Zrvizsga ttelek I. sszesen 12 ttel (6 irodalom s trtnelem, valamint 6 nyelvszet) a trzsanyagbl Irodalom s trtnelem: As for topics 1, 2, 3, and !

, compare and contrast t"ree #orks of $o%r o#n c"oice #it" special reference to t"e literar$ and "istorical conte&t and t"e c%lt%ral 'ackgro%nd( 1( A Survey of Medieval and Early Modern Poetry Beowulf, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, )"a%cer: t"ree tales from Canterbury Tales, *"akespeare+s sonnets, ,etap"$sical -oetr$ ./o"n 0onne: 12"e 3lea4, 5ol$ *onnet 6I7 89:atter m$ 5eart(((9;, <eorge 5er'ert: 9=aster >ings9, Andre# ,arvell: 92o "is )o$ ,istress9?@ ,ilton: Paradise Lost: Book I, II, III IX@ 0r$den: !"le!knoe@ -ope: #a$e of the Lo!k@ %ssay on Criti!is& or =pistle 1 from %ssay on an 2( Early Modern Drama %'ery&an, ,arlo#e: (r "austus, *"akespeare: )ight*s (rea&, +a&let, :en /onson: -ol$one idsu&&er

3( A Survey of 19th and 20th Century Poetry and Drama Ane poem '$ :lake, >ords#ort", )oleridge, *"elle$, Beats, 5ard$, Ceats, =liot, Darkin, 5eane$@ one pla$ '$ -inter, :eckett ( A Survey of 19th and 20th Century Novel =mil$ :rontE: .uthering +eights, )"arlotte :rontE: /ane %yre@ 0ickens: Great %0$e!tations@ one c"apter from /o$ce+s 1lysses@ 7irginia >oolf: rs (alloway@ Baz%o Is"ig%ro: The #e&ains of the (ay !( A Survey of American Literature : N. a!thorne" The !arlet "etter, =(A, -oe: 92"e :lack )at9, ,ark 2#ain: The 2d'entures of +u!kleberry "inn, 5enr$ /ames: The Turn of the S!rew, #. Scott #it$%erald" The #reat #atsby, =( 5eming#a$ In 3ur Ti&e, >( 3a%lkner: 4A Fose for =mil$4, 2oni ,orrison: Belo'ed@ &. 'illiam(" $ treet!ar %amed &esire, =( AGHeill: Long (ay5s /ourney Into )ight, A( ,iller: (eath of a Sales&an@ one poem '$: Anne :radstreet, -oe, >"itman, 0ickinson, Fo'ert 3rost, )arl *and'%rg, 2( *( =liot, =( -o%nd, D( 5%g"es, >( )( >illiams, =( =( )%mmings, >( *tevens, A( <ins'erg, *( -lat" I( )riti(h and American i(tory 2alk a'o%t and t"en 'riefl$ compare and contrast t"ese t#o: *%per po#er stat%s of :ritain .t"e road to s%per po#er stat%s 1!JJK, all t"e #a$ till t"e disesta'lis"ment of t"e :ritis" =mpire after >>II?@ s%per po#er stat%s of t"e L*A .t"e road to s%per po#er stat%s from >>I %ntil )linton+s presidenc$?(
a superpower is a state that has a leading position in the international system, capable of projecting significant military power anywhere in the world During World War II, due to the stresses of the war and numerous independence movements among its colonies, the British Empire fell from its place as a superpower, leaving only the United States and the Soviet Union !or the ne"t few decades, throughout the time #nown as the $old War, the rivalry between the remaining superpowers, the US and the USS%, set the tenor for world politics & war between these two countries could have #illed hundreds of millions of people and left hundreds of cities in ruin, but luc#ily this never happened

1917: World War I started in 1914, but the United States did not join the war until 1917. This war involved the Allies ( ussia, !ran"e, and the United #in$do%& and the 'entral (owers ()er%an* and Austria+,un$ar*&. This war bro-e out due to the .oli"ies o/ several 0uro.ean e%.ires. 1919: 2n 2"tober 14, 1919, a sto"- %ar-et "rash o""urred in the United States. This event was the be$innin$ o/ the )reat 3e.ression, whi"h lasted /or ten *ears. 1941: 2n 3e"e%ber 7, 1941, 4a.anese /or"es atta"-ed (earl ,arbor, a ,awaiian naval base. This atta"- was an atte%.t to -ee. the U.S. 5av* /ro% inter/erin$ with 4a.anese %ilitar* a"tions. 1944: 3+3a* o""urred on 4une 6, 1944. This was a %ajor vi"tor* /or Allied troo.s in World War II, but %ore than 9,777 soldiers were wounded or -illed. 1948: In 1948, s"ientists built the /irst ato%i" bo%b as a .art o/ the 9anhattan (roje"t. The total "ost o/ this .roje"t was %ore than :1 billion. 1987: The #orean War started in 1987 and lasted until 198;. It was a war between the 3e%o"rati" (eo.le<s e.ubli" o/ #orea and the e.ubli" o/ #orea. U.S. troo.s su..orted the e.ubli" o/ #orea in this war. 1988: The =ietna% War started in 1988 and lasted until 1978. The "on/li"t was between 5orth =ietna% and South =ietna%. The United States su..orted South =ietna% in this war. 1961: In 1961, a s.* .lane dis"overed that the Soviet Union was buildin$ nu"lear %issiles in 'uba. (resident #enned* .la"ed a naval blo"-a$e around the island to .revent the Soviet Union /ro% brin$in$ in %ore su..lies. A/ter thirteen da*s, the Soviet Union a$reed to ta-e down the wea.on sites i/ the United States would not invade 'uba. 1969: A.ollo 11 was the /irst %anned s.a"e"ra/t to land on the %oon. >u?? Aldrin and 5eil Ar%stron$ too- the /irst ste.s on the %oon on 4ul* 17, 1969. 1997: The (ersian )ul/ War be$an in 1997 and lasted until earl* 1991. This war o""urred as a res.onse to Ira@ invadin$ #uwait. 1777: In the 1777 ele"tion, )eor$e >ush won the .residen"* even thou$h Al )ore won %ore .o.ular votes. The ele"tion results were "hallen$ed, but >ush eventuall* too- o//i"e. ,e was ele"ted to a se"ond ter% in 1774.

1771: 2n Se.te%ber 11, 1771, terrorists too- "ontrol o/ /our air.lanes. The* "rashed two .lanes into the World Trade 'enter in 5ew Aor- and one .lane into the (enta$on. The /ourth .lane "rashed in Shan-sville, (enns*lvania. This was the deadliest atta"- ever to o""ur on A%eri"an soil. >orld >ar I 2"e L* "ad maintained a ne%tral stand in t"e #ar( It #as %nder t"e leaders"ip of -resident >oodro# >ilson, #"o #as a peace lover and #anted to avoid t"e #ar( 5o#ever, <erman$Gs constant s%'marine #arfare on L* passenger s"ips and its attempt to trigger t"e L*K,e&ico #ar again ca%sed t"e former to declare #ar on <erman$( 5ence L* inadvertentl$ got involved in t"e <reat >ar( 2o #eaken t"e :ritis", <erman$ started targeting all t"e cargo s"ips coming to#ards =ngland #it" t"eir LK:oats .s%'marines?( =vent%all$, t"e$ started targeting an$ vessel t"at #as "eading to#ards =ngland( In t"is #arfare, it sank t"e :ritis" cr%ise s"ip D%sitania #"ic" killed 11MJ passengers in #"ic" 12J #ere Americans( 2"is incident #as instr%mental in p%s"ing America to #ar( Attack on -earl 5ar'or: L* =nters >orld >ar II 2"e L* #as merel$ a spectator, or rat"er a secret s%pporter of :ritain in >orld >ar II( 5o#ever, t"e attack on -earl 5ar'or c"anged its stance( An 0ecem'er N, 1M 1, at least 3!3 /apanese #ar planes attacked -earl 5ar'or ca%sing grave damage and killing more t"an 2OOO L* officers( 2"is incident #as t"e last stra# and it entered t"e >orld >ar II as an active mem'er, t"ere'$ leading to t"e 'om'ing of 5iros"ima and Hagasaki( 2"e >orld >ar II #as 'igger t"an an$ conflict t"at mankind "ad ever seen( It #as one of t"e most disastro%s 'attles and ca%sed more deat"s t"an >orld >ar I( It #as t"e first time t"at t"e L* #as an active mem'er and #as t"e onl$ co%ntr$ t"at %sed an atom 'om' in t"e #ar 2"e L* emerged a #inner and a s%per po#er after t"e end of t"is #ar(

'he British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United (ingdom It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late )*th and early )+th centuries &t its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power ,)- By ).// the British Empire held sway over about 01+ million people, one2fifth of the world3s population at the time ,/- 'he empire covered more than 44,566,666 #m / 7)4,6)/,666 s8 mi9, almost a 8uarter of the Earth3s total land area ,4-,0- &s a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread &t the pea# of its power, the phrase :the empire on which the sun never sets: was often used to describe the British Empire, because its e"panse across the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories During the &ge of Discovery in the )1th and )*th centuries, ;ortugal and Spain pioneered European e"ploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, !rance, and the <etherlands, began to establish colonies and trade networ#s of their own in the &mericas and &sia ,1- & series of wars in the )5th and )+th

centuries with the <etherlands and !rance left England 7and then, following union between England and Scotland in )565, =reat Britain9 the dominant colonial power in <orth &merica and India 'he independence of the 'hirteen $olonies in <orth &merica in )5+4 after the &merican %evolutionary War caused Britain to lose of some of its oldest and most populous colonies British attention soon turned towards &sia, &frica, and the ;acific !ollowing the defeat of <apoleonic !rance in )+)1, Britain enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and e"panded its imperial holdings across the globe Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were reclassified as dominions By the end of the ).th century =ermany and the United States had eroded Britain3s economic lead Subse8uent military and economic tensions between Britain and =ermany were major causes of the!irst World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire 'he conflict placed enormous financial and population strain on Britain, and although the empire achieved its largest territorial e"tent immediately after the war, it was no longer a peerless industrial or military power In the Second World War, Britain3s colonies in South2East &sia were occupied by >apan Despite the eventual victory of Britain and its allies, this damaged British prestige and accelerated the decline of the empire British India, Britain3s most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence two years after the end of the war &fter the end of the Second World War, as part of a larger decolonisation movement, Britain granted independence to most of the territories of the British Empire 'his process ended with the political transfer of ?ong (ong to $hina in )..5 'he )0British @verseas 'erritories remain under British sovereignty &fter independence, many former British colonies joined the $ommonwealth of <ations, a free association of independent states Si"teen $ommonwealth nations share their head of state, Aueen EliBabeth II, as $ommonwealth realms

