ADVANCED IC ENGINE NOTES ME2041 ADVANCED I.C.

ENGINES OBJECTIVES: To update the knowledge in engine exhaust emission control and alternate fuels To enable the students to understand the recent developments in IC Engines UNIT I SPARK IGNITION ENGINES 9 Air-fuel ratio requirements, esign of carburetor !fuel "et si#e and venture si#e, $tages of combustion-normal and abnormal combustion, %actors affecting knock, Combustion chambers, Introduction to thermod&namic anal&sis of $I Engine combustion process' UNIT II COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES 9 $tages of combustion-normal and abnormal combustion ! %actors affecting knock, irect and Indirect in"ection s&stems, Combustion chambers, Turbo charging, Introduction to Thermod&namic Anal&sis of CI Engine Combustion process' UNIT III ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL 9 %ormation of ()* , +C,C) mechanism , $moke and -articulate emissions, .reen +ouse Effect , /ethods of controlling emissions , Three wa& catal&tic converter and -articulate Trap, Emission 0+C,C), () and ()* , 1 measuring equipments, $moke and -articulate measurement, Indian riving C&cles and emission norms UNIT IV ALTERNATE FUELS 9 Alcohols , 2egetable oils and bio-diesel, 3io-gas, (atural .as , 4iquefied -etroleum .as ,+&drogen , -roperties , $uitabilit&, Engine /odifications, -erformance , Combustion and Emission Characteristics of $I and CI Engines using these alternate fuels' UNIT V RECENT TRENDS 9 +omogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine, 4ean 3urn Engine, $tratified Charge Engine, $urface Ignition Engine, %our 2alve and )verhead cam Engines, Electronic Engine /anagement, Common 5ail irect In"ection iesel Engine, .asoline irect In"ection Engine, ata Acquisition $&stem !pressure pick up, charge amplifier -C for Combustion and +eat release anal&sis in Engines' TOTAL: 4 PERIODS TEXT BOOK: 6' +ein# +eisler, 7Advanced Engine Technolog&,8 $AE International -ublications, 9$A,6::; <' .anesan 2''8 Internal Combustion Engines8 , Third Edition, Tata /cgraw-+ill ,<==> REFERENCES: 6' ?ohn 3 +e&wood,8 Internal Combustion Engine %undamentals8, Tata /c.raw-+ill 6:;; <' -atterson '?' and +enein ('A,@Emissions from combustion engines and their control,8 Ann Arbor $cience publishers Inc, 9$A, 6:>; A' .upta +'(, @%undamentals of Internal Combustion Engines8 ,-rentice +all of India, <==B C' 9ltrich Adler ,8 Automotive Electric , Electronic $&stems, -ublished b& 5obert 3osh .mb+,6::D LTPC 3003

UNIT

SPARK IGNITION ENGINES Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The amount of mixture the engine can take in depends upon following major factors: (i) Engine displacement. (ii) aximum re!olution per minute (rpm) of engine. (iii) "olumetric efficienc# of engine. There is a direct relationship between an engine$s air flow and it$s fuel re%uirement. This relationship is called the air-fuel ratio. Air-fuel Ratios The air-fuel ratio is the proportions b# weight of air and gasoline mixed b# the carburetor as re%uired for combustion b# the engine. This ratio is extremel# important for an engine because there are limits to how rich (with more fuel) or how lean (with less fuel) it can be& and still remain full# combustible for efficient firing. The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from ':1 to 1'.(:1 i.e. from ' kg of air)kg of fuel to 1'.( kg of air)kg of fuel. *icher or leaner air-fuel ratio limit causes the engine to misfire& or simpl# refuse to run at all.

Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the ox#gen in the air and be completel# burned is called the stoichiometric ratio& a chemicall# perfect combination. +n theor#& an air fuel ratio of about 1,.-:1 i.e. 1,.- kg of air)kg of gasoline produce this ratio& but the exact ratio at which perfect mixture and complete combustion take place depends on the molecular structure of gasoline& which can !ar# somewhat. Engine Air-fuel Ratios .n automobile /+ engine& as indicated abo!e& works with the air-fuel mixture ranging from ':1 to 1'.(:1. 0ut the ideal ratio would be one that pro!ides both the maximum power and the best econom#& while producing the least emissions. 0ut such a ratio does not exist because the fuel re%uirements of an engine !ar# widel# depending upon temperature& load& and speed conditions. The best fuel econom# is obtained with a 1(:1 to 11:1 ratio& while maximum power output is achie!ed with a 12.(:1 to 13.(:1 ratio. . rich mixture in the order of 11:1 is re%uired for idle hea!# load& and high-speed conditions. . lean mixture is re%uired for normal cruising and light load conditions. 4igure 5.31 represents the characteristic cur!es showing the effect of mixture ratio on efficienc# and fuel consumption.

Fig ! "# Effect of air-fuel ratio on efficienc$ an% fuel consum&tion

6racticall# for complete combustion& through mixing of the fuel in excess air (to a limited extent abo!e that of the ideal condition) is needed. 7ean mixtures are used to obtain best econom# through minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures used to suppress combustion knock and to obtain maximum power from the engine. 8owe!er& improper distribution of mixture to each c#linder and imperfect)incomplete !apori9ation of fuel in air necessitates the use of rich mixture to obtain maximum power output. . rich mixture is also re%uired to o!ercome the effect of dilution of incoming mixture due to entrapped exhaust gases in the c#linder and of air leakage because of the high !acuum in the manifold& under idling or no-load condition. aximum power is desired at full load while best econom# is expected at part throttle conditions. Thus re%uired air fuel ratios result from maximum econom# to maximum power. The carburetor must be able to !ar# the air-fuel ratio %uickl# to pro!ide the best possible mixture for the engine$s re%uirements at a gi!en moment. The best air-fuel ratio for one engine ma# not be the best ratio for another& e!en when the two engines are of the same si9e and design. To accuratel# determine the best mixture& the engine should be run on a

d#namometer to measure speed& load and power re%uirements for all t#pes of dri!ing conditions. :ith a slightl# rich mixture& the combustion flame tra!els faster and con!ersel# with a slightl# weak mixture& the flame tra!el becomes slower. +f a !er# rich mixture is used then some ;neat< petrol enters c#linder& washes awa# lubricant from c#linder walls and gets past piston to contaminate engine oil. . !er# soot# deposit occurs in the combustion chamber. =n the other hand& if an engine runs on an excessi!el# weak mixture& then o!erheating particularl# of such parts as !al!es& pistons and spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and pre-ignition together or separatel#. The approximate proportions of air to petrol (b# weight) suitable for the different operating conditions are indicated below: /tarting 5: 1 +dling 12 : 1 .cceleration 12 : 1 Econom# 11: 1 4ull power 12 : 1 +t makes no difference if an engine is carburetted or fuel injected& the engine still needs the same air-fuel mixture ratios. 'ar(uretion Intro%uction /park-ignition engines normall# use !olatile li%uid fuels. 6reparation of fuel-air mixture is done outside the engine c#linder and formation of a homogeneous mixture is normall# not completed in the inlet manifold. 4uel droplets& which remain in suspension& continue to e!aporate and mix with air e!en during suction and compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremel# important for sparkignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to pro!ide a combustible mixture of fuel and air in the re%uired %uantit# and %ualit# for efficient operation of the engine under all conditions. )efinition of 'ar(uretion The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture b# mixing the proper amount of fuel with air before admission to engine c#linder is called carburetion and the de!ice which does this job is called a carburetor. Requirements of an automoti*e car(uretor The spark ignition engines fitted to automoti!e !ehicles ha!e to operate under !ariable speed and load conditions. These engines present the most difficult and stringent re%uirements to the carburetors. The# are as follows:1. Ease of starting the engine& particularl# under low ambient conditions. 2. .bilit# to gi!e full power %uickl# after starting the engine. 3. E%uall# good and smooth engine operation at !arious loads. ,. >ood and %uick acceleration of the engine. (. ?e!eloping sufficient power at high engine speeds. 1. /imple and compact in construction. -. >ood fuel econom#. '. .bsence of racing of the engine under idling conditions. 5. Ensuring full tor%ue at low speeds. Factors Affecting 'ar(uretion =f the !arious factors& the process of carburetion is influenced b# i. The engine speed ii. The !apori9ation characteristics of the fuel

iii. The temperature of the incoming air and i!. The design of the carburetor

Princi&le of 'ar(uretion 0oth air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine c#linders b# the suction created b# the downward mo!ement of the piston. This suction is due to an increase in the !olume of the c#linder and a conse%uent decrease in the gas pressure in this chamber. +t is the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and c#linder that causes the air to flow into the chamber. +n the carburetor& air passing into the combustion chamber picks up discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine orifice called carburetor jet that is exposed to the air path. The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure head between the float chamber and the throat of the !enturi and on the area of the outlet of the tube. +n order that the fuel drawn from the no99le ma# be thoroughl# atomi9ed& the suction effect must be strong and the no99le outlet comparati!el# small. +n order to produce a strong suction& the pipe in the carburetor carr#ing air to the engine is made to ha!e a restriction. .t this restriction called throat due to increase in !elocit# of flow& a suction effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a !enturi to minimi9e throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the !enturi or throat of the carburetor. The geometr# of !enturi tube is as shown in 4ig.11.1. +t has a narrower path at the center so that the flow area through which the air must pass is considerabl# reduced. .s the same amount of air must pass through e!er# point in the tube& its !elocit# will be greatest at the narrowest point. The smaller the area& the greater will be the !elocit# of the air& and thereb# the suction is proportionatel# increased .s mentioned earlier& the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usuall# loped where the suction is maximum. @ormall#& this is just below the narrowest section of the !enturi tube. The spra# of gasoline from the no99le and the air entering through the !enturi tube are mixed together in this region and a combustible mixture is formed which passes through the intake manifold into the c#linders. ost of the fuel gets atomi9ed and simultaneousl# a small part will be !apori9ed. +ncreased air !elocit# at the throat of the !enturi helps he rate of e!aporation of fuel. The difficult# of obtaining a mixture of sufficientl# high fuel !apour-air ratio for efficient starting of the engine and for uniform fuel-air ratio indifferent c#linders (in case of multi c#linder engine) cannot be full# met b# the increased air !elocit# alone at the !enturi throat. The Sim&le 'ar(uretor Aarburetors are highl# complex. 7et us first understand the working principle bf a simple or elementar# carburetor that pro!ides an air fuel mixture for cruising or normal range at a single speed. 7ater& other mechanisms to pro!ide for the !arious special re%uirements like starting& idling& !ariable load and speed operation and acceleration will be included. 4igure 3. shows the details of a simple carburetor.

Figure+ " The Sim&le 'ar(uretor The simple carburetor mainl# consists of a float chamber& fuel discharge no99le and a metering orifice& a !enturi& a throttle !al!e and a choke. The float and a needle !al!e s#stem maintain a constant le!el of gasoline in the float chamber. +f the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed le!el& the float goes down& thereb# opening the fuel suppl# !al!e and admitting fuel. :hen the designed le!el has been reached& the float closes the fuel suppl# !al!e thus stopping additional fuel flow from the suppl# s#stem. 4loat chamber is !ented either to the atmosphere or to the< upstream side of the !enturi.?uring suction stroke air is drawn through the !enturi. .s alread# described& !enturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat& "enturi tube is also known as the choke tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. .s the air passes through the !enturi the !elocit# increases reaching a maximum at the !enturi throat. Aorrespondingl#& the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. 4rom the float chamber& the fuel is fed to a discharge jet& the tip of which is located in the throat of the !enturi. 0ecause of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the !enturi& known as carburetor depression& fuel is discharged into the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected b# the si9e of the discharge jet and it is chosen to gi!e the re%uired air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the throat at the full# open throttle condition lies between , to ( cm of 8g& below atmospheric and seldom exceeds' cm 8g below atmospheric. To a!oid o!erflow of fuel through the jet& the le!el of the li%uid in the float chamber is maintained at a le!el slightl# below the tip of the discharge jet. This is called the tip of the no99le. The difference in the height between the top of the no99le and the float chamber le!el is marked h in 4ig.3. The gasoline engine is %uantit# go!erned& which means that when power output is to be !aried at a particular speed& the amount of charge deli!ered to the c#linder is !aried. This is achie!ed b# means of a throttle !al!e usuall# of the butterfl# t#pe that is situated after the !enturi tube. .s the throttle is closed

less air flows through the !enturi tube and less is the %uantit# of air-fuel mixture deli!ered to the c#linder and hence power output is reduced. .s the< throttle is opened& more air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased %uantit# of mixture being deli!ered to the engine. This increases the engine power output. . simple carburetor of the t#pe described abo!e suffers from a fundamental drawback in that it pro!ides the re%uired .)4 ratio onl# at one throttle position. .t the other throttle positions the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened less or more. .s the throttle opening is !aried& the air flow !aries and creates a certain pressure differential between the float chamber and the !enturi throat. The same pressure differential regulates the flow of fuel through the no99le. Therefore& the !elocit# of flow of air ++ and fuel !ar# in a similar manner. .t the same time& the densit# + of air decrease as the pressure at the !enturi throat decrease with increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a simple carburetor producing a progressi!el# rich mixture with increasing throttle opening. The 'ho,e an% the Throttle :hen the !ehicle is kept stationar# for a long period during cool winter seasons& ma# be o!ernight& starting becomes more difficult. As alread# explained& at low cranking speeds and intake temperatures a !er# rich mixture is re%uired to initiate combustion. /ome times air-fuel ratio as rich as 5:1 is re%uired. The main reason is that !er# large fraction of the fuel ma# remain as li%uid suspended in air e!en in the c#linder. 4or initiating combustion& fuel-!apour and air in the form of mixture at a ratio that can sustain combustion is re%uired. +t ma# be noted that at !er# low temperature !apour fraction of the fuel is also !er# small and this forms combustible mixture to initiate combustion. 8ence& a !er# rich mixture must be supplied. The most popular method of pro!iding such mixture is b# the use of choke !al!e. This is simple butterfl# !al!e located between the entrance to the carburetor and the !enturi throat as shown in 4ig.3. :hen the choke is partl# closed& large pressure drop occurs at the !enturi throat that would normall# result from the %uantit# of air passing through the !enturi throat. The !er# large depression at the throat inducts large amount of fuel from the main no99le and pro!ides a !er# rich mixture so that the ratio of the e!aporated fuel to air in the c#linder is within the combustible limits. /ometimes& the choke !al!es are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression and excessi!e choking does not persist after the engine has started& and reached a desired speed. This choke can be made to operate automaticall# b# means of a thermostat so that the choke is closed when engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine warms up after starting. The speed and the output of an engine is controlled b# the use of the throttle !al!e& which is located on the downstream side of the !enturi. The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of the mixture placed in the passage and the less is the %uantit# of mixture deli!ered to .the c#linders. The decreased %uantit# of mixture gi!es a less powerful impulse to the pistons and the output of the engine is reduced accordingl#. .s the throttle is opened& the output of the engine increases. =pening the throttle usuall# increases the speed of the engine. 0ut this is not alwa#s the case as the load on the engine is also a factor. 4or example& opening the throttle when the motor !ehicle is starting to climb a hill ma# or ma# not increase the !ehicle speed& depending upon the steepness of the hill and the extent of throttle opening. +n short& the throttle is simpl# a means to regulate the output of the engine b# !ar#ing the %uantit# of charge going into the c#linder. Stages of 'om(ustion in SI Engine +n a spark-ignition engine a sufficientl# homogeneous mixture of !apori9ed fuel& air and residual gases is ignited b# a single intense and high temperature spark between the spark plug electrodes (at the moment of discharge the temperature of electrodes exceeds 1B&BBBCA)& lea!ing behind a thin thread of flame. 4rom this thin thread combustion spreads to the en!elop of mixture immediatel# surrounding it at a

rate which depends primaril# upon the temperature of the flame front itself and to a secondar# degree& upon both the temperature and the densit# of the surrounding en!elope. +n this manner there grows up& graduall# at first& a small hollow nucleus of flame& much in the manner of a soap bubble. +f the contents of the c#linder were at rest& this flame bubble would expand with steadil# increasing speed until extended throughout the whole mass. +n the actual engine c#linder& howe!er& the mixture is not at rest. +t is& in fact& in a highl# turbulent condition the turbulence breaks the filament of flame into a ragged front& thus presenting a far greater surface area from which heat is radiatedD hence its ad!ance is speeded up enormousl#. The rate at which the flame front tra!els is dependent primaril# on the degree of turbulence& but its general direction of)mo!ement& that of radiating outward from the ignition point& is not much affected. .ccording to *icardo the combustion can be imagined as if de!eloping in two stages& one the growth and de!elopment of a semi propagating nucleus of flame called ignition lag or preparation phase& and the other& the spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber Esee 4ig. 5F.

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Figure+ ! Stages of com(ustion in SI engine The former is a chemical process depending upon the nature of the fuel& upon temperature and pressure& the proportion of the exhaust gas& and also upon the temperature coefficient of the fuel& that is& the relationship between temperature and rate of acceleration of oxidation or burning. The second stage is a

mechanical one pure and simple. The two stages are not entirel# distinct& since the nature and !elocit# of combustion change graduall#. The starting point of the second stage is where first measurable rise of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram& i.e.& the point where the line of combustion departs from the compression line. +n 4ig. 1,.2(b)& . shows the point of passage of spark - (sa# 2'C before T?A)& 0 the point at which the first rise of pressure can be detected (sa#& 'Cbefore T?A) and A the attainment of peak pressure. Thus .0 represents the first stage (about 2BC crank angle rotation) and 0A the second stage. .lthough the point A makes the completion of the flame tra!el& it does not follow that at this point the whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated& for e!en after the passage of the flame& some further chemical adjustments due to re-association& etc.& and what is generall# referred to as after burning& will to a greater or less degree continue throughout the expansion stroke. The first stage .0& b# analog# with diesel engines is called ignition lag& which label is wrong in principle. +n spark ignition there is practicall# no ignition lag and a nucleus of combustion arises instantaneousl# near the spark plug electrodes. 0ut during the initial period flame front spreads !er# slowl# and the fraction of burnt mixture is small so that an increase of pressure cannot be detected on the indicator diagram. The increase of pressure ma#be just one per cent of maximum combustion pressure corresponding to burning of about 1.(per cent of the working mixture& and the !olume occupied b# the combustion products ma# be about ( per cent of the combustion chamber space. The stage ++ is the main stage of combustion. The end of second stage is taken as the moment at which maximum pressure is reached in the indicator diagram (see 4ig. 5). 8owe!er& combustion does not terminate at this point and after burning continues for a rather long time near the walls and behind the turbulent flame front. The combustion rate in the stage +++ reduces& due to surface of the flame front becoming smaller and reduction in turbulence. .bout 1B per cent or more of heat is e!ol!ed in the afterburning stage and hence the temperature of the gases continues to increase to point D in 4ig.5. 8owe!er& the pressure reduces because the decrease in pressure due to expansion of gases and transfer of heat to walls is more than the increase in pressure due to combustion.

Effect of Engine -aria(les on Flame Pro&agation . stud# of the !ariables which affect the flame propagation !elocit# is important because the flame !elocit# influences the rate of pressure rise in the c#linder& and has bearing or certain t#pes of abnormal combustion . There are se!eral factors which affect the flame speed& the most important being fuel-air ratio and turbulence. . Fuel-air ratio+ The composition of the working mixture influences the rate of combustion and the amount of heat e!ol!ed. :ith h#drocarbon fuels the maximum flame !elocities occur when mixture strength is 11BG of stoichiometric (i.e.& about 1BG richer than stoichiometric). :hen the mixture is made leaner or is enriched and still more& the !elocit# of flame diminishes. 7ean mixtures release less thermal energ# resulting in lower flame temperature and flame speed. "er# rich mixtures ha!e incomplete combustion (some carbon onl# burns to A= and not to A=2) that results in production of less thermal energ# and hence flame speed is again low. / 'om&ression Ratio+ . higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the working mixture and decreases the concentration of residual gases. These fa!orable conditions reduce the ignition lag of combustion and hence less ignition ad!ance is needed. 8igh pressures and temperatures of the compressed mixture also speed up the second phase of combustion. Total ignition angle is reduced.

1B

aximum pressure and indicated mean effecti!e pressure are increased.. 7astl#& use of a higher compression ratio increases the surface to !olume ratio of the combustion chamber& thereb# increasing the part of the mixture which after-burns in the third phase. The increase in compression ratio results in increase in temperature that increases the tendenc# of the engine to detonate. " Inta,e tem&erature an% &ressure+ +ncrease in intake temperature and pressure increases the flame speed. 0 Engine loa%+ :ith increase in engine load the c#cle pressures increase. 8ence the flame speed increases. +n /+ engines with decrease in load& throttling reduces power of an engine. ?ue to throttling the initial and final compression pressures decrease and the dilution of the working mixture due to residual gases increases. This makes the smooth de!elopment of self propagating nucleus of flame difficult and unstead# and prolongs the ignition lag. The difficult# can be o!ercome to a certain extent b# enriching the mixture at low loads (B.' to B.5of stoichiometric) but still it is difficult to a!oid after-burning during a substantial part of expansion stroke. +n fact& poor combustion at low loads and the necessit# of mixture enrichment are among the main disad!antages of spark ignition engines which cause wastage of fuel and discharges of a large amount of products of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide and other poisonous substances. 1 Tur(ulence+ Turbulence pla#s a !er# !ital role in combustion phenomenon. The flame speed is !er# low in non-turbulent mixtures. . turbulent motion of the mixture intensifies the processes of heat transfer and mixing of the burned and unburned portions in the flame front (diffusion). These two factors cause the !elocit# of turbulent flame to increase practicall# in proportion to the turbulence !elocit#. The turbulence of the mixture is due to admission of fuel-air mixture through comparati!el# narrow sections of the intake pipe& !al!es& etc. in the suction stroke. The turbulence can be increased at the end of the compression b# suitable design of combustion chamber that in!ol!es the geometr# of c#linder head and piston crown. The degree of turbulence increases directl# with the piston speed. +f there is no turbulence the time occupied b# each explosion would be so great as to make the high speed internal combustion engines impracticable. +nsufficient turbulence lowers the efficienc# due to incomplete combustion of the fuel. 8owe!er& excessi!e turbulence is also undesirable. # Engine S&ee%+ The higher the engine speed& the greater the turbulence inside the c#linder. 4or this reason the flame speed increases almost linearl# with engine speed. Thus if the engine speed is doubled the time re%uired& in milliseconds& for the flame to tra!erse the combustion space would be hal!ed. ?ouble the original speed arid hence half the original time would gi!e the same number of crank degrees for flame propagation. The crank angle re%uired for the flame propagation& which is the main phase of combustion& will remain almost constant at all speeds. This is an important characteristic of spark ignition engines. 8owe!er& the increase in engine speed would lead to ignition ad!ance due to the first phase of combustion. This can be illustrated with a numerical example. Aonsider a petrol engine running at 1(BBrpm. 7et us sa# for the first stage of combustion the ignition lag& the time re%uired in terms of crank angle& is 'C of crank rotation& and for the second stage& the propagation of flame through the combustion space& 12oofcrank rotation is re%uired. Thus the total ignition period is 2BCof crank rotation. @ow if the engine speed is doubled from 1(BB to 3BBB rpm& the time re%uired for the second stage will again be 12C of crank rotation (due to doubling of turbulence intensit# time in milliseconds is hal!ed and in terms of crank angle remains constant)& but for the first stage time in milliseconds is constant and hence in terms of crank angle it will be doubled& i.e.& it would be 11C.This would make the total ignition period of 11 H 12 I 2'C crank rotation at 3BBBrpm compared to 'C H 12CI 2BC at .1(BB rpm. 4rom this it follows that with increase in engine speed ignition must be ad!anced. This is done in practice b# automatic ignition ad!ance mechanism.

