2013

The Equal Justice Initiative (EJI) is proud to present A History of Racial Injustice 2013 Calendar. This calendar
represents the start of EJIs newest initiative addressing race and poverty in America. The history of racial
inequality and economic injustice in the United States has created continuing challenges for all Americans
and we believe more must be done to advance our collective goal of equal justice for all. This rst calendar
focuses on African American history and is part of an EJI series of forthcoming reports and documents that
explore the legacy of racial bias in the United States and its continuing impact on contemporary policies and
practices.
The lives of African Americans have been profoundly shaped by the era of slavery, the era of racial terror
that continued from the end of Reconstruction until World War II, the era of Jim Crow and racial apartheid
that produced the civil rights movement, and now the era of mass incarceration. Too often we have appropriately celebrated black achievement and triumph in the face of these obstacles without exploring the very
dicult reality of racial inequality and subordination. EJI believes a deeper understanding of this history is
necessary for us to achieve the truth and reconciliation that overcoming historic injustice requires.
We hope you will engage on these issues with us. Please visit www.eji.org for more information about EJIs
Race and Poverty initiative and thank you for your support.

A History of Racial Injustice

2013 Calendar

Equal Justice Initiative = 122 Commerce Street Montgomery, Alabama 36104 = 334.269.1803
www.eji.org

Enslaved people who have just escaped from a Virginia plantation in 1862

(Library of Congress)

January 2013
Sunday

Monday

DECEMBER

FEBRUARY

Tuesday

New Years Day

S M T W T F S
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23/30 24/31 25 26 27 28 29

S M T W T F S 1863 President Abraham

Lincoln signs Emancipation
1 2 Proclamation abolishing
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 slavery in Confederate
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 states but not in non-rebelling
slave
states:
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri
24 25 26 27 28

1959 Richard and Mildred

13

1957

14

20

Martin Luther King, Jr.

Day

11

Largest slave insurrection in U.S. history begins in Louisiana territory;

after their defeat, many of
the 500 rebelling slaves
are mutilated, decapitated, and burned alive

1961

Mobs of white students riot, forcing school

ocials to suspend Charlayne Hunter and Hamilton
Holmes after they become
rst black students to integrate University of Georgia

Vernon Dahmer,
black businessman and
voting rights activist, dies
after his Hattiesburg, Mississippi, home is rebombed

1960

15

16

17

18

22

1883 U.S. Supreme Court

28

1966

1834 Alabama legislature

12

Georgia Governor
Ernest Vandiver, Jr. threatens to withhold state funding from any public school
that attempts to integrate
black and white students

19

passes law that eectively

bans any free black person
from residing in the state

23

24
1956

After paying $4000

for their story, Look magazine publishes confession
of two white men acquitted of killing 14-year-old
Emmett Till in 1955

29

30

In Pace v. Alabama,
U.S. Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of
criminalizing sex and marriage between black and
white people after interracial couple is sentenced to
two years in prison

Dr. Martin Luther

King, Jr.s Montgomery, Alabama, house is bombed
while he speaks at a mass
meeting; King later addresses angry crowd and
pleads for nonviolence

1883

5
After white woman
falsely accuses black man
of rape, white mob attacks
thriving black town of
Rosewood, Florida, in
multi-day riot that leaves
up to 80 dead and entire
town destroyed

in U.S. v. Harris refuses to

permit Congress to criminalize acts of the terrorist
group, the Ku Klux Klan

27

Saturday
1923

U.S. Supreme Court

ends federal desegregation order even though
that will cause racial resegregation of school system in Board of Education
of Oklahoma City Schools v.
Dowell

21

Friday

10

1991

Congregations of
four Montgomery, Alabama, churches gather for
Sunday services three days
after their churches and
two homes were bombed

Thursday

1811

Loving plead guilty to violating Virginia law against

interracial marriage and receive one-year sentence in
prison unless they leave
the state for 25 years

Wednesday

1956

31

25

26

Wilcox County, Alabama, 2010 (Deondra Scott)

The Emancipation
Proclamation
Slavery was not abolished by the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.
The
proclamation applied only to enslaved
people in states that were in rebellion
in 1863, namely South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Texas,
Arkansas, and North Carolina. It exempted Tennessee and portions of Virginia and Louisiana that were occupied
by the Union and left slavery untouched in the border states of Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and
Missouri.
Exercising his powers as commander in
chief, President Abraham Lincoln issued the proclamation primarily as a
wartime measure. Key provisions allowing for the service of former slaves
in the Union army and navy opened the
door to the gradual enlistment of almost 200,000 black men.
Slavery would not become illegal until
the Thirteenth Amendment was ocially ratied on December 6, 1865.
Many Southern states resisted ratication even after the Civil War. Delaware
and Kentucky rejected ratication and
slavery persisted in those states for several more years before the practice
ceased. Mississippi did not ocially ratify the amendment until 130 years later,
in 1995.

U.S. Marshals escort six-year-old Ruby Bridges, the rst student to integrate William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 (AP Photo) (63611230376)

February 2013
Sunday

Monday

JANUARY

MARCH

S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31

S M T W T F S
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24/31 25 26 27 28 29 30

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

1965

1866

Dr. Martin Luther

King, Jr. and more than
200 others are arrested
and jailed after a voting
rights march in Selma, Alabama

Frederick Douglass
and other black leaders
meet with President Andrew Johnson to advocate
for black citizens voting
rights, which Johnson opposes

1956 Autherine Lucy, rst

1960

A bomb explodes
at the home of Carlotta
Walls, youngest of nine
black students who integrated Central High School
in Little Rock, Arkansas,
three years prior

black student admitted to

University of Alabama, attends classes; after white
students and residents riot
in protest, the school suspends Lucy citing safety
concerns

10

11

12

13

14

1901 After having rejected it in 1865, Delaware

raties Thirteenth Amendment, which abolishes
slavery

17

18

Presidents Day

19

20

1865 Kentucky refuses to

ratify Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery;
does so in 1976

21

22

1956 Montgomery County

grand jury indicts more
than 85 bus boycott leaders and charges them with
violating a statute barring
boycotts without just
cause

Jimmie Lee Jackson, a 26-year-old black

man, is shot by a white ocer after police attack a
peaceful
civil
rights
protest in Marion, Alabama. He dies eight days
later.