&fter World War II Britain could no longer afford the e"pense of administering one 8uarter of the worlds population , it wanted to protect its own land which comprised )C*66 th area of World , the current U( &lso, as a result of the war,British understood that the various peoples of the empire 7and the other European empires as well9 are capable and deserving of governing themselves 'hese empires could not be #ept 8uiet anymore by giving the e"cuse that : these countries are incapable of governing themselves: as they had started demanding either through armed rebellion or peaceful protest and politics ,the right to be self governing dominions within the commonwealth Some of the $ountries literally drove the British out of their $ounties ?aving just fought, and been nearly ban#rupted by, the British could hardly deny them their right to administer their own land

H$elvszet: 1( Mor*holo%y 1" a( 7er's a? Hotional 1( form interrogative and negative sentences #it" t"e "elp of Pdo+ 2( "ave got meanings of t"eir o#n '? a%&iliaries 1( "aven+t got an$ meanings 2( form int( and neg( sentences #it" inversion '( 3initeKHon 3inite 3orms a? 3inite forms can indicate person, n%m'er, aspect, tense, mood( Q conR%gationS '? HonKfinite forms are: participle .I can see a 'o$ reading a 'ook(? infinitive .5e #as reported to live in Africa(? and ger%nd .Feading is %sef%l(? c( A%&iliaries a? 2emporal: "elp to form tense@ voice@ aspect T5e I* going to t"e s"op(T '? ,odal: give vario%s s"ades of meaning .Co% 5A7=,H==0 to solve t"is pro'lem(? d( Hotional ver's e( )ategories of 2ime and 2ense( a? 2ime is p"ilosop"ical #"ile tense is grammatical( 2ense is a ver' form t"at indicates time relation( '? i(e(: present tense can indicate f%t%re time: 2"e train arrives at ! am( c? -rimar$ tenses: simple, contin%o%s d? *econdar$ tenses: perfectTrelative tenses 2( Mor*holo%y 2" a( Hominal str%ct%res : a( Ho%ns: simple, compo%nd, derivative .from ver's: teac"er, adRectives: greatness ? .)onversion: -rotestant, <erman? pl%rals: isolated, m%tated, Ken, %ninflected, foreign -l%ralia tant%m Q al#a$s in pl%ral .dominoes, m%mps? '( AdRectives: simple, compo%nd .sno#K#"ite?, derivative .nervo%s?, participle i( )omparison: positive, comparative, s%perlative a( *$nt"etical .monos$lla'ic adR( U $,o#,le,er,some? Tanal$tical .dis$lla'ic or more adR(? c( Adver's: adver's of degree K conversion .It is prett$ "ot in "ere(? adver's of manner QPKl$+ . *"e is prettil$ dressed(? i( 3%nctions: modification .I am rat"er tired(? and semantic classif( . adver's of place, time, freV%enc$ etc(? d( -rono%ns: attri'%tive .2"is "o%se is 'ig(? T s%'stantive .2"is is a "o%se(? i( -ersonal prono%ns Tanap"oric I2? e( Articles: definite .%niV%e t"ings, defining f%nction, anap"oric Q refers 'ack, deictic?Tindefinite .n%merical, individ%alizing, classif$ing? T$ero .co%nta'le no%ns in pl%ral: >omen like c"ildren(? 3( Syntactic cate%orie("

a( *imple: one cla%se .W gro%p of #ords t"at 'elong toget"er? and ,%ltiple *entences: 2 or more cla%ses 1( compo%nd . 2 or more independent cla%ses .s%'Rect U predicate? #it" a coordinator T and , '%t, orT 2( comple& . main cla%se U a s%'ordinated c(? '( )ompo%ndT)omple& c( =lliptic *entences d( HonKfinite )la%ses: to replace cla%ses@ active and passive forms and present and perfect forms a( <er%nd: I insist on doing it( '( Infinitive: )an occ%r #it" or #it"o%t Pto+( Tplain infinitiveT i( 5e came "ere to give some information(priorit$ ii( -resent inf: sim%lt( -erfect inf: c( -articiple: =ating a sand#ic" -eter entered t"e room( <er%nd .intentional? infinitive .%nintentional? ( Phonetic( and *honolo%y 1" a( 2"e =nglis" vo#el s$stem: al#a$s voiced, no o'str%ction a( V%alit$ and V%antit$ ro%nded, %nro%nded 5ig" ,id lo# 3ront i: i e Z )entral X .red%ced vo#el? 3: :ack %: % Y o: a: o

'( monop"t"ongs and dip"t"ongs, t"eir distri'%tion( i( ,onop"tongs: tong%e sta$s in same place ii( 0ipt"ongs: tong%e moves from one place to anot"er 1( closing d: fronting .ei, ai, oi? 'acking: .a%, X%? 2( centring d(: end in X !( Phonetic( and *honolo%y 2" a( 2"e =nglis" consonant s$stem: a( A'str%ents: man$ o'stacles i( ,anner: fricativesT affricatesT plosives Q can 'e voiced or voicedless '( *onorants: less o'stacles i( Hasal stopsT liV%idsT glides Qal#a$s voiced c( maRor p"onotactic constraints 5AH0AL2SSS +. ,ri%in( and develo*ment of the En%li(h lan%ua%e" 2"e main c"aracteristics of =arl$ ,odern =nglis" : 3rom t"e 'eginning of 1It" cent%r$ -ron%nciation c"anged t"e most 2ransition from ,iddle =nglis" *pelling 'ecame fi&ed . printing? 2"e <reat 7o#el *"ift Q all vo#els c"anged

maRor differences 'et#een :ritis" =nglis" and Am=: S*ellin% : color vs( colo%r, 'e"avior vs( 'e"avio%r, t"eater vs( t"eatre( &erminolo%y : tr%ck vs( lorr$, cart vs( trolle$, t#o #eeks vs( a fortnig"t( Conce*t( : #"at is football an$#a$ [ American foot'all, soccer, or .for t"e tr%l$ 'rave? A%ssie r%les\ Slan% : do $o% call t"is sport 9footie9\ A--reviation( : do readers kno# t"at -AW-enns$lvania\ Hot if t"e$Gre o%tside t"e L(*(

II( Ttele' a s(vos t(rgya'bl H$elvszet 1. S$emanti.a /( *ra%mati.a" 1( Feference, inference, conte&t@ 2( De&ical relations .s$non$m$, "omon$m$, anton$m$, "$pon$m$, "$peron$m$, le&ical fields? and semantic s"ifts .metap"or and meton$m$?@ 3( =ntailment, pres%pposition, implicat%re@ ( Approac"es to t"e st%d$ of sentence meaning, !( *peec" as action@ I( 2"eories of meaning interpretation .semantic traits and stat%ses, componential anal$sis, protot$pe t"eor$?(