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2 Engine si3e+ Engines of similar design generall# run at the same piston speed. This is achie!ed b# smaller engines ha!ing larger rpm and larger engines ha!ing smaller rpm. ?ue to the same piston speed& the inlet !elocit#& the degree of turbulence& and flame speed are nearl# same in similar engines regardless of the si9e. 8owe!er& in small engines the flame tra!el is small and in large engines large. Therefore& if the engine si9e is doubled the time re%uired (in milliseconds) for propagation of flame through combustion space will also be doubled. 0ut with lower rpm of larger engines the time for flame propagation in terms of crank angle would be nearl# same as in smaller engines. +n other words the number of crank degrees re%uired for flame tra!el will be about the same irrespecti!e of engine si9e& pro!ided the engines are similar. Rate of Pressure Rise The rate of pressure rise is a !er# important aspect of flame de!elopment from engine design and operation point of !iew. +t considerabl# influences the maximum c#linder pressure& the power produced and the smooth running of the engine. The rate or pressure rise depends on the mass rate of combustion of the mixture in the c#linder. 4ig. 1B shows pressure-crank angle diagrams for three different combustion rates. =ne is for a high& the second for the usual and the third for a low rate of combustion

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Figure+ .4 Relationshi& (56 &ressure an% cran, angle for %ifferent rates of com(ustion +t is clear from the figure that with lower rates of combustion longer time is re%uired for combustion that necessitates the initiation of burning at an earlier point on the compression stroke. :ith higher rates of

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burning the time re%uired for combustion is smaller and the rate of pressure rise is higher. .lso& the peak pressure produced is close to T?A& which is desirable because it produces greater force acting through a large portion of the power stroke. 0ut peak pressure and hence peak temperature too close to T?A gi!es a long time for rapid heat loss from the c#linder. The higher rate of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine because of !ibrations and jerks produced in crankshaft. +f the rate of pressure rise is !er# high it results in abnormal combustion called detonation. +n practice the engine is so designed that approximatel# one-half of the pressure rise takes place as the piston reaches T?A. This results in peak pressure and temperature 1BC to 1(C after T?A. +n this wa# !er# small portion of the expansion stroke is-lost and the gain is smooth engine operation and sa!ing an appreciable period of time during which loss of heat is rapid. +n the old engines with low compression ratios of ( to 1 a rate of pressure rise of 2 bar per crank degree used to be thought as optimum. Toda# with higher compression ratios of the order of ' to 5& a rate of pressure rise of 3 to , bar per crank degree ma# be emplo#ed if the engine mountings are sufficientl# stiff and efficient. Gasoline 'om(ustion "apori9ation of the h#drocarbons in gasoline and start of decomposition take place at temperatures below (53 J& which exist in the combustion chamber before the initiation of ignition. The products of combustion are mostl# gases containing a large %uantit# of heat. The heat energ# increases the gas pressure in the combustion chamber to produce the force on the engine piston& re%uired to operate the engine. The li%uid gasoline must be con!erted to a !apour to burn in an engine. +n carburetted engines !apori9ation of the gasoline must be done in one-third of a second at idle speeds and in one-thirtieth of a second at normal operating speeds. +n fuel injected engines this must occur much faster. The carburetor during the process of mixing li%uid fuel and air supports the !apori9ation process b# breaking the li%uid gasoline into suds# foam that rapidl# mixes with the air. The molecules of fuel and the molecules of ox#gen in the air must combine in correct numbers. .t sea le!el the air being dense a relati!el# small %uantit# is re%uired for a gi!en amount of gasoline. The air becomes less dense at high altitudes and at high atmospheric temperatures due to which the same !olume of air contains a smaller number of ox#gen molecules causing the air-fuel mixture to become richer in fuel. This causes problem on some emission controlled engines re%uiring leaner carburetor settings on automobiles used in the mountains than those used at sea le!el. /ince automobiles are fre%uentl# operated in both mountains and at sea le!el& carburetors are pro!ided with altitude compensation de!ices to pre!ent o!er-rich mixtures at high ele!ations.

the charge is trapped in the combustion chamber& the molecules of ox#gen in the air come into close contact with the h#drocarbon molecules of the gasoline. This causes rapid burning. . litre of gasoline if completel# burned produces nearl# a litre of water as well as sulphur dioxide in an amount dependent on the sulphur content in the gasoline. .s the water is in a !apour form at normal operating temperatures it lea!es the c#linder as a part of exhaust gas. :hen the engine is first started in cold weather condensed water !apour is !isible in the exhaust. Aondensed moisture with sulphur dioxide produces the acidic water& which is corrosi!e. ?uring low temperature operating conditions such as suburban dri!ing when the engine is cold& much of the moisture is condensed inside the engine. The combination of corrosion and wear under these conditions is the major reason for excessi!e wear of the top ring area of the c#linder wall. Normal 'om(ustion +n a /+ engine a homogeneous air-fuel mixture within the combustible range sustains the progress of a definite flame front across the combustion chamber& and combustion takes place in an# location where fuel particle exists. +n a A+ engine& on the other hand& the air-fuel ratios in the !arious part of the chamber

1,

!er# widel#& so no definite flame front is e!ident& and hence combustion occurs in man# locations within the chamber. . spark plug ignites the charge in the combustion chamber near the end of the compression stroke. The spark& produced across the spark plug electrodes at the correct time& must ha!e sufficient energ# to raise the gas temperature between the electrodes at a point so that the charge burning becomes self-sustaining. 4rom this point& a flame front mo!es smoothl# across the combustion. The flame front mo!ement during normal combustion is illustrated in 4ig. '.1. 0urning of charge takes place during approximatel# fift# degrees of crankshaft rotation due to which maximum force is exerted on the crankshaft. .ctual combustion is much more complex and the combustion gases pass through man# phases during the combustion process. 4or better understanding& the combustion is di!ided into two phases i.e. pre-flame reactions& and combustion.

.s the gases are compressed and the temperature rises& pre-flame chemical reactions take place in the compressed charge thereb# changing the character of the charge. These pre-flame reactions prepare the charge for burning. .s ignition takes place& depending upon combustion chamber turbulence the flame front mo!es out in a modified spherical fashion. The heat energ# released behind the flame front increases combustion chamber pressure and temperature. ?ue to higher combustion chamber pressure and temperature the pre-flame reactions are increased in a portion of the charge& called the end gases& which remain ahead of the flame front. 6re-flame reactions increase more rapidl# at higher engine compression ratios. +f pre-flame reactions become too rapid& abnormal combustion takes place.

A(normal 'om(ustion .bnormal combustion ma# be di!ided into two main t#pes i.e. knock or detonation and surface ignition. Each of these t#pes causes loss of power and excessi!e temperature. Aontinued operation under either t#pe of abnormal combustion gi!es rise to ph#sical damage of the engine. )etonation Engine knock or detonation is the out come of rapid pre-flame reactions within the highl# stressed end gases. ?ue to the too rapid reactions spontaneous ignition of the end gases takes place as shown in 4ig. '.-. This causes !er# rapid combustion within the end gases& accompanied b# high-fre%uenc# pressure wa!es. These wa!es hit the combustion chamber wallsD as a result !ibration noise sets which is called knock or detonation. ?etonation is affected b# (i) compression ratio& (ii) the temperature and pressure at the end of compression& (8i) the temperature of combustion chamber wall& (i!) engine speed& (!) fuel mixture strength& (!i) combustion chamber shape& (!ii) the t#pe of fuel& (!iii) ignition timing& (ix) position of spark plug& and (x) position of exhaust !al!e.

1(

Fig 7 # Flame front mo*ement %uring normal com(ustion

Fig 7 2 Flame front mo*ement %uring %etonation

The tendenc# of an engine to knock with a gi!en fuel can be suppressed b# lowering either combustion pressure or temperature& or both D or b# reducing the time the end gases are subjected to high pressures and temperatures. .lso& using a fuel& which is less susceptible to rapid pre-flame reactions& reduces the tendenc# to knock. =ctane rating is a measure of the anti-knock properties of a fuel. . fuel& which has high anti-knock characteristics& has a high octane rating.

11

Aompression ratio has predominant effects on compression pressure. :ith the increase of compression pressure the output power of an engine increases. This is due to the higher combustion pressures& which are produced. 8igh combustion pressures& howe!er& increase the knock tendenc#. 4uels with high antiknock properties are used in higher-compression ratio engines to run engine knock-free while de!eloping increased power. 7ower compression ratios are used in low-emission engines so that the# can run knock-free on low-octane unleaded gasoline. Aombustion chamber design also affects knock tendenc#. +f combustion chambers end gases are in a s%uash or %uench area& the engine has low knocking tendencies. This happens& as the end gases are thin and close to a cool metal surface. Aooling the gases reduces and slows the end gas preflame reactions& thereb# decreasing the engine knock tendenc#. This %uenching of end gases is the main reason for a rotating combustion chamber engine to run knock-free on low octane gasoline. Aombustion chamber turbulence& as illustrated in 4ig. '.'& also helps to reduce knocking tendenc# b# mixing cool and hot gases& thus pre!enting a concentration of static hot end gases where rapid pre-flame reactions can take place.

Fig 7 7 En% gases coole% in the quench area

1-

Fig 7 ! Flame front mo*ement %uring &re-ignition

The detonation can be reduced b# (a) decreasing the combustion pressure and temperature& (b) reducing the time the end gases are subjected to high pressures and temperatures& (c) the use of fuel with a high octane number& (d) proper design of combustion chamber where end gases are in a s%uash or %uench area& and (e) increasing combustion chamber turbulence. Surface Ignition

1'

/urface ignition or secondar# ignition& an abnormal combustion& starts at an# source of ignition other than the spark plug. This is illustrated in 4ig. '.5. .s surface ignition produces a secondar# ignition source& its effect is to complete the combustion process sooner than normal& thereb# de!eloping maximum pressure at a wrong time in the engine c#cle producing less power. =ne potential source of secondar# ignition is a hot spot& such as a spark plug electrode& a protruding gasket& a sharp !al!e edge& etc. These items can become extremel# hot during engine operation form ing a second source of ignition. These sources rarel# occur in modern engine designs pro!ided the engines are properl# maintained. .nother source of secondar# ignition is combustion chamber deposits& which result from the t#pe of fuel and oil used in the engine as well as from the t#pe of operation of the engine. . deposit ignition source ma# be a hot loose deposit flake capable of igniting one charge before it is exhausted from the engine with the spent exhaust gases. This is called wild ping. /ometimes& the flake remains attached to the combustion chamber wall. Knder this situation& it ignites successi!e charges until the deposit is consumed or the engine operating conditions are changed. :hen surface ignition occurs before firing of the spark plug& it is called pre-ignition. +t ma# be audible or inaudible. +t ma# be a wild ping or it ma# be a continuous runawa# surface ignition. +f it occurs after the ignition is turned off& it is called run-on or dieseling. .nother phenomenon resulting from pre-ignition is engine rumble. *umble is a low-fre%uenc# !ibration of the lower part of the engine that occurs when the maximum pressure is reached earlier than normal in the c#cle. *umble has been almost eliminated from modern engines. The knock-resistant fuels and antiknock additi!es generall# tend to increase combustion chamber deposits thereb# increasing the tendenc# to cause surface ignition. 4uel manufacturers therefore& use additional additi!es in the gasoline to reduce the deposit ignition tendenc# resulting from the antiknock additi!es deposits. .bnormal combustion seldom occurs in modern mass-produced automoti!e engines pro!ided the recommended grade of fuel and motor oil is used and the engine is maintained and adjusted correctl#. /ome problems ma# exist in engines that are used exclusi!el# for low-speed& short-trip dri!ing. .bnormal combustion fre%uentl# occurs in engines modified for maximum performance and also some in emission controlled engines.

Pre-ignition +gnition of air fuel mixture b# some hot spot which exists within the combustion chamber& before the occurrence of spark is called pre-ignition. +n a spark ignition engine& the spark that jumps across the terminals of the spark plug initiates combustion. /imilarl# if there is an# other hot source in the combustion chamber it will heat up the air fuel mixture surrounding it. Then preflame reaction will certainl# be accelerated b# this hot spot. The hot spot ma# acti!ate. The charge in its immediate !icinit# and produce a flame. The flame ma# then propagate from this point before the occurrence of spark. 6re-ignition combustion can be seen in fig.

.s indicated under surface ignition& carbon deposit from fuel or oil& an o!er heated spark plug center electrode or the edge of the gasket that protrudes into the combustion chamber can act as a hot spot and cause pre-ignition. .n o!erheated exhaust !al!e head or edge can cause preigniton. Ksing unsuitable t#pe spark plug (one that runs too hot or has a long reach) or igniton timing too far retarded or mixture too

15

weak or rich which gi!es too slow a burning rate ma# also cause preigniton. The minimum tendenc# to preignite exists at fuel air ratios usuall# richer than the chemicall# correct. Tetra eth#l lead which is added to a fuel to increase its antiknock characteristics also reduces the tendenc# to preignite.

The amount of charge that burns instantaneousl# due to preigniton depends upon the surface area of the hot spot and the temperature of the hot spot. :hen a considerable amount of charge burns& steep pressure rise and pressure pulsation ma# occur. . knock& metallic sound will be heard.

2B

)ifferent a(normal com(ustion that ma$ ta,e &lace in a SI engine The definitions that follow the spirit of the A*A report 2-'& /.E special publication are as follows:Knock L The noise associated with auto-ignition of a portion of the mixture ahead of a flame front ad!ancing at normal !elocit# (whether or not surface ignition is present). Normal combustion - Aombustion initiated b# a timed spark& with the flame front mo!ing in a uniform manner at a normal !elocit#& without auto ignition. Abnormal combustion L Aombustion with surface ignition (phosphorous additi!es to the gasoline are used for control of surface ignition and spark plug fouling). Spark knock L *ecurrent knock which can be controlled in intensit# (or eliminated) b# adjusting the spark ad!ance. Surface ignition L +nitiation of a flame front b# a hot surface other than the spark. Pre-ignition L /urface ignition occurring before the spark. Post ignition L /urface ignition occurring after the spark. Wild ping L Erratic pings or sharp cracks (probabl# as the result of earl# surface ignition from deposit particles) Rumble L . low pitched thud (probabl# caused b# multiple& earl#& surface ignition raising the pressure greatl# with conse%uent deflection of mechanical parts). Effects of com(ustion ,noc, The auto ignitions of the charge& steep pressure rise which sets up pressure wa!e& !ibration of the gas and increased heat transfer to the c#linder walls& piston and other engine components during knocking combustion ma# result in the following: 1. *eduction in power output and efficienc#. 2. 0urning of piston crown due to increased temperature or due to blow b# of !er# hot gases past the piston rings from the piston top to the crankcase. 3. The impact of the high pressure wa!e that is set up might e!en fracture the piston crown. ,. 0urning of c#linder head and !al!e head. (. >umming of piston rings in the piston groo!es leading to ring sticking. 1. 7oosening of !al!e seat inserts in the c#linder head. -. Erosion of piston head ma# occur at the position of the end mixture. The eroded surface has the appearance of being blasted and not melted. O&erating con%itions causing %etonation The following are some of the operating conditions which ma# cause detonation in an engine. 1. /low burning lean air fuel mixture supplied b# fault# carburetor or fuel injector& fuel pump& blocked fuel filter or fuel line& !acuum leak at higher engine speeds caused b# bad positi!e crankcase !entilation (6A") !al!e or exhaust gas recirculation (E>*) !al!e. 2. >asoline with low octane or anti clock rating. This is more common with unleaded gasoline. 3. Aarbon deposits increasing compression ratio. This is the result of lubricating oil entering the c#linders or poor detergent action of gasoline.

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,. Engine operating at abo!e normal temperature due to low coolant le!el or circulation& water jacket blockage in the head. (. +gnition timing !er# much ad!anced due to improper setting of initial ignition timing& inaccurate distribution or ad!ance cur!e etc. 1. 0ad rings and ) or !al!e seals allowing oil (low octane h#drocarbon) to be burned in the c#linders. -. .ir cleaner clogged& which allows too much hot exhaust gas to remain in the engine c#linder. '. Excessi!e turbocharger boost pressure from a bad pressure limiting !al!e.

8a$s an% means of ,noc, re%uction +n!estigations indicate that one or more of the following factors will decrease the possibilit# of knock in the /+ engine. 1. 2. 3. ,. (. 1. -. '. 5. 1B. 11. 12. ?ecreasing the compression ratio or reducing the inlet pressure. ?ecreasing inlet air temperature. ?ecreasing coolant inlet temperature. ?ecreasing temperature of the c#linder and combustion chamber walls or part opening of the throttle (decreasing the load). *etarding spark timing. ?ecreasing the distance of flame tra!el in order to complete combustion within a shorter period. +ncreasing the turbulence of the mixture and thus increasing the flame speed. +ncreasing the engine speed& thus increasing the speed (mo!ement) of the mixture and decreasing the time a!ailable for preflame reactions. +ncreasing octane rating of the fuel. /uppl#ing rich or lean mixtures. /tratif#ing the mixtures so that the end gas is less reacti!e. +ncreasing the humidit# of the entering air. 9a:or effect on un(urne% re%uce charge +ncreases temperature and pressure +ncrease pressure +ncreases temperature +ncreases temperature +ncreases temperature M pressure +ncreases temperature M pressure ?ecreases time factor Action to (e ta,en to Knoc,ing reduce *educe *educe *educe *etard ake !er# rich +ncreases

Increase in *aria(le Aompression ratio ass of charge induced +nlet temperature Ahamber wall temperature /park ad!ance . ) 4 ratio Turbulence

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Engine speed ?istance of flame tra!el

?ecreases time factor +ncreases time factor

+ncreases *educe

T$&es of com(ustion cham(ers Aombustion chamber shape depends principall# upon the !al!e arrangement& piston head and combustion chamber contours. ?ifferent t#pes of combustion chambers such as T head& 7 head& 4 head& 7 head turbulent& !al!e in head& !al!e in head with inclined !al!es ha!e been tried and used b# different engine manufacturers. These can be seen in figure.

The T head design stipulates the use of the lowest compression ratios to pre!ent knocking with a gi!en fuel. 4 head design is an impro!ement o!er the T head. +n this the inlet !al!es are located in the c#linder head and the exhaust !al!es are located in the c#linder or !ice !ersa. This impro!es the !olumetric efficienc# and also reduces the width of the combustion chambers. T head design stipulates two camshafts one operating the inlet !al!es and the other operating the exhaust !al!es. 4 head and other designs can ha!e a single camshaft operating all the !al!es. 8owe!er& 4 head design presents difficulties in the design of the !al!e operating mechanism. =!erhead !al!e designs result in higher !olumetric efficienc#. These ma# ha!e a single camshaft located b# the side of the c#linder operating the !al!es through tappets& push rods and rocker arms& or a single camshaft located in the c#linder head and operating the !al!es through rocker arms or a single camshaft located in the c#linder head and operating the !al!es directl#. +n the turbulent combustion chamber& !er# small clearance is pro!ided between the piston crown and the c#linder head o!er a portion of the piston crown surface. This causes s%uish turbulence in the mixture& better mixing of fuel and air and impro!es combustion. 4urther& this narrow space when made to contain the end mixture& knocking is a!oided because of better cooling. E!en if knock occurs its se!erit# will be lesser. This feature was incorporated in the >eneral otors *esearch combustion chamber and this permitted the use of a 12.(:1 compression ratio with 1BB =@ fuel. This principle was also incorporated in the *icardo turbulent combustion chamber.

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;UESTION <ANK OF UNIT I Part A 1. 2. 3. ,. (. 1. -. '. 5. 1B. 11. 12. 13. 1,. 1(. 11. 1-. 1'. 15. 2B. 21. 22. 23. 2,. 2(. 21. 2-. 2'. 25. 3B. 31. 32. 33. 3,. 3(. 31. 3-. 3'. :hat is stead# running :hat is Transient operation :hat is back firing ?efine idling in an engine :hat is the effect of inlet and exhaust pressure on mixture re%uirements :hat are the factors that influence carburetion :hat are the essential features of a carburetor :hat is pre ignition :hat are the effects of pre ignition :hat are the effects of knock in /+ engines @ame some t#pes of combustion chambers in /+ engines :rite a short notes on T- head combustion chamber :hat are the !arious additi!es used to suppress knock in /+ engines :h# rich mixture is re%uired for idling :hat is stoichiometric air fuel ratio :hat are different air fuel mixtures on which an engine can operate 8ow can the location of the spark plug influence knocking tendenc# :hat is dela# period and what are the factors that affect the dela# periodN :rite an# four factors that affect the process of combustion :hat is a homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtureN :hat is meant b# AarburetionN :hat are the functions of a carburettorN :hat is ignition lag :hat is period of afterburning in /+ engines :hat are the !ariables that affect ignition lag :hat is the effect of inlet temp and pressure on ignition lag :hat is the effect of fuel - air ratio on flame propagation :hat is the effect of compression ratio on flame propagation :rite short notes on effect of turbulence on flame propagation :hat are the engine !ariables that effect Jnock in /+ engines. 8ow spark ad!ance effects knock in /+ engines :rite an# four methods of controlling knock :hat are the methods of detecting knock :hat are the basic re%uirements of a good combustion chamber :rite short notes on /ide "al!e(+-8ead) combustion chambers :rite short notes on =!er head !al!e combustion chamber :hat are the basic t#pes of carburettor :hat are the drawbacks of a simple carburettor

Part < 1. ?iscuss the design criteria for a /.+ engine combustion chamber 2. Explain with figures !arious t#pes of combustion chambers used in /+ engines. 3. Explain the effect of !arious engine !ariables on /+ engine Jnock 4. Explain the phenomenon of knock in /+ engines.what are the factors which influence the knock.describe the methods used to supress it. 5. Explain the fuel)air mixture re%uirements for an engine based on !arious speeds.

2,

6. :ith the help of neat sketch explain the working principle of a simple carburettor 7. Explain the following related to /+ engines: i)6re ignition ii).uto ignition iii)Jnock 8. :hat is +gnition 7ag N?iscuss the effect of engine !ariables on ignition lag 9. ?iscuss the effect of the following engine !ariables on flame propagation : a) 4uel - air ratio b) Aompression ratio c) engine load d) turbulence e) engine speed 1B. ?iscuss the ill effects of detonation 11. Explain the two theories of detonation 12. Explain the phenomenon of pre-ignitionN 8ow pre ignition leads to detonation

UNIT II 'O9PRESSION IGNITION ENGINES Four stages of com(ustion in a 'I engine 8err# *icardo has in!estigated the combustion in a compression ignition engine and di!ided the same into the following four stages: 1. +gnition dela# or dela# period. 2. Kncontrolled combustion. 3. Aontrolled combustion. ,. .fter burning.

2(

Fig+ Pressure time %iagram illustrating in a com&ression ignition engine 1. 2. 3. ,. +gnition dela# Kncontrolled combustion Aontrolled combustion .fter burning.

The details of these stages of combustion are gi!en below: 6ressure "s crank angle of a A+ engine in a simplified from is shown in fig. The cur!ed line .0A> represents compression and expansion of the air charge in the engine c#linder when the engine is being motored& without fuel injection. This cur!e is mirror s#mmetr# with respect to T?A line. The cur!e .0A?E48 shows the pressure trace of an actual engine. )ela$ &erio% +n an actual engine& fuel injection beings at the point 0 during the compression stroke. The injected fuel does not ignite immediatel#. +t takes some time to ignite. +gnition sets in at the point A. ?uring the crank tra!el 0 to A pressure in the combustion chamber does not rise abo!e the compression cur!e. The period corresponding to the crank angle 0 to A is called dela# period or ignition dela# (about B.BB1 seconds). ?uring ignition dela#& the following e!ents take place. The injected spra# enters the combustion chamber and slowl# (at about (( m)min) bores hole in the air mass& while the fuel particles are stripped awa#. /ome of these particles are !apouri9ed. Thus& the main bod# of the spra# is surrounded b# !apour li%uid particle air en!elope. +n small combustion chambers& the spra# bod# ma# impinge on the walls. /ome of the impinged fuel ma# bounce off the surface& while the rest ma# glide on the walls. "apouri9ation of fuel particles tends to lower the compression pressure and temperature slightl#. .t the same time& the energ# released in the pre-flame reactions tends to raise the pressure. @ow in the outer

21

en!elope of the spra#& ignition nuclei are formed. ostl#& the nuclei are cool flame reactions& on the !erge of auto-ignition. 0# oxidation or cracking reactions& luminescent carbon particles are formed. Uncontrolle% com(ustion .t the end of the dela# period i.e. at the point A& fuel starts burning. .t this point& a good amount of fuel would ha!e alread# entered and got accumulated inside the combustion chamber. This fuel charge is surrounded b# hot air. The fuel is finel# di!ided and e!aporated. ajorit# of the fuel burns with an explosion like effect. This instantaneous combustion is called uncontrolled combustion. This combustion causes a rapid pressure rise. ?uring uncontrolled combustion the following take place. 4lame appears at one or more locations and spreads turbulentl#& with glowing luminosit#. 4lame of low luminosit# marks regions of !apouri9ed fuel and air (premixed flame. 4lames of higher luminosit# marks regions of li%uid droplets and air (diffusion flame). The initial spreading of non luminous and luminous flame arises from auto-ignition and flame propagation. This is the knock reaction with a high rate of energ# release and correspondingl# high rate of pressure rise. Aombustion during crank tra!el A to ? is called uncontrolled combustion. This is because no control o!er this combustion is possible b# the engine operator. /ince this combustion is more or les instantaneous& it is also called rapid combustion. +f more fuel is present in the c#linder at the end of dela# period& and undergoes rapid combustion when ignition sets in& the rate of pressure rise and the peak pressure attained will be greater. ?uring this combustion the piston is around T?A& and is almost stand still. Too rapid a pressure rise and se!ere pressure impulse at this position of the piston will result in combustion noise called ?iesel Jnock. The se!erit# of the knock reactions is in proportion to the mass enflamed. The regions of premixed flame are probabl# hotter (and older) than the regions where li%uid droplets are present. .s such& the knock reaction ma# be propagated mainl# in the low luminosit# state of the flame. The rate at which the uncontrolled combustion takes place will depend upon the following: 1. The %uantit# of fuel in the combustion chamber at the point A. This %uantit# depends upon the rate at which fuel is injected during dela# period and the duration of ignition dela#. 2. The condition of fuel that has got accumulated in the combustion chamber at the point A. The rate of combustion during the crank tra!el A to ? and the resulting rate of pressure rise determine the %uietness and smoothness of operation of the engine. 'ontrolle% com(ustion ?uring controlled combustion& following thing happen. The flame spreads rapidl# (but less than 13( m)min)& as a turbulent& heterogeneous or diffusion flame with a graduall# decreasing rate of energ# release. E!en in this stage& small auto-ignition regions ma# be present. The diffusion flame is characteri9ed b# its high luminosit#. 0right& white carbon flame with a peak temperature of 2(BB o A is noticed. +n this stage& radiation pla#s a significant part in engine heat transfer. ?uring the period ? to E& combustion is gradual. 4urther b# controlling the rate of fuel injection& complete control is possible o!er the rate of burning. Therefore& the rate o pressure rise is controllable. 8ence& this stage of combustion is called >radual combustion or Aontrolled combustion. The period corresponding to the crank tra!el ? to E is called the period of controlled combustion. The rate of burning during the period of controlled combustion depends on the following:

2-

1. 2. 3. ,.