25

15

26
2012 Trayvon Martin, a 17year-old black boy, is killed
in Sanford, Florida; police
arrest shooter George Zimmerman only after national outcry against claim
that Stand Your Ground
law barred his prosecution

16

1804 New Jersey passes

gradual emancipation act,
becoming the last northern state to abolish slavery

1965

24

Saturday

27

28
1942 Mob of more than
1000 white people riot outside Detroit public housing
project to prevent black
families from moving in

1960 Alabama Governor

John Patterson warns Alabama State University students that someone will
likely be killed if students
continue demonstrations
against segregation

23

Governor George Wallace blocks federal ocial

from enrolling two black students at the University of Alabama, 1963 (Library of Congress)

School Integration
A decade after the Supreme Courts
seminal ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which mandated racial integration of public schools, Southern
universities remained racially segregated. Southern lawmakers deantly
upheld policies and practices designed
to maintain all-white universities, ranging from outright exclusion of qualied
black students to paying them to attend historically black colleges and universities and out-of-state schools.
Eorts to racially integrate Southern
schools were met with violent resistance. In 1963, Vivian Malone and James
Hood found their pathway into the University of Alabama obstructed by Governor George Wallace. A year prior,
white mobs rioted at the University of
Mississippi as James Meredith prepared to attend. And, in 1961, Charlayne Hunters dorm at the University
of Georgia was attacked by an unrestrained mob that included members of
the Ku Klux Klan.
The resistance to integration extended
to high schools and primary schools. In
Prince Edward, Virginia, county ocials
decided to close public schools altogether rather than integrate. Tuition
benets were provided to white children to attend private schools with
white-only admission policies. During
this period, hundreds of white-only private schools sprang up throughout the
South. Most of these schools remain in
existence today.

The Scottsboro Boys, 1931

(Donated by Corbis) (BE042030)

March 2013
Sunday

Monday

FEBRUARY
S M T W T F S
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28

APRIL
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30

Tuesday

1991

Severe beating of
Rodney King, a black man,
by Los Angeles police ocers during a trac stop is
caught on tape; violence
later erupts in Los Angeles
when ocers are acquitted of criminal charges

10

11

12

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

1921 Idaho bans marriage

between black and white
people even though the
states population is less
than .02% African American

1807 Congress bans import of slaves, eective

January 1, 1808, but establishes no remedy for
Africans illegally smuggled
into the country after enactment of the ban

1857 U.S. Supreme Court

in Dred Scott v. Sandford
rules that people of
African descent cannot be
U.S. citizens, are not protected by the Constitution,
and have no standing to
sue in federal courts

1965 Supporters of black

1892 Ida B. Wells friends

voting rights marching from

Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, are attacked by police with tear gas, whips,
and clubs; dozens are hospitalized on what is known as
Bloody Sunday

Thomas Moss, Calvin McDowell, and Henry Steward are lynched in

Memphis,
Tennessee,
sparking Wells lifelong
crusade against lynching

13

14

15

1956

18

1851 Southern physician

Samuel Cartwright claims
discovery of Drapetomania, a disease that makes
African Americans want to
run from slavery, and prescribes whipping and amputation as treatment

24
31

19

Mississippi raties
Thirteenth Amendment,
abolishing slavery, after
having rejected it in 1865

20

1939 Lloyd Gaines, a

black man, disappears
months
after
U.S.
Supreme Court orders him
admitted to University of
Missouri law school; family
suspects he was murdered

25

26

1965

1931

Viola Liuzzo, a
white housewife from Detroit, Michigan, is shot and
killed after driving voting
rights activists to Selma,
Alabama

In Scottsboro, Alabama, nine black teens are

accused of raping two white
women and almost lynched;
the Scottsboro Boys gain
national attention after their
racially biased trial results in
death sentences

16
1995

U.S. congressmen
from 11 Southern states
issue The Southern Manifesto declaring opposition
to Supreme Courts Brown
v. Board of Education decision prohibiting racial segregation in public schools

17

Saturday

21

22

1981 After a Mobile, Alabama, jury acquits a black

man of killing a white police ocer, Ku Klux Klan
members randomly kidnap
and kill 19-year-old Michael
Donald, a black man, and
hang his body from a tree

27

28
1956 Churches and synagogues nationwide keep
their doors open all day in
observance of a National
Deliverance Day of Prayer
to support the Montgomery bus boycott

23
1875 Tennessee passes
laws authorizing racial discrimination in hotels, public transportation, and
amusement parks

29

30
1964 U.S. Supreme Court
reverses civil rights activist
Mary Hamiltons contempt
conviction for refusing to
answer to Gadsden, Alabama, prosecutors use of
her rst name while calling
whites Mrs. and Mr.

(AP Photo) (460927015)

Scottsboro
In 1931, nine black teens riding a freight
train north toward Memphis, Tennessee, were arrested after being
falsely accused of raping two white
women. After nearly being lynched,
they were brought to trial in Scottsboro, Alabama. Despite evidence that
exonerated the teens including a retraction by one of their accusers the
state pursued the case. All-white juries
delivered guilty verdicts and all nine defendants, except the youngest, were
sentenced to death. From 1931 to 1937,
during a series of appeals and new trials, they languished in Alabamas Kilby
prison, where they were repeatedly
brutalized by guards.
In 1932, the U.S. Supreme Court concluded in Powell v. Alabama that the
Scottsboro defendants had been denied adequate counsel at trial. In 1935,
the Court in Norris v. Alabama again
ruled in favor of the defendants, overturning their convictions because Alabama had systematically excluded
black people from jury service.
Finally, in 1937, four of the defendants
were released and ve given sentences
from 20 years to life; four of those were
released on parole between 1943 and
1950. The fth escaped prison in 1948
and ed to Michigan. Clarence Norris
walked out of Kilby Prison after being
paroled in 1946 (above) and moved
north; he received a full pardon from
Governor George Wallace in 1976.

