PDI ASSIGNMENT

Submitted by MANAV KAUSHAL ROLL NO:C012325 CSE 3rd Semester (Class of 2016)

Q 1: Difference between Impact and Non-impact printers.

An impact printer is a type of printer that operates by striking a metal or plastic head against an ink ribbon. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper, marking the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol. Common examples of impact printers include dot, daisy-wheel printers, and ball printers. Dot matrix printers work by striking a grid of pins against a ribbon. Different characters are printed by using different pin combinations. Daisy-wheel printers use a circular wheel with "petals" that each has a different character or symbol on the end. In order to print each character, the wheel spins to the appropriate petal and a hammer strikes the petal against the ribbon and the page. Similarly, ball printers use a spherical ball with raised characters on the outside. The ball spins to each character before printing it on the page. While impact printers still have some uses (such as printing carbon copies), most printers are now non-impact printers. These printers, such as laser and inkjet printers are much quieter than impact printers and can print more detailed images . Early printers, such as dot matrix and daisywheel printers were called impact printers, since they operated by striking an ink ribbon against the paper. Most modern printers, including inkjet and laser printers, don't include an ink ribbon and are considered to be non-impact printers. Non-impact printers are generally much quieter than impact printers since they don't physically strike the page. For example, inkjet printers spray tiny drops of ink onto the page, while laser printers use a cylindrical drum that rolls electrically charged ink onto the paper. Both of these methods are non-impact and provide an efficient printing process that produces little sound. The low impact nature of inkjet and laser printers also means they are less likely to need maintenance or repairs than earlier impact printers.

Impact Printer 1. Produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink ribbon by physically contacting the paper. 2. Its speed is slower. 3. Its printing quality is lower. 4. Produce near letter quality (NLQ) print only, which is just suitable for printing mailing labels, envelopes, or invoices. 5. Reliable, durable (lasting for a long time).

Non-impact Printer 1. Produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper. 2. Its speed is faster. 3. Its printing quality is higher. 4. Letter-quality printouts.

5. Print head is less durable, inclined towards to clogging and damage. 6. Generally noisy because of the striking 6. Generally much quieter than impact printers activity. because there is no striking mechanism. 7. Ideal for printing multipart forms because they 7. Cannot print multipart forms. can easily print through many layers of paper. 8. It is less expensive. 8. It is more expensive. 9. Dot-matrix printer. 9. Inkjet printer, laser printer and thermal printer.

Q 2: What is 3D Graphic Accelerator? List and explain common 3D techniques.

A type of video adapter that contains its own processor to boost performance levels. These processors are specialized for computing graphical transformations, so they achieve better results than the general-purpose CPU

used by the computer. In addition, they free up the computer's CPU to execute other commands while the graphics accelerator is handling graphics computations. The popularity of graphical applications, and especially multimedia applications, has made graphics accelerators not only a common enhancement, but a necessity. Most computer manufacturers now bundle a graphics accelerator with their mid-range and high-end systems. Aside from the graphics processor used, the other characteristics that differentiate graphics accelerators are: Memory : Graphics accelerators have their own memory, which is reserved for storing graphical representations. The amount of memory determines how much resolution and how many colors can be displayed. Some accelerators use conventional DRAM, but others use a special type of video RAM (VRAM), which enables both the video circuitry and the processor to simultaneously access the memory. Bus : Each graphics accelerator is designed for a particular type of video bus. As of 1995, most are designed for the PCI bus. Register width: The wider the register, the more data the processor can manipulate with each instruction. 64-bit accelerators are already becoming common, and we can expect 128-bit accelerators in the near future.

3D techniques:1. Live action: - The standard for shooting live-action films in 3D involves using two cameras mounted so that their lenses are about as far apart from each other as the average pair of human eyes, recording two separate images for both the left eye and the right eye. In principle,

two normal 2D cameras could be put side-to-side but this is problematic in many ways. The only real option is to invest in new stereoscopic cameras. Moreover, some cinematographic tricks that are simple with a 2D camera become impossible when filming in 3D. This means those otherwise cheap tricks need to be replaced by expensive CGI. Many 3D camera rigs still in use simply pair two cameras side by side, while newer rigs are paired with a beam splitter or both camera lenses built into one unit. While Digital Cinema cameras are not a requirement for 3D they are the predominant medium for most of what is photographed. Film options include IMAX 3D and Cine 160.

2. 2D to 3D conversion: - In the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version. For all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For 3D formation each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods. However, conversion to 3D has problems. Information is

Unavailable as 2D doesn't have information for a perspective view. Some TVs have a 3D engine to convert 2D content to 3D. Usually, on high frame rate content (and on some slower processors even normal frame rate) the processor isn't fast enough and lag is possible. This can lead to strange visual effects. 3. Anaglyph: - Anaglyph images were the earliest method of presenting theatrical 3D, and the one most commonly associated with stereoscopy by the public at large, mostly because of non-theatrical 3D media such as comic books and 3D television broadcasts, where polarization is not practical. They were made popular because of the ease of their production and exhibition. The first anaglyph movie was invented in 1915 by Edwin S Porter. Though the earliest theatrical presentations were done with this system, most 3D movies from the 1950s and 1980s were originally shown polarized. In an anaglyph, the two images are superimposed in an additive light setting through two filters, one red and one cyan. In a subtractive light setting, the two images are printed in the same complementary colors on white paper.

Glasses with colored filters in each eye separate the appropriate images by cancelling the filter color out and rendering the complementary color black. Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel sighting or crossed eye stereograms, although the latter types offer bright and accurate color rendering, particularly in the red component, which is muted, or desaturated with even the best color anaglyphs. A compensating technique, commonly known as Anachrome, uses a slightly more transparent cyan filter in the patented glasses associated with the technique. Process reconfigures the typical anaglyph image to have less parallax. An alternative to the usual red and cyan filter system of anaglyph is Color Code 3-D, a patented anaglyph system which was invented in order to present an anaglyph image in conjunction with the NTSC television standard, in which the red channel is often compromised. Color Code uses the complementary colors of yellow and dark blue on-screen, and the colors of the glasses' lenses are amber and dark blue. 4. Polarized 3D system: - A polarized 3D system uses polarization glasses to create the illusion of threedimensional images by restricting the light that reaches each eye, an example of stereoscopy. To present stereoscopic images and films, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen or display through different polarizing filters.