*ate of fuel injection during the period of controlled combustion. The fineness of atomi9ation of the injected fuel. The uniformit# of distribution of the injected fuel in the combustion chamber. .mount and distribution of the ox#gen left in the combustion space for reaction of the injected fuel.

.t the point E& injection of fuel ends& the period of controlled combustion ends at this point. :hen the load on the engine is greater& the period of controlled combustion is also greater. ?uring controlled combustion& the pressure in the c#linder ma# increase or remain constant or decrease. Ksuall# during this period& the combustion is more or less at constant pressure (on a 6" diagram) because the downward mo!ement of the piston (i.e. increase in !olume) compensates for the effect of heat release and the conse%uent pressure rise.

After (urning .t the last stage& i.e. between E and 4 the fuel that is left in the combustion space when the fuel injection stops is burnt. This stage of combustion is called .fter burning (burning on the expansion stroke). +n the indicator diagram& after burning will not be !isible. This is because the downward mo!ement of the piston causes the pressure to drop inspired of the heat that is released b# the burning of the last portion of the charge. +ncreasing excess air& or air motion will shorten after burning i.e. reduce the %uantit# of fuel that ma# undergo after burning).

T=E P=ENO9ENON OF KNO'K IN 'I ENGINES +n A+ engines the injection process takes place o!er a definite inter!al of time. Aonse%uentl#& as the first few droplets to be injected are passing through the ignition dela# period& additional droplets are being injected into the chamber. +f the ignition dela# of the fuel being injected is short& the first few droplets will commence the actual burning phase in a relati!el# short time after injection and a relati!el# small amount of fuel will be accumulated in the chamber when actual burning commences. Effect of "ariables on the ?ela# 6eriod Increases in *aria(le Aetane number of fuel +njection pressure +njection timing ad!ance Aompression ration +ntake temperature Oacket water temperature 4uel temperature +ntake (/upercharging) /peed Effect on )ela$ Perio% *educes *educes *educes *educes *educes *educes *educes Reason *educes the self-ignition temperature *educes ph#sical dela# due to greater surface !olume ration *educed pressures and temperatures when the injection begins +ncreases air temperature and pressure and reduces auto-ignition temperature +ncreases air temperature +ncreases wall and hence air temperature +ncreases chemical reaction due to better !apori9ation +ncreases densit# and also reduces auto-ignition temperature *educes loss of heat

pressure *educes +ncreases in terms of

2'

crank angle. *educe in 7oad (4uel air ratio) Engine si9e terms of milliseconds ?ecreases ?ecrease in terms of crank effect T#pe of combustion chamber angle. in 7ittle of terms +ncrease the operating temperature 7arger engines operator normall# at low speeds

milliseconds 7ower for engines with ?ue to compactness of the chamber. pre-combustion

'=ARA'TERISTI'S TEN)ING TO RE)U'E )ETONATION OR KNO'K S No 1. 2. 3. ,. (. 1. -. '. 'haracteristics +gnition temperature of fuel +gnition dela# Aompression ratio +nlet temperature +nlet pressure Aombustion wall temperature /peed& rpm A#linder si9e SI Engines 8igh 7ong 7ow 7ow 7ow 7ow 8igh /mall 'I Engines 7ow /hort 8igh 8igh 8igh 8igh 7ow 7arge

Factors influencing %iesel ,noc, The diesel combustion process which includes ignition dela#& premixed burning due to dela# period and diffusion burning and injector needle lift and pressure !ariation with respect to crank angle can be seen in fig. The premixed burning is responsible for diesel knock. The following are the factors which influence ignition dela# and thereb# contribute to knock: The different engine factors that control diesel knock can be seen in fig.

25

Fig+ )iesel com(ustion an% in:ector nee%le lift 8igher inlet air pressure& air temperature and compression ratio reduce knock. /upercharging reduces knock. +ncreased humidit# increases knock. Aombustion chamber design and associated air motion influence heat losses from the compressed air. Tendenc# to knock will be lesser& with less heat losses. . combustion chamber with a minimum surface to !olume ratio and with lesser intensit# of air motion is desirable. Jnocking tendenc# is lesser in engines where compressed air injects the fuel into the combustion space. +n the case of mechanical injection of fuel& finer the atomi9ation of fuel& lesser is the tendenc# to knock. . fuel with a long preflame reactions (i.e. self ignition possible onl# at a higher temperature) will result in the injection of a considerable amount of fuel before the initial part ignities. This in turn results in a large amount or number of parts of the mixture to ignite at the same time and produce knock. Thus& a good A+ engine fuel should ha!e a short ignition dela# and low self ignition temperature& if knock is to be a!oided.

3B

Fig+ Factors influencing com(ustion ,noc, in the 'I engine +gnition dela# of fuels is generall# measured in terms of cetane number. 4uels of higher cetane number ha!e shorter ignition dela# and thus will ha!e a lesser tendenc# to knock. The ignition dela# of A+ engine fuels ma# be decreased b# the addition of small amounts of certain compounds (called ignition accelerators or impro!es). These compounds are eth#l nitrate and am#l thionitrate. These compounds affect the combustion process b# speeding the molecular interactions. )irect in:ection engines > These engines ha!e a single& open combustion chamber into which the entire %uantit# of fuel is injected directed directl#. .n open combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space incorporates no restrictions that are sufficientl# small to cause large differences in pressure between different parts of the chamber during the combustion process. In%irect in:ection engines > +n these engines the combustion space is di!ided into two parts and the fuel is injected into the auxiliar# chamber which is connected to the main chamber !ia a no99le or one or more number of orifices. The main chamber is situated abo!e the piston. The restrictions or throat are so small to cause considerable pressure differences between them during the combustion process. 'om(ustion cham(ers for 'I engines Aombustion chamber is the space wherein combustion of fuel with air takes place. +n +A engines& combustion chamber is the closed space formed b# three engine components& namel#& c#linder head& top

31

portion of c#linder and piston crown& when the piston is close to T?A& at the end of compression. This space is more or less e%ual to the clearance !olume in an engine. 4unctions of the combustion chambers are as follows: 1. Efficient preparation of fuel air charge for combustion. This stipulates (i) an e!en distribution of the injected fuel throughout the compressed air and (ii) a thorough mixing of the fuel with air to ensure complete combustion& with minimum excess air suppl#. 2. Efficient and smooth combustion. This stipulates (i) a sufficientl# high air temperature to cause ignition of fuel& (ii) a small ignition lag or dela# period& (iii) a moderate rate of pressure rise during uncontrolled combustion stage& (i!) a controlled& e!en burning during controlled combustion stage& (!) a minimum of after burning and (!i) minimum heat losses and energ# losses to ensure high thermal efficienc#.

The open combustion chamber ma# be located either in the c#linder head or in the piston crown as shown in fig.

Fig+ T$&es of o&en com(ustion cham(ers? changing the sha&es of the ca*it$ in the &iston cro6n affects &iston height an% hence engine si3e +t ma# also be partl# in the c#linder head and partl# in the piston crown. 6resence of !al!es and fuel injector in the c#linder head makes it difficult to locate the combustion chamber in the c#linder head.

32

8ence& it is usuall# located in the piston crown& either centrall# or so. 7ocating the chamber in the piston crown has an ad!antage i.e. reduced heat losses from the working fluid. =pen combustion chamber is in!ariabl# circular in plan. This helps organi9ed rotational air mo!ement to pre!ail. The cross section is of different shapes. The chamber shape usuall# confirms to the shapes of the fuel spra# used. The shape of some of the open combustion chambers used in automoti!e diesel engines can be seen in fig. 8ow the combustion chamber design affects weight and height of an engine can also be seen n this figure. The fig. shows the performance results of some direct injection engines ha!ing different shapes of open combustion chambers. The torroidal shape seems to gi!e better performance o!er the operating range.

Fig+ Performance of ) I engines ha*ing %ifferent o&en com(ustion cham(ers +n the open combustion chamber& air mass is more or less %uiescent in nature. .s such atomi9ation (i.e. disintegration of the fuel jet into drops of different si9es)& distribution of these drops and

33

mixture formation (i.e. mixing of fuel with air) are to be effected b# the injection s#stem. 8ence& fuel must be injected at high !elocit#. This means high injection pressure is re%uired. +njector no99le should also contain more of holes of comparati!el# small diameter (d or I B.1( to B.2( mm) +n open combustion chamber e!en though there ma# be man# spra#s& still the air between the spra#s ma# be utili9ed full#& due to %uiescent nature of the air charge. .s such& in this chamber the minimum possible excess air coefficient is amin P 1.( The fuel injector is usuall# arranged along the chamber axis for effecti!e distribution of fuel spra#. :ith a centrall# located multihole injector no99le& the design goal is to keep the amount of fuel which ma# impinge on the piston bowl walls to be a minimum. +n some engines& injector and combustion chamber are located awa# from the c#linder axis. This arrangement helps to increase the si9e of the !al!es& inlet manifold and exhaust manifold. +n the case of open combustion chambers the injection timing& rate of injection& injection pressure& engine speed& si9e of each fuel orifice and !iscosit# and ignition %ualit# of the fuel dictate the pressure rise and completeness of combustion. Pre-com(ustion cham(er +n some A+ engines& combustion space is di!ided into two parts& namel#& pre-combustion chamber and main combustion chamber. 6re-combustion chamber is alwa#s located in the c#linder head. ain combustion chamber is enclosed between the piston and c#linder head. The two combustion chambers are interconnected b# one or more number of orifices. 6re-combustion chamber is built in !arious shapes and relati!e si9es. 6re-combustion chamber !olume is about 3B to ,B percent of the total combustion space. The manner in which combustion of fuel in this t#pe of engine is taking place is discussed below: ?uring compression& part of the air in the c#linder enters the pre-combustion chamber. .t the end of compression& the whole of the fuel is injected into the pre-combustion chamber. The hot air igniti!es the fuel. Aombustion starts in this chamber. 6ressure rises in it. *ise of pressure in the pre-combustion chamber forces out the products of combustion& partiall# burned and unburned fuel and remaining air into the main combustion chamber. These constituents flow out at high !elocit# into the main chamber. .s such& these constituents mix thoroughl# with the air in the main chamber. The orifices connecting the two chambers are so si9ed& and shaped and located to effect good mixing. .ir motion thus created is called combustion induced swirl or combustion turbulence. +n the pre-combustion chamber engine& ignition and combustion starts in the pre-combustion chamber. 0ut the combustion of the entire %uantit# of the injected fuel will not be completed in this chamber itself. This is because onl# a smaller %uantit# of total air sucked in is present in this chamber. .bout 2B percent of the fuel injected during each c#cle& burns in the pre-combustion chamber and the reminder burns in the main combustion chamber.

3,

9erits an% %emerits of &re-com(ustion cham(er- the merits and demerits of the ecombustion chamber engines are as follows: 1. There is better mixing of air and fuel due to combustion induced swirl. .ir mo!ement is one of turbulence in character. .s such& lower fuel injection pressure (1B to 1BB kscm) can be used. 7ower injection pressure eliminates dripping of fuel from the injector tip. 7ower injection pressure necessitates the use of fairl# large injection orifices to deli!er with carbon particles. /uch injectors& therefore& re%uire less fre%uent maintenance. 0ecause of larger orifices and lower injection pressures& higher !iscosit# fuels can be used. 2. 0rake mean effecti!e pressures are much lower in these engines. 3. =nl# a fraction of the fuel is burnt in the pre-combustion chamber. Thus combustion process proceeds at a slower rate. .s such& rate of pressure rise and peak pressure (seldom exceeds 5B kscm) will be lower. The engine will be !er# smooth running. The c#cle becomes almost a constant pressure c#cle. ,. ?uring compression & at an# instant& pressure and temperature of air in the pre-combustion chamber will lag behind in magnitude compared to those in the main combustion chamber. Throttling effect of orifices is responsible for this. .s such& at the start of fuel injection& pressure and temperature of air in the pre-combustion chamber will be lesser. This factor increases ignition dela#. 6ossibilit# of knock of knock occurring is greater& especiall# during cold weather and while starting.

3(

(. 8eat losses through the orifices are greater during compression. 8ence& cold starting is difficult. To effect eas# cold starting& electric heater or starting cartridges or higher compression ratios are used. Ksing higher compression ratio (usuall# from 11 to 15) results in a relati!el# hea!ier engine. 1. .ir flows from the main chamber into the pre-combustion chamber during compression. ?uring combustion and expansion& burning gases flow out from the pre-combustion chamber into the main combustion chamber. These fluid flow through the orifices result in higher fluid friction& and energ# and heat losses. These aspects reduce power output b# about 1B to 1( percent and also reduce thermal efficienc#. /pecific fuel consumption is more b# about 1B to 12percent compared to that of a open combustion chamber. -. 6re-combustion chamber imprisons the first combustion shock. This pre!ents high& knocking pressure from being applied on the piston and through the connecting rod to the engine knock on the ening ecomponents& inferior ignition %ualit# fuels can be used. '. 6re-combustion chambers are suitable and are being used in engines operating at relati!el# high speed. This becomes possible because of reduced or elimination of the ill effect of knock. 5. /ca!enging the pre-combustion chamber is difficult. This causes inefficient combustion. 1B. Aonsiderable amount of fuel that is injected burns after the same entering the main combustion chamber. This combustion occurs relati!el# late in the expansion stroke. This aspect reduces thermal efficienc#. 11. 6re-combustion chamber utili9es the energ# of initial combustion for creating air mo!ement in the main chamber. >reater will be the air mo!ement if greater amount of fuel is burnt in the precombustion chamber. The amount of fuel that is burnt initiall# does not depend upon the speed. .s such this t#pe of combustion chamber is !er# much suitable for engines meant for constant speed operation. S6irl com(ustion cham(er The swirl combustion chamber is also a di!ided t#pe combustion chamber with certain differences and modifications. /wirl chamber is usuall# located in the c#linder head. +n one case& it is located in the c#linder block itself& b# the side of the engine c#linder. /wirl chamber is spherical or c#lindrical in shape. "olume of the swirl chamber is greater than that of the precombusiton chamber. "olume of the chamber o!er the piston ranges from a minimum to usuall# not more than half the total clearance !olume. . much larger passage called transfer passage or throat connects the swirl chamber with the chamber in the c#linder. This connection passage is tangential to the swirl chamber. The figure shows the location of the swirl combustion chamber either in the c#linder head or in the c#linder block and the air motion created in them.

31

Fig+ )ifferent arrangements of s6irl com(ustion cham(ers

3-

?uring compression& air from the c#linder is forced through the throat into the swirl chamber. . tangential !elocit# of swirl is produced in the swirl chamber. This swirl is called compression swirl. .t the end of compression& fuel is injected into the swirl chamber. "igorous swirl in the chamber helps the injected fuel and air to mix well. 4uel injector is so located and fuel spra#s are so aimed to achie!e this goal. +gnition and combustion of fuel starts in the swirl chamber. 0ulk of the injected fuel burns in the swirl chamber itself. This becomes possible because of the presence of the major portion of air in it. Aombustion causes pressure rise. This pressure rise forces combustion products and air fuel mixture into the engine c#linder. 6iston is also pushed outward on the working stroke. 4urther mixing of unburned and partiall# burnt fuel with air occurs and this results in efficient combustion. 8ence& a swirl chamber engine uses both compression induced swirl and combustion induced swirl. @9A 'om(ustion s$stem ?r eurer of .@& >erman# has de!eloped a simple but a peculiar diesel combustion chamber based upon the following three rules: 1. The fuel must be allowed to oxidi9e slowl# and graduall# and must be heated onl# as !apour in the mixed state. 2. The fuel %uantit# undergoing auto-ignition must be minimi9ed 3. The mixture of fuel !apour and air must be done faster as combustion proceeds and the mixture must ne!er be richer than the stoichiometric ratio. The combustions chamber is located in the piston crown as shown in fig. +t is open t#pe and is somewhat shallower. +t has a recess at the top just below the injector no99le. The no99le directs the fuel towards the combustion chamber walls& tangentiall#. The intake port is inclined. The intake !al!e has a mask. These create an air swirl about the axis of the c#linder. The direction of the swirl is in the same direction as that of the fuel jet. The fuel particles injected at the first instance meet high resistance due to the dense hot air in the chamber. 8ence& these particles get well dispersed into the hot air. The succeeding particles due to lesser air resistance get deposited on the combustion chamber walls& in the form of a thin film. .t full load& the thickness of the fuel film be about B.1(B mm. The fuel dispersed into the air mass is onl# about (G of the total fuel injected. The bottom surface of the combustion chamber is cooled b# the lubricating oil that is splashed continuousl# from the crankcase. The combustion chamber wall temperature is maintained at about 33B oA. The combustion of the (G of the fuel which gets injected into air mass starts. +t undergoes& usual droplet combustion. 0ut the combustion of the fuel spra#ed on the cooled combustion chamber walls does not follow immediatel#. The wall deposited fuel starts e!aporating in the absence of the hot air and mo!es towards the center. The swirling air remo!es the fuel !apours from the 9one e!aporation.

3'

Fig+ 9 'om(ustion cham(er

The fuel !apours mix with air and after slow oxidation burns. The combustion of the air fuel !apour mixture is initiated b# the red hot carbon particles produced b# combustion of air deposited fuel (that act like spark produced in a spark ignition engine). .s combustion proceeds& the chamber temperature increases. This in turn increase the rate of !apouri9ation and mixture formation. 0# this controlled e!aporation and slow combustion& the fuel has little or no chance to crack resulting in diesel knock and smok# exhause. 8ence& combustion is smooth and efficient in this s#stem. . comparison of the indicator diagrams of the con!entional diesel engine and the combustion chamber diesel can also be seen in fig which will re!eal this fact. *ate of pressure rise and peak pressure are lesser in the combustion chamber engine.

9erits an% %emerits of 9 com(ustion s$stem+ The ad!antages of the combustion s#stem are as follows: +n the combustion s#stem& complete and effecti!e burning of the fuel takes place. This controlled burning eliminates diesel knock and free carbon particles in the exhaust. 1. .bout ( L 1B G higher power output is reali9ed. 2. /pecific fuel consumption is lesser.

35

3. /mooth running of the engine e!en during idling becomes possible which is !er# rare in normal diesel engines. ,. uch lower smoke densit# upto three fourths full load and almost identical with that of a con!entional diesel engine at full load. /moke densit# is the ratio of carbon present in the exhaust to the amount of carbon in the %uantit# of fuel injected. (. 7esser contamination of insoluble in the lubricating oil. +n the bohr test& in an ordinar# diesel engine& the insolubles were about B.5G and in the combustion engine& the insolubles where onl# about B.2(G. 1. combustion s#stem is more adaptable for multi fuel operation because of the elimination of diesel knock.

Tur(o charging +n turbo charging& the supercharger or blower is being dri!en b# a gas turbine which uses the energ# in the exhaust gases. +n this case& there is no mechanical linkage between the engine and the supercharger. The major parts of a turbocharger are turbine wheel& turbine housing& turbo shaft& compressor wheel& compressor housing and bearing housing.

,B

?uring engine operation& hot exhaust gases blow out through the exhaust !al!e opening into the exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold and the connecting tubing route these gases into the turbine housing. .s the gases pass through the turbine housing& the# strike on the fins or blades on the turbine wheel. :hen the engine load is high enough& there is enough gas flow and this makes the turbine wheel to spin rapidl#. The turbine wheel is connected to the compressor wheel b# the turboshaft. .s such& the compressor wheel rotates with the turbine. Aompressor wheel rotation sucks air into the compressor housing. Aentrifugal force throws the air outward. This causes the air to flow out of the turbocharger and into the engine c#linder under pressure. +n the case of turbocharging& there is a phenomena called turbolag. +t refers to the short dela# period before the boost or manifold pressure increases. This is due to the time the turbocharger assembl# takes the exhaust gases to accelerate the turbine and compressor wheel to speed up.

,1

+f the supercharger is dri!en directl# b# the engine& part of the power de!eloped b# the engine will be used in running the supercharger.

Fig+ 'om&arati*e heat (alance of naturall$ as&irate% an% su&ercharge% %iesel engines +f is found that the gain in the power output of an engine due to supercharging will be man# time the power re%uired to dri!e the supercharger. =f course& this is possible onl# with increased fuel suppl# to the engine. +t is to be noted that at full loads& the compression of the supercharger is not full# utili9ed. This will result in greater loss. Therefore& the specific fuel consumption of a mechanicall# dri!en supercharged engine will be more at part loads when compared to that of a naturall# aspirated engine. +n the case of the exhaust gas turbine dri!en supercharger& the engine is not re%uired to suppl# an# power to run the supercharger turbine. This t#pe of supercharging is called turbo charging. The turbo charging gi!es about (G higher thermal efficienc# at full load. This increase in efficienc# results in reduced fuel consumption compared to that of a naturall# aspirated engine for the same power output. Effects of tur(ocharging+ The following are the effects of supercharging engines. /ome of the points refer to A+ engines: 1. 8igher power output 2. ass of charge inducted is greater 3. 0etter atomi9ation of fuel ,. 0etter mixing of fuel and air (. Aombustion is more complete and smoother 1. Aan use inferior (poor ignition %ualit#) fuels. -. /ca!enging of products is better '. +mpro!ed tor%ue o!er the whole speed range 5. Quicker acceleration (of !ehicle) is possible 1B. *eduction in diesel knock tendenc# and smoother operation 11. +ncreased detonation tendenc# in /+ engines 12. +mpro!ed cold starting 13. Eliminates exhaust smoke

,2

1,. 1(. 11. 1-. 1'. 15. 2B. 21.

7owers specific fuel consumption& in turbocharging +ncreased mechanical efficienc# Extent of supercharging is limited b# durabilit#& reliabilit# and fuel econom# +ncreased thermal stresses +ncreased turbulence ma# increase heat losses +ncreased gas loading "al!e o!erlap period has to be increased to about 1B to 11B degrees of crank angle @ecessitates better cooling of pistons and !al!es.