Beowulf Summary
The .oe% be$ins with a brie/ $enealo$* o/ the 3anes. S"*ld She/in$ was the /irst $reat -in$ o/ the 3anes, -nown /or his abilit* to "on@uer ene%ies. S"*ld be"o%es the $reat+ $rand/ather o/ ,roth$ar, the -in$ o/ the 3anes durin$ the events o/ >eowul/. ,roth$ar, li-e his an"estors be/ore hi%, is a $ood -in$, and he wishes to "elebrate his rei$n b* buildin$ a $rand hall "alled ,eorot. 2n"e the hall is /inished, ,roth$ar holds a lar$e /east. The revelr* attra"ts the attentions o/ the %onster )rendel, who de"ides to atta"- durin$ the ni$ht. In the %ornin$, ,roth$ar and his thanes dis"over the bloodshed and %ourn the lost warriors. This be$ins )rendelBs assault u.on the 3anes. Twelve *ears .ass. 0ventuall* the news o/ )rendelBs a$$ression on the 3anes rea"hes the )eats, another tribe. A )eat thane, >eowul/, de"ides to hel. the 3anesC he sails to the land o/ the 3anes with his best warriors. U.on their arrival, ,roth$arBs thane Wul/$ar jud$es the )eats worth* enou$h to s.ea- with ,roth$ar. ,roth$ar re%e%bers when he hel.ed >eowul/Bs /ather 0"$theow settle a /eudC thus, he wel"o%es >eowul/Bs hel. $ladl*. ,eorot is /illed on"e a$ain /or a lar$e /east in honor o/ >eowul/. 3urin$ the /east, a thane na%ed Un/erth tries to $et into a boastin$ %at"h with >eowul/ b* a""usin$ hi% o/ losin$ a swi%%in$ "ontest. >eowul/ tells the stor* o/ his heroi" vi"tor* in the "ontest, and the "o%.an* "elebrates his "oura$e. 3urin$ the hei$ht o/ the "elebration, the 3anish @ueen Wealhtheow "o%es /orth, bearin$ the %ead+"u.. She .resents it /irst to ,roth$ar, then to the rest o/ the hall, and /inall* to >eowul/. As he re"eives the "u., >eowul/ tells Wealhtheow that he will -ill )rendel or be -illed in ,eorot. This si%.le de"laration %oves Wealhtheow and the 3anes, and the revelr* "ontinues. !inall*, ever*one retires. >e/ore he leaves, ,roth$ar .ro%ises to $ive >eowul/ ever*thin$ i/ he "an de/eat )rendel. >eowul/ sa*s that he will leave )od to jud$e the out"o%e. ,e and his thanes slee. in the hall as the* wait /or )rendel. 0ventuall* )rendel arrives at ,eorot as usual, hun$r* /or /lesh. >eowul/ wat"hes "are/ull* as )rendel eats one o/ his %en. When )rendel rea"hes /or >eowul/, >eowul/ $rabs )rendelBs ar% and doesnBt let $o. )rendel writhes about in .ain as >eowul/ $ri.s hi%. ,e thrashes about, "ausin$ the hall to nearl* "olla.se. Soon )rendel tears awa*, leavin$ his ar% in >eowul/Bs $ras.. ,e slin-s ba"- to his lair in the %oors and dies. The 3anes, %eanwhile, "onsider >eowul/ as the $reatest hero in 3anish histor*. ,roth$arBs %instrel sin$s son$s o/ >eowul/ and other $reat "hara"ters o/ the .ast, in"ludin$ Si$e%und (who slew a dra$on& and ,ere%od (who ruled his -in$do% unwisel* and was .unished&. In ,eorot, )rendelBs ar% is nailed to the wall as a tro.h*. ,roth$ar sa*s that >eowul/ will never la"- /or ri"hes, and >eowul/ $ra"iousl* than-s hi%. The horses and %en o/ the )eats are all ri"hl* adorned, in -ee.in$ with ,roth$arBs wishes. Another .art* is held to "elebrate >eowul/Bs vi"tor*. ,roth$arBs %instrel tells another stor* at the /east, the stor* o/ the !risian slau$hter. An an"ient 3anish -in$ had a dau$hter na%ed ,ildeburhC he %arried her to a -in$ o/ the !risians. While ,nae/, ,ildeburhBs brother, visited his sister, the !risians atta"-ed the 3anes, -illin$ ,nae/ and ,ildeburhBs son in the .ro"ess. ,en$est, the neDt leader o/ the 3anes, desired ven$ean"e, and in the s.rin$, the 3anes atta"-ed the !risians, -illin$ their leader and ta-in$ ,ildeburh ba"- to 3en%ar-. A/ter this stor* is told, Wealhtheow .resents a ne"-la"e to ,roth$ar while .leadin$ with her brother+in+law ,rothul/ to hel. her two *oun$ sons i/ the* should ever need it. 5eDt she .resents %an* $olden treasures to >eowul/, su"h as ne"-la"es, "u.s, and rin$s. Soon the /east ends, and ever*one slee.s .ea"e/ull*. In the ni$ht, )rendelBs %other a..roa"hes the hall, wantin$ ven$ean"e /or her son. The warriors .re.ared /or battle, leavin$ enou$h ti%e /or )rendelBs %other to $rab one o/ ,roth$arBs "ounselors and run awa*. When >eowul/ is su%%oned to the hall, he /inds

,roth$ar in %ournin$ /or his /riend Aes"here. ,roth$ar tells >eowul/ where the "reatures li-e )rendel liveEin a shadow*, /ear/ul land within the %oors. >eowul/ .ersuades ,roth$ar to ride with hi% to the %oors. When the* rea"h the ed$e o/ the %oors, >eowul/ "alls /or his ar%or, ta-es a sword /ro% Un/erth, and dives into the la-e. A/ter a lon$ ti%e, >eowul/ rea"hes the botto% o/ the la-e, where )rendelBs %other is waitin$ to atta"-. >eowul/ swin$s his sword, but dis"overs that it "annot "ut her, so he tosses it awa*. The* then wrestle until >eowul/ s.ies a lar$e sword nearb*. ,e $rabs it b* the hilt and swin$sE-illin$ )rendelBs %other b* sli"in$ o// her head. Still in a ra$e, >eowul/ /inds the dead )rendel in the lair and "uts o// his head as a tro.h*. As the* wait, the 3anes have $iven u. all ho.e /or >eowul/ be"ause he has been underwater /or su"h a lon$ ti%e. The* are sho"-ed when >eowul/ returns with )rendelBs head and the hilt o/ the sword (whi"h %elted with the heat o/ )rendelBs blood&. The* bear the hero and his boot* ba"- to ,eorot, where another "elebration ta-es .la"e. >eowul/ re"ounts his battleC ,roth$ar .raises hi% and $ives hi% advi"e on bein$ a -in$. A $rand /east /ollows, and >eowul/ is $iven %ore .ri"eless treasures. The neDt %ornin$, the )eats loo- /orward to leavin$ 3en%ar-. >e/ore the* leave, >eowul/ .ro%ises aid /or ,roth$ar /ro% the 3anes. ,roth$ar .raises >eowul/ and .ro%ises that their lands will have an allian"e /orever. As the )eats leave, ,roth$ar /inds hi%sel/ wishin$ >eowul/ would never leave. The )eats return with %u"h rejoi"in$ to their ho%eland, where their -in$ ,*$ela" and his @ueen ,*$d $reet the%. In an aside, the narrator "o%.ares ,*$d to the @ueen o/ the an"ient 2//a, who is not ta%ed until 2//a "o%es to subju$ate her. >eowul/ tells his lord the events o/ his tri. to 3en%ar-. In the .ro"ess, he tells another stor* that had .reviousl* been un%entioned. ,roth$ar betrothed his dau$hter !reawaru to a .rin"e o/ the ,eathobards in order to settle an old /eud. >eowul/ s.e"ulates that so%eone will $oad this ,eathobard .rin"e to ta-e ven$ean"e u.on the 3anes /or all their .ast wron$s. ,*$ela" .raises >eowul/ /or his braver* and $ives hi% hal/ the -in$do%. The* rule the -in$do% to$ether in .ea"e and .ros.erit*. ,*$ela" is -illed in a battle soon a/ter, so >eowul/ be"o%es -in$ o/ the )eats and rules the -in$do% well. In the /i/tieth *ear o/ >eowul/Bs rei$n, a %onster arises to terrori?e the )eats. A treasure trove was le/t b* an an"ient "ivili?ation, whi"h $uarded it jealousl* until onl* one %e%ber o/ the ra"e was le/t. A/ter the last .ersonBs death, a /ire+breathin$ dra$on /ound the treasure and $uarded it /or three hundred *ears. 2ne da*, a slave stu%bled u.on the treasure and stole a "u. as an o//erin$ to his lord. The dra$on awa-ened to /ind so%ethin$ %issin$ /ro% his treasure, and be$an his ra%.a$e u.on the )eats. 2ne da*, >eowul/ learns that this dra$on has destro*ed his own $reat hall. This atta"sends hi% into dee. thou$ht. Soon he orders a shield to use /or battle, but not without a heav* heart at what %a* ha..en to hi%. ,e re"alls ,*$ela"Bs death in battle and his own narrow es"a.e /ro% this battle. ,e re"alls a nu%ber o/ battles he has seen as he travels to the dra$onBs lair with eleven o/ his thanes. The servant who stole the "u. leads the% to the lair. As the* wait to atta"- the dra$on, >eowul/ re"ounts the )eat ro*al /a%il*Bs .li$ht, in whi"h ,*$ela"Bs oldest brothers -illed ea"h other and le/t their /ather to die o/ a bro-en heart. >eowul/ sa*s he served ,*$ela" well, and a sword (na%ed 5ae$lin$& that he won while servin$ ,*$ela" will hel. hi% save the -in$do% on"e a$ain. >eowul/ leads the "har$e to the dra$onBs "ave. The shield .rote"ts hi% /ro% the dra$onBs /la%es, but his %en /lee in /ear, leavin$ onl* one %an behind. This %an is Wi$la/, >eowul/Bs -ins%an throu$h 0"$theow. Wi$la/ be"o%es an$r*, but swears that he will sta* b* >eowul/Bs side. 4ust then the dra$on rushes u. to the%. >eowul/ and the dra$on swin$ at ea"h other three ti%es, /inall* landin$ %ortal blows u.on ea"h other the last ti%e. The dra$on is beheaded, but >eowul/ is bitten and has a %ortal .oison /ro% the dra$on /lowin$ throu$h his bod* as a result. Wi$la/ bathes his lordBs bod* as >eowul/ s.ea-s on the treasure. ,e sa*s that Wi$la/ should inherit it as his -ins%anC then he dies.