George Stinney, before he was executed at age 14 by the State of

South Carolina in 1944 (AP Photo/South Carolina Department of Archives and History) (4406140139)

April 2013
Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

1968

Dr. Martin Luther

King, Jr. is assassinated in
Memphis, Tennessee, on
the balcony of the Lorraine
Motel

1712

Enslaved black people revolt in New York City,

killing nine whites; after
the insurrection is crushed,
21 of the 27 revolters are
executed and remaining
six allegedly commit suicide

14

15

10

1865

Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his

troops surrender to Union
General Ulysses S. Grant at
Appomattox Court House
in Virginia, ending the Civil
War

1956

16

17

11

12
1861 Confederate forces
re on a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter,
South Carolina, beginning
the Civil War

African American
singer Nat King Cole is attacked on stage by four
white men while performing for an all-white audience in Birmingham,
Alabama

18

19

1848

21

22

2007 Turner County High

School in Ashburn, Georgia, holds its rst racially integrated prom; in prior
years, parents had organized private, segregated
proms for white and black
students

1987 U.S. Supreme Court

1877 Federal troops with-

upholds death penalty in

McCleskey v. Kemp despite
proof it is racially biased,
reasoning that racial discrimination in the criminal
justice system is inevitable

draw from Louisiana,

marking the end of Reconstruction

28

29

30

1963

1992

In Johnson v. Virginia, U.S. Supreme Court

rules that racially segregated seating in courtrooms is unconstitutional

Riots continue in
Los Angeles, California,
after jury acquits three police ocers who brutally
beat black motorist Rodney King

20
2012 First decision under
North Carolinas Racial Justice Act nds racial bias infected Marcus Robinsons
capital trial 18 years earlier
and commutes his death
sentence to life without
parole

In Washington, DC,
over 70 enslaved Africans
are captured during nations largest-ever slave escape attempt, followed by
days of riots by pro-slavery
mobs targeting abolitionists

23

13

24

25

MARCH
S M T W T F S
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24/31 25 26 27 28 29 30

26

MAY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31

27

(William M. Van der Weyde, 1900)

The Death Penalty

As lynching declined in the 1940s, courtordered executions increased, especially in the South, where very clear
racial patterns were evident. Almost
87% of the people executed for rape
from 1930 to 1972 were black men convicted of raping white women. Many
trials that produced death sentences
were unreliable and accompanied by
community pressure for an execution.
In 1972s Furman v. Georgia, the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled the death penalty
was unconstitutional because it was applied in a discriminatory manner, overturning hundreds of death sentences.
The Court did not declare the death
penalty cruel and unusual punishment in all cases, so Southern states
led an eort to pass new death penalty
laws, which the Court upheld in 1976.
The death penalty continues to function in a racially discriminatory manner.
A Georgia study established that defendants are 11 times more likely to get the
death penalty if the victim is white than
if the victim is black, and 22 times more
likely to get death if the accused is
black and the victim white. The Court
reviewed this evidence in McCleskey v.
Kemp in 1987. In a 5-4 decision, it upheld Georgias death penalty scheme,
declaring that racial bias in the administration of the death penalty is inevitable. McCleskey has been criticized
as a dramatic departure from the
Courts commitment to equal justice. It
remains the law today.

Crowd protesting the admission of black students to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1959

(Library of Congress)

May 2013
Sunday

Monday

APRIL
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30

JUNE
S M T W T F S
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23/30 24 25 26 27 28 29

Tuesday

Wednesday

1863

In the midst of the

Civil War, Confederate
Congress declares black
Union soldiers criminals
and authorizes their enslavement or execution

1963

1955 In Belzoni, Mississippi, NAACP member Rev.

George Lee is fatally shot
after angering local whites
when he attempted to register to vote

12

13

14

15

White mob sets re

to bus carrying Freedom
Riders, an interracial group
challenging segregation,
near Anniston, Alabama,
and attacks riders with
clubs, bricks, iron pipes,
and knives

20

1994 U.S. Department of 1961

21

22

Freedom Riders arrive in Montgomery, Alabama, where local police

allow mob of angry whites
to attack; several people
are severely injured, including a U.S. Justice Department representative

1961 National Guard

called to disperse several
thousand whites threatening to set re to First Baptist Church in Montgomery,
Alabama, with Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. and Freedom Riders inside

1872 Congress passes the

26

27 Memorial Day

28

29

Memphis, Tennessee, oce of Ida B.

Wells newspaper The Free
Speech and Headlight is destroyed by white mob angered by anti-lynching
editorials; she relocates to
Chicago

Saturday

4
1992 Riots in Los Angeles, California, sparked by
acquittal of white police
ocers who beat black
motorist Rodney King,
end, leaving 53 people
dead, 2000 injured, and $1
billion in damage

More than 700

black children protesting
racial segregation in Birmingham, Alabama, are arrested, blasted by re
hoses, clubbed by police,
and attacked by police
dogs

10

11
1868 Convict leasing begins in Georgia when governor leases 100 black
prisoners to Georgia and
Alabama Railroad for
$2500 per year; 16 prisoners die in the rst year
alone

16

17

2012

1954 U.S. Supreme Court 1980

North Carolina legislators recommend $50,000

compensation for victims
of forced sterilization program during 1930s to
1970s; 60% of women sterilized against their will
were African American

Justice les suit against

Randolph County, Alabama, school principal
who refuses to permit
racially integrated prom
and bans interracial dating
at public high school

1892

Friday

1961 Freedom Rider John

Lewis, future U.S. Congressman from Georgia, is
assaulted for attempting
to enter white waiting
room at Rock Hill, South
Carolina, Greyhound bus
terminal

1961

19

Thursday

23

rules in Brown v. Board of

Education of Topeka that
racial segregation in public
schools is unconstitutional

24

18
Violent protests
continue after four Miami,
Florida, police ocers are
acquitted in brutal beating
death of Arthur McDue,
leaving 23 dead and hundreds injured