;UESTION <ANK OF UNIT II Part A 1. :hat are the stages of combustion in A+ engines. 2. :hat is +gnition dela# period 3. :hat is period of rapid combustion ,. :hat is contrilled combustion in A+ engines. (. :hat is period of after burning. 1. :hat are the factors that affect dela# period. -. :hat is knock in A+ engines. '. /tate different t#pes of combustion chambers in A+ engines. 5.:rite a short notes on ?irect injection combustion chambers. 1B. :hat is 6re - Aombustion chamber. 11.:hat are homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. 12. :hat is turbo charging. 13. :hat are the ad!antages of turbo charging. 1,. :hat are the dis-ad!antages of turbo charging. 1(. :hat is ignition dela# period in A+ engines 11. :hat is Kncontrolled combustion in A+ engines 1-. :hat is controlled combustion in A+ engines 1'. :hat is period of afterburning in A+ engines 15. :hat !ariables affect dela# period 2B. :hat is the affect of si9e of droplet on dela# period 21. :hat is the affect of compression ratio on dela# period 22. 7ist !arious methods to control dela# period in A+ engine 23. :hat are the methods of generating air swirl in A+ engine 2,. :hat are the ad!antages of induction swirl 2(. :hat are !arious cold starting aids in A+ engine. Part < 1. Explain the !arious stages of Aombustion in A+ engines. 2. Explain the phenomenon of Jnock in A+ engines. 3. Explain !arious t#pes of Aombustion chambers used in A+ engines with figures. ,. :hat is meant b# dela# period. Explain about the t#pes of dela# period (. :hat are the three methods of generating swirl in A+ engine combustion chamber

,3

UNIT III ENGINE EB=AUST E9ISSION 'ONTROC POCCUTION+ The mixing of unwanted and undesirable substances into our surroundings that cause undesirable effects on both li!ing and non li!ing things is known as pollution. AIR POCCUTION+ .ir pollution is defined as the addition of unwanted and undesirable things to our atmosphere that ha!e harmful effect upon our planned life. 9a:or sources of Air &ollution+ 1. .utomoti!e Engines 2. Electrical power generating stations 3. +ndustrial and domestic fuel consumption ,. *efuse burning of industrial processing& wastes etc.& Sources of Pollutants from Gasoline Engine+ There are four possible sources of atmospheric pollution from a petrol engine powered !ehicle. The# are 1. 4uel Tank 2. Aarburettor 3. Arank case ,. Engine The amount of pollutants contributed b# the abo!e mentioned sources are as follows. a.. 4uel tank e!aporati!e loss c. Arank case blow b# d. Tail 6ipe exhaust ( to 1B G of 8A 2B to 3( G of 8A (B to 1B G of 8A and almost all Ao and @=x b. Aarburettor e!aporati!e loss ( G of 8A

,,

Emittant as a Pollutant+ .n emittant is said to be a pollutant when it has some harmful effect upon our surroundings. The primar# source of energ# for our automoti!e !ehicles is crude oil from underground which t#picall# contains !ar#ing amounts of sulphur. uch of the sulphur is remo!ed during refining of automoti!e fuels. Thus the final fuel is h#drocarbon with onl# a small amount of sulphur. +f we neglect sulphur and consider complete combustion& onl# water and carbon dioxide would appear in the exhaust. :ater is not generall# considered undesirable and therefore it is not considered as a pollutant. 7ikewise carbon dioxide is also not considered as pollutant in earlier da#s. 0ut due to increase in global warming due to A=2 which is a green house gas& now a da#s A=2 is also considered as unwanted one.

,(

Then apart from this we get sulphur dioxide a pollutant which is a product of complete combustion. .part from this all the compounds currentl# considered as pollutants are the result of imperfect or incomplete combustion. Pollutants Knburned 8#dro Aarbons (K08A) @itric =xide Aarbon monoxide 7ead compounds /mog. The effect of /mog is that it reduces !isibilit#. Effect of Pollutants on En*ironment+ a Un(urne% =$%ro 'ar(ons D U<=' E+ The major sources of K08A in an automobile are the engine exhaust& e!aporati!e losses from fuel s#stem& blow b# loss and sca!enging in case of 2-stroke petrol engines. Knburned or partiall# burned h#drocarbons in gaseous form combine with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog. U<=' F NOG Photochemical smog The products of photochemical smog cause watering and burning of the e#es and affect the respirator# s#stem& especiall# when the respirator# s#stem is marginal for other reasons. /ome of the high molecular weight aromatic h#drocarbons ha!e been shown to be carcinogenic in animals. /ome of the unburned h#drocarbons also ser!e as particulate matter in atmosphere. ( 'ar(on monoGi%e+ Aarbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine onl# when there is insufficient suppl# of air. The main source is the engine exhaust. The toxicit# of carbon monoxide is well known. The hemoglobin the human blood which carries ox#gen to !arious parts of the bod# has great affinit# towards carbon monoxide than for ox#gen. :hen a human is exposed to an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide& the ox#gen carr#ing capacit# of the blood is reduced and results in the formation of carbox# hemoglobin. ?ue to this the human is subjected to !arious ill effects and ultimatel# leads to death. The toxic effects of carbon monoxide are dependent both on time and concentration as shown in the diagram. Pollutant Effects 6hotochemical /mog Toxic & 6hotochemical /mog Toxic Toxic

/moke combines with fog and forms a dense in!isible la#er in the atmosphere which is known as

,1

c OGi%es of Nitrogen D NOG E + =xides of nitrogen ( @=& @= 2 & @2=2 etc) are formed at higher combustion temperature present in engines and the engine exhaust is the major source. 7ike carbon monoxide& oxides of nitrogen also tend to settle on the hemoglobin in blood. Their most undesirable effect is their tendenc# to join with moisture in the lungs to form dilute nitric acid. 0ecause the amounts formed are minute and dilute& their effect is !er# small but o!er a long period of time cam be cumulati!el# undesirable& especiall# when the respirator# problems for other reasons are found. .nother effect is that& the oxides of nitrogen are also one of the essential component for the formation of photochemical smog. % Sul&hur %ioGi%e+ /ulphur dioxide from automoti!e !ehicle is !er# less when compared to that emitted b# burning coal. /ulphur dioxide combines with moisture in atmosphere and forms sulphuric acid at higher temperatures. This comes to the earth as acid rain. uch of the sulphur dioxide combines with other materials in the atmosphere and forms sulphates which ultimatel# form particulate matter. e Particulates+

,-

6articulate matter comes from h#drocarbons& lead additi!es and sulphur dioxide. +f lead is used with the fuel to control combustion almost -BG of the lead is airborne with the exhaust gasses. +n that 3BG of the particulates rapidl# settle to the ground while remaining remains in the atmosphere. 7ead is well known toxic compound

.6articulates when inhaled or taken along with food leads to respirator# problems and other infections. 6articulates when settle on the ground the# spoil the nature of the object on which the# are settling. 7ead& a particulate is a slow poison and ultimatel# leads to death. '=E9ISTRH OF SI ENGINE 'O9<USTION+ +n a /park ignition engine a perfectl# mixed air fuel mixture enters the engine during suction stroke. The charge is compressed well and at the end of end of compression stroke& the charge is ignited b# means of spark from spark plug. The air fuel mixture is deli!ered to engine b# means of carburettor. The %uantit# and %ualit# of charge entering the engine is controlled according to the engine speed and load conditions. GASOCINE ENGINE E9ISSIONS The emissions form gasoline powered automobiles are mainl#

,'

1. Knburned 8#dro Aarbons 2. Aarbon monoxide 3. =xides of nitrogen ,. =xides of sulphur and (. 6articulates including smoke Pollutant formation in Gasoline engine+ . =$%rocar(ons+ 8#drocarbon exhaust emission ma# arise from three sources as a. :all %uenching b. +ncomplete combustion of charge c. Exhaust sca!enging in 2-stroke engines +n an automoti!e t#pe ,-stroke c#cle engine& wall %uenching is the predominant source of exhaust h#drocarbon under most operating conditions. a 8all quenching+ The %uenching of flame near the combustion chamber walls is known as wall %uenching. This is a combustion phenomenon which arises when the flame tries to propagate in the !icinit# of a wall. @ormall# the effect of the wall is a slowing down or stopping of the reaction. 0ecause of the cooling& there is a cold 9one next to the cooled combustion chamber walls. This region is called the %uench 9one. 0ecause of the low temperature& the fuel-air mixture fails to burn and remains unburned. ?ue to this& the exhaust gas shows a marked !ariation in 8A emission. The first gas that exits is from near the !al!e and is relati!el# cool. ?ue to this it is rich in 8A. The next part of gas that comes is from the hot combustion chamber and hence a low 8A concentration. The last part of the gas that exits is scrapped off the cool c#linder wall and is relati!el# cool. Therefore it is also rich in 8A emission. ( Incom&lete com(ustion+ Knder operating conditions& where mixtures are extremel# rich or lean& or exhaust gas dilution is excessi!e& incomplete flame propagation occurs during combustion and results in incomplete combustion of the charge. @ormall#& the carburettor supplies air fuel mixture in the combustible range. Thus incomplete combustion usuall# results from high exhaust gas dilution arising from high !acuum operation such as idle or deceleration.

,5

8owe!er during transient operation& especiall# during warm up and deceleration it is possible that some times too rich or too lean mixture enters the combustion chamber resulting in !er# high 8A emission. 4actors which promote incomplete flame propagation and misfire include: a. 6oor condition of the ignition s#stem& including spark plug b. 7ow charge temperature c. 6oor charge homogeneit# d. Too rich or lean mixture in the c#linder e. 7arge exhaust residual %uantit# f. 6oor distribution of residuals with c#linder Aarburetion and mixture preparation& e!aporation and mixing in the intake manifold& atomi9ation at the intake !al!e and swirl and turbulence in the combustion chamber are some factors which influence gaseous mixture ration and degree of charge homogeneit# including residual mixing. The engine and intake s#stem temperature resulting from prior operation of the engine affect charge temperature and can also affect fuel distribution.

"al!e o!erlap& engine speed& spark timing& compression ratio& intake and exhaust s#stem back pressure affect the amount and composition of exhaust residual. 4uel !olatilit# of the fuel is also one of the main reasons.

c Sca*enging+ +n 2-stroke engine a third source of 8A emission results from sca!enging of the c#linder with fuel air mixture. ?ue to sca!enging part of the air fuel mixture blows through the c#linder directl# into exhaust port and escapes combustion process completel#. 8A emission from a 2-/troke petrol engine is comparati!el# higher than ,-/troke petrol engine.

/ 'ar(on monoGi%e+ Aarbon monoxide remains in the exhaust if the oxidation of A= to A= 2 is not complete. This is because carbon monoxide is an intermediate product in the combustion process. >enerall# this is due to lack of sufficient ox#gen. The emission le!els of A= from gasoline engine are highl# dependent on .)4 ratio. The amount of A= released reduces as the mixture is made leaner. The reason that the A= concentration does not drop to 9ero when the mixture is chemicall# correct and leaner arises from a combination of c#cle to c#cle and c#linder to c#linder mal distribution and slow A= reaction kinetics.

(B

0etter carburetion and fuel distribution are ke# to low A= emission in addition to operating the engine at increased air-fuel ratio. " OGi%es of Nitrogen+ @itric oxide is formed within the combustion chamber at the peak combustion temperature and persists during expansion and exhaust in non-e%uilibrium amount. Kpon exposure to additional ox#gen in the atmosphere& nitrogen dioxide ( @=2) and other oxides ma# be formed. +t should be noted that although man# oxides of nitrogen ma# be also formed in low concentrations like& @itrogen trioxide (@ 2=3 )& @itrogen pent oxide (@ 2=( ) etc.& the# are unstable compounds and ma# decompose spontaneousl# at ambient condition to nitrogen dioxide. . stud# of the e%uilibrium formation of the different nitrogen oxides showed that @o is the onl# compound ha!ing appreciable importance with respect to engine combustion. +n engine terminolog# an unknown mixture or nitrogen oxides usuall# @= and @= 2 is known as @=x. +t is expected that higher temperature and a!ailabilit# of ox#gen would promote the formation of oxides of nitrogen. 9echanism of NO formation+ The nitric oxide formation during the combustion process is the result of group of elementar# reaction in!ol!ing the nitrogen and ox#gen molecules. ?ifferent mechanism proposed are discussed below. a Sim&le reaction (et6een N/ an% O/ @2 H =2 2 @= This mechanism proposed b# E#9at and >uibet predicts @= concentrations much lower that those measured in +.A engines. .ccording to this mechanism& the formation process is too slow for @= to reach e%uilibrium at peak temperatures and pressures in the c#linders.

( Iel%o*ich 'hai Reaction mechanism+ =2 2 = ------------- ( 1)

= H @2 @= H @ ------( 2 ) @ H =2 @= H = ------( 3 ) The chain reactions are initiated b# the e%uation ( 2 ) b# the atomic ox#gen& formed in e%uation ( 1 ) from the dissociation of ox#gen molecules at the high temperatures reached in the combustion process. =x#gen atoms react with nitrogen molecules and produces @= and nitrogen atoms. +n the e%uation ( 3 ) the nitrogen atoms react with ox#gen molecule to form nitric oxide and atomic ox#gen. .ccording to this mechanism nitrogen atoms do not start the chain reaction because their e%uilibrium concentration during the combustion process is relati!el# low compared to that of atomic ox#gen. Experiments ha!e shown that e%uilibrium concentrations of both ox#gen atoms and nitric oxide molecules increase with temperature and with leaning of mixtures. +t has also been obser!ed that @=

(1

formed at the maximum c#cle temperature does not decompose e!en during the expansion stroke when the gas temperature decreases. +n general it can be expected that higher temperature would promote the formation of @= b# speeding the formation reactions. .mple = 2 supplies would also increase the formation of @=. The @= le!els would be low in fuel rich operations& i.e. .)4 1(& since there is little = 2 left to react with @2 after the h#drocarbons had reacted. The maximum @= le!els are formed with .4* about 1B percent abo!e stoichiometric. combustion and the @= concentration fall off e!en with additional ox#gen. easurements taken on @= concentrations at the exhaust !al!e indicate that the concentration rises to a peak and then fall as the combustion gases exhaust from the c#linder. This is consistent with the idea that @= is formed in the bulk gases. The first gas exhausted is that near the exhaust !al!e followed b# the bulk gases. The last gases out should be those from near the c#linder wall and should exhibit lower temperatures and lower @= concentration. 0 Particulate matter an% Partial OGi%ation Pro%ucts+ =rganic and inorganic compounds of higher molecular weights and lead compounds resulting from the use of TE7 are exhausted in the form of !er# small si9e particles of the order of B.B2 to B.B1 microns. .bout -(G of the lead burned in the engine is exhausted into the atmosphere in this form and rest is deposited on engine parts. /ome traces of products of partial oxidation are also present in the exhaust gas of which formaldeh#de and acetaldeh#de are important. =ther constituents are phenolic acids& ketones& ethers etc.& These are essentiall# products of incomplete combustion of the fuel. ore air

than this reduces the peak temperature& since excess air must be heated from energ# released during

(2

(3

Flame ;uenching+ The phenomenon of flame %uenching at the engine walls and the resulting unburned la#er of combustible mixture pla# a significant role in the o!erall problem of air pollution. +t has long been understood that a flame will not propagate through a narrow passage. +t has been found that the walls comprising the narrow passage %uench the flame b# acting as a sink for energ#. The minimum %istance (et6een t6o &lates through 6hich a flame 6ill &ro&agate is %efine% as the quenching %istance. The %uenching distance is found to be a function of pressure& temperature and reactant composition. :hen a flame is %uenched b# a single wall as would be the case in the combustion chamber of a /.+ engine& the distance of the closest approach of the flame to the wall is smaller than the %uenching distance. This distance is called the dead space. +n general& the dead space has been assumed to range from B.33 to1.B of the %uenching distance. 4riedman and Oohnson& >reen and .gnes& >ottenber# and others ha!e made significant work on this area. The following points are drawn from their experiments. 1. Essentiall# the expression for %uenching distance is of the form 1 %d I ------6R TS :here the !alues of R and S depends on the stoichiometr# of the combustible mixture. 2. 7ean mixtures ha!e significantl# large %uenching distance than stoichiometr# or rich mixture at an# gi!en pressure. 3. There exist a direct linear relationship between the total exhausted h#drocarbon and surface to !olume ratio& a direct linear relationship between the representati!es measured %uench distance and the %uantit# of unburned h#drocarbons in the combustion products. ,. The %uenching distance of copper& mica& glass and platinum surfaces were the same and hence the# concluded that the %uenching effect was independent of the surface material. (. .s the temperature of the wall increases& the flame can propagate closer to it. +f high temperature materials could be used to make the c#linder walls in an engine capable of withstanding 'BB CA to 12BB CA temperature& the %uench la#er thickness can be reduced to bring down the concentration of h#drocarbons. ?anial proposed that the unburned h#drocarbons that are exhausted during the cruise and acceleration modes are due to the %uenching of flames b# the walls of the combustion chamber piston. 8e measured the thickness of the dark 9one between the flame and the combustion chamber wall in a single c#linder engine that was fitted with a single %uart9 head. The dark 9one or dead space was measured b# taking stroboscopic picture of successi!e c#cle through the %uart9 c#linder head& and he showed that the %uantit# of fuel trapped in the dead space was sufficient to account for the unburned

(,

h#drocarbons emitted from the engine. 8e also reported that the thickness of the dark 9one was a function of temperature and pressure as referred b# 4riedman and Oohnson. Tabac9#nski proposed that there are four separate %uench regions in the c#linder of a /.+ engine. .s shown in fig 3.1& these four %uench la#ers ma# be expected to be exhausted from the c#linder at different times during the exhaust stroke. *egions 1 and 2 shown in the figure are the head and side wall %uench la#ers respecti!el#. *egion 3 represents the piston face %uench la#er and region , corresponds to the %uench !olume between the c#linder wall& piston crown and first compression ring. +t has been proposed that the head %uench la#er and part of the side wall %uench la#er nearest the exhaust !al!e lea!e the c#linder when the exhaust !al!e opens. ?ue to the low flow !elocities near the piston face& the piston face %uench la#er will probabl# not lea!e the c#linder at an# time during the stroke. ?uring the expansion stroke& the h#drocarbons from the cre!ice between the piston crown and the first compression ring are laid along the c#linder wall. .s the piston begins its upward stroke& it has been shown that a !ortex is formed which scraps up the h#drocarbons along the wall and forces them to be exhausted near the end of the exhaust stroke.

((

(1

EFFE'T OF )ESIGN AN) OPERATING -ARIA<CES ON GASOCINE ENGINE EB=AUST E9ISSIONS The exhaust emission of h#drocarbons& carbon monoxide and nitric oxide can be minimi9ed b# the control of se!eral inter related engine design and operating parameter. 4uel preparation& distribution and composition are also factors. +n this section the effects on emissions of factors which the engineer has under his control when designing and tailoring his engine for minimum exhaust emissions are discussed. The factors include: .ir fuel ratio 7oad or power le!el /peed /park timing Exhaust back pressure "al!e o!erlap +ntake manifold pressure Aombustion chamber deposit build up /urface temperature /urface to !olume ratio Aombustion chamber design ?isplacement per c#linder Aompression ratio /troke to bore ratio

+n the following discussions& the h#drocarbons and A= emissions are treated togetherD because once the# are formed the# both can be reduced b# chemical oxidation process in either the c#linder or the exhaust s#stem. =n the other hand nitric oxide& once formed must be reduced b# a chemical reduction process. +n the first case for 8A and A= reduction& excess = 2 is re%uired where as in the second case for @= reduction a deficienc# of =2 is desirable. EFFE'TS ON UN<URNE) =H)RO'AR<ONS AN) 'AR<ON 9ONOBI)E . AIR > FUEC RATIO+ a =$%rocar(on emission+

(-

8#drocarbon emissions are high at rich air fuel ratios and decrease as the mixture is leaned up to about 1-:1. :hen operation leaner than 1- or 1':1 is attempted& emissions increases because of incomplete flame propagation and the engine begin to misfire. The basic factor contributing to the shape of the cur!e for 8A emissions are the effect of mixture ratio on %uench la#er thickness and on fuel concentration within that %uench la#er& and the effect of mixture ratio on the a!ailabilit# of excess ox#gen in the exhaust to complete the combustion and on the exhaust s#stem temperature. :hen the temperature is o!er 1(B CA and with ox#gen a!ailable appreciable exhaust after reaction does occur. ( 'O emission+ A= emissions are high at rich air fuel ratios and decreases as the mixture is leaned. =n the richer side& a change of onl# 1)3 air fuel ratio leads to a change of 1.BG in exhaust A=. The reason that the A= concentration does not drop to 9ero when the mixture is chemicall# correct and leaner arises from a combination of c#cle to c#cle and c#linder to c#linder mal distribution and slow A= kinetics. / PO8ER OUTPUT+ a =$%rocar(on emission+ 8#drocarbon concentration does not change as load is increased while speed and mixture ratio are held constant and spark is adjusted to one another. 0T. This result is to be !iewed as arising from effects of se!eral factors some of which tend to reduce 8A while others tend to increase them& apparentl# counter balancing

('

. factor which increases the 8A formation as load increases is the reduced time within the exhaust s#stem. The residence time of the exhaust gas in the !er# hot section of the exhaust s#stem is !er# important for increased exhaust after-reaction.

(5

4actors tending to reduce 8A concentration include decreased %uench thickness and increased exhaust temperature. Quench la#er thickness decreases in!ersel# as pressure increases and the mean c#linder pressure increases linearl# with increase in load. +ncreased temperature with increasing load tends to increase exhaust after-reaction. 8owe!er& an almost linear increase in 8A mass emissions is obser!ed as load is increased. . light car with low power is better than a large car on mass emission basis. ( 'O emission+ .t a fixed air-fuel ratio there is no effect of power output on A= emission concentration. 8owe!er& as in the case of 8A emissions& A= emission on mass basis will increase directl# with increasing output& gi!ing ad!antage for a small light and efficient car. " ENGINE SPEE)+ a =$%rocar(on emission+ 8A emission is considerabl# reduced at higher engine speeds. This is because with increase in engine speed& the combustion process within the c#linder is increased b# increasing turbulent mixing and edd# diffusion. +n addition& increased exhaust port turbulences at higher speeds promotes exhaust s#stem oxidation reactions through better mixing.

1B

11

( 'O emission+ /peed has no effect on A= concentration. This is because oxidation of A= in the exhaust is kineticall# limited rather than mixing limited at normal exhaust temperatures. 0 SPARK TI9ING+ a =' emission+ 8A emission has huge impact on spark timing. .s the timing is retarded& the 8A emissions are reduced. This is because& the exhaust gas temperature increases which promotes A= and 8A oxidation. This ad!antage is gained b# compromising the fuel econom#.

12

( 'O emission+ /park timing has !er# little effect on A= concentration. 0ut at !er# high retarded timing& the A= emission increases. This is due to lack of time& to complete oxidation of A=. 1 EB=AUST <A'K PRESSURE+ a =' emission+ +ncreasing exhaust back pressure increases the amount of residual exhaust gas left in the c#linder at the end of the exhaust. +f this increase in dilution does not affect the combustion process ad!ersel#& the

13

8A emissions would be marginall# reduced. The reduction arises from lea!ing the tail end of the exhaust& which is rich in 8A& in the c#linder. This tail will be subse%uentl# burned in the next c#cle. +f the back pressure is increased more and more& 8A emission would rise sharpl# because of the effect of excessi!e dilution on combustion. =n the other hand& increased dilution at idle increases 8A emission concentration. .t idle& dilution is alread# %uirt high and combustion is marginal and the engine cannot tolerate much more exhaust dilution. # -AC-E O-ERCAP+ a =' emission+ +ncreasing !al!e o!erlap has an effect similar to increasing the back pressure. The charge is further diluted with residual gases. . slight 2 o!erlap pro!ided minimi9es emission due to re burning of exhaust tail gas which is rich in 8A. Aombustion deteriorates with lean mixture as residual is increased. +f the mixture ratio is richened to pro!ide stable idle and off-idle performance& then 8A ad!antage will be lost and A= will be increased. +n general& minimum 8A emissions are obtained with moderate or low back pressure with minimum o!erlap. ( 'O emission+ There is no effect of o!erlap on A= concentration at a constant mixture ratio. 8owe!er an# increase in richness of the mixture for smooth idle or off idle will increase the A= directl#. This is due to lack of insufficient suppl# of ox#gen for complete oxidation of A=.