A/ter his death, the "owards return, to be severel* "hastised b* Wi$la/. ,e sends a %essen$er to tell the .eo.le o/ their -in$Bs death. The %essen$er envisions the jo* o/ the )eatsB ene%ies u.on hearin$ o/ the death o/ >eowul/. ,e also sa*s that no %an shall ever have the treasure /or whi"h >eowul/ /ou$ht. Wi$la/ and >eowul/Bs thanes toss the dra$onBs bod* into the sea. The* .la"e the treasure inside a %ound with >eowul/Bs bod* and %ourn /or Fthe ablest o/ all world+-in$s.F Beowulf is the /irst survivin$ e.i" written in the 0n$lish lan$ua$e. The sin$le eDistin$ "o.* o/ the %anus"ri.t dates /ro% the late tenth "entur*, althou$h so%e s"holars believe it dates /ro% the /irst .art o/ the eleventh "entur*. It is /ound in a lar$e volu%e that /eatures stories involvin$ %*thi"al "reatures and .eo.le. Two di//erent s"ribes "o.ied the .oe%, %ost li-el* usin$ an eDistin$ "o.*. >etween 1766 and the e/or%ation, the whole volu%e re%ained in a %onasti" librar* until Sir obert 'otton $ained .ossession o/ it /or his own eDtensive librar*. A /ire "onsu%ed %u"h o/ his librar*, and the volu%e "ontainin$ >eowul/ be"a%e badl* "harred. Toda* the %anus"ri.t still eDists, thou$h it is /allin$ a.art ra.idl* due to the "harrin$ in the /ire. We do not have an* de/inite -nowled$e about the .oet++indeed, we do not even -now the date o/ the .oe%Bs "o%.osition. Throu$h the stud* o/ 2ld 0n$lish verse, %ost s"holars believe that the .oe% was "o%.osed %u"h earlier than the 'otton %anus"ri.t, between 687 and G77. So%e words in >eowul/ do not adhere to the s"ansion o/ 2ld 0n$lish verseC however, usin$ the older /or%s o/ the words, datin$ /ro% the .eriod $iven, "auses the lines to s"an "orre"tl*. Aet a""uratel* datin$ the .oe% is a di//i"ult enter.rise sin"e the .oe% has su"h a derivative @ualit*. It is evident that the >eowul/ .oet wished to .la"e his wor- within an even %ore an"ient tradition. >eowul/ dire"tl* uses %an* an"ient stories that have been .reserved in later teDts, su"h as the le$end o/Si$e%und and the a""ount o/ the war at !innesburh. In addition, the .oe% is written with the traditional e.i" di"tion, with whole .hrases ta-en /ro% the other bards who san$ the le$ends in"or.orated. 3es.ite his borrowin$ /ro% other sour"es, .erha.s in lar$e @uantities, the >eowul/ .oet nonetheless %ana$es to add his own s.e"iali?ed view o/ his "hara"tersB world. !irst and /ore%ost, >eowul/Bs author is a 'hristian, and he %a-es the 'hristian world eDtre%el* visible. ,e alludes to 'ain and the !loodC he shows the 'hristian )odBs in/luen"e u.on the .a$an world o/ the 3anes. Aet he is obviousl* aware o/ his "ultureBs .a$an .ast and atte%.ts to des"ribe it in $reat detail throu$h rituals, su"h as the elaborate )er%ani" sea+burials and the $rand /easts in the %ead+halls, and the ever+.resent belie/ in /ate. Thus >eowul/Bs .oet tries to re"reate the .ast o/ his .eo.le /or his .eo.le, al%ost with a nostal$i" /eelin$ /or the b*$one .a$an da*s.

Sir =awain and the =reen (night During a <ew DearEs Eve feast at (ing &rthurEs court, a strange figure, referred to only as the =reen (night, pays the court an une"pected visit ?e challenges the groupEs leader or any other brave representative to a game 'he =reen (night says that he will allow whomever accepts the challenge to stri#e him with his own a"e, on the condition that the challenger find him in e"actly one year to receive a blow in return Stunned, &rthur hesitates to respond, but when the =reen (night moc#s &rthurEs silence, the #ing steps forward to ta#e the challenge &s soon as &rthur grips the =reen (nightEs a"e, Sir =awain leaps up and as#s to ta#e the challenge himself ?e ta#es hold of the a"e and, in one deadly blow, cuts off the #nightEs head 'o the amaBement of the court, the now2headless =reen (night pic#s up his severed head Before riding away, the head reiterates the terms of the pact, reminding the young =awain to see# him in a year and a day at the =reen $hapel &fter the =reen (night leaves, the company goes bac# to its festival, but =awain is uneasy

'ime passes, and autumn arrives @n the Day of &ll Saints, =awain prepares to leave $amelot and find the =reen (night ?e puts on his best armor, mounts his horse, =ringolet, and starts off toward <orth Wales, traveling through the wilderness of northwest Britain =awain encounters all sorts of beasts, suffers from hunger and cold, and grows more desperate as the days pass @n $hristmas Day, he prays to find a place to hear Fass, then loo#s up to see a castle shimmering in the distance 'he lord of the castle welcomes =awain warmly, introducing him to his lady and to the old woman who sits beside her !or sport, the host 7whose name is later revealed to be Bertila#9 stri#es a deal with =awainG the host will go out hunting with his men every day, and when he returns in the evening, he will e"change his winnings for anything =awain has managed to ac8uire by staying behind at the castle =awain happily agrees to the pact, and goes to bed 'he first day, the lord hunts a herd of does, while =awain sleeps late in his bedchambers @n the morning of the first day, the lordEs wife snea#s into =awainEs chambers and attempts to seduce him =awain puts her off, but before she leaves she steals one #iss from him 'hat evening, when the host gives =awain the venison he has captured, =awain #isses him, since he has won one #iss from the lady 'he second day, the lord hunts a wild boar 'he lady again enters =awainEs chambers, and this time she #isses =awain twice 'hat evening =awain gives the host the two #isses in e"change for the boarEs head 'he third day, the lord hunts a fo", and the lady #isses =awain three times She also as#s him for a love to#en, such as a ring or a glove =awain refuses to give her anything and refuses to ta#e anything from her, until the lady mentions her girdle 'he green sil# girdle she wears around her waist is no ordinary piece of cloth, the lady claims, but possesses the magical ability to protect the person who wears it from death Intrigued, =awain accepts the cloth, but when it comes time to e"change his winnings with the host, =awain gives the three #isses but does not mention the ladyEs green girdle 'he host gives =awain the fo" s#in he won that day, and they all go to bed happy, but weighed down with the fact that =awain must leave for the =reen $hapel the following morning to find the =reen (night <ew DearEs Day arrives, and =awain dons his armor, including the girdle, then sets off with =ringolet to see# the =reen (night & guide accompanies him out of the estate grounds When they reach the border of the forest, the guide promises not to tell anyone if =awain decides to give up the 8uest =awain refuses, determined to meet his fate head2on Eventually, he comes to a #ind of crevice in a roc#, visible through the tall grasses ?e hears the whirring of a grindstone, confirming his suspicion that this strange cavern is in fact the =reen $hapel =awain calls out, and the =reen (night emerges to greet him Intent on fulfilling the terms of the contract, =awain presents his nec# to the =reen (night, who proceeds to feign two blows @n the third feint, the =reen (night nic#s =awainEs nec#, barely drawing blood &ngered, =awain shouts that their contract has been met, but the =reen (night merely laughs 'he =reen (night reveals his name, Bertila#, and e"plains that he is the lord of the castle where =awain recently stayed Because =awain did not honestly e"change all of his winnings on the third day, Bertila# drew blood on his third blow <evertheless, =awain has proven himself a worthy #night, without e8ual in all the land When =awain 8uestions Bertila# further, Bertila# e"plains that the old woman at the castle is really Forgan le !aye, =awainEs aunt and (ing &rthurEs half sister She sent the =reen (night on his original errand and used her magic to change Bertila#Es appearance %elieved to be alive but e"tremely guilty about his sinful failure to tell the whole truth, =awain wears the girdle on his arm as a reminder of his own failure ?e returns to &rthurEs court, where all the #nights join =awain, wearing girdles on their arms to show their support

'he alliterative poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, li#ely written in the mid to late fourteenth century, survives in a late2fourteenth2century manuscript with three other poemsH;earl, ;urity, and ;atienceHby the same author Iery little is #nown about the author of these poems, but most scholars believe him to have been a university2trained cler# or the official of a provincial estate 7this Spar#<ote refers to him as the J;earl2poetK or the J=awain2poetK9 'hough it cannot be said with certainty that one person wrote all four poems, some shared characteristics point toward common authorship and also suggest that the =awain2poet may have written another poem, called St Er#enwald, that e"ists in a separate manuscript &ll the poems e"cept Sir Gawain and the

Green Knight deal with overtly $hristian subject matter, and it remains unclear why Sir =awain, an &rthurian romance, was included in an otherwise religious manuscript Sir Gawain and the Green Knightwas written in a dialect of Fiddle English that lin#s it with BritainEs <orthwest Fidlands, probably the county of $heshire or Lancashire 'he English provinces of the late fourteenth century, although they did not have LondonEs economic, political, and artistic centrality, were not necessarily less culturally active than London, where =eoffrey $haucer and William Langland were writing at the time In fact, the wor#s of the =awain2poet belong to a type of literature traditionally #nown as the &lliterative %evival, usually associated with northern England $ontrary to what the name of the movement suggests, the alliterative meter of @ld English had not actually disappeared and therefore did not need reviving <evertheless, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight e"ists as a testament that the style continued well into the fourteenth century, if not in London, then in the provinces Sir Gawain and the Green KnightEs adapted @ld English meter tends to connect the two halves of each poetic line through alliteration, or repetition of consonants 'he poem also uses rhyme to structure its stanBas, and each group of long alliterative lines concludes with a word or phrase containing two syllables and a 8uatrainH#nown together as the Jbob and wheel K 'he phrase Jbob and wheelK derives from a techni8ue used when spinning cloth Hthe bobs and wheels in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight help to spin the plot and narrative together in intricate ways 'hey provide commentaries on what has just happened, create or fulfill moments of suspense, and serve as transitions to the ne"t scene or idea 'old in four Jfitts,K or parts, the poem weaves together at least three separate narrative strings commonly found in medieval fol#lore and romance 'he first plot, the beheading game, appears in ancient fol#lore and may derive from pagan myths related to the agricultural cycles of planting and harvesting crops 'he second and third plots concern the e"change of winnings and the heroEs temptationM both of these plots derive from medieval romances and dramatiBe tests of the heroEs honesty, loyalty, and chastity &s the story unfolds, we discover that the three apparently separate plotlines intersect in surprising ways & larger story that frames the narrative is that of Forgan le !ayeEs traditional hatred for &rthur and his court, called $amelot Forgan, &rthurEs half sister and a powerful sorceress, usually appears in legend as an enemy of the %ound 'able Indeed, medieval readers #new of ForganEs role in the destined fall of $amelot, the perfect world depicted in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 'he poemEs second frame is a historical one 'he poem begins and ends with references to the myth of BritainEs lineage from the ancient city of 'roy, by way of BritainEs 'rojan founder, Brutus 'hese references root the &rthurian romance in the tradition of epic literature, older and more elevated than the tradition of courtly literature, and lin# fourteenth2century England to %ome, which was also founded by a 'rojan 7&eneas9 'hus, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight presents us with a version of translatio imperiiHa Latin phrase referring to the transfer of culture from one civiliBation 7classical anti8uity, in this case9 to another 7medieval England9 'he =awain2poet at times adopts an ironic tone, but he also displays a deep investment in elevating his countryEs legends, history, and literary formsHespecially &rthurian romanceHby relating them directly to classical anti8uity

