (5)

An N-Channel MOSFET turns on when its gate is positive with respect to its source by a specified amount. Figure 14 shows the Gate to Source Voltage Vs Gate Current characteristics for an IRF820 MOSFET. It is clear from this graph that a Gate to Source voltage of 5V will not turn the MOSFET on fully.

Figure 15. IRF820 MOSFET, Gate to Source Voltage Vs Drain Current (5)

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To overcome this problem the part of the circuit including Q1, R1 & R2 are used to provide a larger switching voltage to the gate of the MOSFET. R1 is connected between the 12V DC supply and Q1s collector. Q1s collector is connected to the gate of the MOSFET.Q1s emitter is connected to ground. Q1s base receives the PWM control voltage which switches between 0V & 5V. R1 is a current limiting resistor. When 0V is applied to the base of Q1, it is turned off. No current flows through Q1 or through R1. Therefore no voltage is dropped across R1 and 12V is applied to the gate of the MOSFET turning it on fully. When 5V is applied to the base of Q1 it is driven into saturation mode and a large current flows through it and R1. Most of the 12V will be dropped across R1 and the gate of the MOSFET will be very close to ground, switching it off. Q1 is an inverting amplifier and therefore the PWM signal must be inverted to ensure correct operation.

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Chapter 5 PMSG, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

The generator used for this project is a three-phase Y-connected PMSG type. There are several reasons for choosing a PMSG. The fact that the permanent magnets provide the magnetic flux () eliminates the need for an external DC excitation system. Copper losses are reduced as there is no field winding. The use of multi-pole PMSGs allows for slower shaft speeds, in some cases eliminating the need for a gear box or at the very least reducing the size and complexity of the gear box. The turbine blades can be coupled directly to the rotor shaft. This in turn leads to greater reliability and lower maintenance costs. A 1 pole-pair generator with a shaft speed of 3000 RPM will produce 50Hz. A 10 pole-pair generator with a shaft speed of 300 RPM will produce 50Hz.

A three-phase generator will deliver a total instantaneous power which is nearly constant, under steady state conditions. This results in a nearly constant mechanical power and mechanical shaft torque. (6)

The outputs of the generator are connected to a three-phase full-bridge rectifier to provide a DC voltage. This arrangement is represented in Figure 15.

Figure 16. Three-phase full-bridge rectifier (4)

The bridge rectifier used is a Vishay Bridge rectifier, 26MT60 25A 600V

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Figure 16 shows the phase voltages and the resulting combinations of line-to-line voltages from a balanced three-phase source. (4)

Figure 17. Source and Output voltages (4)

Figure 17 shows the current in each diode for a resistive load. The diodes conduct in a pairs, (6,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6), (6,1), Diodes turn on in the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, (4)

Figure 18. Currents in each diode for a resistive load (4)

The DC output voltage is: (4.1) Where Vm,L-L is the peak line-to-line voltage of the three-phase source.

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Figure 18 shows the result of filtering, on the current through the rectifier diodes.

Figure 19. Three-phase rectifier currents when the output is filtered (4)

The generator selected can be seen in Figure 19. It is a Windzilla 3-Phase AC generator.

Figure 20. Windzilla three-phase PMSG

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Figure 20 shows the rectified open circuit, DC output voltage Vs RPM characteristic curve of the generator supplied by the manufacturer. It can be seen that at 1000 RPM the output voltage is approximately 40V.!000RPM is the maximum speed of the generator in this system. Lab tests generated an open circuit output voltage of 42V DC.

Figure 21. Generator Rectified Open Circuit Output Voltage Vs RPM, curve. (7)

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Figure 21 shows the rectified DC voltage and current Vs RPM characteristic curves of the generator under load conditions. It is clear from the curves that the generator is capable of producing more than 600W output power. The specification for this project is to connect to a 48V DC bus and supply 100W of power.

Figure 22. Generator Rectified Voltage and Current Vs RPM curves under load. (7)

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Chapter 6 Boost Converter

The specification for the system requires that it be capable of providing 100W of power to a 48V DC bus. From chapter 6 it is clear that the generator is not capable of producing 48V. So a boost converter has been designed to give a constant 48V DC output. The idea of the system is that by varying the speed of the motor and therefore the speed of the generator a range of wind speeds will be simulated. This will give a range of DC voltages from the rectified generator output, ranging between 10V and 42V, which the converter must boost to 48V.

Figure 22 shows the circuit diagram of the boost converter which was designed to provide the 48V DC output.