The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which contain a pair of different polarizing filters. As each filter passes only that light which is similarly polarized and blocks the light polarized in the opposite direction, each eye sees a different image. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives. Several people can view the stereoscopic images at the same time. 5. Interference filter technology:- Dolby 3D uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a 3D image. This technology eliminates the expensive silver screens required for polarized systems such as RealD, which is the most common 3D display system in theatres. It does, however, require much more expensive glasses than the polarized systems. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization. The recently introduced Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system also uses this technology, though with a wider spectrum and more "teeth" to the "comb" (5 for each eye in the Omega/Panavision system). The use of more spectral bands per eye eliminates the need to color process the image, required by the Dolby system. Evenly dividing the visible spectrum between the eyes gives the viewer a more relaxed "feel" as the light energy and color balance is nearly 50-50. Like the Dolby system, the Omega 4

system can be used with white or silver screens. But it can be used with either film or digital projectors, unlike the Dolby filters that are only used on a digital system with a color correcting processor provided by Dolby. The Omega/Panavision system also claims that their glasses are cheaper to manufacture than those used by Dolby. In June 2012 the Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing "challenging global economic and 3D market conditions. Although DPVO dissolved its business operations; Omega Optical continues promoting and selling 3D systems to non-theatrical markets. Omega Opticals 3D system contains projection filters and 3D glasses. In addition to the passive stereoscopic 3D system, Omega Optical has produced enhanced anaglyph 3D glasses. The Omegas red/cyan anaglyph glasses use complex metal oxide thin film coatings and high quality annealed glass optics. 6. Autostereoscopy:- In this method, glasses are not necessary to see the stereoscopic image. Lenticular lens and parallax barrier technologies involve imposing two (or more) images on the same sheet, in narrow, alternating strips, and using a screen that either blocks one of the two images' strips (in the case of parallax barriers) or uses equally narrow lenses to bend the strips of image and make it appear to fill the entire image (in the case of lenticular prints). To produce the stereoscopic effect, the person must be positioned so that one eye sees one of the two images and the other sees the other. Both images are projected onto a high-gain, corrugated screen which reflects light at acute angles. In order to see the stereoscopic image, the viewer must sit within a very narrow angle that is nearly perpendicular to the screen, limiting the size of the audience.

3D rendering: - 3D Rendering is the process of producing an image based on three-dimensional data stored within a computer. 3D rendering is a creative process that is similar to photography or cinematography, because you are lighting and staging scenes and producing images. Unlike regular photography, however, the scenes being photographed are imaginary, and everything appearing in a 3D rendering need to be created (or re-created) in the computer before it can be rendered. This is a lot of work, but allows for an almost infinite amount of creative control over what appears in the scene, and how it is depicted. The three-dimensional data that is depicted could be a complete scene including geometric models of different three dimensional objects, buildings, landscapes, and animated characters - artists need to create this scene by Modeling and Animating before the Rendering can be done. The 3D rendering process depicts this three-dimensional scene as a picture, taken from a specified location and perspective. The rendering could add the simulation of realistic lighting, shadows, atmosphere, color, texture, and optical effects such as the refraction of light or motion-blur seen on moving objects - or the rendering might not be realistic at all, and could be designed to appear as a painting or abstract image.

Q 3: Explain the working of CRT with diagram.

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Stands for "Cathode Ray Tube." CRT is the technology used in traditional computer monitors and televisions. The image on a CRT display is created by firing electrons from the back of the tube to phosphors located towards the front of the display. Once the electrons hit the phosphors, they light up and are projected on the screen. The color you see on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue, and green light, often referred to as RGB.

The beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with random-scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated on to the inside of the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layers. Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including color TV) because they produce a much wider range of color than the beam penetration method. A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow- mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen. Figure below illustrates the delta-delta shadow-mask method, commonly used in color CRT systems. The three electron beam are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns. When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot the screen the phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

Q 4: What is multimedia? Explain the various components of multimedia.

As the name implies, multimedia is the integration of multiple forms of media. This includes text, graphics, audio, video, etc. For example, a presentation involving audio and video clips would be considered a "multimedia presentation." Educational software that involves animations, sound, and text is called "multimedia software." CDs and DVDs are often considered to be "multimedia formats" since they can store a lot of data and most forms of multimedia require a lot of disk space. Due to the advancements in computer speeds and storage space, multimedia is commonplace today. Multimedia uses computers to present text, audio, video, animation, interactive features, and still images in various ways and combinations made possible through the advancement of technology. By combining media and content, those interested in multimedia can take on and work with a variety of media forms to get their content across. This is an exciting new field for those interested in computers, technology, and creative career options. Multimedia can be accessed through computers or electronic devices and integrates the various forms together. One example of multimedia would be combining a website with video, audio, or text images.

Components of Multimedia:Text It may be an easy content type to forget when considering multimedia systems, but text content is by far the most common media type in computing applications. Most multimedia systems use a combination of text and other media to deliver functionality. Text in multimedia systems can express specific information, or it can act as reinforcement for information contained in other media items. This is a common practice in applications with accessibility requirements. For example, when Web pages include image elements, they can also include a short amount of text for the user's browser to include as an alternative, in case the digital image item is not available. Images Digital image files appear in many multimedia applications. Digital photographs can display application content or can alternatively form part of a user interface. Interactive elements, such as buttons, often use custom images created by the designers and developers involved in an application. Digital image files use a variety of formats and file extensions. Among the most common are JPEGs and PNGs. Both of these often appear on websites, as the formats allow developers to minimize on file size while maximizing on picture quality. Graphic design software programs such as Photoshop and Paint.NET allow developers to create complex visual effects with digital images. Audio Audio files and streams play a major role in some multimedia systems. Audio files appear as part of application content and also to aid interaction. When they appear within Web applications and sites, audio files sometimes need to be deployed using plug-in media players. Audio formats include MP3, WMA, Wave, MIDI and RealAudio. When developers include audio within a website, they will generally use a compressed format to minimize on download times. Web services can also stream audio, so that users can begin playback before the entire file is downloaded. 7

Video Digital video appears in many multimedia applications, particularly on the Web. As with audio, websites can stream digital video to increase the speed and availability of playback. Common digital video formats include Flash, MPEG, AVI, WMV and QuickTime. Most digital video requires use of browser plug-ins to play within Web pages, but in many cases the user's browser will already have the required resources installed. Animation Animated components are common within both Web and desktop multimedia applications. Animations can also include interactive effects, allowing users to engage with the animation action using their mouse and keyboard. The most common tool for creating animations on the Web is Adobe Flash, which also facilitates desktop applications. Using Flash, developers can author FLV files, exporting them as SWF movies for deployment to users. Flash also uses Action Script code to achieve animated and interactive effects.

Q 5: Explain PCI and ISA bus structure in detail with the help of diagrams.
PCI ( Peripheral Component Interconnect ) PCI stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect. The PCI bus can be populated with adapters requiring fast access to each other and/or system memory and that can be accessed by the processor at speeds approaching that of the processors full native bus speed. It is very important to note that all read and write transfer over the PCI bus can be performed as burst transfers. The length of the burst is determined by the bus master. The target is given the start address and the traction type at the start of the transaction, but is not told the transfer length. As the master becomes ready to transfer each data item, it informs the target whether or not its the last one. The transaction completes when the final data item has been transferred.