Plot Overview
Doctor !austus, a well2respected =erman scholar, grows dissatisfied with the limits of traditional forms of #nowledgeHlogic, medicine, law, and religionHand decides that he wants to learn to practice magic ?is friends Ialdes and $ornelius instruct him in the blac# arts, and he begins his new career as a magician by summoning up Fephastophilis, a devil Despite FephastophilisEs warnings about the horrors of hell, !austus tells the devil to return to his master, Lucifer, with an offer of !austusEs soul in e"change for twenty2four years of service from Fephastophilis Feanwhile, Wagner, !austusEs servant, has pic#ed up some magical ability and uses it to press a clown named %obin into his service

Fephastophilis returns to !austus with word that Lucifer has accepted !austusEs offer !austus e"periences some misgivings and wonders if he should repent and save his soulM in the end, though, he agrees to the deal, signing it with his blood &s soon as he does so, the words J?omo fuge,K Latin for J@ man, fly,K appear branded on his arm !austus again has second thoughts, but Fephastophilis bestows rich gifts on him and gives him a boo# of spells to learn Later, Fephastophilis answers all of his 8uestions about the nature of the world, refusing to answer only when !austus as#s him who made the universe 'his refusal prompts yet another bout of misgivings in !austus, but Fephastophilis and Lucifer bring in personifications of the Seven Deadly Sins to prance about in front of !austus, and he is impressed enough to 8uiet his doubts &rmed with his new powers and attended by Fephastophilis, !austus begins to travel ?e goes to the popeEs court in %ome, ma#es himself invisible, and plays a series of tric#s ?e disrupts the popeEs ban8uet by stealing food and bo"ing the popeEs ears !ollowing this incident, he travels through the courts of Europe, with his fame spreading as he goes Eventually, he is invited to the court of the =erman emperor, $harles I 7the enemy of the pope9, who as#s !austus to allow him to see &le"ander the =reat, the famed fourth2centuryB.C. Facedonian #ing and con8ueror !austus conjures up an image of &le"ander, and $harles is suitably impressed & #night scoffs at !austusEs powers, and !austus chastises him by ma#ing antlers sprout from his head !urious, the #night vows revenge Feanwhile, %obin, WagnerEs clown, has pic#ed up some magic on his own, and with his fellow stablehand, %afe, he undergoes a number of comic misadventures &t one point, he manages to summon Fephastophilis, who threatens to turn %obin and %afe into animals 7or perhaps even does transform themM the te"t isnEt clear9 to punish them for their foolishness !austus then goes on with his travels, playing a tric# on a horse2courser along the way !austus sells him a horse that turns into a heap of straw when ridden into a river Eventually, !austus is invited to the court of the Du#e of Ianholt, where he performs various feats 'he horse2courser shows up there, along with %obin, a man named Dic# 7%afe in the & te"t9, and various others who have fallen victim to !austusEs tric#ery But !austus casts spells on them and sends them on their way, to the amusement of the du#e and duchess &s the twenty2four years of his deal with Lucifer come to a close, !austus begins to dread his impending death ?e has Fephastophilis call up ?elen of 'roy, the famous beauty from the ancient world, and uses her presence to impress a group of scholars &n old man urges !austus to repent, but !austus drives him away !austus summons ?elen again and e"claims rapturously about her beauty But time is growing short !austus tells the scholars about his pact, and they are horror2stric#en and resolve to pray for him @n the final night before the e"piration of the twenty2four years, !austus is overcome by fear and remorse ?e begs for mercy, but it is too late &t midnight, a host of devils appears and carries his soul off to hell In the morning, the scholars find !austusEs limbs and decide to hold a funeral for him

Born in $anterbury in )1*0, the same year as William Sha#espeare, $hristopher Farlowe was an actor, poet, and playwright during the reign of BritainEs Aueen EliBabeth I 7ruled )11+N)*649 Farlowe attended $orpus $hristi $ollege at $ambridge University and received degrees in )1+0 and )1+5 'raditionally, the education that he received would have prepared him to become a clergyman, but Farlowe chose not to join the ministry !or a time, $ambridge even wanted to withhold his degree, apparently suspecting him of having converted to $atholicism, a forbidden faith in late2si"teenth2century England, where ;rotestantism was the state2supported religion Aueen EliBabethEs ;rivy $ouncil intervened on his behalf, saying that Farlowe had Jdone her majesty good serviceK in Jmatters touching the benefit of the country K 'his odd se8uence of events has led some to theoriBe that Farlowe wor#ed as a spy for the crown, possibly by infiltrating $atholic communities in !rance &fter leaving $ambridge, Farlowe moved to London, where he became a playwright and led a turbulent, scandal2 plagued life ?e produced seven plays, all of which were immensely popular &mong the most well #nown of his plays are Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta, and Doctor Faustus In his writing, he pioneered the use of blan# verseHnonrhyming lines of iambic pentameterHwhich many of his contemporaries, including William

Sha#espeare, later adopted In 1593, however, FarloweEs career was cut short &fter being accused of heresy 7maintaining beliefs contrary to those of an approved religion9, he was arrested and put on a sort of probation @n Fay 46, )1.4, shortly after being released, Farlowe became involved in a tavern brawl and was #illed when one of the combatants stabbed him in the head &fter his death, rumors were spread accusing him of treason, atheism, and homose"uality, and some people speculated that the tavern brawl might have been the wor# of government agents Little evidence to support these allegations has come to light, however Doctor Faustus was probably written in )1./, although the e"act date of its composition is uncertain, since it was not published until a decade later 'he idea of an individual selling his or her soul to the devil for #nowledge is an old motif in $hristian fol#lore, one that had become attached to the historical persona of >ohannes !austus, a disreputable astrologer who lived in =ermany sometime in the early )166s 'he immediate source of FarloweEs play seems to be the anonymous =erman wor# ?istoria von D Iohan !austen of 1587, which was translated into English in 1592, and from which Farlowe lifted the bul# of the plot for his drama &lthough there had been literary representations of !aust prior to FarloweEs play, Doctor Faustus is the first famous version of the story Later versions include the long and famous poem !aust by the nineteenth2century %omantic writer >ohann Wolfgang von =oethe, as well as operas by $harles =ounod and &rrigo Boito and a symphony by ?ector BerlioB Feanwhile, the phrase J!austian bargainK has entered the English le"icon, referring to any deal made for a short2 term gain with great costs in the long run

5amlet
@n a dar# winter night, a ghost wal#s the ramparts of Elsinore $astle in Denmar# Discovered first by a pair of watchmen, then by the scholar ?oratio, the ghost resembles the recently deceased (ing ?amlet, whose brother $laudius has inherited the throne and married the #ingEs widow, Aueen =ertrude When ?oratio and the watchmen bring ;rince ?amlet, the son of =ertrude and the dead #ing, to see the ghost, it spea#s to him, declaring ominously that it is indeed his fatherEs spirit, and that he was murdered by none other than $laudius @rdering ?amlet to see# revenge on the man who usurped his throne and married his wife, the ghost disappears with the dawn ;rince ?amlet devotes himself to avenging his fatherEs death, but, because he is contemplative and thoughtful by nature, he delays, entering into a deep melancholy and even apparent madness $laudius and =ertrude worry about the princeEs erratic behavior and attempt to discover its cause 'hey employ a pair of ?amletEs friends, %osencrantB and =uildenstern, to watch him When ;olonius, the pompous Lord $hamberlain, suggests that ?amlet may be mad with love for his daughter, @phelia, $laudius agrees to spy on ?amlet in conversation with the girl But though ?amlet certainly seems mad, he does not seem to love @pheliaG he orders her to enter a nunnery and declares that he wishes to ban marriages & group of traveling actors comes to Elsinore, and ?amlet seiBes upon an idea to test his uncleEs guilt ?e will have the players perform a scene closely resembling the se8uence by which ?amlet imagines his uncle to have murdered his father, so that if $laudius is guilty, he will surely react When the moment of the murder arrives in the theater, $laudius leaps up and leaves the room ?amlet and ?oratio agree that this proves his guilt ?amlet goes to #ill $laudius but finds him praying Since he believes that #illing $laudius while in prayer would send $laudiusEs soul to heaven, ?amlet considers that it would be an inade8uate revenge and decides to wait $laudius, now frightened of ?amletEs madness and fearing for his own safety, orders that ?amlet be sent to England at once ?amlet goes to confront his mother, in whose bedchamber ;olonius has hidden behind a tapestry ?earing a noise from behind the tapestry, ?amlet believes the #ing is hiding there ?e draws his sword and stabs through the fabric, #illing ;olonius !or this crime, he is immediately dispatched to England with %osencrantB and =uildenstern ?owever, $laudiusEs plan for ?amlet includes more than banishment, as he has given %osencrantB and =uildenstern sealed orders for the (ing of England demanding that ?amlet be put to death