25
1994 Dennys restaurant
chain agrees to pay
largest-ever such settlement to African Americans
who sued after being refused service, made to
wait longer, or charged
more than white customers

Amnesty Act restoring

most former Confederates rights to vote and
hold oce

30
1822

Denmark Vesey, a
free black man in South
Carolina, is accused of
planning a large slave insurrection
and
later
hanged along with over 30
alleged co-conspirators

31

(Donated by Corbis) (U1279611)

Freedom Riders
Since Jim Crow laws were instituted toward the end of the 19th century,
African Americans in the South were
forced to endure substandard, raciallysegregated conditions. Black travelers
were forced to sit at the back of the
bus and use separate waiting rooms,
restrooms, and drinking fountains.
Legal challenges to end racial segregation in public facilities yielded some success in the 1960s but many Southern
states resisted compliance with courtordered integration.
On May 4, 1961, the Congress of Racial
Equality (CORE) began an eort where
black and white activists agreed to ride
together through the South on Greyhound and Trailways buses in order to
test whether buses and transportation
facilities were complying with the decision in Boynton v. Virginia, which outlawed segregation in interstate public
facilities. These Freedom Riders
were met with extreme violence by
local whites, who burned the Riders
bus in Anniston, Alabama, and attacked
Freedom Riders in Birmingham and
Montgomery, Alabama. Despite the violence, the inaugural ride led to future
rides organized by other civil rights
groups.
On September 22, 1961, after protests,
arrests, and press conferences by the
Freedom Riders, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) ocially outlawed discriminatory seating practices
on interstate bus transit and ordered
that whites only signs be removed
from interstate bus terminals by November 1. Birmingham, Alabama, one
of the last holdouts, complied with the
ICC ruling in January 1962.

Segregated bathrooms in South Carolina, 1960

(2603433/Courtesy of Getty Images)

June 2013
Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

MAY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31

JULY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

2011

1943

Friday

2011

10

11

1963 Fannie Lou Hamer,

a
45-year-old
black
woman, and other civil
rights activists are arrested
on false charges
in
Winona, Mississippi, and
severely beaten by police
while in jail

1954 Southern governors

meeting in Richmond, Virginia, vow to defy U.S.
Supreme Courts Brown v.
Board of Education decision outlawing racial segregation in public schools

16

17

12

13

1967

2005

19

14

21

22
1961 Ten Interfaith Riders
go on trial after being arrested for seeking service
at segregated airport
restaurant in Tallahassee,
Florida, and face $500 ne
or 30 days in jail

25

26

27

1964

1959

1973

To avoid integration,
Prince
Edward
County, Virginia, school
board defunds and closes
public schools for ve
years and gives white students vouchers to attend
private schools

15
1920 Three black circus
workers are accused of
raping a white woman and
lynched by a mob of
10,000 in Duluth, Minnesota

U.S. Congress formally apologizes for failure

to pass any of the 200 antilynching bills introduced
from 1882 to 1968

20

Two young black

girls, Minnie (14) and Mary
Alice Relf (12), sue Montgomery, Alabama, health
clinic for sterilizing them
without their knowledge
or consent

Francis Miller/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

Loving v. Virginia

1963 NAACP eld secretary and WWII veteran

Medgar Evers, who was
assassinated by white supremacists, is buried in Arlington National Cemetery
with full military honors
while thousands mourn

Hundreds attack
anti-segregation march in
St. Augustine, Florida, injuring more than 50
African American protesters

Civil rights activist

James Meredith is ambushed and shot several
times during his one-man
Walk Against Fear
through Mississippi; he
survives the shooting

In Loving v. Virginia,
U.S. Supreme Court strikes
down as unconstitutional
laws in 16 states that prohibit interracial marriage

18

6
1966

U.S. Census reports

25.7% of African Americans
and 25.4% of Hispanic
Americans are living below
the federal poverty line,
compared to less than 10%
of white Americans

1944 George Stinney, a

90-pound, black, 14-yearold boy, is electrocuted in
South Carolina after being
wrongly convicted of rape
and murder, becoming
youngest person executed
in 20th-century America

24

Saturday
1921 Up to 300 people
are dead after whites attack prosperous black
community in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and burn it to the
ground during two days of
rioting

White workers at
Packard Motor Company
in Detroit, Michigan, strike
to protest promotion of
black workers

30

Thursday

Alabama legislature
passes anti-immigrant law
designed to force immigrants to ee the state;
Governor Robert Bentley
later signs it despite language that legalizes racial
proling

23

Wednesday

28

29
1958

Bethel Street Baptist Church in Birmingham,

Alabama, pastored by civil
rights activist Rev. Fred
Shuttlesworth, is bombed

It was a crime in Virginia for Richard

Loving, a white man, and Mildred Jeter,
a black woman, to marry in 1958, so
they married in Washington, DC, only
to be arrested in a police raid when
they returned home. They were
charged with interracial marriage and
miscegenation, punishable by ve
years in prison. The Lovings pleaded
guilty, received a suspended sentence,
and were ordered to leave the state.
They later challenged their felony convictions and, in 1967, the U.S. Supreme
Court held that anti-miscegenation
laws designed to maintain white supremacy violated the Fourteenth
Amendment. The ruling struck down
laws in 16 Southern states, allowing interracial couples to marry legally, but
public opposition persisted and state
constitutions retained unenforceable
bans on interracial marriage for
decades. Alabama became the last
state to remove its ban in 2000.
Mildred Loving later reected: I am
proud that Richards and my name is on
a court case that can help reinforce the
love, the commitment, the fairness,
and the family that so many people,
black or white, young or old, gay or
straight seek in life. I support the freedom to marry for all. Thats what Loving, and loving, are all about.