The host/PCI bridge frequently referred to as the North Bridge; connect the host processor bus to the root PCI bus. 8

The PCI-to-ISA Bridge, frequently referred to as the South Bridge, connects the root PCI bus to the ISA (or EISA) bus. The south Bridge also typically incorporates the Interrupt Controller, IDE Controller, USB host Controller, and the DMA Controller. The North and South Bridges comprise the chipset.

One or more PCI-to-PCI bridges (not shown) may be embedded on the root PCI bus, or may reside on a PCI add-in card. In addition, a chipset may support more than one North Bridge (not shown). Major PCI Features Feature Description Components designed for the PCI bus are PCI-specific, not processorspecific, thereby isolating device design from processor upgrade treadmill.

Processor Independence

Support for up to A typical PCI bus implementation supports approximately ten approximately 80 PCI electrical loads, and each device presents a load to the bus. Each functions per PCI bus device, in turn, may contain up to eight PCI functions. Support for up to 256 The specification provides support for up to 256 PCI buses. PCI buses Low-power consumption A major design goal of the PCI specification s the creation of a system design that draws as little current as possible.

Bursts can be performed A 32-bit PCI bus supports a 132Mbytes per second peak transfer rate on all read and write for both read and write transfers, and a 264Mbytes per second peak transfers transfer rate for 64-bit PCI transfers. Transfer rates of up to 528Mbytes per second are achievable on a 64 bit, 66MHz PCI bus. Bus speed Revision 2.0 spec supported PCI bus speeds up to 33MHz. Revision 2.1 add support for 66MHz bus operation. Full definition of a 64-bit extension. As fast as 60ns (at a bus speed of 33MHz when an initiator parked on the PCI bus is writing to a PCI target). Concurrent operation Bus master support bus Bridges support full bus concurrency with processor bus, PCI bus (or buses), and the expansion bus simultaneously in use. Full support of PCI bus masters allows peer-to-peer PCI bus access, as well as access to main memory and expansion bus device through PCI-to-PCI and expansion bus bridges. In addition, a PCI master can access a target that resides on another PCI bus lower in the bus hierarchy. Hidden bus arbitration Arbitration for the PCI bus can take place while another bus master is

64-bit bus width Access time

performing a transfer on the PCI bus. Low-pin count Economical use of bus signals allows implementation of a functional PCI target with 47 pins and an initiator with 49 pins. integrity Parity checking on the address, command and data.

Transaction check

Three address spaces Auto-Configuration

Memory, I/O and configuration address space. Full bit-level specification of the configuration registers necessary to support automatic device detection and configuration. Software drivers utilize same command set and status definition when communicating with PCI device or its expansion bus-oriented cousin. The specification includes a definition of PCI connectors and add-incards. The specification defines three card sizes; long, short and variableheight short cards.

Software Transparency

Add-In Cards

Add-In Card Size

ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) Since about 1984, standard bus for PC I/O functions has been named ISA (Industry Standard Architecture). It is still used in all PCs to maintain backwards compatibility. In that way modern PCs can accept expansion cards of the old ISA type. ISA was an improvement over the original IBM XT bus, which was only 8 bit wide. IBM's trademark is AT bus. Usually, it is just referred to as ISA bus. ISA is 16 bit wide and runs at a maximum of 8 MHz However; it requires 2-3 clock ticks to move 16 bits of data. The ISA bus works synchronous with the CPU. If the system bus is faster than 10 MHz, many expansion boards become flaky and the ISA clock frequency is reduced to a fraction of the system bus clock frequency. The ISA bus has a theoretical transmission capacity of about 8MBps. However, the actual speed does not exceed 1-2MBps, and it soon became too slow.

Two faces The ISA bus has two "faces" in the modern PC: The internal ISA bus, which is used on the simple ports, like keyboard, diskette drive, serial and parallel ports. As external expansion bus, that can be connected with 16 bit ISA adapters.

ISA slots are today mostly used for the common 16 bit SoundBlaster compatible sound cards.

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Problems The problem with the ISA bus is twofold: It is narrow and slow. It has no intelligence.

The ISA bus cannot transfer enough bits at a time. It has a very limited bandwidth. Let us compare the bandwidths of ISA bus and the newer PCI bus: Bus ISA PCI Transmission time 375 ns 30 ns Data volume per transmission 16 bit 32 bit

Clearly, there is a vast difference between the capacities of the two buses. The ISA bus uses a lot of time for every data transfer, and it only moves 16 bits in one operation. The other problem with the ISA bus is the lack of intelligence. This means that the CPU has to control the data transfer across the bus. The CPU cannot start a new assignment, until the transfer is completed. You can observe that, when your PC communicates with the floppy drive, while the rest of the PC is waiting. Quite often the whole PC seems to be sleeping. That is the result of a slow and unintelligent ISA bus. Problems with IRQs (Interrupt Requests) The ISA bus can be a tease, when you install new expansion cards (for example a sound card). Many of these problems derive from the tuning of IRQ and DMA, which must be done manually on the old ISA bus. Every component occupies a specific IRQ and possibly a DMA channel. That can create conflict with existing components. The ISA bus is out As described, the ISA bus is quite outdated and should not be used in modern PCs. There is a good chance, that this "outdated legacy technology" (quoting Intel) will disappear completely. The USB bus is the technology that will replace it. It has taken many years to get this working and accepted, but it works now. Intel's chip set 810 was the first not to include ISA support.

Q 6: An 8 disk pack has 300 tracks per surface. There are 20 sectors per track and 256 bytes per sector. What is the storage capacity of disk? How many cylinders are their?
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No. Of disks = 8 No. Of tracks per surface = 300 No. Of sectors per track = 20 Bytes per sector = 256 Storage capacity of disk = 8 x 2 x 300 x 20 x 256 = 24576000 bytes or 24567 KB or 24.567 MB *Note: One disk has two surfaces. No. Of cylinders = There are 300 tracks therefore 300 cylinders will be there.

Q 7: Write short notes on optical disc and optical mouse.

Optical Disc An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read using a lowpowered laser beam. Originally developed in the late 1960s, the first optical disc, created by James T. Russell, stored data as micron-wide dots of light and dark. A laser read the dots, and the data was converted to an electrical signal, and finally to audio or visual output. However, the technology didn't appear in the marketplace until Philips and Sony came out with the compact disc (CD) in 1982. Since then, there has been a constant succession of optical disc formats, first in CD formats, followed by a number of DVD formats. Optical disc offers a number of advantages over magnetic storage media. An optical disc holds much more data. The greater control and focus possible with laser beams (in comparison to tiny magnetic heads) means that more data can be written into a smaller space. Storage capacity increases with each new generation of optical media. Emerging standards, such as Blu-ray, offer up to 27 gigabytes (GB) on a single-sided 12-centimeter disc. In comparison, a diskette, for example, can hold 1.44 megabytes (MB). Optical discs are inexpensive to manufacture and data stored on them is relatively impervious to most environmental threats, such as power surges, or magnetic disturbances.