In the aftermath of her fatherEs death, @phelia goes mad with grief and drowns in the river ;oloniusEs son, Laertes, who has been staying in !rance, returns to Denmar# in a rage $laudius convinces him that ?amlet is to blame for his fatherEs and sisterEs deaths When ?oratio and the #ing receive letters from ?amlet indicating that the prince has returned to Denmar# after pirates attac#ed his ship en route to England, $laudius concocts a plan to use LaertesE desire for revenge to secure ?amletEs death Laertes will fence with ?amlet in innocent sport, but $laudius will poison LaertesE blade so that if he draws blood, ?amlet will die &s a bac#up plan, the #ing decides to poison a goblet, which he will give ?amlet to drin# should ?amlet score the first or second hits of the match ?amlet returns to the vicinity of Elsinore just as @pheliaEs funeral is ta#ing place Stric#en with grief, he attac#s Laertes and declares that he had in fact always loved @phelia Bac# at the castle, he tells ?oratio that he believes one must be prepared to die, since death can come at any moment & foolish courtier named @sric arrives on $laudiusEs orders to arrange the fencing match between ?amlet and Laertes 'he sword2fighting begins ?amlet scores the first hit, but declines to drin# from the #ingEs proffered goblet Instead, =ertrude ta#es a drin# from it and is swiftly #illed by the poison Laertes succeeds in wounding ?amlet, though ?amlet does not die of the poison immediately !irst, Laertes is cut by his own swordEs blade, and, after revealing to ?amlet that $laudius is responsible for the 8ueenEs death, he dies from the bladeEs poison ?amlet then stabs $laudius through with the poisoned sword and forces him to drin# down the rest of the poisoned wine $laudius dies, and ?amlet dies immediately after achieving his revenge &t this moment, a <orwegian prince named !ortinbras, who has led an army to Denmar# and attac#ed ;oland earlier in the play, enters with ambassadors from England, who report that %osencrantB and =uildenstern are dead !ortinbras is stunned by the gruesome sight of the entire royal family lying sprawled on the floor dead ?e moves to ta#e power of the #ingdom ?oratio, fulfilling ?amletEs last re8uest, tells him ?amletEs tragic story !ortinbras orders that ?amlet be carried away in a manner befitting a fallen soldier

'he most influential writer in all of English literature, William Sha#espeare was born in )1*0 to a successful middle2class glove2ma#er in Stratford2upon2&von, England Sha#espeare attended grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further In )1+/ he married an older woman, &nne ?athaway, and had three children with her &round )1.6 he left his family behind and traveled to London to wor# as an actor and playwright ;ublic and critical success 8uic#ly followed, and Sha#espeare eventually became the most popular playwright in England and part2owner of the =lobe 'heater ?is career bridged the reigns of EliBabeth I 7ruled )11+N)*649 and >ames I 7ruled )*64N)*/19, and he was a favorite of both monarchs Indeed, >ames granted Sha#espeareEs company the greatest possible compliment by bestowing upon its members the title of (ingEs Fen Wealthy and renowned, Sha#espeare retired to Stratford and died in )*)* at the age of fifty2two &t the time of Sha#espeareEs death, literary luminaries such as Ben >onson hailed his wor#s as timeless Sha#espeareEs wor#s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in English was well established 'he unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor#s led to a fierce curiosity about Sha#espeareEs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many details of Sha#espeareEs personal history shrouded in mystery Some people have concluded from this fact that Sha#espeareEs plays were really written by someone elseH!rancis Bacon and the Earl of @"ford are the two most popular candidatesHbut the support for this claim is overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta#en seriously by many scholars In the absence of credible evidence to the contrary, Sha#espeare must be viewed as the author of the thirty2 seven plays and )10 sonnets that bear his name 'he legacy of this body of wor# is immense & number of Sha#espeareEs plays seem to have transcended even the category of brilliance, becoming so influential as to profoundly affect the course of Western literature and culture ever after

Written during the first part of the seventeenth century 7probably in )*66 or )*6)9, Hamlet was probably first performed in >uly )*6/ It was first published in printed form in )*64 and appeared in an enlarged edition in )*60 &s was common practice during the si"teenth and seventeenth centuries, Sha#espeare borrowed for his plays ideas and stories from earlier literary wor#s ?e could have ta#en the story of ?amlet from several possible sources, including a twelfth2century Latin history of Denmar# compiled by Sa"o =rammaticus and a prose wor# by the !rench writer !ranOois de Belleforest, entitled Histoires Tragiques. 'he raw material that Sha#espeare appropriated in writing ?amlet is the story of a Danish prince whose uncle murders the princeEs father, marries his mother, and claims the throne 'he prince pretends to be feeble2minded to throw his uncle off guard, then manages to #ill his uncle in revenge Sha#espeare changed the emphasis of this story entirely, ma#ing his ?amlet a philosophically minded prince who delays ta#ing action because his #nowledge of his uncleEs crime is so uncertain Sha#espeare went far beyond ma#ing uncertainty a personal 8uir# of ?amletEs, introducing a number of important ambiguities into the play that even the audience cannot resolve with certainty !or instance, whether ?amletEs mother, =ertrude, shares in $laudiusEs guiltM whether ?amlet continues to love @phelia even as he spurns her, in &ct IIIM whether @pheliaEs death is suicide or accidentM whether the ghost offers reliable #nowledge, or see#s to deceive and tempt ?amletM and, perhaps most importantly, whether ?amlet would be morally justified in ta#ing revenge on his uncle Sha#espeare ma#es it clear that the sta#es riding on some of these 8uestions are enormousHthe actions of these characters bring disaster upon an entire #ingdom &t the playEs end it is not even clear whether justice has been achieved By modifying his source materials in this way, Sha#espeare was able to ta#e an unremar#able revenge story and ma#e it resonate with the most fundamental themes and problems of the %enaissance 'he %enaissance is a vast cultural phenomenon that began in fifteenth2century Italy with the recovery of classical =ree# and Latin te"ts that had been lost to the Fiddle &ges 'he scholars who enthusiastically rediscovered these classical te"ts were motivated by an educational and political ideal called 7in Latin9 humanitasHthe idea that all of the capabilities and virtues peculiar to human beings should be studied and developed to their furthest e"tent %enaissance humanism, as this movement is now called, generated a new interest in human e"perience, and also an enormous optimism about the potential scope of human understanding ?amletEs famous speech in &ct II, JWhat a piece of wor# is a manP ?ow noble in reason, how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how e"press and admirable, in action how li#e an angel, in apprehension how li#e a godHthe beauty of the world, the paragon of animalsPK 7II ii /.4N/.59 is directly based upon one of the major te"ts of the Italian humanists, ;ico della FirandolaEs ration on the Dignit! of Man. !or the humanists, the purpose of cultivating reason was to lead to a better understanding of how to act, and their fondest hope was that the coordination of action and understanding would lead to great benefits for society as a whole &s the %enaissance spread to other countries in the si"teenth and seventeenth centuries, however, a more s#eptical strain of humanism developed, stressing the limitations of human understanding !or e"ample, the si"teenth2century !rench humanist, Fichel de Fontaigne, was no less interested in studying human e"periences than the earlier humanists were, but he maintained that the world of e"perience was a world of appearances, and that human beings could never hope to see past those appearances into the JrealitiesK that lie behind them 'his is the world in which Sha#espeare places his characters ?amlet is faced with the difficult tas# of correcting an injustice that he can never have sufficient #nowledge ofHa dilemma that is by no means uni8ue, or even uncommon &nd while ?amlet is fond of pointing out 8uestions that cannot be answered because they concern supernatural and metaphysical matters, the play as a whole chiefly demonstrates the difficulty of #nowing the truth about other peopleHtheir guilt or innocence, their motivations, their feelings, their relative states of sanity or insanity 'he world of other people is a world of appearances, andHamlet is, fundamentally, a play about the difficulty of living in that world