1,

1(

2 INTAKE 9ANIFOC) PRESSURE+ a =' emission+ The intake manifold pressure !ariation reflects the !ariation in power output of an engine. 0etween 22cm and 1Bcm of 8g manifold pressure& the .)4 ratio is lean which minimi9es 8A and A= emissions. .bo!e 1Bcm of 8g& the engine power increases and the carburettor switch to rich mode. The rich mixture increases 8A and A= emissions. This holds good onl# in case of carbureted engine. .t light loads and low manifold pressure& additional 8A emissions results from wall %uenching accompan#ing rich mixtures deli!ered from the carburetor and incomplete combustion at manifold pressures below 1(cm of 8g. 7 'O9<USTION '=A9<ER )EPOSITS+ a =' emission+ +t is well known that in a normal engine the major source of combustion chamber deposit is TE7& a fuel additi!e used to suppress combustion knock. The deposits act to increase the surface area of the chamber because of their irregular porous nature. .s a result& the mass of %uenched 8A increases. ?eposits act as a sponge to trap raw fuel which remains unburned and adds to exhaust. .ll these tend to increase the 8A emission. Tests ha!e indicated that remo!al of deposits& depending on the extent of deposit build up& would reduce about 1(G in 8A emissions. .ddition of fuel additi!es to reduce deposit build up ma# be helpful. Eth#lene dibromide is commonl# added to motor fuel to reduce lead deposits from TE7. .n# modification to both fuels and lubricants can indirectl# reduce 8A emissions through deposit modification. ( 'O emission+ There is no effect of deposit build up on A= emission. ! SURFA'E TE9PERATURE+ a =' emission+ Aombustion chamber surface temperature affects the unburned 8A emissions b# changing the thickness of combustion chamber %uench la#er and degree of after burning. 8igher the combustion chamber surface temperature& the lower are the 8A emissions. +n addition to changing %uench distance and after-reaction& changing engine temperature increases fuel e!aporation and distribution& and result in a faster reaction and hence reduced 8A emission. ( 'O emission+ .n increase in surface temperature of chamber increases the rate of oxidation of A= and hence reduces A= emission. 4urther exhaust after reaction also increases resulting in decrease in A= emission. .4 SURFA'E TO -OCU9E RATIO+ a =' emission+

11

0ecause h#drocarbon emissions arise primaril# from %uenching at the combustion chamber wall surface& it is desirable to minimi9e the surface area of the chamber. The ratio of surface area to !olume of the combustion chamber (/ ) ") is useful for interpreting the effects of man# designs and operating !ariables on 8A concentration. 7owering the / ) " ratio reduces 8A emission concentration.

1-

1'

( 'O emission+ A= concentration has no effect on surface to !olume ratio.

15

.. 'O9<USTION '=A9<ER )ESIGN+ =ne of the most important factors that the emission engineer has under his control is the combustion chamber design. 4or a gi!en clearance !olume& reducing the surface area is an important wa# of reducing 8A emission. ?esigning a combustion chamber to create better turbulence will reduce both 8A and A= emission. ./ STROKE 5 <ORE RATIO+ .nother design factor is stroke to bore ratio. Engines with small bore and long stroke ha!e lower / ) " ratio. Engines with low surface to !olume ratio pro!ide a good emission reduction compared to the engine with higher surface to !olume ratio. )is&lacement &er c$l <ore Stro,e Stro,e5(ore s5* 0. , 3.2( .'13 ' 0. 3.12 , 1.1B( 1.1

The engine with s)! 1.1 should pro!de good emission result.Knfortunatel# this re%uirement is opposed to modern design practice of short stroke for reduced friction& increased power and econom#. 7ong stroke engines tend to be large& hea!# and more expensi!e and the# ha!e poor fuel econom# and reduced peak power. ." )ISPCA'E9ENT PER 'HCIN)ER+ 4or a gi!en displacement& engines with larger c#linders ha!e smaller surface to !olume ratio. This result suggests that for an engine of gi!en displacement& h#drocarbon emissions can be reduced b# decreasing the number of c#linders and increasing the displacement per c#linder. =n the other hand& for a gi!en number of c#linders& increasing the engine displacement reduces s)! ratio and reduces 8A. )is&lacement &er c$l <ore Stro,e Stro,e5(ore s5* .0 'O9PRESSION RATIO+ . decrease in compression ratio decreases surface to !olume ratio. ?ecrease in compression ratio increases the clearance !olume greatl# with little increase in surface area. ?ue to this decrease in surface to !olume ratio the 8A emission is reduced. . decrease in compression ratio decreases the 8A emission on a second wa# also. :ith reduced compression ratio& thermal efficienc# is lowered and as a result exhaust gas temperature is increased. This impro!es exhaust s#stem after-recirculation and lowers the 8A emission e!en more. 0. , 3.2( .'13 ' "4 / 3.12 2.5, .'13 5

-B

-1

=n the other hand& as engine efficienc# is lowered& mass flow is increased for a gi!en horse power le!el which increases mass emissions. =n the other hand with large reduction in compression ratio& the temperature in chamber decreases and it increases both 8A and A= emission. EFFE'T OF NITRI' OBI)E+ The concentration of @= in the exhaust gases depends upon the difference between the rate of its formation at the highest temperature in the c#cle and the rate of its decomposition as the temperature decreases during the expansion stroke. . stud# of the decomposition rate of @= indicates that the amount decomposed is negligible because of the short time a!ailable during the expansion stroke. . E;UI-ACEN'E RATIO+ The e%ui!alence ratio affects both the gas temperature and the a!ailable ox#gen during combustion. Theoreticall# an increase in the e%ui!alence ratio form 1.B to 1.1 results in an increase of maximum c#cle temperature b# about ((A while ox#gen concentration is reduced b# (BG. .t e%ui!alence ratio of 1.1& @= in the exhaust is !er# low. ox#gen concentration is much higher. aximum @= concentration occurs at an e%ui!alence ratio of B.'. The maximum c#cle temperature with this lean mixture is lower than with a rich mixture but a!ailable

-2

-3

:ith !er# rich mixtures& low peak combustion temperatures and low ox#gen concentration lead to low @=. 4or mixtures leaner than 1(.(:1 there is enough ox#gen but the temperature is !er# less and hence lower the @= formation. Thus @= concentration is !er# low for !er# lean as well as !er# rich mixtures. / SPARK TI9ING+ .n ad!ance in spark timing increases the maximum c#cle temperature and therefore results in increased @= concentration.

-,

-(

" 9ANIFOC) PRESSURE+ .n increase in manifold !acuum decreases load and temperature. .s a result the ignition dela# is increased and the flame speed is reduced. 0oth these factors increase the time of combustion. This reduces the maximum c#cle temperature and thus reducing @= concentration in the exhaust. 0 ENGINE SPEE)+ .n increase in engine speed has little effect on ignition dela#. +ncrease in engine speed results in an increase in flame speed due to turbulence and reduces heat losses per c#cle which tends to raise compression and combustion temperature and pressure. +f spark timing is held constant& a greater portion of this combustion tends to occur during expansion where temperature and pressure are relati!el# low.

-1

This is most pronounced for the slowest burning mixture ratio of 15:1. 4or richer mixtures which burn faster& the effect of reduced heat losses at higher speeds predominates.

These are two opposing influences L an increase in the rate of @= formation due to reduced heat losses opposed b# a reduction in the rate of @= formation due to late burning. 4or rich mixtures where combustion and @= formation are rapid& the former predominates. 4or lean mixtures where combustion and @= formation are slow& the later effect predominates. 1 'OOCANT TE9PERATURE AN) )ESPOSIT+ .n increase in the coolant temperature results in a reduction of heat losses to the c#linder walls and an increase in the maximum gas temperature. This results in an increase in @= concentration. .n increase in deposit thickness causes an increase in compression ratio& reduction in heat losses to the coolant and an increase in @= concentration.

--

# =U9I)ITH+ The reduction in @= formation caused b# an increase in mixture humidit# is mainl# due to the drop in maximum flame temperature. Test on h#drogen-air& and eth#lene-air mixture indicates that 1G of water !apour reduces the flame temperature b# 2BA. This reduces the initial rate of @= production b# about 2(G.

-'

2 EB=AUST GAS RE'IR'UCATION+ *ec#cling of a portion of exhaust gas to inlet charge increases dilution. This reduces peak combustion temperature& since the inert exhaust gas re circulated will act as a heat sink. This also reduces the ox#gen a!ailabilit#. .bout 1(G rec#cle will reduce @=x emission b# about 'BG. The maximum percentage which can be re circulated is limited b# rough engine operation and loss of power.

-5

'B

7 SURFA'E TO -OCU9E RATIO+ Engine changes which decrease surface to !olume ratio reduce heat loss to the coolant. .s a result @= concentration ma# increase. EFFE'T OF )ESIGN AN) OPERATING -ARIA<CES ON EB=AUST E9ISSIONS SC NO 1 2 3 -ARIA<CE IN'REASE) 7oad /peed /park retard =' T ?ecrease ?ecrease 'O T NO +ncrease +ncrease)?ecrease ?ecrease

'1

, ( 1 ' 5 1B 11 12 13 1, 1(

Exhaust back pressure ?ecrease "al!e o!erlap ?ecrease +ntake manifold pressure Aombustion deposit /)" ratio Aombustion chamber +ncreases +ncrease chamber +ncrease ?ecrease ?ecrease +ncrease ?ecrease ?ecrease ?ecrease

?ecrease ?ecrease ?ecrease

?ecrease ?ecrease +ncrease +ncreases +ncrease +ncrease +ncrease +ncrease

area /troke to bore ratio ?isplacement per c#l. Aompression ratio .ir +njection 4uel injection Aoolant temperature

)IESEC ENGIEN EB=AUST E9ISSIONS+ The pollutants from diesel engines can be categori9ed into two t#pes: . -isi(le an% / In*isi(le. The first one consists of smoke and metallic particulates. /moke being so conspicuous and odorous is objected to public and also reduces !isibilit# and has smudging character but is not harmful to health. The second t#pe consists of A=& un burnt h#drocarbons including pol# nuclear aromatics& oxides of @2& /=2 and partiall# oxidi9ed organics (aldeh#des& ketones etc.&) .mong these pollutants smoke& A=& K08A and oxides of nitrogen are of most immediate concern. FOR9ATION OF POCCUTANTS IN )IESEC ENGINES+ Knlike a gasoline engine& where fuel and air are premixed into a homogenous form before entering the c#linder& in the diesel engine fuel is injected into the compressed air charge inside the c#linder. .s the mixing of air and fuel has to take place entirel# in the combustion chamber& complete mixing is !irtuall# impossible and infinite !ariations in air-fuel mixture ratio takes place within the same c#linder. .lso as the load re%uirement is met through !ariation in the %uantit# of fuel injected& the o!erall air fuel ratio !aries within wide limits& about 2B:1 to 1B:1. . normall# rated and well maintained engine emits negligible amount of A= and unburnt h#drocarbons& through considerable amount of oxides of nitrogen and smoke are emitted. 'ar(on monoGi%e+ +t is formed during combustion when there is insufficient ox#gen to oxidi9e the fuel full#. Aompression ignition engines ha!e long been known to produce low le!els of A= because of excess amount of air a!ailable for combustion. Theoreticall# it should not emit an# A= as it alwa#s operated with large amount of excess air. @e!ertheless A= is present in small %uantities ( B.1 to B.-(G) in the exhausts.

'2

This is possible because of the fact that fuel injected in later part of the injection does not find enough ox#gen due to local depletion in certain parts of the combustion chamber. Un(urnt =$%rocar(ons+ The concentrations of h#drocarbons in diesel exhaust !aries for a few parts per million to se!eral thousand parts per millions depending on engine speed and load. 8#drocarbons in engine exhaust are composed of man# indi!idual h#drocarbons in the fuel supplied to the engine as well as number of h#drocarbons partiall# unburnt produced during the combustion process. +n addition some unburnt h#drocarbons ma# be from lubricating oils. Tests on engine with single component fuels shows that these engines contained h#drocarbons of higher and lower molecular weights& than original fuel as well as molecules with different structures. .romatic compounds ha!e been obser!ed in exhaust of engines operated on pure paraffins. 6ol# nuclear aromatics found in exhaust are products of this s#nthesis. ?uring the normal operation the relati!el# cold walls ;%uench< the fuel air mixture and inhibit combustion lea!ing a thick skin of unburnt air fuel mixture o!er the entire en!elope of the combustion chamber. The amount of unburnt fuel depends on the thickness of %uench 9one and the effecti!e combustion chamber area. The thickness of %uench 9one depends on man# !ariables as combustion temperature& pressure& mixture ratio& turbulence and residual gas dilution. 8igher surface to !olume ratio of combustion chamber leads to greater fraction of unburnt h#drocarbon from the %uench 9one. 6artiall# oxidi9ed h#drocarbons (aldeh#des) ha!e been associated with diesel exhaust. The# produce objectionable odor and are high when engine idles and under cold starting indicating poor combustion. OBI)ES OF NITROGEN+ This is more significant. The formation of @itric oxide& the major component of oxides of nitrogen depends on number of operating conditions of diesel engine. The main factors that control this formation are amounts of ox#gen a!ailable and the peak temperature in the 9ones with sufficient ox#gen and residence times at temperatures abo!e 2BBBJ. 0oth open and pre-combustion chamber produce small amount of oxides of nitrogen when air fuel ratio is about B.B1 to maximum near air fuel ratio of about B.B3( ratios. .dditional fuel tends to lower air fuel ratioD the charge temperature also reduces which conse%uentl# reduces oxides of nitrogen. Formation of oGi%es of nitrogen+ /ince nitrogen is a high temperature species its formation is influenced b# combustion temperature and time a!ailable for combustion. 8ence @= tends to increase with ad!anced injection timing. .lso @= produced increase with fuel suppl#. @otable exception is prechamber. +n direct injection engines @= reaches maximum !alue at stoichiometric air fuel ratio& as lean and rich mixtures tend to reduce combustion temperatures. +ncrease in compression ratio leads to increase in combustion temperature and hence higher @= formation.

'3

"al!e o!erlap has significant effect on @= formation. 8igher !al!e o!erlap dilutes the incoming air more and more leading to increasing in fuel)air ratio. This in turn reduces combustion temperatures and hence lowers @= formation. Earlier inlet !al!e opening before T?A leads to increased dilution of incoming air and hence lower @=. Extended inlet !al!e opening up to 2B has no effect on @= formation as it does not !ar# manifold pressure. Extended exhaust !al!e opening before bottom dead centre results in marginal increase in @= due to better sca!enging& con!ersel# later exhaust !al!e opening leads to dela#ed sca!enging and higher dilution. Exhaust !al!e closing determine effect of sca!enging and pronounced effect on dilution and hence @itrogen formation. )IESEC ENGINE S9OKE E9ISSION+ Engine exhaust smoke is a !isible indicator of the combustion process in the engine. /moke is due to incomplete combustion. /moke in diesel engine can be di!ided into three categories: blue& white and black. <lue smo,e+ +t results from the burning of engine lubricating oil that reaches combustion chamber due to worn piston rings& c#linder liners and !al!e guides. 8hite or col% smo,e+ +t is made up of droplets of unburnt or partiall# burnt fuel droplets and is usuall# associated with the engine running at less than normal operating temperature after starting& long period of idling& operating under !er# light load& operating with leaking injectors and water leakage in combustion chamber. This smoke normall# fades awa# as engine is warmed up and brought to normal stage.

<lac, or hot smo,e+ +t consists of unburnt carbon particles ( B.( L 1 microns in diameter) and other solid products of combustion. This smoke appears after engine is warmed up and is accelerating or pulling under load. Formation of smo,e in )iesel engines+ The main cause of smoke formation is known to be inade%uate mixing of fuel and air. /moke is formed when the local temperature is high enough to decompose fuel in a region where there is insufficient ox#gen to burn the carbon that is formed. The formation of o!er-rich fuel air mixtures either generall# or in locali9ed regions will result in smoke. 7arge amounts of carbons will be formed during the earl# stage of combustion. This carbon appears as smoke if there is insufficient air& if there is insufficient mixing or if

',

local temperatures fall below the carbon reaction temperatures (approximatel# 1BBBA) before the mixing occurs. .cceptable performance of diesel engine is criticall# influenced b# exhaust some emissions. 4ailure of engine to meet smoke legislation re%uirement pre!ents sale and particularl# for militar# use& possible !isibilit# b# smoke is useful to enem# force. ?iesel emissions gi!es information on effecti!eness of combustion& general performance and condition of engine. FA'TORS AFFE'TING S9OKE FOR9ATION+ The smoke intensit# in the diesel exhaust is generall# affected b# man# parameters. 0# controlling them& smoke intensit# ma# be reduced. . In:ection timing+ .d!ancing the injection timing in diesel engines with all other parameters kept constant results in longer dela# periods& more fuel injected before ignition& higher temperatures in the c#cle and earlier ending of the combustion process. The residence time is therefore increased. .ll these factors ha!e been fond to reduce the smoke intensit# in the exhaust. 8owe!er earlier injection results in more combustion noise& higher mechanical and thermal stresses& and high @= concentration. +n a recent stud#& khan reported that a !er# late injection reduces the smoke. The timing after which this reduction occurs is that at which the minimum ignition dela# occurs. 8e suggested that one of the factor that contributes to the reduction in smoke at the retarded timing is the reduced rat of formation due to decrease in the temperature of the diffusion flames as most of these flames occur during the expansion stroke. / Rate of In:ection+ 8igher initial rates of injection ha!e been found to be effecti!e in reducing the exhaust smoke. " In:ection no33le+ The si9e of the no99le holes and the ratio of the hole length to its diameter ha!e an effect on smoke concentration. . larger hole diameter results in less atomi9ation and increased smoke. .n increase in the length)diameter ratio be#ond a certain limit also results in increased smoke. 0 9aintenance+ The engine condition pla#s a !er# important role in deciding the smoke le!els. The maintenance affects the injection characteristics and the %uantit# of lubricating oil which passes across the piston rings and thus a profound effect on smoke generation tendenc# of the engine. >ood maintenance is a must for lower smoke le!els.

1 Fuel+ 8igher cetane number fuels ha!e a tendenc# to produce more smoke. +t is belie!ed to be due to lower stabilit# of these fuels. 4or a gi!en cetane number less smoke is produced with more !olatile fuels.

'(

# Coa%+ . rich fuel-air mixture results in higher smoke because the amount of ox#gen a!ailable is less. 8ence an# o!er loading of the engine will result in a !er# black smoke. The smoke le!el rises from no load to full load. ?uring the first part& the smoke le!el is more or less constant as there is alwa#s excess air present. 8owe!er in the higher load range there is an abrupt rise in smoke le!el due to less a!ailable ox#gen.

'1

2 Engine t$&e an% s&ee%+ @aturall# aspirated engines ha!e higher smoke le!els at higher loads than turbo charged engines& because the later ha!e sufficient ox#gen e!en at full loads. The smoke is worse at low as well as at high speeds. This follows the !olumetric efficienc# cur!e of the engine in some measure as it drops at the extremes of speed. 7 Fuel air ratio+ The smoke increases with richening the mixture. The increase in smoke occurs e!en with as much as 2(G excess air in c#linder& cleanl# indicating that the diesel engine has a mixing problem.

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'ONTROC OF )IESEC ENGINE S9OKE+ /moke can be reduced b# some of the following methods: . )erating+ ?erating is nothing but making the engine to run at lower loads. .t lower loads more excess air is present in the combustion chamber and hence the smoke de!eloped is less as alread# discussed. 8owe!er this means a loss of output. / Pro&er maintenance of the engine+ aintaining the engine properl#& especiall# the injection s#stem& will not onl# result in reducing smoke but also keep the performance of the engine at its best. " Pro&er choice of com(ustion cham(er %esign an% o&erating con%itions+ . proper choice of combustion chamber design results in better mixing of fuel and air in the chamber and hence reduces the smoke le!el to a considerable le!el. 0 Use of smo,e su&&ression a%%iti*es+ /ome barium compounds if used in fuel reduce the temperature of combustion& thus a!oiding the soot formation. E!en if formed the# break it into fine particles& thus appreciabl# reducing smoke. 8owe!er& the use of barium salts increases the deposit formation tendencies of engine and reduces the fuel filter life. 1 A%o&ting fumigation technique+

''

This method consists of introducing a small amount of fuel into the intake manifold. This starts pre-combustion reactions before and during the compression stroke resulting in reduced chemical dela#& because the intermediate products such as peroxides and aldeh#des react more rapidl# with ox#gen than original h#drocarbons. The shortening of dela# period curbs thermal cracking which is responsible for soot formation.

4umigation rate of about 1(G gi!es best smoke impro!ement. 8owe!er this impro!ement !aries greatl# with engine speed. .t low engine speeds (B to 'BG smoke reduction is obtained. This decrease as speed increases until a speed at which there is no effect of fumigation. )IESEC O)OUR+ E!er since the first diesel engine was de!eloped& the odor from its exhaust has been recogni9ed as undesirable. ?etermination of the cause of this odor has been difficult because of the complexit# of the heterogeneous combustion process and the lack of chemical instruments a!ailable. +n practice the human nose pla#s a significant role in odor measurement. The members of the aldeh#des famil# are supposed to be responsible for the pungent odors of diesel exhaust. Though the amount of aldeh#des is small being less than 3Bppm& the concentration as low as 1ppm are irritating the human e#es and nose. 9echanism of o%our &ro%uction+

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/ome experimental results indicate that the products of partial oxidation are the main cause of odor in diesel exhaust. This partial oxidation ma# be because of either !er# lean mixture or due to %uenching effect.

+n diesel combustion there are most probabl# regions in which the fuel)ox#gen)inert mixture is outside the flammabilit# limits. The fuel in these regions which are too lean to burn might onl# partiall# oxidi9e resulting in odors. This is most likel# to occur during idling and or part load operation of the engine. .lso the fact that chemical reactions take place during the second stage of diesel combustion suggest that if the reactions are %uenched during this period& partial oxidation products will result in odour in the diesel exhaust. 0arns concluded in his research that diesel odor resulted from partial oxidation reaction in the fuel lean regions which are almost ine!itabl# formed in heterogeneous combustion. >raph shows the relati!e odor producing capabilities of different air fuel regions. The data shown in graph were obtained using A4* engine and !ar#ing air-fuel ratios and the inlet air temperatures. O%or rele*ant com&oun%s+ Kntil recentl# !er# little was known about the compound or compounds that contribute to the odorous %ualities of diesel exhaust. *ounds and 6earsall correlate odor with the aldeh#des in diesel exhaust gas. 8owe!er "ogh sa#s that aldeh#des are not significant contributors to the o!erall odor problem. "ogh also sa#s that neither /=2 nor particulate contribute significantl# to diesel odor emissions. *esearch work at the +llinois +nstitute of Technolog#& *esearch +nstitute ( ++T*+ ) has contributed significantl# to the de!elopment of a better understanding of the chemical nature of the odor contributors

5B

in diesel exhaust. 0ased on the ++T*+ work& !arious high molecular weight c#clic and aromatic h#drocarbons including naphthalene& tetra ling and c#clo paraffins some with olefinic and or paraffinic side changing were reported as major contributors to the burnt odor note of the exhaust. "arious non aromatic h#drocarbons with more than one double or triple bond were also reported to contribute to the burnt odor note. 4uran aldeh#des& aromatic ben9ene and paraffinic aldeh#des from ethanol to n-octanol were found be important odor contributors and ha!e indi!idual odors that !aried from pleasant to pungent. /ome heteroc#clic sulfur compounds& thiophene and ben9othiophene deri!ati!es were also reported to be odor contributors. FA'TORS AFFE'TING O)OR PRO)U'TION+ . Fuel air ratio+ The fact that !er# lean mixtures result in odorous diesel exhaust has alread# been discussed. / Engine o&eration mo%e+ +t has been found that the mode of operation of the engine significantl# affects the exhaust odor. aximum odor occurs while accelerating from idle and minimum odor results when the engine is running at medium sped and or at part loads. Effect of engine operating mode on odor production ( ,-stroke normall# aspirated medium speed diesel engine) Engine o&eration mo%e +dle .cceleration 6art load 4ull load " Engine t$&e+ The odor intensit# does not !ar# with the engine t#pe as can be seen from the table. The odor intensit# from all the engines is more or less the same. Engine t$&e O%or intensit$ D Tur, num(erE Two stroke 3.( 4our stroke normall# aspirated 3.3 ( medium speed) 4our stroke normall# aspirated 3.( ( high speed) 4our stroke L Turbo charged 0 Fuel com&osition+ +t is reall# surprising to find that the composition of the fuel has no effect on exhaust odor intensit#. The changes in fuel composition result in different second stage combustion time in diesel combustion and it is expected that this will affect the degree of oxidation if %uenching is taking place. 8owe!er the results contradict this expectation. 1 O%or su&&ressant a%%iti*es+ 3., O%or intensit$ D Tur, num(erE 3.1 ,.1 3.B 3.(