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Optical Mouse An optical mouse is an advanced computer pointing device that uses a light-emitting diode (LED ), an optical sensor, and digital signal processing (DSP ) in place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical transducer. Movement is detected by sensing changes in reflected light, rather than by interpreting the motion of a rolling sphere. The optical mouse takes microscopic snapshots of the working surface at a rate of more than 1,000 images per second. If mouse moves, the image changes. The tiniest irregularities in the surface can produce images well enough for the sensor and DSP to generate usable movement data. The best surfaces reflect but scatter light; an example is a blank sheet of white drawing paper. Some surfaces do not allow the sensor and DSP to function properly because the irregularities are too small to be detected. An example of a poor optical-mousing surface is unfrosted glass. In practice, an optical mouse does not need cleaning, because it has no moving parts. This allelectronic feature also eliminates mechanical fatigue and failure. If the device is used with the proper surface, sensing is more precise than is possible with any pointing device using the old electromechanical design. This is an asset in graphics applications, and it makes computer operation easier in general.

Anatomy of optical mouse

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Q 8: Explain SCSI, EISA bus architecture in detail with the help of disgram.
Ans:- EISA ( Extended Industry Standard Architecture ) EISA is a superset of the ISA 8 and 16-bit architecture, extending the capabilities of ISA while still maintaining compatibility with ISA expansion boards. EISA introduces the following improvements over ISA: Supports intelligent bus master expansion cards. Improved bus arbitration and transfer rates. Facilitates 8, 16 or 32-bit data transfers by the main CPU, DMA and bus master devices. An efficient synchronous data transfer mechanism, permitting single transfers as well as high-speed burst transfers. Allows 32-bit memory addressing for the main CPU, Direct Memory Access (DMA) devices and bus master cards. Shareable and/or ISA compatible handling of interrupt requests. Automatic steering of data during bus cycles between EISA and ISA masters and slaves. 33MB/second data transfer rate for bus masters and DMA devices. Automatic configuration of the system board and EISA expansion cards.

EISA systems maintain full backward compatibility with the ISA standard. EISA connectors are a superset of the 16-bit connectors on ISA system boards, permitting 8 and 16-bit ISA expansion cards to be installed in EISA slots. While maintaining full compatibility with ISA expansion boards and software, EISA also offers enhancements in performance and functionality for EISA boards as well as some ISA boards. EISA systems support a 32-bit address bus. The main CPU, bus master expansion cards and DMA devices may access the entire 4GB memory space. ISA memory expansion cards can be used without modification to populate the lower sixteen megabytes. EISA memory expansion cards can add as much memory as needed for the application, up to the theoretical maximum of 4GB. The EISA bus uses a synchronous transfer protocol. Bus master cards, DMA and the main processor synchronize their bus cycles to the bus clock. The synchronous transfer protocol also provides the cycle control necessary to execute burst cycles with a transfer rate of up to 33 MB/second. EISA provides a number of bus cycle types covering a range of transfer speeds for different applications. The standard bus cycle requires two bus clock cycles, while the main CPU, DMA and bus masters are permitted to generate burst cycles requiring one clock cycle per transfer.

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EISA feature/Benefit Summary Feature Benefit Backward compatible with all ISA Customer base retains value of installed ISA cards. expansion boards Board size 63 square inches of board space permits implementation of powerful, highly-integrated expansion cards. +5V dc at approximately 4.5A Enough power for expansion cards employing a large available at each expansion slot amount of highly-integrated logic. 32-bit address and data buses Support for 4GB of memory and 32-bit transfers. Programmable level- or edge- Interrupt request lines may be shared by multiple triggered interrupt recognition devices. Enhanced DMA capabilities Both ISA and EISA DMA devices have access to memory above 16MB. New bus cycle types and 32-bit data bus allow faster transfer speeds (rates of up to 33 MB/sec). Bus Master Support Support for up to fifteen bus master expansion cards, fast burst bus transfers, automatic data bus steering and control lone translation. Automatic system configuration Supports automatic configuration of the EISA system board and EISA expansion cards each time the system is powered up. Also provides help to the end user in configuring older ISA expansion cards.

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) SCSI is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols and electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives, although not all controllers can handle all devices. The SCSI standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the presence of "unknown" as one of these types means that in theory it can be used as an interface to almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward commercial requirements. SCSI is an intelligent, peripheral, buffered, peer to peer interface. It hides the complexity of physical format. Every device attaches to the SCSI bus in a similar manner. Up to 8 or 16 devices can be attached to a single bus. There can be any number of hosts and peripheral devices but there should be at least one host. SCSI uses handshake signals between devices, SCSI-1, SCSI-2 have the option of parity error checking. Starting with SCSI-U160 (part of SCSI-3) all commands and data are error checked by a CRC32 checksum. The SCSI protocol defines communication from host to host, host to a peripheral device, peripheral device to a peripheral device. However most peripheral devices are exclusively SCSI targets; incapable of acting as SCSI initiatorsunable to initiate SCSI transactions themselves. Therefore peripheral-to-peripheral communications are uncommon, but possible in most SCSI applications. The Symbios Logic 53C810 chip is an example of a PCI host interface that can act as a SCSI target.

SCSI is available in a variety of interfaces. The first, still very common, was parallel SCSI (now also called SPI), which uses a parallel bus design. As of 2008, SPI is being replaced by Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), which uses a serial design 15

but retains other aspects of the technology. Many other interfaces which do not rely on complete SCSI standards still implement the SCSI command protocol; others (such as iSCSI) drop physical implementation entirely while retaining the SCSI architectural model. iSCSI, for example, uses TCP/IP as a transport mechanism. SCSI interfaces have often been included on computers from various manufacturers for use under Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, Unix, Commodore and Linux operating systems, either implemented on the motherboard or by the means of plug-in adaptors. With the advent of SAS and SATA drives, provision for SCSI on motherboards is being discontinued. A few companies still market SCSI interfaces for motherboards supporting PCIe and PCI-X.