Plot Overview
'heseus, du#e of &thens, is preparing for his marriage to ?ippolyta, 8ueen of the &maBons, with a four2day festival of pomp and entertainment ?e commissions his Faster of the %evels, ;hilostrate, to find suitable amusements for the occasion Egeus, an &thenian nobleman, marches into 'heseusEs court with his daughter, ?ermia, and two young men, Demetrius and Lysander Egeus wishes ?ermia to marry Demetrius 7who loves ?ermia9, but ?ermia is in love with Lysander and refuses to comply Egeus as#s for the full penalty of law to fall on ?ermiaEs head if she flouts her fatherEs will 'heseus gives ?ermia until his wedding to consider her options, warning her that disobeying her fatherEs wishes could result in her being sent to a convent or even e"ecuted <onetheless, ?ermia and Lysander plan to escape &thens the following night and marry in the house of LysanderEs aunt, some seven leagues distant from the city 'hey ma#e their intentions #nown to ?ermiaEs friend ?elena, who was once engaged to Demetrius and still loves him even though he jilted her after meeting ?ermia ?oping to regain his love, ?elena tells Demetrius of the elopement that ?ermia and Lysander have planned &t the appointed time, Demetrius stal#s into the woods after his intended bride and her loverM ?elena follows behind him In these same woods are two very different groups of characters 'he first is a band of fairies, including @beron, the fairy #ing, and 'itania, his 8ueen, who has recently returned from India to bless the marriage of 'heseus and ?ippolyta 'he second is a band of &thenian craftsmen rehearsing a play that they hope to perform for the du#e and his bride @beron and 'itania are at odds over a young Indian prince given to 'itania by the princeEs motherM the boy is so beautiful that @beron wishes to ma#e him a #night, but 'itania refuses See#ing revenge, @beron sends his merry servant, ;uc#, to ac8uire a magical flower, the juice of which can be spread over a sleeping personEs eyelids to ma#e that person fall in love with the first thing he or she sees upon wa#ing ;uc# obtains the flower, and @beron tells him of his plan to spread its juice on the sleeping 'itaniaEs eyelids ?aving seen Demetrius act cruelly toward ?elena, he orders ;uc# to spread some of the juice on the eyelids of the young &thenian man ;uc# encounters Lysander and ?ermiaM thin#ing that Lysander is the &thenian of whom @beron spo#e, ;uc# afflicts him with the love potion Lysander happens to see ?elena upon awa#ing and falls deeply in love with her, abandoning ?ermia &s the night progresses and ;uc# attempts to undo his mista#e, both Lysander and Demetrius end up in love with ?elena, who believes that they are moc#ing her ?ermia becomes so jealous that she tries to challenge ?elena to a fight Demetrius and Lysander nearly do fight over ?elenaEs love, but ;uc# confuses them by mimic#ing their voices, leading them apart until they are lost separately in the forest When 'itania wa#es, the first creature she sees is Bottom, the most ridiculous of the &thenian craftsmen, whose head ;uc# has moc#ingly transformed into that of an ass 'itania passes a ludicrous interlude doting on the ass2 headed weaver Eventually, @beron obtains the Indian boy, ;uc# spreads the love potion on LysanderEs eyelids, and by morning all is well 'heseus and ?ippolyta discover the sleeping lovers in the forest and ta#e them bac# to &thens to be marriedHDemetrius now loves ?elena, and Lysander now loves ?ermia &fter the group wedding, the lovers watch Bottom and his fellow craftsmen perform their play, a fumbling, hilarious version of the story of ;yramus and 'hisbe When the play is completed, the lovers go to bedM the fairies briefly emerge to bless the sleeping couples with a protective charm and then disappear @nly ;uc# remains, to as# the audience for its forgiveness and approval and to urge it to remember the play as though it had all been a dream

'he most influential writer in all of English literature, William Sha#espeare was born in )1*0 to a successful middle2class glove2ma#er in Stratford2upon2&von, England Sha#espeare attended grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further In )1+/ he married an older woman, &nne ?athaway, and had three children with her &round )1.6 he left his family behind and traveled to London to wor# as an actor and playwright ;ublic and critical success 8uic#ly followed, and Sha#espeare eventually became the most popular playwright in England and part2owner of the =lobe 'heater ?is career bridged the reigns of EliBabeth I 7ruled )11+N)*649 and >ames I 7ruled )*64N)*/19, and he was a favorite of both monarchs Indeed, >ames granted Sha#espeareEs company the greatest possible compliment by bestowing upon its members the title of (ingEs Fen

Wealthy and renowned, Sha#espeare retired to Stratford and died in )*)* at the age of fifty2two &t the time of Sha#espeareEs death, literary luminaries such as Ben >onson hailed his wor#s as timeless Sha#espeareEs wor#s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in English was well established 'he unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor#s led to a fierce curiosity about Sha#espeareEs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many details of Sha#espeareEs personal history shrouded in mystery Some people have concluded from this fact that Sha#espeareEs plays were really written by someone elseH!rancis Bacon and the Earl of @"ford are the two most popular candidatesHbut the support for this claim is overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta#en seriously by many scholars In the absence of credible evidence to the contrary, Sha#espeare must be viewed as the author of the thirty2 seven plays and )10 sonnets that bear his name 'he legacy of this body of wor# is immense & number of Sha#espeareEs plays seem to have transcended even the category of brilliance, becoming so influential as to profoundly affect the course of Western literature and culture ever after Written in the mid2)1.6s, probably shortly before Sha#espeare turned to"omeo and Juliet, # Midsummer $ight%s Dream is one of his strangest and most delightful creations, and it mar#s a departure from his earlier wor#s and from others of the English %enaissance 'he play demonstrates both the e"tent of Sha#espeareEs learning and the e"pansiveness of his imagination 'he range of references in the play is among its most e"traordinary attributesG Sha#espeare draws on sources as various as =ree# mythology 7'heseus, for instance, is loosely based on the =ree# hero of the same name, and the play is peppered with references to =ree# gods and goddesses9M English country fairy lore 7the character of ;uc#, or %obin =oodfellow, was a popular figure in si"teenth2century stories9M and the theatrical practices of Sha#espeareEs London 7the craftsmenEs play refers to and parodies many conventions of English %enaissance theater, such as men playing the roles of women9 !urther, many of the characters are drawn from diverse te"tsG 'itania comes from @vidEs Metamor&hoses, and @beron may have been ta#en from the medieval romance Huan of 'ordeau(, translated by Lord Berners in the mid2)146s Unli#e the plots of many of Sha#espeareEs plays, however, the story in # Midsummer $ight%s Dream seems not to have been drawn from any particular source but rather to be the original product of the playwrightEs imagination

The Birthday Party Summary

Act I The .la* be$ins in the livin$ roo% o/ a seaside boardin$house in 1987s 0n$land. (ete*, the boardin$house owner, and his wi/e 9e$, both in their siDties, sit at the livin$ roo% table and en$a$e in te.id "onversation while eatin$ brea-/ast. 9e$ is an in@uisitive "hara"ter who .e..ers (ete* with re.eated @uestions "on"ernin$ his /ood, his job, et". (ete* in/or%s his wi/e that two $entle%en will soon arrive to sta* at the boardin$houseC he %et the% the ni$ht be/ore. 9e$ is /lustered b* the news at /irst, but @ui"-l* re"overs to .ro%ise she will have a roo% read* /or the%. She then "alls out to Stanle* Webber, their boarder who is aslee. u.stairs. When he doesn<t answer, she $oes u.stairs to /et"h hi%, and then returns a bit disheveled but a%used. Stanle*, a bes.e"ta"led, un-e%.t, surl* %an in his thirties, soon /ollows. (ete* and Stanle* s.ea- o/ %undane to.i"s while 9e$ .re.ares "orn/la-es and /ried bread /or Stanle*<s brea-/ast. A/ter (ete* leaves /or wor-, the at%os.here "han$es. 9e$ /lirts with Stanle*, who jo-in$l* "alls her Hsu""ulentI while "riti"i?in$ her housewor-. When 9e$ be"o%es a//e"tionate, he rudel* .ushes her awa* and insults her. 9e$ then in/or%s hi% that two $entle%en are "o%in$. The news unsettles Stanle*, who has been the onl* boarder /or *ears. ,e a""uses 9e$ o/ l*in$, but she insists that she s.ea-s the truth.

>e/ore 9e$ leaves to sho., Julu, a *oun$ $irl in her twenties, arrives with a .a"-a$e. 9e$ instru"ts Julu to -ee. the .a"-a$e /ro% Stanle*, and then she leaves. Julu and Stanle* "hat /or a little while, %ostl* about Stanle*<s la"- o/ enthusias% and his a..earan"e. Julu "alls hi% a Hwash outI and then @ui"-l* eDits. Stanle* washes his /a"e in the -it"hen, and then leaves b* the -it"hen door. In the %eanti%e, )oldber$ and9"'ann enter the livin$ roo%. The* are the two $entle%en who had re@uested roo%s /or the evenin$. It be"o%es i%%ediatel* a..arent that )oldber$ and 9"'ann have "o%e under %*sterious "ir"u%stan"es to H/inish a job.I The job in @uestion see%s to be Stanle*, thou$h details are s"ar"e. )oldber$ reassures 9"'ann that the* are at the ri$ht house, and that this job will "ause no %ore stress than their jobs usuall* "ause the%. )oldber$ ra%bles on about his un"le until 9e$ arrives, and introdu"tions are %ade. )oldber$<s sweet te%.era%ent and suave de%eanor soon set 9e$ at ease. )oldber$ as-s a/ter Stanle*, and 9e$ tells hi% that Stanle* was on"e a su""ess/ul .ianist but had to $ive it u.. 9e$ also reveals that it is Stanle*<s birthda*, and )oldber$ su$$ests the* have a .art*. Thrilled with the idea, 9e$ shows the $entle%en to their roo%. Jater, Stanle* returns to the livin$ roo% as 9e$ arrives to .ut the $ro"eries awa*. She tells hi% about the two $entle%en, and Stanle* is visibl* u.set to learn )oldber$<s na%e. To "heer hi% u., 9e$ su$$ests he o.en his birthda* .resent, even thou$h Stanle* insists that it is not his birthda*. To hu%or 9e$, he o.ens the .a"-a$e and /inds a to* dru% with dru%sti"-s. ,e han$s the dru% around his ne"- and .arades around the table beatin$ the dru% %erril* until his rh*th% be"o%es errati" and "haoti". ,e beats the dru% .ossessivel* and loo%s over 9e$ with a "ra?ed eD.ression on his /a"e. Act II Jater that sa%e evenin$, 9"'ann sits at the livin$ roo% table shreddin$ a news.a.er into /ive e@ual stri.s. Stanle* arrives, and the two %en aw-wardl* $reet one another. 9"'ann, in a "al% tone o/ voi"e, "on$ratulates Stanle* on his birthda*, and sa*s it is an honor to be invited to his .art*. Stanle* re.lies that he wants to s.end the evenin$ alone and tries to leave, but 9"'ann will not let hi%. Stanle* sits at the table and tou"hes one o/ the news.a.er stri.s, whi"h u.sets 9"'ann. Stanle* s.ea-s o/ his .ast, and su$$ests he has never been one to "ause trouble. Stanle* insists that he has %et 9"'ann be/ore, and $rows u.set when 9"'ann denies the "onne"tion. Stanle* wants to -now wh* he and )oldber$ are at the boardin$house, and $rows /ranti" when 9"'ann "lai%s the* are there on a short holida*. 3es.erate, Stanle* $rabs 9"'ann<s ar%, who violentl* hits hi% o//. Sho"-ed into sub%ission, Stanle* "al%s hi%sel/ and s.ea-s o/ his love /or Ireland, /or its .eo.le, its sunsets, and its .oli"e. ,e as-s 9"'ann to a""o%.an* hi% to a nearb* .ub, but is interru.ted when (ete* and )oldber$ enter the roo%. (ete* introdu"es Stanle* to )oldber$, and then leaves. The situation in the roo% $rows tense, as )oldber$ *a%%ers on about his .ast. 3es.ite )oldber$<s soothin$ words, Stanle* re%ains on ed$e and re/uses to sit down when 9"'ann as-s hi% to. It is not 9"'annBs threats that "onvin"e hi% to sit, but rather )oldber$Bs @uiet insisten"e. A/ter Stanle* sub%its, )oldber$ and 9"'ann interro$ate hi% about his .ast + the* a""use hi% o/ betra*in$ their Hor$ani?ation,I o/ -illin$ his wi/e, o/ leavin$ his bride at the altar, o/ bein$ a waste o/ s.a"e, and %ore. Stanle* answers at /irst, but is soon stru"du%b b* the sheer nu%ber o/ @uestions bein$ thrown at hi%. The @uestions $row .ro$ressivel* %ore ridi"ulous and nonsensi"al. !inall*, Stanle* hits )oldber$ in the sto%a"h. 9"'ann and Stanle* threaten ea"h other with "hairs, but are "ooed ba"- into "ivilit* when 9e$ arrives, beatin$ Stanle*<s to* dru%. She is dressed /or his birthda* .art*. )oldber$ "o%.li%ents her, and the tense at%os.here @ui"-l* dissi.ates as 9e$ %a-es a %ovin$ tribute to Stanle* in a toast while 9"'ann /lashes a tor"h in Stanle*<s /a"e li-e a s.otli$ht. Julu arrives, and )oldber$ $ives a se"ond toast whi"h in"ludes %ore re%inis"in$.