Black Belt farmer, Wilcox County, Alabama, 2010

(Deondra Scott)

July 2013
Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

1839 Africans aboard the 1777

slave ship Amistad seize
control and order crew to
sail to Africa but arrive in
the U.S. to face murder
and piracy charges; they
are later acquitted and returned to their homeland

Friday

4 Independence Day 5

21

15

22

10

11

The Great Migration

12

1868 Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratied, declaring all

persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including
black people, are citizens
and guaranteeing equal
protection of the laws

29

13
1863 Poor white laborers
riot in New York City
against Union draft that
exempts blacks and anyone else for $300 fee; rioters kill or injure 1000
people, most of them
African Americans

16

23

17

18

2001 Harvard Universitys Civil Rights Project

releases study nding that
schools were more segregated in 2000 than they
were in the 1970s before
desegregation eorts, including bussing, began

1863 The 54th Massachu- 1919

setts Infantry, the nations
rst all-African American
regiment, leads an attack
on Confederate troops at
Fort Wagner, South Carolina

Release of a black
man accused of trying to
rape a white woman
sparks four days of attacks
on African Americans by
white mob in Washington,
DC, leaving 40 dead and
150 injured

24

25

26

1972

1890 Marsh Cook, a

white advocate for black
voting rights, is murdered
in Jasper County, Mississippi, by white men who
oppose his work; no one is
arrested or prosecuted

1948 President Harry Truman racially integrates the

United States Armed
Forces by signing Executive Order 9981

JUNE
S M T W T F S
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23/30 24 25 26 27 28 29

AUGUST
S M T W T F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Washington Star reports on Tuskegee Syphillis

Experiment in which U.S.
Center for Disease Control
studied diseases eect on
hundreds of poor black Alabama
sharecroppers
even after cure discovered

28

6
(Library of Congress)

1860 A half century after

Congress banned importation of slaves, Clotilde
lands in Mobile, Alabama,
as last recorded slave ship
docking in U.S.; Africans
aboard are freed and found
Africatown

14

Saturday

1910 African American

boxer Jack Johnson defeats Great White Hope
Jim Jeries in what is
called the ght of the century; Johnson is later persecuted by government
ocials

Vermont becomes
the rst territory to abolish
slavery, followed by New
England territories north
of Delaware that implement gradual abolition
laws

Thursday

30
1866 White mob attacks
blacks and Radical Republicans at a convention for
black voting rights in New
Orleans, Louisiana, killing
more than 40 people and
wounding hundreds

31

19

20

27

In 1900, African Americans constituted

nearly a third of those living in Southern states and less than 2% in other regions. They occupied the lowest rung
of the Southern racial caste system, relegated to sharecropping, discriminatory Jim Crow laws, extreme poverty,
and brutal racial violence.
Seeking freedom, more than six million
African Americans left the South in a
steady, 60-year stream. By 1970, just
19% of the Southern population was
black and the African American population in the Northeast and Midwest had
grown to 10%.
Traveling by car, bus, or train from
Louisiana to Los Angeles, Mississippi
and Alabama to Chicago and Detroit,
Georgia and Florida to New York and
New Jersey, the individual acts of
African Americans aggregated into a
movement. The massive population
shift forever changed both those who
ed and the places where they sought
refuge. Those who migrated still faced
discrimination, segregation, and hardship, but used new opportunities to
nurture potential in the next generation.
Today many urban communities
throughout the Northeast and Midwest have majority African American
populations and have become centers
for black culture.

Three civil rights workers who were murdered in

Philadelphia, Mississippi, 1964

August 2013
Sunday

Monday

JULY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

SEPTEMBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30

Tuesday

Thursday

1930

14

25
1956

Montgomery, Alabama, home of Robert

Graetz, white minister of
Trinity Lutheran Church
and Montgomery Improvement Association
board member, is bombed

26

10

President John F.
Kennedy nominates James
Parsons as U.S. District
Court Judge for Northern
Illinois; Parsons becomes
the rst black federal
judge in the continental
U.S.

15

16

17
1965

Black WWI veteran

Lamar Smith is shot and
killed in front of the
Brookhaven, Mississippi,
courthouse for urging
blacks to vote; no one is arrested or charged despite
numerous witnesses

19

1961

Thomas Shipp and

Abram Smith are lynched
in Marion, Indiana; a third
black youth, 16-year-old
James Cameron, survives
the attack and later founds
Americas Black Holocaust
Museum in Milwaukee

13

1955

18

Saturday

Chicago, Illinois,
race riot ends, leaving 38
dead, 537 injured, and
1000 black people homeless

civil
rights
workers
Michael Schwerner, James
Chaney, and Andrew
Goodman are discovered
in a Mississippi dam, nearly
two months after their disappearance

12

Friday
1919

1964 Bodies of murdered

11

Wednesday

Riots in the Watts

neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, sparked by
white police beating of a
young black man, leave 34
dead, 1032 injured, nearly
4000 arrested, and $40 million in damage

20

21

1619

Dutch ship lands in

Jamestown, Virginia, carrying the rst enslaved people to what would become
the U.S.

1831

Nat Turner leads 60

enslaved blacks in rebellion in Southampton, Virginia, that leaves 55 whites
dead; Turner and dozens
of other black participants
are later executed

27

28
1955 Roy Bryant and J.W.
Milam, white members of
the Ku Klux Klan, abduct
14-year-old Emmett Till
from his great-uncles
cabin in Mississippi

22

29

23

24

1989

Yusef Hawkins, a
16-year-old black boy, is
murdered in Bensonhurst,
New York, by a mob of 30
whites who wrongly believe he is visiting a white
girl in the neighborhood

1923

Bullet-riddled body
of black farmhand Ben
Hart found in Jacksonville,
Florida, after he was accused of peeping into a
white womans room

30

31

1956

After enrollment of
black high school students
in Manseld, Texas, triggers rioting, Governor
Allan Shivers calls in the
Texas Rangers to prevent
school desegregation

(AP Photo/Bill Hudson) (6305031269)