Figure 23. Boost Converter Circuit Diagram

The design and analysis of the boost circuit is dealt with in section 7.1. The operation of the circuit involves switching between two states, state 1 (MOSFET on) & state 2 (MOSFET off). The switching frequency determines the period. The duty-ratio is the ratio of Time-on to Time-off during one period. The higher the duty-ratio, the longer the MOSFET is on. Increasing the length of time that the MOSFET is on will increase the output voltage for a given input voltage. Conversely to maintain a steady output voltage for a range of input voltages requires that the MOSFET on-time, is varied. If the input voltage increases, the duty-ratio (duty cycle) must decrease (MOSFET on-time reduced), to maintain the steady output voltage. If the input voltage decreases the duty-ratio must increase (MOSFET on-

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time increased), to maintain a steady output voltage. This level of control requires that the output voltage be constantly monitored (sensed), and that any deviations in output voltage are corrected by a change in the duty-ratio, (PWM). An Arduino-UNO is used to generate the PWM signal, which is used to switch the MOSFET on and off. The analog inputs of the Arduino-UNO which are used to read in information, can only accept voltages up to +5V, so a voltage sense circuit and a current sensor are used to allow the Arduino-UNO to monitor the output voltage and current of the boost converter and to adjust the duty-ratio as required. The Arduino-UNO, voltage sense circuit and current sensor are dealt with in chapter 8. The PWM signal from the Arduino-UNO has a maximum value of +5V. This is not enough to switch the MOSFET on fully. Components Q1, R1 & R2 are used to provide a larger switching voltage to the gate of the MOSFET. R1 is connected between the 12V DC supply and Q1s collector. Q1s collector is connected to the gate of the MOSFET.Q1s emitter is connected to ground. Q1s base receives the PWM control voltage which switches between 0V & 5V. R1 is a current limiting resistor. When 0V is applied to the base of Q1, it is turned off. No current flows through Q1 or through R1. Therefore no voltage is dropped across R1 and 12V is applied to the gate of the MOSFET turning it on fully. When 5V is applied to the base of Q1 it is driven into saturation mode and a large current flows through it and R1. Most of the 12V will be dropped across R1 and the gate of the MOSFET will be very close to ground, switching it off. Q1 is an inverting amplifier and therefore the PWM signal must be inverted to ensure correct operation.

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6.1 Boost Converter Analysis

6.1.1 Boost Converter Switch Closed.

Figure 24.Equivalent boost circuit for the switch (MOSFET) closed. (4)

Figure 23 shows the equivalent boost circuit for the switch closed (MOSFET on). With the switch closed the diode is reverse biased.

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the path containing the source, inductor and the closed switch gives (4)

(5.1) The rate of change of current is constant, so the current increases linearly while the switch is closed. The change in inductor current is then given by (4)

(5.2) Solving for iL for the switch closed gives,

(5.3)

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6.1.2 Boost Converter Switch Open

Figure 25. Equivalent boost circuit for the switch (MOSFET) open. (4)

Figure 24 shows the equivalent boost circuit for the switch open (MOSFET off). With the switch open the inductor current cannot change instantaneously, so the diode becomes forward-biased and provides a path for inductor current. Assuming that the output voltage VO is a constant, the voltage across the inductor is (4)

(5.4)

(5.5)

The rate of change of inductor current is a constant, so the current must change linearly while the switch is open. The change in inductor current while the switch is open is (4)

(5.6) Solving for iL gives,

(5.7)

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For steady state operation, the net change in inductor current must be zero. (4)

(5.8)

(5.9) Solving for VO gives, (5.10)

(5.11) Figure 25 shows the various waveforms associated with the boost converter.

Figure 26. Boost Converter waveforms, (a) Inductor voltage, (b) Inductor current, (c) Diode current, (d) Capacitor current (4)

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6.2 Boost Converter Design

F Vo Vsmin Vsmax Vo/Vo R Switching frequency Output voltage Minimum input voltage Maximum input voltage Output ripple voltage Load Resistance = = = = = = 62.5kHz 48V 10V 42v 1% 22

The duty ratio must be determined for 10V (Vsmin) and 42V (Vsmax).

(5.12) (5.13)
The minimum inductance (Lmin) for continuous current is determined next.
( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) )

(5.14)

To ensure continuous conduction let Lmin = 100H The maximum current through the inductor is calculated next

) ( )

( ( ( )( )(

) ( )( )

) ) ( )

(5.15) (5.16)

The minimum capacitance required to limit the output ripple voltage to 1% is calculated next.
( ( ) ( )( ) )( )

(5.17)

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Chapter 7 Arduino UNO

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, and a reset button. (8)

To measure the voltage and current at the output of the boost converter two analog inputs are used, inputs A0 and A1. One digital PWM output, Pin 11, is used to control the switching of the MOSFET in the boost converter.

Figure 26 shows the Arduino connections required for analog inputs A1 & A1 and for the digital PWM output on pin 11. Also shown are the connections required for an LCD display. The LCD display is used to display voltage, current and power at the output of the boost converter. The duty-ratio is also displayed.

Figure 27. Arduino-UNO connection diagram.