The .art* be$ins in earnest. Julu and )oldber$ /lirt, while 9e$ and 9"'ann s.ea- o/ Ireland. Stanle* sits alone at the table until 9e$ su$$ests the* all .la* blind %an<s bu//. 3urin$ Stanle*<s turn, he is blind/olded b* 9"'ann, who brea-s his $lasses and .uts the to* dru% in his .ath so that Stanle*<s /oot s%ashes throu$h it. When Stanle* rea"hes 9e$, he be$ins to stran$le her. )oldber$ and 9"'ann .ull hi% o//, but then the li$hts suddenl* $o out. In the dar-ness, the two $entle%en "annot /ind Julu, who has s"rea%ed and /ainted. 9"'ann shines his /lashli$ht on the table to dis"over Stanle* standin$ over Julu as thou$h about to seDuall* assault her. ,e $i$$les %ani"all* as the %en slowl* a..roa"h hi% and the "urtain "loses. Act III The neDt %ornin$, (ete* sits at the livin$ roo% table readin$ a news.a.er, while 9e$ /rets about havin$ no brea-/ast /ood le/t. ,er %e%or* is ha?* /ro% the ni$ht be/ore, and she /or$ets that (ete* was not there as she tries to re%e%ber what ha..ened. When she leaves to sho., she sees )oldber$Bs "ar in the drivewa*, and $rows /ri$htened. (ete* "al%s her down. As 9e$ .re.ares to leave a$ain, )oldber$ enters the roo% and sits at the table. 9e$ as-s hi% about the "ar, but he i$nores her. She /inall* leaves. (ete* as-s )oldber$ about Stanle*, and )oldber$ eD.lains that Stanle* su//ered a nervous brea-down, and needs to be ta-en to a do"tor who% )oldber$ -nows. (ete* wants to see Stanle* when he wa-es, des.ite )oldber$Bs insisten"e that he should si%.l* leave /or wor-. 9"'ann enters with two suit"ases, and tells )oldber$ that Stanle* is tr*in$ to /it his bro-en $lasses into his e*es. When (ete* su$$ests a wa* to /iD the $lasses and o//ers to /et"h a do"tor, )oldber$ dis%isses hi%. (ete* de.arts to tend to his .eas, insistin$ he be told when Stanle* wa-es, and )oldber$ sits slu%.ed over the table. 9"'ann de%ands the* eD.edite the job, but )oldber$ i$nores hi%. An$r*, 9"'ann sha-es )oldber$Bs "hair and "alls hi% FSi%e*,F whi"h "auses the latter to atta"- hi%. 9"'ann .a"i/ies )oldber$, who then ad%its he /eels .oorl* and is "on/used b* the /eelin$. ,e tells 9"'ann about his /ather and about his own .rin"i.les on /a%il*, and /inall* %a-es a stran$e re@uest b* as-in$ 9"'ann to blow into his %outh twi"e. 9"'ann does so without @uestion, and )oldber$ is "al%ed. Julu enters, and 9"'ann leaves the% alone. Julu a""uses )oldber$ o/ havin$ ta-en seDual advanta$e o/ her the ni$ht be/ore. The* ar$ue over bla%e until 9"'ann reenters and tells Julu to "on/ess her sins. Startled b* this bi?arre turn o/ events, Julu /lees. 9"'ann then leaves to /et"h Stanle*, who enters "leanl* shaven and ni"el* dressed. The two %en see% to ta-e .it* on Stanle*, and )oldber$ .ro%ises to bu* hi% new $lasses. In a re.rise o/ the interro$ation /ro% A"t II, the* .e..er Stanle* with $entler @uestions and "o%%ents. )oldber$ as-s Stanle* i/ he wants to leave with the%, but Stanle* "an onl* %uster $ur$lin$ sounds. The* be$in to eDit with Stanle*, but (ete* arrives and tells the% to sto.. 9ena"in$l*, the* as- (ete* i/ he wants to a""o%.an* the%. (ete* allows the two %en to ta-e Stanle* awa*, but be/ore the* leave, he "ries out HStan, don<t let the% tell *ou what to doKI A/terward, (ete* returns to the livin$ roo% table and .i"-s u. his news.a.er. 9e$ arrives and as-s i/ Stanle* has "o%e down to brea-/ast *et. (ete* lies and tells her Stanle* is still slee.in$.

About The Birthday Party

,arold (inter was wor-in$ as an a"tor in 0n$land when he sta*ed brie/l* at a dila.idated boardin$house that would serve as his ins.iration /or both The Birthday Party and The Room. As he has eD.lained in %an* .ublished wor-s, he wrote %ore /ro% intuition than /ro% intelle"t, eD.lorin$ his "hara"ters without .re+de"ided narratives in %ind, and this

one en"ounter was ins.irational not be"ause o/ .eo.le he %et there, but be"ause o/ a "ertain vis"eral /eelin$ it $ave hi%. (inter wrote The Birthday Party in 1987, a/ter his one a"t .la* The Roomattra"ted the attention o/ 9i"hael 'odron, a .rodu"er who saw %u"h .ro%ise in the @uir-* .la*wri$ht. The Birthday Party is (inter<s /irst /ull len$th .la*, and the /irst o/ three .la*s "onsidered his H"o%ed* o/ %ena"eI .ie"es. The other two are The Caretakerand The Homecoming. F'o%ed* o/ %ena"e,F a ter% "oined b* "riti" Irvin$ Wardle, des"ribes a .la* whi"h .aints a realisti" .i"ture while "reatin$ a subteDt o/ intri$ue and "on/usion, as i/ the .la*wri$ht were e%.lo*in$ a slei$ht+o/+hand tri"-. (inter on"e said, HWhat I write has no obli$ation to an*thin$ other than to itsel/,I whi"h both belies the desi$nation Wardle $ave his .la*s, and a"-nowled$es the ori$inalit* that ins.ired su"h a desi$nation in the /irst .la"e. Ins.ired b* other un"onventional .la*wri$hts su"h as Sa%uel >e"-ett, (inter trans"ended traditional theater b* sta$in$ a /a%iliar settin$ (the 0n$lish ho%e& and then throwin$ it into a state o/ "on/usion with lies, de"eit, and "haos. These juDta.ositions would be /urther eD.lored b* 9artin 0sslin in his se%inal stud* Theatre of the Absurd. The Birthday Party .re%iered in 'a%brid$eBs Arts Theater on A.ril 1G, 198G, with Willou$hb* )ra* as (ete* and i"hard (earson as Stanle*. (inter dire"ted the initial .rodu"tions hi%sel/, but (eter Wood too- his .la"e as dire"tor on"e the .la* hit the .re+ Jondon sta$e. Thou$h the .la* was re"eived well in 'a%brid$e, it was a resoundin$ /ailure durin$ its run at the J*ri" 2.era ,ouse in ,a%%ers%ith. The avant+$arde writin$ and the "on/usin$ subteDt sat .oorl* with "riti"s and audien"es ali-e. 3es.ite its initial "o%%er"ial /ailure, The Birthday Party has sin"e .roven to be one (inter<s %ost re.rodu"ed .la*s. It was revived b* the o*al Sha-es.eare 'o%.an* at the Aldw*"h Theater in Jondon in 1964, to "riti"al su""ess. (inter dire"ted this rendition o/ the show and later wrote, dire"ted, and a..eared in subse@uent .rodu"tions, in"ludin$ the 196G /il% version whi"h starred obert Shaw as Stanle*. The J*ri" 2.era ,ouse "elebrated the .la*<s 87th anniversar* in 9a* 177G, just %onths be/ore (inter<s death.