Violence Against
Civil Rights Workers
For a century following the Civil War,
African Americans were the targets of
a campaign of terror consisting of brutality and violence which served to
maintain and bolster segregation in the
South. This campaign of terror persisted during the Civil Rights Movement. Courageous activists were
subjected to threats, mass arrests,
beatings, church bombings, and murder. The criminal justice system turned
a blind eye to the terrorism, often refusing to protect activists or prosecute
perpetrators.
In 1955, Lamar Smith, a farmer and
World War I veteran, was shot and murdered on a crowded courthouse lawn
in Brookhaven, Mississippi, for urging
blacks to vote. That same year, Reverend George Lee, a grocery store
owner, was shot and murdered for organizing black voters in the Mississippi
Delta.
On Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965,
several hundred civil rights marchers
crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge in
Selma, Alabama, were met by an angry
mob of state and local lawmen who
brutally attacked the marchers.
Months later, Jonathan Daniels, a white
seminary student from Boston who
traveled to Alabama to help with black
voter registration in Lowndes County
was murdered by a deputy sheri.
Though the intensity of racial violence
decreased following the passage of the
Voting Rights Act of 1965, it created a
legacy that has deeply scarred many
communities.

Protest rally for black teens criminally prosecuted for ght over a lynching tree in Jena, Louisiana, 2007

(AP Photo/Frank Franklin II) (0709200124332)

September 2013
Sunday

Monday

2 Labor Day

Wednesday

1901

1875

Alabama adopts
new state constitution
that prohibits interracial
marriage and mandates
separate schools for black
and white children

White mobs attack

and murder more than 20
black citizens in Clinton,
Mississippi, in a riot that
lasts several days and becomes known as the Clinton Massacre

10

11

1739

1963 White students in

Tuskegee, Alabama, withdraw from school after
racial integration and enroll, with help of state
funds, at private Macon
Academy, which remains
98% white today

Enslaved Africans
carry out Catos Rebellion,
the largest slave revolt in
colonial America; all 50
participants ultimately are
killed or imprisoned

15

Tuesday

16

17

18

1963 Four young black

girls attending Sunday
school are killed when a
bomb explodes at the 16th
Street Baptist Church, a
popular location for civil
rights meetings in Birmingham, Alabama

22

23

1906 After Atlanta, Georgia, newspapers report

four alleged assaults on
white women, 10,000
white men terrorize citys
black community for four
days, killing between 25
and 40 people

1955 White male jurors

acquit Roy Bryant and J.W.
Milam in Emmett Till murder and later explain they
knew the men were guilty
but felt life imprisonment
or death was too harsh for
killing a black boy

29

30

1915 Alabama legislature 1919 Whites massacre

bars white female nurses over 100 black people in
from treating black male Elaine, Arkansas, after
patients
black sharecroppers organize to demand fair
prices for their products

24

25

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

2010 Alabama prison o- 1976

12

cials ban all prisoners from

reading Slavery by Another
Name, a Pulitzer Prize-winning history of re-enslavement of African Americans
in the 19th century; ban remains in eect

Joseph Woodrow
Hatchett is elected Justice
of the Florida Supreme
Court, becoming the rst
black person elected to
any statewide oce in the
South since Reconstruction

13

14

19

20

21

1881

2007

Tuskegee Institute
in Tuskegee, Alabama,
holds its rst classes with
30 black students and one
teacher: Booker T. Washington

Up to 15,000 people in Jena, Louisiana,

protest the attempted murder prosecution of six black
teens for ghting with
white students who hung a
noose from a tree on their
high school campus

2011 Troy Davis executed

in Georgia despite recanted witness statements
and
global
campaign for commutation due to innocence

26

27

28

2011 In Warrior, Alabama, 1958

Pastor Miguel Hernandez
is arrested under the
states new anti-immigrant
law hours after a federal
judge upheld the laws key
passages

AUGUST
S M T W T F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Citizens of Little
Rock, Arkansas, vote to
close public schools rather
than integrate; schools remain closed for one year

OCTOBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31

1868 Whites in Opelousas,

Louisiana, attack a local
white man for registering
blacks to vote, hang 20
blacks who try to defend
him, and riot, leaving over
200 unarmed blacks and
over 30 whites dead

(Nooses by ccarlstead, Creative Commons)

Lynching
Although lynching stood at the center
of a long tradition of American vigilantism for decades, the practice increased dramatically in both frequency
and intensity after the Civil War and Reconstruction. It became the primary
tool for enforcing racial hierarchy and
subordination of African Americans
through terror, peaking from the 1890s
through the rst decade of the 20th
century.
During this time, lynching became an increasingly Southern, racialized phenomenon, as white Southerners sought
to restore their dominance in the face
of emancipation and the threat of black
enfranchisement and social autonomy.
Lynchings became communal spectacles where hundreds and sometimes
thousands of people some with children in tow gathered and watched
gruesome acts of horric violence inicted on black men and women who
were tortured, mutilated, and hanged.
Even when pending legal proceedings
had been initiated to respond to an accusation that a black person had committed a crime, mobs disrupted the
process by summarily executing the accused.
Determining the exact number of
lynchings committed in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries is a dicult
task because many lynchings were not
recorded. Conservative estimates indicate that, between 1880 and 1940,
white mobs in the South lynched nearly
4000 African Americans.

More than 65,000 women were forcibly sterilized as a result

of laws that banned reproduction rights for undesirables
(Suriani Photography 2005)

October 2013
Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

SEPTEMBER
NOVEMBER
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S 1962 After Governor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 Ross Barnett orders state
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 troopers to block his entrance, federal marshals in15 16 17 18 19 20 21 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 tervene and James
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Meredith becomes rst
black student to enroll at
29 30
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 University of Mississippi

Wednesday

Friday

Saturday

5
1920 Four black men are
lynched in Macclenny,
Florida, after a mob seizes
three from the county jail,
and shoots the fourth
dead in the woods

2009

10

11

12

18

19

1871 Black civil rights activist Octavius Catto is shot

and killed after voting in
mayoral
election
in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Justice of the
peace in Louisiana refuses
to marry an interracial couple because of their race
and later acknowledges he
denied marriage licenses
to interracial couples for
years