The programme designed to implement this system and control the boost converter can be found in Appendix A.

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The analog inputs on the Arduino are connected to a 10 bit Analog to Digital Converter. If 5V is applied to an analog input the Analog to Digital converter will assign a value of 2 10 - 1 or 1023 to it. If 0V is applied to an analog input a value of 0 is obtained, 2 0 1 = 0. When monitoring the boost converter output voltage, the Analog to Digital converter assigns a value to the voltage it reads in and through the code running on the Arduino it compares this value to a fixed value which represents 48V. If the read value is higher than the fixed value then the duty-ratio will be reduced thus lowering the boost converter output voltage. If the value read in is less than the fixed value then the duty-ratio is increased. The voltage is measured 100 times a second.

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7.1 Current and Voltage Sensors

Figure 27 shows the circuit diagram of the voltage and current sensors needed to interface the Arduino to the output of the boost converter. As explained earlier the Arduino can only accept voltages up to 5V at its inputs. When the output voltage of the boost converter is at 48V, Pot 1 is adjusted to give 4.5V at the non-inverting input of the buffer. The buffer provides unity gain and so 4.5V at the Analog input of the Arduino. It also helps to isolate the Arduino from the high voltage part of the circuit.

Figure 28. Current and Voltage sensor circuit diagram

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Figure 28 shows the Allegro ACS712 current sensor that is used in the circuit. This is a HallEffect Based current sensor. When connected in circuit, internal coils detect the magnetic field created by the current flowing through it and produce an output voltage in proportion to the amplitude of the current. With 0Amps flowing through it, Vout is 2.5V. This voltage will increase or decrease depending on the direction of flow of the current. The sensitivity of this current sensor is 185mV/A. Specifications can be found in Appendix B.

Figure 29. Allegro ACS712 Current Sensor (9)

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Chapter 8 MatLab Simulation

Figure 29 shows a model of the system created with MatLab SimPowerSystems. It shows a DC Shunt motor driven with a PWM drive circuit this in turn drives a three phase PMSG through a 3 to 1 reduction gearbox.. The output of the PMSG is connected to a three phase bridge rectifier. This model performed as expected. The maximum output voltage of the bridge rectifier is 50V. This is higher than the real model which produced 42V at the bridge rectifier output. This is most likely due to inefficiencies in the real system as the model does not as yet take losses into account. Metering points have been attached at critical points in the model. The following is a list of the measurements made. Dc Shunt Motor RPM DC Shunt Motor Angular Velocity Generator Shaft RPM Generator Shaft Angular Velocity Generator Electrical RPM Generator Electrical Angular Velocity Generator Electrical Frequency An oscilloscope is attached to the generator which gives the following, Generator Three Phase Voltage Waveforms Generator Three Phase Current Waveforms

Figure 30. MatLab SimPowerSystems model of system without boost converter.

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Figure 30 shows the generator voltage and current waveforms at start-up

Figure 31. Generator Voltage(top) and current (bottom) at start-up.

Figure 31 shows the generator voltage and current waveforms at steady state.

Figure 32. Generator Voltage (top) and current (bottom) at steady state.

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Appendix A

Arduino Code and Information

// Arduino PWM // include the library code: #include <LiquidCrystal.h> // initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 13, 5, 4, 3, 2); int pot = 0; // analog value 0-5VDC : 0-255 double I = 0; float V = 0; double p = 0; float x = 0; float y = 0; float ddd; float xxx; float Vval; float Dmin; float Dmax; float Vmin; void setup() { // OUTPUT Pins (PWM) pinMode(11,OUTPUT); // Frequency = 62.5 kHz (16 MHz / 256) TCCR2A = _BV(COM2A1) | _BV(COM2B1) | _BV(WGM21) | _BV(WGM20) | _BV(COM2A0) | _BV(COM2B0); TCCR2B = _BV(CS20); // prescaler 1 1. 62.5kHz //TCCR2B = _BV(CS21); // prescaler = 7.8kHz // Duty cycle written (0 to 255) OCR2A = 013; //assign initial duty cycle value 5.13% //Vval = 285; //set for 24V output from boost converter //Vval = 435; //set for 36V output from boost converter Vval = 585; //set for 48V output from boost converter xxx = 013; //Duty cycle float value for computation, initial Dmin = 000; // 0% duty cycle Dmax = 190; //74% duty cycle //Vmin = 70; //4.2V x = V;