51

+t has been claimed from time to time& b# different manufactures of odor suppressant additi!e compounds that the# reduce the odor. 8owe!er small and rather insignificant effects upon the odor has been found in comparison of exhausts from treated and untreated fuels. @o predictable and reliable correspondence between the additi!es and odor is found. O%or 9easurement Techniques+ Effecti!e chemical or ph#sical methods for the measurement of odor ha!e not been de!eloped& and therefore the human nose pla#s a significant role in all odor studies. +n practice odor is measured b# a speciall# selected& speciall# trained human panel. :hen the nose is subjected to an odor& the ph#siological response to the odor can be classified b# either intensit# or intensit# and %ualit#. The Turk kit contains a number of different standard odors that are classified as a) burnt)smok# b) oil# c) pungent)acid and d) aldeh#dic)aromatic. +t has been generall# accepted as a standard for rating the intensit# and %ualit# of an unknown odorous sample. =dor-detection methods that ha!e been de!eloped todate ma# be placed in two general categories. The first categor# includes methods that onl# rate the o!er all odor intensit#& while the second group is emplo#ed to classif# odors b# %ualit# and intensit#. The threshold dilution techni%ue and natural dilution techni%ue that are described below fall into the first categor#. The threshold dilution techni%ue consists of presenting raw diesel exhaust s#ntheticall# diluted with !ariable %uantities of odor free air to a panel of ;/niffers< person who smells. . series of diluted samples& both abo!e and below the threshold dilution ratio& are presented to members of the panel and the indi!idual panel members are asked to determine whether or not an# odor is detectable. The odor intensit# is assumed to be proportional to the dilution ratio at which the odor is just detectable to the panel. The natural dilution techni%ue was de!eloped in order to determine whether diesel powered !ehicles could meet the motor !ehicle exhaust odor on standards set b# the state of Aalifornia. ?uring the course of these tests& a panel is seated at !ar#ing distance from a !ehicle. 0oth the !ehicle and the panel are located inside a large municipal hanger& in order to minimi9e the effects due to winds and the panelists are asked to determine whether or not the# can detect an# odor from the !ehicle. Their responses are utili9ed to e!aluate threshold response distances. "ariations of the direct method ha!e been used to rate the %ualit# and intensit# of diesel odor and hence th# fall into the second categor# of odor detection methods. :hen appl#ing this method& the exhaust from the diesel engine is usuall# diluted with odor free air at the engine exhaust pipe and the resulting mixture of gases which consists of raw diesel exhaust mixed with odor free air in ratios ranging from 1 to 2BB flows d#namicall# through a presentation s#stem to the panelists. The panelists who ha!e been pre!iousl# trained to e!aluate both %ualit# and intensit# as determined b# the Turk kit are asked to record their response to test gases as a function of dilution ratio and experimental parameters. 'ONTROC OF E9ISSIONS FRO9 SI AN) 'I ENGINES )esign changes+

52

The effects of engine design and operating !ariables on exhaust emission were discussed in a detailed manner alread#. 0ased on the discussions made alread# the engine design modifications approaches to control the pollutants are discussed below. . NOG is %ecrease% ($ .. ?ecreasing the combustion chamber temperature The combustion chamber temperature can be decreased b# 1. ?ecreasing compression ratio 2. *etarding spark timing 3. ?ecreasing charge temperature ,. ?ecreasing engine speed (. ?ecreasing inlet charge pressure 1. Exhaust gas recirculation -. +ncreasing humidit# '. :ater injection 5. =perating the engine with !er# lean or !er# rich air fuel ratio 1B. ?ecreasing the coolant temperature 11. ?ecreasing the deposits 12. +ncreasing /)" ratio < <$ %ecreasing oG$gen a*aila(le in the flame front The amount of ox#gen a!ailable in the chamber can be controlled b# 1. *ich mixture 2. /tratified charge engine 3. ?i!ided combustion chamber / =$%rocar(on emission can (e %ecrease% ($ 1. ?ecreasing the compression ratio 2. *etarding the spark 3. +ncreasing charge temperature ,. +ncreasing coolant temperature (. +nsulating exhaust manifold 1. +ncreasing engine speed -. 7ean mixture '. .dding ox#gen in the exhaust 5. ?ecreasing /)" ratio 1B. +ncreasing turbulence 11. ?ecreasing the deposits 12. +ncreasing exhaust manifold !olume 13. +ncreasing exhaust back pressure

53

" 'O can (e %ecrease% ($ 1. 7ean air fuel ratio 2. .dding ox#gen in the exhaust 3. +ncreasing coolant temperature. EB=AUST GAS RE'IR'UCATION+ +n exhaust gas recirculation a portion of the exhaust gas is recirculated to the c#linder intake charge. This reduces the peak combustion temperature& since the inert gas ser!es as a heat sink. This also reduces the %uantit# of ox#gen a!ailable for combustion.

The exhaust gas for recirculation is passed through the control !al!e for regulation of the rate and inducted down to the intake pEort& The rec#cle rate control !al!e is connected to the throttle shaft b# means of appropriated linkage and the amount of !al!e opening is regulated b# throttle position. The link is designed so that rec#cled exhaust is normall# shut off during idle to pre!ent rough engine operation. This is also shut off during full throttle& acceleration to pre!ent loss of power when maximum performance is needed. The @=x concentration will !ar# with the amount of rec#cling of gas at !arious air fuel ratios. .bout 1(G rec#cle will reduce @=x emission b# about 'BG. The maximum percentage which can be circulated is limited b# rough engine operation and loss of power. The abo!e figure shows a !acuum controlled E>* !al!e used to control the rec#cle rate. . special passage connects the exhaust manifold with the intake manifold. This passage is opened or closed b# a !acuum controlled E>* !al!e. The upper part of the !al!e is sealed. +t is connected b# a !acuum line to a !acuum port in the carburettor. :hen there is no !acuum the port& there is no !acuum applied to the

5,

diaphragm in the E>* !al!e. Therefore& the spring holds the !al!e closed. @o exhaust gas recirculates. This is the situation during engine idling when little @=x is formed. .s the throttle !al!e opens it passes the !acuum port in the carburettor. This allows intake manifold !acuum to operate the E>* !al!e. Then !acuum raises the diaphragm& which lifts the attached !al!e off its seat. @ow exhaust gas flows into the intake manifold. There the exhaust gas mixes with the air fuel mixture and enter the engine c#linders. .t wide open throttle& there is little !acuum in the intake manifold. This produces a denser mixture which burns cooler during the combustion process. Therefore at wide open throttle there is less need for exhaust gas recirculation. ?ue to low !acuum& the E>* !al!e is nearl# closed.

. thermal !acuum switch on man# cars pre!ents exhaust gas recirculation until the engine temperature reaches about 1BB 4 Br 3-.'A. The thermal !acuum switch is also called a coolant temperature o!erride switch (AT= switch). +t is mounted in a cooling s#stem water jacket& so it senses coolant temperature. +f this temperature is below 1BB4& the switch remains closed. This pre!ents the !acuum from reaching the E>* !al!e& so the exhaust gas does not recirculate. Aold engine performance immediatel# after starting is impro!ed. .fter the engine warms up it can tolerate exhaust gas recirculation. Then the AT= !al!e opens. @ow !acuum can get to the E>* !al!e& so that exhaust gas can recirculate. E>* in!ariabl# results in drop in power& increased fuel consumption and rough combustion. +n addition excessi!e intake s#stem deposit buildup and increased oil sludging occur.

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Fumigation technique+ This method consists of introducing a small amount of fuel into the intake manifold. This starts pre-combustion reactions before and during the compression stroke resulting in reduced chemical dela#& because the intermediate products such as peroxides and aldeh#des react more rapidl# with ox#gen than original h#drocarbons. The shortening of dela# period curbs thermal cracking which is responsible for soot formation. 4umigation rate of about 1(G gi!es best smoke impro!ement. 8owe!er this impro!ement !aries greatl# with engine speed. .t low engine speeds (B to 'BG smoke reduction is obtained. This decrease as speed increases until a speed at which there is no effect of fumigation. 'RANK'ASE E9ISSION AN) 'ONTROC ?uring the compression and combustion strokes& highl# corrosi!e blowb# gases are forced past the piston rings into the crankcase. The amount of blowb# entering the crankcase generall# increases with engine speed. The amount of blowb# also depends on other conditions including piston& ring and c#linder wear. The actual amount of wear ma# be small& perhaps onl# a few thousands of an inch. 0ut almost an# wear is enough to weaker the sealing effect of the rings and permit blowb# to increase. 0lowb# gases

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contain burned and unburned fuel& carbon and water !apour from the combustion chamber. :hen the engine is cold& some of the water !apour of the blowb# condenses on the c#linder walls and crankcase. +t forms into droplets and runs down into the oil pan. >asoline !apour also condenses on cold engine parts and drips down into the oil pan. This gasoline dilutes and thins the oil& reducing its lubricating abilit#. The churning action of the rotating crank shaft can whip the water and engine oil into thick& gumm# substance called sludge. The acid compounds from the blowb# can get into the sludge and cause corrosion and faster wear of engine parts. /ludge can also clog oil passages and pre!ent normal engine lubrication& thereb# leading to earl# engine failure. 0lowb# causes pressure in the crankcase. +f this pressure is allowed to build up& engine oil is forced past the oil seals and gaskets and out of the engine. To help to control the effect of blowb#& there must be a wa# to relie!e the crankcase pressure caused b# blow b# gases.

'RANK'ASE -ENTICATION To a!oid the abo!e said problems& the unburned and partl# burned gasoline and the combustion gases and water !apour must be cleared out of the crankcase b# pro!iding crankcase !entilation s#stems. +n earl# engines& the crankcase !entilation s#stem was !er# simple. +t pro!ided crankcase breathing b# passing fresh oil through the crankcase. =n almost all .merican made automobile engines built prior to 1511& the fresh air entered through an air inlet at the top front of the engine. The fresh air is mixed with the blowb# fumes and other !apours in the crankcase. These !apours were routed out of the crankcase through a large hollow tube called the road draft tube& which discharged under the car into the atmosphere. The fresh air inlet was usuall# the crankcase breather cap. =n most engines it also ser!ed as the cap for the crankcase oil filler tube. The cap was open& or !ented with holes on both sides to let fresh air to pass through. The cap was filled with oil soaked steel wool or similar material to ser!e as an air filter. The filter pre!ented dust particle in the air from getting into the crankcase oil and causing engine wear.

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ROA) )RAFT TU<E E9ISSIONS+

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The road draft tube s#stem worked well to keep the crankcase free of fumes and pressure build up. 8owe!er it discharged all the crankcase pollutants into the atmosphere. This discharge through the road draft tube represented about 2BG of the total 8A emissions from an automobile. Therefore controlling blow b# was the first step in eliminating atmospheric pollution from the automobile. OPEN P'- SHSTE9+ .n earl# s#stem that partiall# controlled crankcase emission was installed on cars built for sale in Aalifornia beginning in 1511. The s#stem was called open positi!e crankcase !entilation s#stem. +n this s#stem a tube is connected between a crank case !ent and the intake manifold. :hile the engine is running& intake manifold !acuum is used to pull !apour from the crankcase through the tube into the intake manifold. 4resh !entilating air is drawn into the crankcase through an open oil filler cap. +n the intake manifold& the crankcase !apours are mixed with the incoming air-fuel mixture and sent to the c#linders for burning.

55

4or the engine to operate properl# under all conditions of speed and load& a flow control !al!e is re%uired. :ithout a flow control !al!e& excessi!e !entilation air passes from the crankcase into the intake

1BB

manifold during idling and low speed. This upsets the engine air fuel ratio and results in poor idling with fre%uent stalling. The 6A" !al!e is installed in a tube from the crankcase !ent to the intake manifold. The 6A" !al!e is a !ariable orifice !al!e. . !ariable orifice is a hole that acts as a !al!e b# changing the si9e to !ar# the flow rate through it. This !al!e is also called a metering !al!e& a modulator !al!e and a regulator !al!e. . t#pical 6A" !al!e consists of a coil spring& a !al!e and a two piece outer bod# which is usuall# crimped together. .t idle or low speed& high intake manifold !acuum tends to pull the !al!e closed or into its minimum flow condition. .s the !al!e tries to close it compresses the !al!e spring. The smaller opening now allows a much smaller !olume of blow b# gas to pass through. .t high engine speeds& the compressed spring o!ercomes the pull of the !acuum on the !al!e. The spring begins to force the !al!e open towards the maximum flow condition. .s the !al!e mo!es open& the flow capacit# increases. This is to handle the greater !olume of blowb# that results from an increase in engine load and speed. 'COSE) P'-+ The crankcase emission control s#stem described abo!e is not completel# effecti!e in controlling crankcase emissions. +n open t#pe s#stem& blowb# in excess of the 6A" !al!e flow rate escapes to the atmosphere through the open oil filler cap. To o!ercome this problem& a closed positi!e crankcase !entilation s#stem was de!eloped. .ll cars manufactured in Aalifornia in 1513 and later used a closed t#pe of positi!e crankcase !entilation s#stem. The blowb# gases are turned to the engine c#linder through the intake manifold and under appropriate conditions& through the carburettor air cleaner. The 6A" !al!e described earlier is generall# used as the flow control !al!e. . closed oil filler cap is used. =ther possible outlets for blow b# gases& such as dipstick tube are sealed.

1B1

1B2

1B3

.ll cars are now being e%uipped with such closed 6A" s#stem where!er there are air pollution regulations. These s#stems ha!e completel# eliminated the crankcase as a source of atmospheric contamination and no additional control in future is re%uired in this direction. E-APORATI-E E9ISSIONS AN) 'ONTROC 8#drocarbon e!aporati!e emissions from a !ehicle arise from two sources as e!aporation of fuel in the carburettor float bowl ( (-1B percent ) of fuel in the fuel tank ( about ( percent ). 'AR<URETTOR E-APORATI-E COSSES+ Aarburettor h#drocarbon !apour losses arise from distillation of fuel from the float bowl. Aarburettor fuel temperature often reaches ((CA during warm weather engine operation and ma# rise up to 'BCA during a hot soak. 8ot soak is a condition when a running car is stopped and its engine turned off. ?uring the soak a significant fraction of the fuel will boil off and a large portion of the loss finds its wa# into the atmosphere. There is a considerable rise in fuel s#stem temperature following shut down after a hard run. The basic factors go!erning the mass of fuel distilled from carburettor during a hot soak period are maximum fuel bowl temperature amount of fuel in the bowl amount of after-fill and distillation cur!e of the fuel

Tests ha!e indicated that a less !olatile fuel would reduce the e!aporati!e losses considerabl#. . fuel with 2BG distilled at -2 CA would gi!e 22G less losses as compared to a fuel which distilled 2(G at -2 CA . The carburettor bowl !olume has a significant effect on e!aporati!e losses. +ncrease in the !olume of the bowl increases the losses linearl#. +f an insulated spacer is placed between the carburettor and the inlet manifold& almost (BG reduction can be obser!ed. 4illing of the carburettor (after-fill) to the original li%uid le!el is similar to an increase in the bowl !olume and the distillation losses would increase b# about 1(G. FUEC TANK E-APORATI-E COSSES+ 4uel tank losses occur b# displacement of !apour during filling of petrol tank& or b# !apori9ation of fuel in the tank& forcing the !apour through a breather !ent to the atmosphere. :hen the temperature is low& the fuel tank breathes in air. :hen the temperature goes high it breathes out air& loaded with petrol !apours. 4uel tank losses occur because the tank temperature is increased during the !ehicle operation which causes an increase in the !apour pressure and thermal expansion of tank !apour. The mechanism of tank loss is as follows: :hen a partiall# filled fuel tank is open to atmosphere& the partial pressure of !apour phase h#drocarbons and !apour pressure of the li%uid phase are e%ual and the# are in e%uilibrium. +f the temperature of the li%uid is increased& sa# b# engine operation& the !apour pressure of the li%uid will increase and it will !apori9e in an attempt to restore e%uilibrium. .s additional

1B,

li%uid !apori9e the total pressure of the tank increases and since the tank is open to atmosphere& the !apour will flow out of the tank. This outflow to the !apour will increase if in addition to li%uid temperature rise& the !apour temperature is also increased. The e!aporation from the tank is affected b# a large number of !ariables of which the ambient and fuel tank temperature& the mode of !ehicle operation& the amount of fuel in the tank and the capacit#& design and location of the fuel tank with reference to exhaust s#stem and the flow pattern of the heated air underneath the !ehicle. 7ess the tank fill& greater is the e!aporati!e loss. The effect of the tank fill and the temperature are shown in the table. This reflects the difference in the tank !apour space. .lso when a car is parked in a hot location& the e!aporation of gasoline in the tank accelerates and so the e!aporation loss is greater. EFFE'T OF FUEC TANK FICC ON E-APORATI-E COSS+ Tank fill U V W 4ull .mbient temperature Temp. A 15 11 1' 22 rise during 7oss operations G (.1.2 B.1 B.B during test in CA , 2 3

The operational modes substantiall# affect the e!aporation loss. :hen the tank temperature rises& the loss increases. The fuel composition also affects the tank losses. .bout -(G of the 8A losses from the tank are A, and A( h#drocarbons. ?esign factors that affect the e!aporati!e losses include the peak tank temperature& the area of the li%uid !apour surface& and the amount of agitation. +t is ob!ious that na# design change which reduces the peak tank temperature will reduce the tank loss. /uch modifications include tank insulation& lower surface to !olume ratio of tank& better tank orientation or location for reduced heat pick up from solar radiation or other heat sources such as the exhaust s#stem. The surface area for e!aporation and tank agitation are factor which influence the speed with which e%uilibrium is achie!ed. 0affles in the tank can reduce losses b# maintaining concentration gradients. E-APORATI-E E9ISSION 'ONTROC )E-I'ES+ E!aporati!e emission control de!ices are designed to !irtuall# eliminate the h#drocarbon !apours emitted b# the carburettor and fuel tank during both running and hot soak. ?uring running& fuel tank !apours are inducted and burned in the engine. Aarburettor losses are !ented to intake s#stem. "ehicles without e!aporati!e controls are estimated to 1Bse 3B g)da# of 8A from fuel tank filling and breathing. .nother ,B g)da# is lost b# e!aporation from the carburettor ( hot soak loss ) when the !ehicle is parked after being operated. =@ this basis& e!aporati!e losses are estimated to be 23G of total 8A emissions.

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The de!ice as shown in the figure consists of an absorbent chamber& the pressure balance !al!e and the purge control !al!e. The absorbent chamber which consists of a charcoal bed or foamed pol#urethane holds the h#drocarbon !apour before the# can escape to atmosphere. The carburettor bowl and the fuel tank are directl# connected to the absorbent chamber.

1B1

1B-

?uring hot soaks& !apours from the fuel tank are routed to a storage de!ice. Aarburettor !apours ma# be !ented to the storage s#stem or retained internall# in the carburettor or induction s#stem !olume. . schematic diagram of this arrangement is shown in the figure. Kpon restart& filtered air is drawn through the stored !apours and the mixture is metered into the intake s#stem and burned in the engine. +n this manner the storage de!ice is purged (remo!ed off the retained !apour). The operations of the purge control !al!e are controlled b# the exhaust back pressure. The storage s#stem consists of a canister containing acti!ated charcoal located in the engine compartment. .cti!ated charcoal has an affinit# for 8A and on a rec#cle basis can store 3B-3( grams of fuel per 1BB grams of charcoal without breakthrough. T#picall# -BB-'BB grams of charcoal are used in a !ehicle s#stem.

=ne problem with an# storage s#stem is the possibilit# of li%uid fuel entering the storage de!ice. 0all check !al!es or !apour li%uid separators assure than onl# fuel !apours reach the storage de!ice. +n addition& a dead !olume in the tank allow for thermal expansions of a full fuel tank. .bout 1BG of the tank !olume is partiall# walled off from the remainder of the tank. :hen the tank is filled& this !olume remains nearl# empt#. .fter a period of time& the fuel fills the additional !olume thereb# lea!ing room for expansion in the rest of the tank. =therwise expansion could force the li%uid fuel into the charcoal canister or the crankcase.

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1B5

T=ER9AC REA'TORS+ Thermal reactor is a chamber in the exhaust s#stem designed to pro!ide sufficient residence time to allow appreciable homogeneous oxidation of 8A and A= to occur. +n order to impro!e A= con!ersion efficienc#& the exhaust temperature is increased b# retarding spark timing. This howe!er results in fuel econom# loss.

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111

The air is supplied from an engine dri!en pump through a tube to a place !er# near to the exhaust !al!e. To achie!e a high degree of exhaust s#stem oxidation of 8A and A=& a high exhaust temperature coupled with sufficient ox#gen and residence time to complete the combustion is needed. =xides of nitrogen are not reduced. +n fact& the# ma# be increased if sufficientl# high exhaust temperature results from the combustion of A= and 8A with the added air or if the injected air enters the c#linder during the o!erlap period& thereb# leaning the mixture in the c#linder. :arren has deri!ed the following e%uation for the concentration of h#drocarbons lea!ing the exhaust s#stem. Ao I Ai X exp Jr =2 62" J3 T2: :here&

112

Ao I Aoncentration of 8A lea!ing the thermal reactor Ai I Aoncentration of 8A lea!ing c#linders and entering the thermal reactor Jr I /pecific reaction rate ft3)lbm L mole)sec J3 I constant =2 I ox#gen concentration in exhaust gases. "olume percent 6 I exhaust pressure ( 6si) " I thermal reactor !olume a!ailable for reaction Au.ft T I .bsolute temperature A :I ass flow rate of air ( lb)sec) @ote the importance of pressure term. +ncreasing exhaust s#stem back pressure promote after reaction. 8owe!er commerciall#& the possible back pressure increase is small.

The graph shows the effect of temperature on specific reaction rate Jr& calculated from the abo!e e%uation b# warren from his experimental data. The nearness of his cur!e to a straight line suggests the e%uation is a good approximation for the o!erall reactions occurring. @ote that a decrease in exhaust temperatures from 11BBA to 1BBB4 decrease the reaction rate b# a factor of 1B.

113

The graph shows the effect of temperature and reactor !olume on exhaust h#drocarbon concentration at an ox#gen input concentration of 3G. *eactor !olume ma# be !iewed as the !olume of the exhaust s#stem which is insulated and ant the high temperature needed for reaction. @ote that if the exhaust temperature were 1,BB4& onl# twice the con!ention s#stem !olume is re%uired for !irtuall# complete elimination of the h#drocarbons. =n the other hand& if the temperature were onl# 12BB4& eight times the !olume would achie!e onl# a -1G reduction. . pair of con!entional exhaust manifolds has about B.B5 ft3 of !olume.

+ncreasing the exhaust s#stem !olume increases the residence time during which reactions can occur. This is a benefit& pro!iding the added surface area does not result in excessi!e cooling. Thus when large !olume exhaust manifolds are to be used& the# must be well insulated. 0rownson and stebar ha!e studied thermal reactor performance for a reactor coupled to a single c#linder A4* engine. +n their work an insulated exhaust mixing tank of 1(B cubic inch was used for some tests. The# determined that the basic factors go!erning the combustion of A= and h#drocarbons in the exhaust s#stem are composition of the reacting mixture& temperature and pressure of the mixture& and residence time of the mixture or time a!ailable for reaction.

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The graph shows the h#drocarbon and A= emissions as a function of air-fuel ratio and injected air flow rate. The emission concentration results were corrected for the added air. +njected air flow rate is indicated as a percentage of the engine air !olume flow rate. .n insulated 1(B cubic inch exhaust mixing tank was used.

The minimum 8A concentrations occurred at rich mixtures. :hen too much air was injected& especiall# at lean mixtures& excessi!e cooling of the exhaust increased 8A concentrations abo!e those with no air. Thus the normal oxidation process was apparentl# inhibited b# this cooling. . small increase in A= occurred slightl# richer than stoichiometric. .t stoichiometric mixtures and leaner& A= was !er# low. 0est results occurred for rich mixtures with air injection at 2B-3BG of inlet air flow. The air-fuel ratio for best emission reduction was 13.(:1. @ormall# engine operation at such a rich mixture would reduce fuel econom# b# 1BG. .t each air-fuel ratio there exists one minimum air injection rate that pro!ides maximum emission reduction. inimum air flow is desired in order to reduce pump power re%uirement& si9e and cost. >raph shows the optimum air injection rate for both 8A and A= emissions.

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'ATACHTI' 'ON-ERTERS+ Aatal#tic con!erters pro!ide another wa# to treat the exhaust gas. These de!ices located in the exhaust s#stem& con!ert the harmful pollutants into harmless gases.

111

+n contrast to thermal reactors efficient catal#tic oxidation catal#sts can control A= and 8A emissions almost completel# at temperature e%ui!alent to normal exhaust gas temperatures. Thus the fuel econom# loss necessar# to increase the exhaust temperature is a!oided. +nside the catal#tic con!erter the exhaust gases pass o!er a large surface area coated with a catal#st. . catal#st is a material that causes a chemical reaction without actuall# becoming a part of the reaction process. Aatal#tic reaction of @= can be represented as follows: @= H A= A=2 H V @2 @= H 82 82= H V @2 1B @= H ,8A 282= H ,A=2 H ( @2 8A ) A= oxidation is represented b# A= H V =2 A=2 ,8A H ( =2 282= H ,A=2 The figure shows a single bed catal#tic con!erter. The exhaust gas and air are passed through a bed of platinum coated pellets or hone#comb core. 8A and A= react with the ox#gen in the air. 8armless ware and carbon dioxide are formed. The catal#st platinum act on the exhaust gas in two wa#s& con!erting 8A and A= to carbon dioxide and water. /o it is called a two wa# catal#st.