13

Thursday

14 Columbus Day 15

16

17

1958 After refusing to accept black lawyers as

members, District of Columbia Bar Association
votes to change policy

1968

U.S. sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos

raise black-gloved sts on
medal stand at Olympics in
Mexico to protest racial inequality in U.S.; they receive death threats for
years after returning home

1871 President Ulysses

Grant declares martial law
in South Carolina due to
widespread Ku Klux Klan
violence

23

24

20

21

1956

Twenty-one people
in Tallahassee, Florida, are
sentenced to jail for operating a car pool in support
of those boycotting the
citys segregated buses

1835

A pro-slavery white
mob assaults white abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and drags him through
the streets of Boston, Massachusetts

27

28

22

1969 Fifteen years after

Brown v. Board of Ed., U.S.
Supreme Court hears argument in Alexander v.
Holmes County Board of Ed.
and, six days later, orders
Mississippi to desegregate
schools at once

29
1869 White mob kidnaps
and whips black Georgia
legislator Abram Colby for
promoting equal rights for
African Americans in Georgia

30

1960 Martin Luther King,

Jr. joins sit-in protest in
downtown Atlanta, Georgia, department store and
is arrested with 51 others
for attempting to desegregate Atlanta stores and
restaurants

25

26
1866

Texas passes law

providing that black people cannot testify in court
unless the defendant is
black or the crime charged
was committed against a
black person

31

North Carolina forcibly sterilized Elaine Riddick

after she was raped and became pregnant at 14.
(AP Photo/Jim R. Bounds) (110622040209)

Racial Eugenics
In the 1920s, many states authorized
forced sterilization of thousands of
undesirable citizens people with
disabilities, prisoners, and racial minorities on the theory that, as the U.S.
Supreme Court put it in upholding Virginias forced sterilization law in 1927,
three generations of imbeciles are
enough. American proponents of Eugenics, a scientic movement to improve the genetic composition of the
human population, soon accelerated
sterilization programs, which served as
a model for Nazi programs implemented during the Holocaust.
American sterilization laws were also
used as a tool of racialized population
control. From the 1920s to 1970s, thousands of poor, Southern black women
were sterilized without their knowledge or consent. Most states abandoned eugenics programs after World
War II, but sterilization increased in Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and
South Carolina, coinciding with growing black political power, mandatory integration, and the civil rights
movement. Some states continued to
sterilize into the 1970s.
Though this history is largely unknown,
compulsory programs sterilized an estimated 65,000 individuals in more than
30 states, and the number is likely
much higher. In 2012, North Carolina
became one of a handful of states to
acknowledge this shameful history
when it formally apologized and offered compensation to surviving victims of its 40-year sterilization
program, four decades after its end.

Black orphaned children and juvenile oenders could be bought to serve as laborers for white planters in many Southern states from 1865 until the 1940s
(Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing Company Collection, LC-D428-850)

November 2013
Sunday

Monday

OCTOBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31

DECEMBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31

Tuesday

Wednesday

Friday

12

Armed whites re- 1831 Nat Turner, the

gain political control in black leader of an anti-slavWilmington, North Car- ery revolt, is hanged in
olina, by killing dozens of Jerusalem, Virginia
black people and forcing
2000 black residents at
gunpoint to ee the majority-black city

Texas authorizes
state to lease prisoners to
build railroads and work
on other projects, to prot
the state treasury

17

19

18

13

1866

20

24

25

1865 Mississippi makes it

a crime punishable by nes
and imprisonment for free
black adults to be unemployed or to assemble, and
for whites to associate
with free blacks

1955 Interstate Commerce

Commission bans racial
segregation on interstate
buses and in waiting rooms
but does not enforce ban
until 1961, after Freedom
Riders win support of
Kennedy Administration

26

27

Texas legislature
authorizes counties to employ jail inmates in public
works and to lease them
to private employers, with
all prots going to county
treasuries

14

15

1960

Escorted by U.S.
Marshals,
six-year-old
Ruby Bridges integrates
William Frantz Elementary
School in New Orleans,
Louisiana, as mobs protest
outside

2010

21

22

1962 President John F.

Kennedy orders an end to
racial discrimination in federally nanced housing

9
1866

U.S. Supreme Court

rules racial segregation in
public recreational facilities is unconstitutional in
Mayor and City Council of
Baltimore v. Dawson

1898

2
ject constitutional amendment removing from the
state constitution a provision that requires separate
schools for white and colored children

1955

11 Veterans Day

Saturday
2004 Alabama voters re-

2000 Alabama repeals

1901 state constitutional
ban on interracial marriage, although a majority
of white voters favor keeping the ban

10

Thursday

16

Former police ocer James Bonard Fowler

pleads guilty to 1965 murder of civil rights activist
Jimmie Lee Jackson in
Marion, Alabama, and is
sentenced to six months in
jail

23

1865 Mississippi requires

local sheris to round up
black orphans and sell
them to whites as laborers

28 Thanksgiving

29

30

(Library of Congress)

Convict Leasing
After the Civil War, slavery persisted in
the form of convict leasing, a system in
which Southern states leased prisoners
to private railways, mines, and large
plantations. While states proted, prisoners earned no pay and faced inhumane, dangerous, and often deadly
work conditions. Thousands of black
people were forced into what authors
have termed slavery by another
name until the 1940s.
The Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution, ratied in 1865, prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude,
but explicitly exempted those convicted of crime. In response, Southern
state legislatures quickly passed Black
Codes new laws that explicitly applied only to black people and subjected them to criminal prosecution for
oenses such as loitering, breaking
curfew, vagrancy, having weapons, and
not carrying proof of employment.
Crafted to ensnare black people and return them to chains, these laws were
eective; for the rst time in U.S. history, many state penal systems held
more black prisoners than white all of
whom could be leased for prot.
Industrialization, economic shifts, and
political pressure ended widespread
convict leasing by World War II, but the
Thirteenth Amendments dangerous
loophole still permits the enslavement
of prisoners who continue to work
without pay in various public and private industries. As recently as 2010, a
federal court held that prisoners have
no enforceable right to be paid for their
work under the Constitution.

Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, in which four children were murdered following hate
violence, 1963 (Anthony Falletta/ The Birmingham News)

December 2013
Sunday

Monday

1955 Rosa Parks is arrested for refusing to give

up her seat to a white passenger on a city bus in
Montgomery, Alabama

1922

Tuesday

16

23

Thursday

Friday

10

11

12

Racial Terrorism

13

1917

17

24

31

14
1964

Thirteen black soldiers are executed after

local police beat and shoot
black troops stationed in
Houston, Texas, prompting 156 soldiers to revolt; in
all, 16 are hanged and 50
sentenced to life in prison

In Heart of Atlanta
Motel v. United States, U.S.
Supreme Court upholds
Congress power to prohibit racial discrimination
in privately owned hotels

18

19

20

21

1865 Ratication of the

Thirteenth Amendment to
the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting slavery and involuntary servitude except as
punishment for crime, is
announced

1865

1986

1956 Black citizens desegregate Montgomery,

Alabama, buses after 13month boycott; bus company resumes full service

South Carolina
passes law that requires
black servants to enter
into labor contracts with
white masters, to work
from dawn to dusk, and to
maintain a polite demeanor

25 Christmas Day 26

Michael Grith, a
23-year-old black man, is
hit by a car and killed after
being chased onto a highway by a white mob in
Howard Beach, New York

27

Group of Confeder- 1956 Civil rights leader

ate Army veterans estab- Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth
lish the Ku Klux Klan in survives bombing of his
Pulaski, Tennessee
Birmingham,
Alabama,
home by the Ku Klux Klan
the rst of ve attempts
on his life over the next
seven years

30

7
(AP Photo/stf) (500603019)

1865

29

Saturday

1960 In Boynton v. Virginia, U.S. Supreme Court

rules that racial segregation in interstate bus terminal
restaurants
is
unconstitutional

P.B.S. Pinchback of
Louisiana assumes impeached governors oce,
becoming the rst black
governor in the U.S. and
serving one-month remainder of his predecessors term

22

Eugenicist Henry
Laughlin publishes model
sterilization law, which 18
states pass in the following ve years

1872

15

Wednesday

28
1956

Rosa Jordan, a
pregnant African American
resident of Montgomery,
Alabama, is shot in both
legs while riding a desegregated bus

NOVEMBER
S M T W T F S
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30

JANUARY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31

After the Civil War and into the 20th

century, black communities were targeted for attack by white mobs intent
on maintaining white supremacy. Devastating acts of vigilante violence often
were preceded by black political and
economic progress, allegations of interracial romance, and other perceived
breaches of the racial order.
In 1921, after an alleged encounter between a young black man and white
woman in an elevator, whites attacked
the thriving black Greenwood District
in Tulsa, Oklahoma. A 16-hour massacre left Negro Wall Street, the nations wealthiest black community,
burned to the ground, 300 black people
dead, and more than 10,000 homeless
and destitute.
Countless black communities suered
similar fates during this era, including
Rosewood, Florida (1927); Elaine,
Arkansas (1919); East St. Louis, Illinois
(1917); Forsyth County, Georgia (1912);
Slocum, Texas (1910); Thibodaux,
Louisiana (1887); and Opelousas,
Louisiana (1868).
This era of racially-motivated terror also
took the form of brutal lynchings, in
which mobs of white vigilantes kidnapped and murdered black people accused of crimes or of the slightest
social taboo, those who were in conict
with whites, or who were just in the
wrong place at the wrong time. In
1866, the morning after racial conict
between black and white settlers in a
refugee camp near Pine Blu,
Arkansas, the bodies of 24 black men,
women, and children were found hanging from trees.

Rosa Parks is ngerprinted after being arrested by Montgomery, Alabama, police for protesting segregation laws,
1956 (AP Photo/Gene Herrick) (5602221219)

2014
FEBRUARY

JANUARY
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MARCH
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APRIL
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23/30 24/31

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SEPTEMBER
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Nearly 3000 children have been sentenced to die in prison in the United States, including kids as young as 13 and 14 years old. More than 70% of the
youngest children are African American or Latino. (Richard Ross)

The Equal Justice Initiative (EJI) is proud to provide a copy of this calendar to you. For more information
about the events and images in this calendar, and to learn more about EJIs Race and Poverty initiative, please
visit www.eji.org.
A History of Racial Injustice was produced, written, and published by the sta of the Equal Justice Initiative.
Special thanks is owed to Aaryn Urell for layout, editing, and design assistance; Jennifer Taylor and Lawanna
Kimbro for writing, research, and editing; Zawadi Baharanyi for research, writing, and photo research; Je
Hall, Kate Hathaway, Sarah Golabek-Goldman, and Daniel Driscoll for research and writing; and Charlotte
Morrison, Eva Ansley, Tatiana Bertsch, and Randy Susskind for editing assistance.
Thank you for supporting the work of EJI.

Bryan Stevenson, Director

Cover photo credits: Hands of Mr. Henry Brooks, ex-slave (Library of Congress); African Americans in Alabamas Black Belt (Deondra Scott); Childrens March,
Birmingham, Alabama, 1963 (Charles Moore/ Black Star Publishing); Shreveport courthouse with Confederate ag (Dan Tobias, Creative Commons); civil
rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, 1965 (Library of Congress); Jena Six protests (AP Photo/Frank Franklin II) (0709200124332); child on porch
(Jacob Holdt); segregated bathrooms in South Carolina (2603433/Courtesy of Getty Images); chain gang, South Carolina (Library of Congress); voting booth
(Donated by Corbis) (BE029715); execution of African American prisoner, 1900 (William M. Van der Weyde); men in Alabamas Black Belt (Deondra Scott);
African American men, women, and children in cotton eld (Library of Congress); child with mother (Jacob Holdt); Sweet Honey in the Rock (Teri Bloom);
Scottsboro Boys (Donated by Corbis) (BE042030); imprisoned childs hands (Richard Ross). Title page photo: bus station in Durham, North Carolina, 1940 (Library of Congress).

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