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} void loop() { V = analogRead(A0); // Value between 0 and 255 Serial.begin(9600); Serial.println(analogRead(A0)); x = V/12.5;//Calculates voltage for LCD display if (V<Vval && OCR2A<Dmax) (ddd=(xxx++));// Increase duty cycle else if (V>Vval) (ddd=(xxx--));// Decrease duty cycle OCR2A = ddd;//assign new value at ddd to compare register float I = analogRead(A1); // read current from A0 y = (I*.005)-2.5;//calculates current for LCD display V = V*1; p = (x*y);//calculates power for LCD display lcd.begin(16, 2); // set up the LCD's number of columns and rows: lcd.print("I="); lcd.setCursor(2, 0); lcd.print(y); //Display Current lcd.setCursor(6, 0); lcd.print("A"); lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print("V="); lcd.setCursor(2, 1); lcd.print(x); //Display Voltage lcd.setCursor(6, 1); lcd.print("V"); lcd.setCursor(8,0); lcd.print("P="); lcd.setCursor(10,0); lcd.print(p); //Display Power lcd.setCursor(15,0); lcd.print("W"); lcd.setCursor(8,1); lcd.print("D="); lcd.setCursor(10,1); lcd.print(OCR2A*0.3937); //Display Duty cycle lcd.setCursor(15,1); lcd.print("%"); delay(50);//10mS delay

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Figure 32 shows a comprehensive pinout diagram for the Arduino UNO.

Figure 33. Arduino UNO Pinout Diagram

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Appendix B

Parts Lists

Shunt Motor PSU 200V DC Part Isolation Transformer Smoothing Capacitor Bridge Rectifier Circuit Breaker Mains switch 12V DC PSU Part Transformer Bridge Rectifier Smoothing Capacitor Control Part NE555 N-Channel MOSFET 2N5089 1N4148 Capacitors Resistors Boost Converter Part Inductor Diode MOSFET Capacitor
Current Sensor Voltage Sensor Parvalux SD12C Windzilla

Description 230V/500VA 1000F/400V 3A/600V 1A/240V 6A/250Vac

Discription 12V/24V/24VA 600V/2A 2200F/50V

Discription Timer IC IRF820 NPN Transistor Diode Various Various

Discription 100uH 6A05 IRF820 10uF

Allegro ACS712 LM324 DC Shunt Motor PMSG

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Appendix C
Allegro ACS712

Current Sensor

Fully Integrated, Hall Effect-Based Linear Current Sensor with 2.1 kVRMS Voltage Isolation and a Low-Resistance Current Conductor. Features and Benefits Low-noise analog signal path Device bandwidth is set via the new FILTER pin 5 s output rise time in response to step input current 50 kHz bandwidth Total output error 1.5% at TA = 25C, and 4% at 40C to 85C Small footprint, low-profile SOIC8 package 1.2 m internal conductor resistance 2.1 kVRMS minimum isolation voltage from pins 1-4 to pins 5-8 5.0 V, single supply operation 66 to 185 mV/A output sensitivity Output voltage proportional to AC or DC currents Factory-trimmed for accuracy Extremely stable output offset voltage Nearly zero magnetic hysteresis Ratiometric output from supply voltage

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Appendix D

Project Images

Figure 33 shows an image of the completed project. The box on the left contains all of the electronic components except the three phase bridge rectifier. This is contained in the small black box which can be seen to the lower right of the image. The three phase generator can be seen to the right of the image (silver colour). The DC shunt motor is in the centre of the image (blue).

Figure 34. Image of completed project

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Figure 34 shows the control panel on the front of the box. This has at top right a power on/off switch, below this is a 1amp thermal circuit breaker for the DC shunt motor power supply. To the left of the circuit breaker is a fuse holder with a 100mA fuse for the 12V power supply. On the far left is a potentiometer used to control the speed of the DC shunt motor. In centre is a green LED whose brightness increases as the duty-ratio increases. This gives a visual conformation that the motor speed control circuit is operating correctly as its brightness is controlled by the same PWM signal that controls the speed of the DC shunt motor.

Figure 35. Image of control panel.

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Figure 35 shows the 3 to 1 reduction gearing.

Figure 36. Image of 3 to 1 reduction gears

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References
1. Sustainable_Energy_Authority_of_Ireland. SmartGrid Roadmap. 2011. 2. DEFINITION, EXPECTED SERVICES, FUNCTIONALITIES AND BENEFITS OF SMART GRIDS. European_Smart_Grid_Taskforce. 2011. 3. Irish, Wind Energy Association. Wind Energy in Ireland. 2013. 4. D, Hart. Power Electronics. s.l. : McGrath-Hill, 2010. 5. Fairchild, Semiconductor. IRF820 Data Sheet. 2002. 6. J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sarma, Thomas J. Overbye. Power Systems Analysis and Design 5th Edition. s.l. : Global Engineering, 2010. 7. Windzilla. three-phase generator. 8. M. Banzi, D. Cuartielles, T. Igoe, G. Martino, and D. Mellis. Arduino Uno. s.l. : Available: http://arduino.cc/en/Main/ArduinoBoardUno., 2011. 9. Allegro, Microsystems, Inc. ACS712 Current Sensor Data Sheet.