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4igure show a dual bed catal#tic con!erter. The exhaust gas first passes through the upper bed. The upper bed contains a reducing catal#st ( example rhodium). @=x is reduced to nitrogen and ox#gen in the upper bed. Then secondar# air is mixed with the exhaust gas. The mixture of exhaust gas and secondar# air flows to the lower bed. The lower bed contains an oxidi9ing catal#st ( example platinum). 8A and A= are oxidi9ed to water !apour and carbon dioxide in the lower bed. 8ere the catal#st rhodium is a one wa# catal#st since it acts o @=x onl#. 6latinum is a two wa# catal#st since it acts on 8A and A=. . three wa# catal#st is a mixture of platinum and rhodium. +t acts on all three of the regulated pollutants ( 8A& A= and @=x) but onl# when the air-fuel ratio is precisel# controlled. +f the engine is operated with the ideal or stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of 1,.-:1. The three wa# catal#st is !er# effecti!e. +t strips ox#gen awa# from the @=x to form harmless water& carbon dioxide and nitrogen. 8owe!er the airfuel ratio must be precisel# controlled& otherwise the three wa# catal#st does not work.

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4igure shows a three wa# catal#tic con!erter. The front section( in the direction of gas flow) handles @=x and partl# handles 8A and A=. The partl# treated exhaust gas is mixed with secondar# air. The mixture of partl# treated exhaust gas and secondar# air flows into the rear section of the chamber. The two wa# catal#st present in the rear section takes care of 8A and A=.

115

>enerall# catal#sts are classified as: 1. /upported catal#sts based on a. @oble metals b. Transition metals 2. Knsupported metallic allo#s NO-Re%uction 'atal$sts+ 4rom the literature& it is seen that the following materials ha!e been tried successfull# as reduction catal#sts in the !ehicle emission control

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1. Aopper oxide-chromia 2. Aopper oxide L "anadia 3. +ron oxide L Ahromia ,. @ickel oxide pelleted on monolithic ceramic and metallic supports (. onel metal 1. *are earth oxides ='5'O oGi%ation catal$sts+ 1. @oble metal catal#sts such as acti!ated carbon& palladium or platinum 2. Transition metal oxide catal#sts such as copper& cobalt& nickel and iron chromate as well as !anadium or manganese promoted !ersions of these metals. 3. Aopper chromite-alumina and platinum oxide Lalumina catal#sts were de!eloped with sufficient acti!it#& stabilit# and mechanical strength. The catal#sts chosen for !ehicle emission control should satisf# the following: 1. 8igh con!ersion efficienc# under transient conditions 2. Effecti!e for wide range of temperature ( for ambient to 11BB 4) 3. ,. ust withstand the poisoning action of additi!es in the gasoline that are emitted in the exhaust ust be able to withstand thermal shock

(. 0e attrition resistant to highl# turbulent flows through the con!erter 1. "ehicle operation for (B&BBB miles -. Aon!ert into harmless products '. Aheap and readil# a!ailable. 'on*erter )esign+ Aon!erter !olume is fixed& based on the space !elocit# and exhaust flow rate /pace !elocit# I gas flow rate in cmY3 )hr ) con!erter !olume in cmY3 The reciprocal of this expression is the residence time. .s the exhaust flow rate !aries under different modes of !ehicle operation& an a!erage gas flow rate of B.'(mY3)min and a space !elocit# of 1(BBB)hr are normall# selected for the preliminar# design of the con!erter. This will gi!e a con!erter !olume of 3&(,B cmY3 in each stage. )ra6 (ac,s of the catal$tic con*erter s$stem+ 1. >enerall# catal#sts are acti!e onl# at relati!el# high temperature. Emissions during warm-up cannot be catal#sed and this period has particularl# hea!# emissions. 2. Aatal#sts operate o!er a wide but not unlimited temperature range. . temperature control is re%uired to a!oid burnout temperature at high speeds and loads. 3. Aatal#sts are poisoned b# exhaust constituents in particular lead compounds. 8ence con!ersion efficienc# decreases with use. ,. The catal#tic bed offers considerable back pressure which increases with use.

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(. Aatal#tic con!erters are expensi!e. Im&ortance of unlea%e% Petrol+ "ehicles e%uipped with catal#tic con!erters must use onl# un-leaded gasoline. +f the gasoline contains lead& the lead will coat the catal#st and the con!erter will stop working. OT=ER E9ISSIN 'ONTROC )E-I'ES+ . 8ater in:ection+ +n this a small amount of water is injected into the combustion chamber. ?ue to this the peak combustion temperature is reduced and thus @=x emission is reduced. >raph shows nitric oxide reduction as a function of water rate. The spark ad!ance was kept constant and the power loss was balanced b# leaning the .)4 ratio of the mixture. The specific fuel consumption as clear from the graph& decreases a few percent at medium water injection ratio. /o for no attempts ha!e been done to use water as a deice for controlling the @=x& perhaps because of complexit# !ar#ing the amount of injection rate in relation to engine re%uirements. / )irect air In:ection+ +n this compressed air is introduced into the combustion chamber in addition to air fuel charge from the carburettor. This gi!es better combustion and hence reduced h#drocarbon and A= emission. This will also gi!e tremendous power boost with some sa!ing in fuel. 0ut extra e%uipment in the form of air compressor and air !al!es will raise the cost !er# much. .lso& exhaust gas recirculation will still be needed to curb @=x emissions. " Ammonia In:ection+ +n this ammonia is injected into the exhaust gas. .mmonia reacts with @=x in exhaust and forms nitrogen and water. Thus @=x emission is reduced. .s a fuel& ammonia does not hold much promise& but if used as an exhaust additi!e it can gi!e excellent control for @=x emission. .mmonia and nitric oxide interact to form nitrogen and water. 4ord motor compan# has been doing in!estigations with injecting .mmonia-water in the exhaust manifold& downstream from the port. 4or an effecti!e utili9ation of .mmonia injection& the exhaust gas temperature has to be kept within strict limits and the injecting de!ice has to be put sufficientl# down to bring the gas temperature to 11(A. This also demands a !er# close tolerance in air-fuel ratio supplied b# the carburettor. The present carburettors are incapable of this and it might be necessar# to adopt electronic injection s#stem to keep it. 0 Electronic In:ection+

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+t is possible to de!elop an electronic injection s#stem with sensors for air temperature& manifold pressure and speed which will precisel# regulate the fuel suppl# gi!ing onl# such air fuel ratio that will gi!e no h#drocarbon or A= emissions. /ince the injection can be affected in indi!idual intake ports& the problem of fuel distribution among !arious c#linders will automaticall# be a!oided. The emissions on deceleration can be completel# remo!ed b# shutting off the fuel suppl# when the throttle is closed. 0ut this s#stem will still not be able to control the 8A emission. Aombination of electronic injection and ammonia as an exhaust additi!e has an attracti!e future. 9EASURE9ENT TE'=NI;UES E9ISSION STAN)AR)S AN) TEST PRO'E)URE -E=I'CE E9ISSION STAN)AR)S+ 4ederal exhaust emission test procedures for light dut# !ehicles under 1BBB lb >": co!ering the period 15-2 to 15-( assess h#drocarbon& carbon monoxide and nitric oxide emissions in terms of mass of emission emitted o!er a -.( mile chassis d#namometer dri!ing c#cle. *esults are expressed as grams of pollutant emitted per mile. There are two procedures in using the same test e%uipment which assess !ehicle emissions. =ne& which is termed as A"/-1 (constant !olume sampling)& emplo#s a single bag to collect a representati!e portion of the exhaust for subse%uent anal#sis. This single bag s#stem applied to testing of 15-2& 15-3 and 15-, !ehicles. 0ased on this test& emission standards for !ehicles ha!e been set at 8#drocarbons Aarbon monoxide =xide of nitrogen 3., g)mile ( 15-2 to 15-, ) 3.5 g)mile ( 15-2 to 15-, ) 3.B g)mile ( 15-3 to 15-, )

The second test procedure& termed A"/-3 uses three sampling bags and is designed to gi!e a reduced and more realistic weighing to cold start portion of the test. This three bag s#stem applies to testing of 15-( to 15-1 !ehicles. Exhaust emission standards based on this test are 8#drocarbons Aarbon monoxide =xide of nitrogen B.,1 g)mile ( 15-( to 15-1 ) 3., g)mile ( 15-( to 15-1) 3.B g)mile ( 15-( )

=ne of the latest K./ standards ( 15'2) for passenger cars and e%ui!alents are 8#drocarbons Aarbon monoxide =xide of nitrogen B.,1 g)mile 3., g)mile 1.( g)mile

These are measured b# following a prescribed test procedure.

)ri*ing '$cle+

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The dri!ing c#cle for both A"/-1 and A"/-3 c#cles is identical. +t in!ol!es !arious accelerations& decelerations and cruise modes of operation. The car is started after soaking for 12 hours in a 1B-'B 4 ambient. . trace of the dri!ing c#cle is shown in figure. iles per hour !ersus time in seconds are plotted on the scale. Top speed is (1.- mph. /hown for comparison is the 4T6 or Aalifornia test c#cle. 4or man# ad!anced fast warm-up emission control s#stems& the end of the cold portion on the A"/ test is the second idle at 12( seconds. This occurs at B.1' miles. +n the A"/ tests& emissions are measured during cranking& start-up and for fi!e seconds after ignition is turned off following the last deceleration. Aonse%uentl# high emissions from excessi!e cranking are included. ?etails of operation for manual transmission !ehicles as well as restart procedures and permissible test tolerance are included in the 4ederal *egisters.

'-S-. s$stem+ The A"/-1 s#stem& sometimes termed !ariable dilution sampling& is designed to measure the true mass of emissions. The s#stem is shown in figure. . large positi!e displacement pump draws a constant !olume flow of gas through the s#stem. The exhaust of the !ehicle is mixed with filtered room air and the mixture is then drawn through the pump. /ufficient air is used to dilute the exhaust in order to a!oid !apour condensation& which could dissol!e some pollutants and reduce measured !alues. Excessi!e dilution on the other hand& results in !er# low concentration with attendant measurement problems. . pump with capacit# of 3B-3(B cfm pro!ides sufficient dilution for most !ehicles. 0efore the exhaust-air mixture enters the pump& its temperature is controlled to within Hor L 1B4 b# the heat exchanger. Thus constant densit# is maintained in the sampling s#stem and pump. . fraction of the diluted exhaust stream is drawn off b# a pump 62 and ejected into an initiall# e!acuated plastic bag. 6referabl#& the bag should be opa%ue and manufactured of Teflon or Teldar. . single bag is used for the entire test sample in the A"/-1 s#stem. 0ecause of high dilution& ambient traces of 8A& A= or @=x can significantl# increase

concentrations in the sample bag. . charcoal filter is emplo#ed for le!eling ambient 8A measurement. To correct for ambient contamination a bag of dilution air is taken simultaneousl# with the filling of the exhaust bag. 8A& A= and @=x measurements are made on a wet basis using 4+?& @?+* and chemiluminescent detectors respecti!el#. +nstruments must be constructed to accuratel# measure the relati!el# low concentrations of diluted exhaust.

12,

0ags should be anal#9ed as %uickl# as possible preferabl# within ten minutes after the test because reactions such as those between @=& @=2 and 8A can occur within the bag %uite %uickl# and change the test results. '-S-" SHSTE9+ The A"/-3 s#stem is identical to the A"/-1 s#stem except that three exhaust sample bags are used. The normal test is run from a cold start just like the A"/-1 test. .fter deceleration ends at (B( seconds& the diluted exhaust flow is switched from the transient bag to the stabili9ed bag and re!olution counter number 1 is switched off and number 2 is acti!ated. The transient bag is anal#9ed immediatel#. The rest of the test is completed in the normal fashion and the stabili9ed bag anal#9ed. 8owe!er in the A"/-3 test ten minutes after the test ends the c#cle is begun and again run until the end of deceleration at (B( seconds. This second run is termed the hot start run. . fresh bag collects what is termed the hot transient sample. +t is assumed that the second half of the hot start run is the same as the second half of the cold start run and is not repeated. +n all& three exhaust sample bags are filled. .n ambient air sample bag is also filled simultaneousl#. STAN)AR)S IN IN)IA+ The 0ureau of +ndian /tandards ( <IS ) is one of the pioneering organi9ations to initiate work on air pollution control in +ndia. .t present onl# the standards for the emission of carbon monoxide are being suggested b# 0+/ gi!en in +/:5B(--15'1. These are based on the si9e of the !ehicle and to be measured under idling conditions. The A= emission !alues are (.( percent for 2 or 3 wheeler !ehicles with engine displacement of -(cc or less& ,.( percent for higher si9es and 3.( percent for four wheeled !ehicles. +/: '11'-15-1 /moke Emission 7e!els for ?iesel !ehicles prescribes the smoke limit for diesel engine as -( 8atridge units or (.2 0osch units at full load and 1B--B percent rated speed or 1( 8atridge units under free acceleration conditions. E9ISSION 9EASURING INSTRU9ENTS+ Terms of expressions: +n emission measurement& !olume concentrations of the se!eral components are characteristicall# expressed in the following terms 1. Aarbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are expressed as percent of the sample !olume. 2. @itric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are expressed as !olume parts of @= or @=2 per million parts of the sample ( ppm). The total of @= and @=2 is designated as @=x. 3. 8#drocarbon is expressed as i. 6arts of h#drocarbon per million parts of the sample or ii. 6arts of carbon per million parts of the sample ( ppmc). The latter term is defined as the !olume concentration of h#drocarbon in the sample multiplied b# the a!erage number of carbon atoms per molecule of that h#drocarbon. Thus 1ppm propane ( A38') is the e%ui!alent of 3ppm A h#drocarbon. +n the earl# da#s of

12(

emission measurement h#drocarbon emissions were measured in terms of the carbon e%ui!alent of hexane or ppm hexane. Thus in earl# usage ppm !alues were often assumed to be ppm hexane e!en though not

121

designated as hexane& this usage is ambiguous and should be a!oided.

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12'

Flame Ionisation )etector D FI) E+ The unburned h#drocarbons in the exhaust consist of about 2BB different compounds& each with different composition and different number of carbon and h#drogen atoms. +t is impossible to detect each of these h#drocarbons separatel#. The o!er all concentration of the unburned h#drocarbons ma# be found b# measuring the e%ui!alent concentration of n-hexane ( A181,). .n accurate method of measuring the unburned h#drocarbon emissions is to use the 4lame +onisation ?etector ( 4+? ). The working principle of 4+? is as follows: . h#drogen-air flame contains a negligible amount of ions but if few h#drocarbon molecules are introduced into the flame a larger number of ions are produced. The ion #ield is proportional to the amount of h#drocarbon introduced into the flame. The basic elements of a 4lame +onisation ?etector are as shown in the figure& a burner and ion collector assembl#. +n practice& a sample of gas is mixed with h#drogen in the burner assembl# and the mixture burned in a diffusion flame. +ons that are produced in the flame mo!e to the negati!el# polari9ed collector under the influence of an electrical potential applied between the collector plates. .t the negati!e collector& the ions recei!e& !ia a current network& electrons that are collected from the flame 9one at the positi!e collector. Thus a small current proportional to the amount of h#drocarbon entering the flame flows between the collector plates. This small current is amplified using a high impedance direct current amplifier& the output of which becomes an indication of h#drocarbon present. The detector responds to carbon that is linked with h#drogen as in e%uation 1 and the response is largel# independent of the molecular configuration& i.e h#drocarbon species. Thus the detector is essentiall# a carbon atom counter. The output of the 4+? depends on the number of carbon atoms passing through the flame in a unit time. ?oubling the flow !elocit# would also double the output. 8exane ( A181,) would gi!e double the output of propane ( A38'). Therefore 4+? output is usuall# referred to a standard h#drocarbon usuall# as 66 of normal hexane.

Aharacteristics of the 4+? are impro!ed with most burned designs if instead of using pure h#drogen fuel& the h#drogen is mixed with inert gas to decrease flame temperature. This mixture of h#drogen and inert gas is referred to as fuel gas or fuel. The 4+? responds directl# to the amount of h#drocarbon entering the flame. Therefore close control of sample flow is re%uired. +n general& the sample flow rate is specified at the minimum amount that will gi!e the re%uired sensiti!it# in an# gi!en instrument. 4uel and air flow rates also influence the response characteristics of the detector. *esponse t#picall# first rises and then fall with increased fuel rate& as shown in the figure. T#pical !olume rates of instrument gases are sample 3-( ml)min and fuel gas mixture -(ml)min and air 2BBml)min.

125

6resence of A=& A=2& @=x& water and nitrogen in the exhaust ha!e no effect on the 4+? reading. 4+? anal#9er is rapid& continuous and accurate method of measuring 8A in the exhaust gas concentrations as low as 1ppb can be measured. '=E9ICU9INES'ENT NOB ANACHIER Ahemiluminescence& a chemical reaction once dismissed as a laborator# curiosit#& has become the most widel# used @=x emissions monitoring techni%ue in stack emissions and ambient air-monitoring instrumentation. ore than 5(G of the @=x AE / used b# the electric utilit# industr#& and approximatel# 55G of the @=x anal#9ers used for E6. *eference ethod -E and 2B testing emplo# the chemiluminescence measurement technolog#. The basic chemiluminescence chemistr# was delineated b# Alough et al. @= H =3 Z @=2H =2 (E%. 1) @= H =3 Z @=2 H =2 (E%. 2) @=2 Z @=2 H hv ([1BB to 3&BBBnm) (E%. 3) @=2 H Z @=2 H (E%. ,) hv I photons& I an# compound E%uations 1 and 3 describe the techni%ue emplo#ed in commercial instrumentation to measure nitrogen oxides. :hen @= reacts with = 3& some electronicall#-excited @=2 molecules are produced (E%uation 1). These molecules ma# gi!e off energ# in the form of light emission with intensit# linearl# proportional to the concentration of @= (E%uation 3). :hen the emitted radiation is monitored& it becomes a measure of the concentration of the @= in the reacting sample. The light emission occurs between 1BB and 3&BBB nm& with a peak at about 1&2BB nm. Ahemiluminescence @= x anal#9ers measure @= concentrations b# using a bandpass filter to select light in the region from about 1BB to 5BB nm. The reactions described b# e%uations 2 and , describe a potential limitation to the measurement techni%ue. =nl# a fraction of the @= reacts to form @= 2 and emits light. 4ortunatel#& the percentage of @= in the reactor that follows the pathwa# described b# e%uations 1 and 3 is sufficient to ensure a proportionall# linear response in a properl# designed instrument. 0# maintaining the = 3 concentration at a large excess to the @= concentration and with a detection s#stem designed for optimum light-collection efficienc#& anal#9ers ha!e been de!eloped with linear d#namic ranges o!er 1B&BBB ppm and with detection limits at the parts per trillion le!el.

+n order to measure @= 2 using the same basic mechanism outlined b# E%uations 1 through ,& @= 2 is first con!erted to @= (i.e.& @=2 to @= con!erter)& after which the con!erted molecules react with o9one along with the original @= molecules in the sample. This results in a signal that e%uals the sum of @= and @= 2. 0# taking the difference between the con!erted and non-con!erted modes& a measure of the @= 2 concentration is obtained. The major ad!antages of chemiluminescence method o!er other measurement methods for @= x monitoring include: \ +ncreased sensiti!it# (detection limit) \ +mpro!ed specificit# (accurac#) \ *apid response time (control) \ 7inearit# o!er a wide d#namic range (precision) \ Aontinuous monitoring (control and reporting) \ /implicit# of design (maintenance)

13B

<asic NO-NO/-NOG 'hemiluminescence Instrumentation The simplified diagram of a @=-@=2-@=x chemiluminescence anal#9er as pre!iousl# described. To measure @= concentrations& the sample mixes with o9one in a flow reactor. The o9one re%uired for the reaction is produced within the instrument from dr# air or ox#gen. The luminescence that results from the reaction of @= with =3 is monitored through an optical bandpass filter b# a high-sensiti!it# detector positioned at the end of the reactor. The bandpass filter)detector combination responds to the light emission in a narrow-wa!elength band. 4igure 1 shows the spectral output of the chemiluminescence reaction (Trace 1) along with optical filter (Trace 2) and t#pical detector (photomultiplier tube E6 TF) response (Trace 3) characteristics. .s can be seen& onl# a small portion of the spectrum is monitored. This aids in gaining specificit# for the anal#9er. .n electronic package takes the detector output signal and processes it to !oltage& current le!el& or digital signal. The sample inlet generall# has two flow modes. The first (@= mode) is a direct path of sample to the reaction chamber. +deall#& onl# the @= in the sample reacts with the o9one to produce light emission (chemiluminescence). +n the second mode (@= x mode)& the sample is routed through a con!erter that transforms the @=2 to @=.

Figure / > <asic NO-NO/-NOG 'hemiluminescence Instrumentation )ES'RIPTION OF A THPI'AC SA9PCE GAS FCO8 SHSTE9 4igure 2 shows a flow diagram of a t#pical anal#9er. The chemiluminescence method relies on the measurement of the number of @= molecules entering the reaction chamber per time. +n order to maintain instrument stabilit#& two gas flow s#stems are used to regulate a constant flow of o9one and sample gas to the reaction chamber. +n 4igure 3& a single capillar# regulates the o9one flow. The function of the capillar# is to restrict the flow in the line such that a controllable backpressure is maintained. The pressure upstream of the capillar# and the capillar# dimensions& and pump characteristics determine the flow. =ther flow regulation schemes are possible. ass flow controller& critical orifices& and the regulation s#stem describe abo!e ha!e been used. .ll regulation s#stems are designed for the same purpose: to maintain a constant air or ox#gen flow through the o9onator. The prime re%uirement of the flow s#stem is to maintain a constant flow of the sample gas to the anal#9er as the chemiluminescent reaction is extremel# flow sensiti!e. 4igure 3 presents one standard industrial approach to fulfill these conditions. The total sample passes into the anal#9er through the inlet capillar# restrictor. . fraction (about (G) is bled off through a second smaller restrictor and directed to a mode !al!e. The portion of the sample b#passing the mode !al!e (and reaction chamber) exits the instrument through a b#pass pump. The sample regulator functions to maintain a constant pressure drop across the smaller capillar#. This method of flow control maintains a reaction

131

chamber sample flow rate that is insensiti!e to the sample inlet pressure and total sample flow rate. This t#pe of b#pass flow s#stem has the additional ad!antage of bring the sample to the anal#9er. +t has the disad!antage of using a fairl# large sample flow& which can be a limitation in smog chamber or bag sample studies. 4or t#pical process applications& howe!er& there is no sample limitation. @ot all chemiluminescent anal#9ers use such a b#pass-flow techni%ue. ost ambient-air anal#9ers use onl# one sample restrictor and no b#pass flow. @e!ertheless& sample flow remains one of the most critical parameters to control. ass flow controllers& critical orifices& and)or a regulator and capillar# s#stem using a pressure sample ha!e been used. Figure " > <asic 'hemiluminescence Anal$3er Flo6 )iagram

)RI-ING 'H'CES IN UNIT-" ENGINE EB=AUST E9ISSION 'ONTROC E9ISSION D='?'O?NO?NOBE 9EASURING E;UIP9ENTS "ehicles generate potentiall# harmful and toxic emissions through their exhaust pipes& especiall# when the# are not properl# maintained. an# states re%uire that !ehicles pass emissions testing before the# are deemed road-worth#. /pecial instrumentation is used to anal#9e emissions and detect gases like nitrogen oxides (@=x)& carbon dioxide (A=2)& carbon monoxide (A=) and h#drocarbons(8A) Gas Anal$3ers >as pipe exhaust is measured using special e%uipment such as the range of ?#ne /#stem fi!e-gas portable anal#9ers. These instruments test and measure the amount of engine exhaust for specific gas components& including A=& A=2& @=& 8A and ox#gen. E%uipment is first calibrated using ambient air

132

prior to each use to ensure accurate measurements. .nal#9ers feature a sample line to collect exhaust gases and a two-stage filter s#stem that is capable of detecting and capturing both large and small particles. /#stems ha!e touch-screen interfaces that offer control o!er manual operations. :all-mounted enclosures are optional e%uipment to house instruments when not in use. )$namometer . d#namometer is an electronic roller de!ice used inside !ehicle inspection ba#s to measure tailpipe emissions. The test !ehicle is dri!en onto the d#namometer rollers and then testing begins. This instrument simulates the actual exhaust that the !ehicle produces while in dri!ing at low speed (1( mph) and when accelerating& all while still sitting in the ba#. +t]s used in conjunction with a fi!e-gas anal#9er for instant data readout. ostl# with the help of engine Mchassis d#anamometers anal#sising of emissions are carried out.