Q 9: Explain the difference and working of Isolated I/O and Memory Mapped I/O.
Ans:- Memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and Port-mapped I/O (PMIO) (which is also called isolated I/O) are two complementary methods of performing input/output between the CPU and peripheral in a computer. An alternative approach is using dedicated I/O processors commonly known as channels on mainframe computers that execute their own instructions. Memory-mapped I/O (not to be confused with memory-mapped file I/O) uses the same address bus to address both memory and I/O devices the memory and registers of the I/O devices are mapped to (associate with) address values. So when an address is accessed by the CPU, it may refer to a portion of physical RAM, but it can also refer to memory of the I/O device. Thus, the CPU instructions used to access the memory can also be used for accessing devices. Each I/O device monitors the CPU's address bus and responds to any CPU access of an address assigned to that device, connecting the data bus to the desired device's hardware register. To accommodate the I/O devices, areas of the addresses used by the CPU must be reserved for I/O and must not be available for normal physical memory. The reservation might be temporary the Commodore 64 could switch between its I/O devices and regular memory or permanent. Port-mapped I/O often uses a special class of CPU instructions specifically for performing I/O. This is found on Intel microprocessors, with the IN and OUT instructions. These instructions can read and write one to four bytes (outb, outw, outl) to an I/O device. I/O devices have a separate address space from general memory, either accomplished by an extra "I/O" pin on the CPU's physical interface, or an entire bus dedicated to I/O. Because the address space for I/O is isolated from that for main memory, this is sometimes referred to as isolated I/O.

Isolated I/O Isolated I/O uses separate memory space.

Sr.No. 01

Memory Mapped I/O Memory mapped I/O uses memory from the main memory.

Limited instructions can be used. Those are 02 IN, OUT, INS, OUTS. This does not take memory from main 03 memory. The addresses for Isolated I/O devices are 04 called ports. IORC & IOWC signals expands the circuitry. 05

Any

instruction

which

references

to

memory can be used. It takes memory from main memory which reduces the memory available for applications. Memory mapped I/O devices are treated as memory locations on the memory map. IORC & IOWC signals has no functions in this 16

A total of 1mb address space is allowed for 06 memory applications. One of the disadvantages is that the data 07 transfer only occurs between the I/O port and the AL, AX registers.

case which reduces the circuitry. Complete 1mb of memory cannot be used as they are a part of the memory. There is data transfer restriction in case of memory mapped instructions.

Q 10: What do you mean by Resolution, Dot pitch and refresh rate? Compare the features of CRT and LCD display.
Ans:- Resolution Refers to the sharpness and clarity of an image. The term is most often used to describe monitors, printers, and bitmapped graphic images. In the case of dot and laser printers, the resolution indicates the number of dots per inch. For example, a 300-dpi (dots per inch) printer is one that is capable of printing 300 distinct dots in a line 1 inch long. This means it can print 90,000 dots per square inch. For graphics monitors, the screen resolution signifies the number of dots (pixels) on the entire screen. For example, a 640-by-480 pixel screen is capable of displaying 640 distinct dots on each of 480 lines, or about 300,000 pixels. This translates into different dpi measurements depending on the size of the screen. For example, a 15-inch VGA monitor (640x480) displays about 50 dots per inch. Printers, monitors, scanners, and other I/O devices are often classified as high resolution, medium resolution, or low resolution. The actual resolution ranges for each of these grades is constantly shifting as the technology improves. Different resolutions are shown below:

Dot Pitch Dot pitch, or "pixel pitch," is a measurement that defines the sharpness of a monitor's display. It measures the distance between the dots that display the image on the screen. This distance is very small and is typically measured in fractions of millimetres. The smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture. Dot pitch applies to both CRT monitors and flat-screen displays. While some large-screen CRTs have dot-pitches as high as 0.51 mm, most computer displays have a dot pitch between 0.25 and 0.28 mm. Similarly, most LCD displays have a dot pitch between 0.20 and 0.28 mm. Some high-end displays used for scientific or medical imagery have dot pitches as low as 0.15 mm. These displays usually cost several times as much as consumer displays of the same size. While the terms "dot pitch" and "resolution" are related, they have different meanings. A display's resolution refers to how many pixels can be displayed on the screen. For example, a 20" monitor may have a maximum resolution of 1680 x 1050 pixels. When a display is set to its native resolution (typically the maximum resolution), it may display exactly one pixel per dot. 17

However, if the resolution is reduced, the pixels will be larger than the dots used to display the image on the screen. In this case, each pixel is mapped onto multiple dots.

Refresh Rate Computer monitors often have a "maximum refresh rate" listed in their technical specifications. This number, measured in hertz (Hz), determines how many times the screen is redrawn each second. Typical refresh rates for CRT monitors include 60, 75, and 85 Hz. Some monitors support refresh rates of over 100 Hz. The higher the refresh rate, the less image flicker you will notice on the screen. Typically a refresh rate of less than 60 Hz will produce noticeable flicker, meaning you can tell the screen is being redrawn instead of seeing a constant image. If the refresh rate is too slow, this flicker can be hard on your eyes and may cause them to tire quickly. As if sitting at a computer for several hours wasn't hard enough! To avoid flicker, you should set your monitor to use the maximum refresh rate possible. This setting is found in the Monitors control panel in Windows and the Displays system preference in Mac OS X. While 60 Hz is considered a good refresh rate, some people will find that 85 Hz is significantly better. The maximum refresh rate is determined by three factors: 1) The rate your video card supports, 2) the rate your monitor supports, and 3) the resolution your monitor is set at. Lower resolutions (i.e. 800x600) typically support higher refresh rates than higher resolutions (i.e. 1600x1200). If you have an LCD monitor, you may not be able to adjust the refresh rate. This is because most LCD monitors come with a standard refresh rate that is well above the "flicker" point. LCD monitors produce fewer flickers than CRT monitors because the pixels on an LCD screen stay lit longer than CRT monitors before they noticeably fade.

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Difference between CRT and LCD LCD Size (screen viewable size) Thickness Weight Image Quality Energy Consumption Refresh Rate Screen Flatness Viewable size is reduced by 0.1 Minimum 1 inch; Pretty slim Lighter Slightly less sharp images Consumes less energy Needs refresh rate (72hz minimum) 100% 90 degree flatness CRT Viewable size is reduced by 0.99 to 1 Bulky due to the heavy back Heavier Sharper images Consumes more energy No refresh rate (fixed at 72hz) Only Mitsubishi and Sonys aperture grille are 100% flat, rest are not Has a significant amount of radiation More glare The Auto-fit does not properly readjusts the image Burn-in can occur The back gets warm Doesnt happen as images are painted Cheaper Can be used till max resolution without losing image quality; has multiple resolutions Ratio changes according to types. Can range from 150:1 to 250:1 Approximately 43,800; depends on usage 8-bit max, 16.7 million colors. Wide viewing angle

Radiation Glare Automatic Readjustment Burn-In Running Temperature Dead / Stuck Pixel Price Resolution

Small amount of radiation Less glare Auto resize button; readjusts the pixels Doesnt not face burn-in; but susceptible to image persistence Cooler than CRT Can happen Expensive compared to CRT Native resolution works best, other resolutions may lose image quality 15000:1 60,000 hours 32 bit Depends on the technology

Contrast Life Span Colors Viewing Angle

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Blackness Benefits

Blackness varies from dark gray to gray Panels weigh less than plasma; use less energy; light; thinner; emits less electromagnetic radiation; no bleeding or smearing Picture slightly less natural and "film like" than plasmas; slower refresh rate; limited viewing angle; blacks are brighter; susceptible to burn-out and image persistence; dead or stuck pixels may appear

True black Easy to move as cannot be wall mounted; good picture quality; cheaper; wide viewing quality; sharper image quality; multiple resolutions Heavier, small screens; old technology (obsolete); susceptible to burn-ins

Limitations

Q 11: Write a Short note on Video Drivers and DLP projectors.

A video driver is a piece of software which allows your graphics hardware to communicate with your operating system. Drivers in general allow your computer to utilize parts of it, and without them, the machine would not function. This is because usually a graphics device communicates in its own language, which is more sophisticated, and a computer communicates in its own language, which largely deals with general commands. Therefore, a driver is required to translate between the two, and convert general commands into specific commands, and vice versa, so that each of the devices can understand the instructions and results. Short for Digital Light Processing, a new technology developed by Texas Instruments used for projecting images from a monitor onto a large screen for presentations. Prior to the development of DLP, most computer projection systems were based on LCD technology which tends to produce faded and blurry images. DLP uses tiny mirrors housed on a special kind of microchip called a Digital Micro mirror Device (DMD). The result is sharp images that can be clearly seen even in a normally lit room.

Q 12: Explain the concept of multi-monitors. Explain the features of VGA.

Ans:- Multi-monitor, also called multi-display and multi-head, is the use of multiple physical display devices, such as monitors, televisions, and projectors, in order to increase the area available for computer programs running on a single computer system. The use of two such displays is called dual display, dual screen or dual monitor. Research studies show that, depending on the type of work, multi-head may increase the productivity by up to 40-50%. Multiple Monitor Support has two components: The hardware component and the software one. The following paragraphs take a look at these components in detail. 20

The Hardware Component The hardware component in Multiple Monitor configurations refers to the ability of the display card to support more than one display outputs that can be configured independent of one another. The display card should be able to support and allow resolutions and color depths for each monitor separately. In addition to being able to use the display outputs independently, one should also consider the use of display processor (known as Graphics Processing Units - GPUs) to drive the outputs. The GPUs reside on the display card and the cards can "time-share" the GPUs to the display outputs or can have dedicated GPUs per display output. For display intensive applications, dedicated GPUs per display output gives a better performance than the time-shared one. The other factor to consider is the amount of memory available to each of the GPU. The amount of memory directly affects the display resolution and color depth. As a side note, a true color (32-bit color) 1024 x 768 display resolution requires 3MB of display memory per monitor. Most of the new laptops have dual-monitor support built-in. The laptop display forms one monitor and the additional display output forms the second monitor output that can be connected to the projector. The Software Components Once you have the necessary hardware in your machine, its the turn of the software to recognize the hardware's capabilities and utilize them. The Operating System The operating system (like Microsoft Windows) needs to recognize multi-monitor configurations and provide a vendor-neutral way of accessing the features of such configurations. The applications (such as PowerPoint) use this vendor-neutral way to provide better features. Microsoft Windows 98, Me, Windows 2000, XP, 2003 all have built-in support to recognize multi-monitor configurations.

Features of VGA (Video Graphics Array)

There are cleared stream to external multimedia devices such as TV sets or DVD players through a dedicated VGA port. VGA is widely used computer graphics format which provides high definition 1080p output. VGA cable products are still widely used as not all modern TVs support 1:1 pixel mapping technology presented by HDMI. It provides brighter and better performance when using VGA technology. VGA cable performance is also better when used with gaming consoles such as Xbox 360 or Sony PS3. There are certain drawbacks of VGA cable technology that with VGA cable, you need to connect external audio cable which is pretty annoying.

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Q 13: Explain the importance of digital recording techniques. Encode the bit stream 01101101 as Non return to zero and as in differential Manchester encoding.
Ans:- In a digital recording system, sound is stored and manipulated as a stream of discrete numbers, each number representing the air pressure at a particular time. The numbers are generated by a microphone connected to a circuit called an ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER, or ADC. Each number is called a SAMPLE, and the number of samples taken per second is the SAMPLE RATE. Ultimately, the numbers will be converted back into sound by a DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER or DAC, connected to a loudspeaker.

Digital devices usually require less maintenance than analog equipment. The electrical characteristics of most circuit elements change with time and temperature, and minor changes slowly degrade the performance of analog circuits. Digital components either work or don't, and it is much easier to find a chip that has failed entirely than one that is merely 10% off spec. Many analog systems are mechanical in nature, and simple wear can soon cause problems. Digital systems have few moving parts, and such parts are usually designed so that a little vibration or speed variation is not important. For digital cassettes, the read/write head moves as well as the tape in order to maintain a high enough speed to keep the bits at a manageable size. For optical disc recording technologies such as CDs or DVDs, a laser is used to burn microscopic holes into the dye layer of the medium. A weaker laser is used to read these signals. This works because the metallic substrate of the disc is reflective, and the unburned dye prevents reflection while the holes in the dye permit it, allowing digital data to be represented. In addition, digitally encoded information is more durable than analog information, again because circuits are responding only to the presence or absence of something rather than to the precise characteristics of anything. As you have seen, it is possible to design digital systems so that they can actually reconstruct missing or incorrect data. You can hear every little imperfection on an LP, but minor damage is not audible with a CD. Differential Manchester encoding (also known as CDP; Conditioned Diphase encoding) is a method of encoding data in which data and clock signals are combined to form a single self-synchronizing data stream. It is a differential, using the presence or absence of transitions to indicate logical value. A '1' bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal equal to the last half of the previous bit's signal i.e. no transition at the start of the bit-time. A '0' bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal opposite to the last half of the previous bit's signal i.e. a zero bit is indicated by a transition at the beginning of the bit-time. In the middle of the bit-time there is always a transition, whether from high to low, or low to high. A reversed scheme is possible, and no advantage is given by using either scheme. A related method is Manchester encoding in which the meaningful transitions are the mid-bit ones, and these encode data by their direction (positive-negative is one value; negative-positive is the other).

Q 14: Explain in detail the significance and working of keyboard and status generator.
Ans:- The significance of the keyboard is that through it you communicate with the brain of the computer to make it do your bidding. Without the keyboard you would have no means of communicating with the computer to make it do what you needed. Two nice features of the keyboard are the number keypad for those that are familiar with 10key, and the function keys which allow the user to utilize shortcuts. The keyboard is an essential part of the computing system which is lying on the concept of typewriter keyboard having arrangement of buttons and keys working as electronic switches and mechanical levers. Consumers of 22

electronic devices and systems should know that keyboard is a input device of the computing system. One should know that the keyboard is having characters engraved and printed on these keys as every pressing key typically showing single written symbol. Most of the keys of the keyboard release letters, numbers, and signs. Not only this many keys are manufactured for showing actions and computer commands in computing industries.

Keyboards use a variety of switch technologies. Capacitive switches are considered to be non-mechanical because they do not physically complete a circuit like most other keyboard technologies. Instead, current constantly flows through all parts of the key matrix. Each key is spring-loaded and has a tiny plate attached to the bottom of it. When you press a key, it moves this plate closer to the plate below it. As the two plates move closer together, the amount of current is flowing through the matrix changes. The processor detects the change and interprets it as a key press for that location. Capacitive switch keyboards are expensive, but they have a longer life than any other keyboard. Also, they do not have problems with bounce since the two surfaces never come into actual contact. Signal generators, also known variously as function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators or frequency generators are electronic devices that generate repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electro acoustic devices; though they often have artistic uses as well.

There are many different types of signal generators, with different purposes and applications (and at varying levels of expense); in general, no device is suitable for all possible applications. Traditionally, signal generators have been embedded hardware units, but since the age of multimedia-PCs, flexible, programmable software tone generators have also been available.

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Q 15: Explain the difference between synchronous and asynchronous buses with proper timing diagram.
Ans:- Synchronous occurs at regular intervals. The opposite of synchronous is asynchronous. Most communication between computers and devices is asynchronous -- it can occur at any time and at irregular intervals. Communication within a computer, however, is usually synchronous and is governed by the microprocessor clock. Signals along the bus, for example, can occur only at specific points in the clock cycle.

Synchronous Bus Transmitter and receivers are synchronized of clock. Data bits are transmitted with synchronization of clock. Character is received at constant Rate. Data transfer takes place in block. Start and stop bit are required to establish communication of each character Used in high-speed transmission.

Asynchronous Bus Transmitters and receivers are not synchronized by clock. Bits of data are transmitted at constant rate. Character may arrive at any rate at receiver. Data transfer is character oriented. Start and stop bits are required to establish communication of each character. Used in low-speed transmission.

Asynchronous communications This is the method most widely used for PC or simple terminal serial communications. In asynchronous serial communication, the electrical interface is held in the mark position between characters. The start of transmission of a character is signaled by a drop in signal level to the space level. At this point, the receiver starts its clock. After one bit time (the start bit) come 8 bits of true data followed by one or more stop bits at the mark level. The receiver tries to sample the signal in the middle of each bit time. The byte will be read correctly if the line is still in the intended state when the last stop bit is read. Thus the transmitter and receiver only have to have approximately the same clock rate. A little arithmetic will show that for a 10 bit sequence, the last bit will be interpreted correctly even if the sender and receiver clocks differ by as much as 5%. Asynchronous is relatively simple, and therefore inexpensive. However, it has a high overhead, in that each byte carries at least two extra bits: a 25% loss of line bandwidth. A 56kbps line can only carry 5600 bytes/second asynchronously, in ideal conditions.

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Synchronous communications In synchronous communications, data is not sent in individual bytes, but as frames of large data blocks. Frame sizes vary from a few bytes through 1500 bytes for Ethernet or 4096 bytes for most Frame Relay systems. The clock is embedded in the data stream encoding, or provided on separate clock lines such that the sender and receiver are always in synchronization during a frame transmission. Most modern WAN framing is built on the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) frame structure. An HDLC frame has the following general structure:

CRC BYTES FLAG The flag is a FLAG ADDRESS CONTROL DATA PAYLOAD sequence 01111110 which delimits the start of the frame. A technique known as bit stuffing is used to insert additional zeros into the data so that a flag sequence never appears anywhere but at the start and end of a frame. These extra bits are "unstuffed" again by the receiver. The address field is usually one byte, but may be more. It is used to indicate the sender or intended receiver of the frame. It is possible to have multiple stations connected to a single wire, and to design the system so that each receiver only "sees" frames with its own address. By this means multiple stations can communicate with each other using just one line (for instance on a Local Area Network).

Advantages

Disadvantages

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Asynchronous transmission

Synchronous transmission

Simple, doesn't require synchronization of both communication sides Cheap, because Asynchronous transmission require less hardware Set-up is faster than other transmissions, so well suited for applications where messages are generated at irregular intervals, for example data entry from the keyboard and the speed depends on different applications. Lower overhead and thus, greater throughput

Large relative overhead, a high proportion of the transmitted bits are uniquely for control purposes and thus carry no useful information

Slightly more complex Hardware is more expensive

Q 16: Explain different types of ROM. Draw a diode ROM which transfer from 3 bit memory code to access 3 code value.
Ans:- Computer memory on which data has been pre-recorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as being non-volatile, whereas RAM is volatile. Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programs such as the program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are used extensively in calculators and peripheral devices such as laser printers, whose fonts are often stored in ROMs. Types of ROM Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or anti fuses) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factoryerased before they are packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases). Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again needs higher voltage (usually around 12 V) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be used as non-volatile storage for critical system setup information; in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM supplied by mains power and backed-up with a lithium battery. Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with 26

a capacity as high as 32 GB as of 2007; this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash drives). Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM or flash EEPROM when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.

Q 17: Explain IRQ.

Ans:- Stands for "Interrupt Request." PCs use interrupt requests to manage various hardware operations. Devices such as sound cards, modems, and keyboards can all send interrupt requests to the processor. For example, when the modem needs to run a process, it sends an interrupt request to the CPU saying, "Hey, hold up, and let me do my thing!" The CPU then interrupts its current job to let the modem run its process. It is important to assign different IRQ addresses to different hardware devices is because the interrupt request signals run along single IRQ lines to a controller. This interrupt controller assigns priorities to incoming IRQs and sends them to the CPU. It's kind of like taking a number at the local deli, except the hardware usually only has to wait a couple of nanoseconds instead of like twenty minutes). Since the interrupt controller can control only one device per IRQ line, if you assign the same IRQ address to multiple devices, you are likely to get an IRQ conflict. This can cause a range of errors from not allowing network connections to crashing your computer. So make sure you assign unique IRQs to new hardware you install and avoid the frustration and keyboard throwing that conflicts can cause. Alternatively; In a computer, an interrupt request (or IRQ) is a hardware signal sent to the processor that temporarily stops a running program and allows a special program, an interrupt handler, to run instead. Interrupts are used to handle such events as data receipt from a modem or network, or a key press or mouse movement. The interrupt request level (IRQL) is the priority of an interrupt request.

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Interrupt lines are often identified by an index with the format of IRQ followed by a number. For example, on the Intel 8259 family of PICs there are eight interrupt inputs commonly referred to as IRQ0 through IRQ7 typically, on systems using the Intel 8259, 16 IRQs are used. IRQs 0 to 7 are managed by one Intel 8259 PIC, and IRQs 8 to 15 by a second Intel 8259 PIC. The first PIC, the master, is the only one that directly signals the CPU. The second PIC, the slave, instead signals to the master on its IRQ 2 line, and the master passes the signal on to the CPU. There are therefore only 15 interrupt request lines available for hardware. On early APIC systems with only 16 IRQs or with only Intel 8259 interrupt controllers, PCI interrupt lines were routed to the 16 IRQs using a PIR integrated into the south-bridge.

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On newer systems using the Intel APIC Architecture, typically there are 24 IRQs available, and the extra 8 IRQs are used to route PCI interrupts, avoiding conflict between dynamically configured PCI interrupts and statically configured ISA interrupts.

Q 18: What is device driver and explain its role?

Ans:- In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver typically communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware-dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface.

A device driver simplifies programming by acting as translator between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it. Programmers can write the higher-level application code independently of whatever specific hardware the end-user is using the role of device drivers is to act as a code through which the device interfaces with the operating system. It is a program that performs the function of controlling ant device that is attached to the computer. They are small files that are required by parts of the computer such as the keyboard, the mouse and the graphic cards.

Some Windows programs are virtual device drivers. These programs interface with the Windows Virtual Machine Manager. There is a virtual device driver for each main hardware device in the system, including the hard disk drive controller, keyboard, and serial and parallel ports. They're used to maintain the status of a hardware device that has changeable settings. Virtual device drivers handle software interrupts from the system rather than hardware interrupts.

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Q 19: Explain the design of any peripheral device with computer system.
Ans:- In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.

The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various systemdependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface. A mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). Clicking or hovering (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called "icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook, and clicking while the cursor hovers this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window) Users can also employ mice gutturally; meaning that a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself, called a "gesture", can issue a command or map to a specific action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x" motion over a shape might delete the shape. Gestural interfaces occur more rarely than plain pointing-and-clicking; and people often find them more difficult to use, because they require finer motor-control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread

Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application-domains. In interactive three-dimensional graphics, the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate, so that all sides can be examined.

Q 20: Explain Video Adapter Card and its components.

Ans:- A video card (also called a video adapter, display card, graphics card, graphics board, display adapter or graphics adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed of output images to a display. Most video cards offer various functions such as accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, Video hardware can be integrated into the motherboard or the CPU (often called integrated graphics), but most modern desktop motherboards and many 30

laptop motherboards also provide expansion ports to which a video card can be connected. With integrated graphics, the

Graphics processor shares system resources and power supply with the CPU, so performance is usually less than a dedicated card, but while also using less power. Graphics Processing Unit A graphics processing unit (GPU), also occasionally called visual processing unit (VPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the building of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display. A video card is also a computer unto itself. Heat Sink

A graphics card heat sink with two fans from Arctic. A heat sink is mounted on most modern graphics cards. A heat sink spreads out the heat produced by the graphics processing unit evenly throughout the heat sink and unit itself. The heat sink commonly has a fan mounted as well to cool the heat sink and the graphics processing unit. Not all cards have heat sinks, for example, some cards are liquid cooled, and instead have a water block; additionally, older cards did not produce as much heat, and many do not have a heat sink.

Video BIOS

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The video BIOS or firmware contains a minimal program for initial set up and control of the video card. It may contain information on the memory timing, operating speeds and voltages of the graphics processor, RAM, and other details which can sometimes be changed. The usual reason for doing this is to over clock the video card to allow faster video processing speeds, however, this has the potential to irreversibly damage the card with the possibility of cascaded damage to the motherboard. The modern Video BIOS does not support all the functions of the video card, being only sufficient to identify and initialize the card to display one of a few frame buffer or text display modes. It does not support, YUV to RGB translation, video scaling, pixel copying, compositing or any of the multitude of other 2D and 3D features of the video card.

Video memory Type DDR Memory clock rate (MHz) Bandwidth (GB/s) 166 950 1.2 3.04 128 200 80 230

DDR2 2000 3600 GDDR5 900 5700

The memory capacity of most modern video cards ranges from 128 MB to 8 GB.[1][2] Since video memory needs to be accessed by the GPU and the display circuitry, it often uses special high-speed or multi-port memory, such as VRAM, WRAM, SGRAM, etc.Video memory may be used for storing other data as well as the screen image, such as the Zbuffer, which manages the depth coordinates in 3D graphics, textures, vertex buffers, and compiled shaded program

Q 21: Draw the schematic diagram to show how to add word to a memory. Explain with example.

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Ans:To see how registers, memory, and second storage all work together, let us use the analogy of making a salad. In our kitchen we have: a refrigerator where we store our vegetables for the salad; a counter where we place all of our veggies before putting them on the cutting board for chopping; a cutting board on the counter where we chop the vegetables; a recipe that details what veggies to chop; the corners of the cutting board are kept free for partially chopped piles of veggies that we intend to chop more or to mix with other partially chopped veggies. a bowl on the counter where we mix and store the salad; space in the refrigerator to put the mixed salad after it is made. The process of making the salad is then: bring the veggies from the fridge to the counter top; place some veggies on the chopping board according to the recipe; chop the veggies, possibly storing some partially chopped veggies temporarily on the corners of the cutting board; place all the veggies in the bowl to either put back in the fridge or put directly on the dinner table. The refrigerator is the equivalent of secondary (disk) storage. It can store high volumes of veggies for long periods of time. The counter top is the equivalent of the computer's motherboard everything is done on the counter (inside the computer). The cutting board is the ALU - the work gets done there. The recipe is the control unit - it tells you what to do on the cutting board (ALU).Note that the counter top (RAM) is faster to access than the fridge (disk), but cannot hold as much, and cannot hold it for long periods of time. The corners of the cutting board where we temporarily store partially chopped veggies are equivalent to the registers.

Q 22: Draw the schematic diagram of many to 1 decoder matrix with inputs from 3 flip-flops and output to 8 lines.
Ans:- Decoder expansion Combine two or more small decoders with enable inputs to form a larger decoder e.g. 3-to-8-line decoder constructed from two 2-to-4-line decoders. Decoder with enable input can function as demultiplexer. 3:8 decoders It uses all AND gates, and therefore, the outputs are active- high. For active- low outputs, NAND gates are used. It has 3 input lines and 8 output lines. It is also called as binary to octal decoder it takes a 3-bit binary input code and activates one of the 8(octal) outputs corresponding to that code. The truth table is as follows:

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Table : Truth Table of 3:8 decoder

Fig : Logic Diagram of 3:8 decoder

Q23:Show how interfacing is done for 8 word 2-bit memory with cpu.

8 word-2 bit Memory

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 0 1

A2 A1 A0

3-8

2
3

2
3

Decoder

4
5 6 7

4
5 6 7

E CE OE

D1

D0

To form an 8 word 2 bit memory, there are 3 address lines and 2 data lines. The chip enable input CE is connected to decoder .Read/Write input is also applied for read and write functions. 34

Q:24Using 8 word 1 bit IC memory show the interfacing with cpu as 16 word 3 bit.

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