133

Ahassis M engine d#anamometer used in automobile for measuring emission Engine %$namometer .n engine d#namometer measures power and tor%ue directl# from the engine]s crankshaft (or fl#wheel)& when the engine is remo!ed from the !ehicle. These d#nos do not account for power losses in the dri!etrain& such as the gearbox& transmission or differential etc 'hassis %$namometer

13,

Emissions de!elopment and homologation d#namometer test s#stems often integrate emissions sampling& measurement& engine speed and load control& data ac%uisition& and safet# monitoring into a complete test cell s#stem. These test s#stems usuall# include complex emissions sampling e%uipment (such as constant !olume samplers or raw exhaust gas sample preparation s#stems)& and exhaust emissions anal#9ers. These anal#9ers are much more sensiti!e and much faster than a t#pical portable exhaust gas anal#9er. *esponse times of well under one second are common and re%uired b# man# transient test c#cles Scanning Tools an# !ehicles manufactured post-15'B& and all models manufactured after 1551 ha!e some form of on-board computeri9ed diagnostic s#stems (=0?s). These computers can monitor !ehicular subs#stems like exhaust sensors and ox#gen sensors. /canning tools de!eloped to exploit =0? technolog# can be readil# connected to these on-board computers to test emissions. 8and-held electronic scanning instruments can pro!ide real-time assessments when measuring !ehicular emissions. Gas 'a& Testing >as cap testing checks for leaks from around !ehicle gas cap seals. +n!isible gasoline or diesel fumes are !olatile gases and seepage into the atmosphere ma# go otherwise undetected if inspections are not made. .ccording to the +llinois En!ironmental 6rotection .genc#& about ,B percent of h#drocarbon emissions in the air is due to e!aporation of gasoline from leak# gas caps. The instrument used for testing consists of a short& wide tube with a pressuri9ed gauge attached. =ne end of the tube connects to the unco!ered gas cap on the !ehicle& and the gas cap that was remo!ed is screwed onto the other end. 6ressure is applied and the reading on the gauge re!eals an# leaks. IN)IAN )RI-ING 'H'CES J E9ISSION NOR9S Table 1: +ndian Emission /tandards (,-:heel "ehicles) /tandard +ndia 2BBB 0harat /tage ++ *eference Euro 1 Euro 2 ?ate 2BBB 2BB1 2BB3.B, 2BB(.B, 0harat /tage +++ 0harat /tage +" Euro 3 Euro , 2BB(.B, 2B1B.B, 2B1B.B, *egion @ationwide @A*X& umbai& Jolkata& Ahennai @A*X& 13 Aities^ @ationwide @A*X& 13 Aities^ @ationwide @A*X& 13 Aities^

X @ational Aapital *egion (?elhi) ^ umbai& Jolkata& Ahennai& 0engaluru& 8#derabad& .hmedabad& 6une& /urat& Janpur& 7ucknow& /holapur& Oamshedpur and .gra The abo!e standards appl# to all new ,-wheel !ehicles sold and registered in the respecti!e regions. +n addition& the @ational .uto 4uel 6olic# introduces certain emission re%uirements for interstate buses with routes originating or terminating in ?elhi or the other 1B cities. 4or 2-and 3-wheelers& 0harat /tage ++ (Euro 2) will be applicable from .pril 1& 2BB( and /tage +++ (Euro 3) standards would come in force from .pril 1& 2B1B. TRU'KS AN) <USES

13(

Exhaust gases from !ehicles form a significant portion of air pollution which is harmful to human health and the en!ironment Emission standards for new hea!#-dut# diesel engines_applicable to !ehicles of >": P 3&(BB kg_are listed in Table 2. Table 2 Emission /tandards for ?iesel Truck and 0us Engines& g)k:h

`ear 1552 1551 2BBB 2BB(^ 2B1B^ 2B1Ba

*eference Euro + Euro ++ Euro +++ Euro +"

Test EAE *,5 EAE *,5 EAE *,5 EAE *,5 E/A ETA E/A ETA

A= 1-.3-32.1 11.2B ,.( ,.B 2.1 (.,( 1.( ,.B

8A 2.--3.2.,B 1.1 1.1 B.11 B.-' B.,1 B.((

@=x 1,., '.B -.B (.B (.B 3.( 3.(

6 B.31X B.1( B.1B B.11 B.B2 B.B3

X B.112 for engines below '( k: ^ earlier introduction in selected regions& see Table 1 a onl# in selected regions& see Table 1 ore details on Euro +-+++ regulations can be found in the EK hea!#-dut# engine standards page. CIG=T )UTH )IESEC -E=I'CES Emission standards for light-dut# diesel !ehicles (>": b 3&(BB kg) are summari9ed in Table 3. *anges of emission limits refer to different classes (b# reference mass) of light commercial !ehiclesD compare the EK light-dut# !ehicle emission standards page for details on the Euro 1 and later standards. The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (>": b 2&(BB kgD up to 1 seats). Table 3 Emission /tandards for 7ight-?ut# ?iesel "ehicles& g)km

`ear *eference A= 1552 1551 2BBB Euro 1 (.B-5.B

8A -

8AH@=x @=x 2.B-,.B

6 -

1-.3-32.1 2.--3.- 2.-2-1.5B -

B.5--1.-B B.1,-B.2( -

131

2BB(^ Euro 2 2B1B^ Euro 3

1.B-1.( B.1, B.'B B.5( B.(B B.13 B.-,

B.--1.2 B.(1 B.-2 B.'1 B.3B B.35 B.,1

B.B'-B.1- B.(B B.1( B.-' B.2( B.33 B.35 B.B( B.BB.1B B.B2( B.B, B.B1

2B1Ba Euro ,

^ earlier introduction in selected regions& see Table 1 a onl# in selected regions& see Table 1

The test c#cle has been the EAE H EK?A for low power !ehicles (with maximum speed limited to 5B km)h). 0efore 2BBB& emissions were measured o!er an +ndian test c#cle. Engines for use in light-dut# !ehicles can be also emission tested using an engine d#namometer. The respecti!e emission standards are listed in Table ,. Table , Emission /tandards for 7ight-?ut# ?iesel Engines& g)k:h `ear 1552 1551 2BBB 2BB(^ *eference Euro + Euro ++ A= 1,.B 11.2B ,.( ,.B 8A 3.( 2.,B 1.1 1.1 @=x 1'.B 1,., '.B -.B 6 B.31X B.1(

X B.112 for engines below '( k: ^ earlier introduction in selected regions& see Table 1 EeditF7ight dut# gasoline !ehicles EeditF,-wheel !ehicles Emissions standards for gasoline !ehicles (>": b 3&(BB kg) are summari9ed in Table (. *anges of emission limits refer to different classes of light commercial !ehicles (compare the EK light-dut# !ehicle emission standards page). The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (>": b 2&(BB kgD up to 1 seats). Table ( Emission /tandards for >asoline "ehicles (>": b 3&(BB kg)& g)km `ear 1551 1551 155'X 2BBB 2BB(^ 2B1B^ 2B1Ba *eference Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro , A= 1,.3-2-.1 '.1'-12., ,.3,-1.2B 2.-2-1.5B 2.2-(.B 2.3 ,.1(.22 1.B 8A 2.B-2.5 B.2B B.2( B.25 B.1 8AH@=x 3.BB-,.31 1.(B-2.1' B.5--1.-B B.(-B.B.1( B.1' B.21 B.B' @=x

13-

1.'1 2.2-

B.13 B.11

B.1B B.11

X for catal#tic con!erter fitted !ehicles ^ earlier introduction in selected regions& see Table 1 a onl# in selected regions& see Table 1 >asoline !ehicles must also meet an e!aporati!e (/8E?) limit of 2 g)test (effecti!e 2BBB). 3- and 2-wheel !ehicles Emission standards for 3- and 2-wheel gasoline !ehicles are listed in the following tables. Table 1 Emission /tandards for 3-:heel >asoline "ehicles& g)km `ear 1551 1551 2BBB 2BB( (0/ ++) 2B1B.B, (0/ +++) A= 12-3B 1.-( ,.BB 2.2( 1.2( 8A '-12 8AH@=x (.,B 2.BB 2.BB 1.2(

Table - Emission /tandards for 2-:heel >asoline "ehicles& g)km `ear 1551 1551 2BBB 2BB( (0/ ++) 2B1B.B, (0/ +++) A= 12-3B (.(B 2.BB 1.( 1.B 8A '-12 8AH@=x 3.1B 2.BB 1.( 1.B

Table ' Emission /tandards for 2- .nd 3-:heel ?iesel "ehicles& g)km `ear 2BB(.B, A= 1.BB 8AH@=x B.'( 6 B.1B B.B(

2B1B.B, B.(B B.(B =!er!iew of the emission norms in +ndia

1551 - +dle A= 7imits for >asoline "ehicles and 4ree .cceleration /moke for ?iesel "ehicles& Emission @orms for >asoline "ehicles. 1552 ass Emission @orms for ?iesel "ehicles.

ass

1551 - *e!ision of ass Emission @orms for >asoline and ?iesel "ehicles& mandator# fitment of Aatal#tic Aon!erter for Aars in etros on Knleaded >asoline. 155' - Aold /tart @orms +ntroduced.

13'

2BBB - +ndia 2BBB (E%ui!alent to Euro +) @orms& odified +?A (+ndian ?ri!ing A#cle)& 0harat /tage ++ @orms for ?elhi. 2BB1 - 0harat /tage ++ (E%ui!alent to Euro ++) @orms for .ll etros& Emission @orms for A@> M 76> "ehicles. 2BB3 - 0harat /tage ++ (E%ui!alent to Euro ++) @orms for 13 major cities. 2BB( - 4rom 1 .pril 0harat /tage +++ (E%ui!alent to Euro +++) @orms for 13 major cities. 2B1B - 0harat /tage +++ Emission @orms for ,-wheelers for entire countr# whereas 0harat /tage - +" (E%ui!alent to Euro +") for 13 major cities. 0harat /tage +" also has norms on =0? (similar to Euro +++ but diluted) CO2 !"#$$#%& +ndia$s auto sector accounts for about 1' per cent of the total A= 2 emissions in the countr#. *elati!e A=2 emissions from transport ha!e risen rapidl# in recent #ears& but like the EK& currentl# there are no standards for A=2 emission limits for pollution from !ehicles. O(ligator$ la(eling There is also no pro!ision to make the A= 2 emissions labeling mandator# on cars in the countr#. . s#stem exists in the EK to ensure that information relating to the fuel econom# and A= 2 emissions of new passenger cars offered for sale or lease in the Aommunit# is made a!ailable to consumers in order to enable consumers to make an informed choice.

;UESTION <ANK OF UNIT III PART A 1. :hat are the harmful effects of !arious pollutants on human beingsN 2. 8ow unburnt h#drocarbons are formed in /+ enginesN 3. :hat is the effect of inlet air temperature on ;@=< formation in /+ enginesN ,. 8ow aldeh#de emissions are formed in A+ enginesN (. :hat is the effect of %uantit# of fuel injected on black smoke formation in /+ enginesN 1. :hat is a thermal reactorN :hat for it is usedN -. @ame few catal#sts used for oxidation and reduction of emissions in +A Engine exhaust. '. :hat are the sources of pollution in +.A. EngineN 5. :hat are the factors contributing to @=x emissionN 1B. :hat is particulate emissionN 11. :hat is aldeh#de emissionN 12. :hat is meant b# fumigationN 13. :hat is gas chromatograph. 1,. :hat are the major emissions that come out of engine exhaust. 1(. :hat are the causes of 8A emissions from /+ engine. 11. :hat are the causes of incomplete combustion in an engine. 1-. :hat is crankcase blow-b#. 1'. :rite a short notes on 8A emission in A+ engine.

135

15. :hat are !arious @on-Exhaust emissions in A+ engine. 2B. :hat is positi!e crankcase !entilation. 21. :hat are the major emissions that come out of engine exhaust. 22. 8ow oxides of @itrogen are formed. 23. :hat are the causes of 8A emissions from /+ engine. 2,. :hat are the causes of incomplete combustion in an engine. 2(. :hat is crankcase blow-b#. 21. :rite a short notes on 8A emission in A+ engine. 2-. :hat are !arious @on-Exhaust emissions in A+ engine. 2'. :hat is positi!e crankcase !entilation 25. :hat are the sources from which pollutants are emitted from /+ engine. 3B. 8ow compression ratio affects emission control in /+ engine. 31. :hat are the basic re%uirements of a catal#tic con!erter. 32. :hat is a three wa# catal#tic con!erter. 33. :hat are the !arious wa#s of controlling =xides of nitrogen in exhaust emission 3,. :rite a short notes on >reen house effect. 3(. :hat is ?iesel /moke 31. :hat are the !arious t#pes of smoke meters. 3-. :hat is the effect of A= emission on human health. 3'. :hat are the factors that affect the formation of @=x. 35. 8ow are 8#dro Aarbons formed Part < 1. Explain in detail about the !arious sources of +A engine responsible for emission and pollutant formation. 2. +llustrate and explain the effects of combustion time and spark timing on ;@=< formation in /+ engines. 3. 8ow the carbon monoxide is formed in /+ enginesN Explain the effect of = 2 concentration on ;A=< formation in /+ engines. ,. Explain in detail about the combined effect of engine speed& cetane number and combustion time on nitric oxide formation in A+ engines. (. Explain in detail about the following: (i) 0lake smoke (ii) :hite smoke (iii) 0lue smoke (i!) 6articulates. 1. :ith the aid of a neat cross sectional sketch explain the construction& working and limitations of a 3 wa# catal#tic con!erter. -. Explain in detail about the open and closed t#pe 6"A s#stem. .lso state that what for it is used. '. :ith the help of a schematic diagram explain the working of A7. (Ahemiluminescent anal#9er). :hat for it is usedN 5. Explain the working of an instrument used for the measurement of A= and A= 2 from +A engines. 1B. :hat are the operating !ariables and how the# contribute on emission formationN 8ow can it be controlledN 11.?ifferentiate smoke and particulate emission. Explain the diffusion funnel method to measure particulate emission in a diesel engine. 12. Explain different methods of smoke measurement. 13. (i)Explain 6"A s#stem in a diesel engine.

1,B

(ii):hat is the necessit# of exhaust gas re-circulationN Explain in detail. 1,. (i) :hat are thermal reactorsN Explain their constructions. (ii) Explain three wa# catal#tic con!erter.

UNIT IACTERNATE FUECS

1,1

1,2

1,3

1,,

1,(

1,1

1,-

1,'

1,5

1(B

1(1

1(2

Pro(lems 6ith alcohol (len%s +

A%*antages of alcohol as Fuel +

1(3

Fumigation +

Surface ignition of ethanol +

1(,

1((

1(1

=$%rogen A%*antages of =$%rogen as SI engine fuel

)isa%*antages of =$%rogen as SI engine fuel

1(-

'om(ustion &ro&erties of h$%rogen as fuel

1('

-arious 6a$s of using =$%rogen as fuel for SI engine

1(5

11B

111

Natural Gas

9etho%s of using Natural gas in engines

112

'on*ersion ,its for use of natural gas in 'I engine +

113

11,

11(

111

11-

Ciquefie% Petroleum Gas

11'

<io Gas

S$stems require% for use of <io Gas in engines

115

Use of <io gas in %iesel engine +

1-B

1-1

1-2

1-3

<io > )iesel

Esterification

1-,

Transesterification

A%*antages of (io %iesel

1-(

Engine mo%ifications+

1-1

Esterification &rocess

1--

Emission characteristics

1-'

;UESTION <ANK OF UNIT IPart A 1. :h# alcohols are considered as good /+ engine fuels.

1-5

2. ention important propert# changes that take place b# the addition of alcohol to diesel. 3. ?efine 4umigation ,. :hat are the ad!antages of 8#drogen as fuel in /+ engine (. :hat are the demerits of using 8#drogen as fuel in /+ engine 1. :hat are the methods of using @atural gas in A+ engines. -. :hat are the ad!antages of using 76> in engines. '. :hat are the limitations of using 76> as fuel in +A engines. 5. >i!e the general composition of 0io gas. 1B. :hat is 0io diesel. 11. :hat is meant b# esterification. 12. :hat is meant b# Transesterification. 13. :hat are the ad!antages of 0io diesel. 1,. @ame some alternati!e fuels for +A engine. 1(. :hat is the reason for de!elopment of alternati!e fuels. 11. :hat are the ad!antages of using alternati!e fuels 1-. :hat are the disad!antages of alternati!e fuels. 1'. :hat is !olatilit# 15. :h# !olatilit# is an important %ualit# of /+ engine fuel. 2B. :hat are the ad!antages of alcohol as a fuel. 21. :hat are the ad!antages of using 0io-diesel as fuel for +A engines. 22. :hat are the disad!antages of using 0io-diesel as fuel for +A engines. 23. :hat are the properties of 0iogas. 2,. :hat are the ad!antages of using 0iogas as fuel. 2(. :hat are the disad!antages of using 0iogas as fuel for +A engine. 21. :hat are primar# fuels 2-. :hat are secondar# fuels. 2'. :hat is the effect of fuel !iscosit# on diesel engine performance.

Part < 1. :hat are the methods of using alcohol fuels in diesel engine and explain an# one method. 2. :hat are the methods of using 8#drogen in /+ engine. 3. ?iscuss the emission and performance characteristics using h#drogen in /+ engines. ,. Explain the con!ersion kit re%uired for use of natural gas in A+ engines. (. Explain how 0iogas is used in diesel engine. ?iscus the performance characteristics. 1. :hat is the engine modification re%uired for using 0iodiesel in existing diesel engine. -. ?iscuss the suitabilit# of .lcohols in diesl engines '. :ith a schematic diagram explain the production of ethanol from coal 5. :ith a schematic diagram explain the production of ethanol from unicipal solid waste 1B. Explain the engine performance of Ethanol o!er a petrol engine.

1'B

UNIT RE'ENT TREN)S =''I engine 8omogeneous charge compression ignition (8AA+) is a form of internal combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidi9er (t#picall# air) are compressed to the point of auto-ignition. .s in other forms of combustion& this exothermic reaction releases chemical energ# into a sensible form that can be transformed in an engine into work and heat. Intro%uction 8AA+ has characteristics of the two most popular forms of combustion used in /+ engines: homogeneous charge spark ignition (gasoline engines) and A+ engines: stratified charge compression ignition (diesel engines). .s in homogeneous charge spark ignition& the fuel and oxidi9er are mixed together. 8owe!er& rather than using an electric discharge to ignite a portion of the mixture& the densit# and temperature of the mixture are raised b# compression until the entire mixture reacts spontaneousl#. /tratified charge compression ignition also relies on temperature and densit# increase resulting from compression& but combustion occurs at the boundar# of fuel-air mixing& caused b# an injection e!ent& to initiate combustion. The defining characteristic of 8AA+ is that the ignition occurs at se!eral places at a time which makes the fuel)air mixture burn nearl# simultaneousl#. There is no direct initiator of combustion. This makes the process inherentl# challenging to control. 8owe!er& with ad!ances in microprocessors and a ph#sical understanding of the ignition process& 8AA+ can be controlled to achie!e gasoline engine-like emissions along with diesel engine-like efficienc#. +n fact& 8AA+ engines ha!e been shown to achie!e extremel# low le!els of @itrogen oxide emissions (@= x) without an aftertreatment catal#tic con!erter. The unburned h#drocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are still high (due to lower peak temperatures)& as in gasoline engines& and must still be treated to meet automoti!e emission regulations. *ecent research has shown that the use of two fuels with different reacti!ities (such as gasoline and diesel) can help sol!e some of the difficulties of controlling 8AA+ ignition and burn rates. *AA+ or *eacti!it# Aontrolled Aompression +gnition has been demonstrated to pro!ide highl# efficient& low emissions operation o!er wide load and speed ranges X. 8AA+ engines ha!e a long histor#& e!en though 8AA+ has not been as widel# implemented as spark ignition or diesel injection. +t is essentiall# an =tto combustion c#cle. +n fact& 8AA+ was popular before electronic spark ignition was used. =ne example is the hot-bulb engine which used a hot !apori9ation chamber to help mix fuel with air. The extra heat combined with compression induced the conditions for combustion to occur. .nother example is the cdieselc model aircraft engine.

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O&eration 9etho%s . mixture of fuel and air will ignite when the concentration and temperature of reactants is sufficientl# high. The concentration and)or temperature can be increased b# se!eral different wa#s:

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8igh compression ratio 6re-heating of induction gases 4orced induction *etained or re-inducted exhaust gases

=nce ignited& combustion occurs !er# %uickl#. :hen auto-ignition occurs too earl# or with too much chemical energ#& combustion is too fast and high in-c#linder pressures can destro# an engine. 4or this reason& 8AA+ is t#picall# operated at lean o!erall fuel mixtures.

A%*antages

8AA+ pro!ides up to a 3B-percent fuel sa!ings& while meeting current emissions standards. /ince 8AA+ engines are fuel-lean& the# can operate at a ?iesel-like compression ratios (P1()& thus achie!ing higher efficiencies than con!entional spark-ignited gasoline engines. 8omogeneous mixing of fuel and air leads to cleaner combustion and lower emissions. .ctuall#& because peak temperatures are significantl# lower than in t#pical spark ignited engines& @=x le!els are almost negligible. .dditionall#& the premixed lean mixture does not produce soot. 8AA+ engines can operate on gasoline& diesel fuel& and most alternati!e fuels. +n regards to gasoline engines& the omission of throttle losses impro!es 8AA+ efficienc#.

)isa%*antages

8igh in-c#linder peak pressures ma# cause damage to the engine. 8igh heat release and pressure rise rates contribute to engine wear. The autoignition e!ent is difficult to control& unlike the ignition e!ent in spark ignition (/+) and diesel engines which are controlled b# spark plugs and in-c#linder fuel injectors& respecti!el#. 8AA+ engines ha!e a small power range& constrained at low loads b# lean flammabilit# limits and high loads b# in-c#linder pressure restrictions. Aarbon monoxide (A=) and h#drocarbon (8A) pre-catal#st emissions are higher than a t#pical spark ignition engine& caused b# incomplete oxidation (due to the rapid combustion e!ent and low in-c#linder temperatures) and trapped cre!ice gases& respecti!el#.

'ontrol

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Aontrolling 8AA+ is a major hurdle to more widespread commerciali9ation. 8AA+ is more difficult to control than other popular modern combustion engines& such as /park +gnition (/+) and ?iesel. +n a t#pical gasoline engine& a spark is used to ignite the pre-mixed fuel and air. +n ?iesel engines& combustion begins when the fuel is injected into compressed air. +n both cases& the timing of combustion is explicitl# controlled. +n an 8AA+ engine& howe!er& the homogeneous mixture of fuel and air is compressed and combustion begins whene!er the appropriate conditions are reached. This means that there is no welldefined combustion initiator that can be directl# controlled. Engines can be designed so that the ignition conditions occur at a desirable timing. To achie!e d#namic operation in an 8AA+ engine& the control s#stem must change the conditions that induce combustion. Thus& the engine must control either the compression ratio& inducted gas temperature& inducted gas pressure& fuel-air ratio& or %uantit# of retained or re-inducted exhaust. /e!eral control approaches are discussed below.

-aria(le com&ression ratio There are se!eral methods for modulating both the geometric and effecti!e compression ratio. The geometric compression ratio can be changed with a mo!able plunger at the top of the c#linder head. This is the s#stem used in cdieselc model aircraft engines. The effecti!e compression ratio can be reduced from the geometric ratio b# closing the intake !al!e either !er# late or !er# earl# with some form of !ariable !al!e actuation (i.e. !ariable !al!e timing permitting iller c#cle). 0oth of the approaches mentioned abo!e re%uire some amounts of energ# to achie!e fast

responses. .dditionall#& implementation is expensi!e. Aontrol of an 8AA+ engine using !ariable compression ratio strategies has been shown effecti!e. The effect of compression ratio on 8AA+ combustion has also been studied extensi!el#.

-aria(le in%uction tem&erature +n 8AA+ engines& the autoignition e!ent is highl# sensiti!e to temperature. "arious methods ha!e been de!eloped which use temperature to control combustion timing. The simplest method uses resistance heaters to !ar# the inlet temperature& but this approach is slow (cannot change on a c#cle-to-c#cle basis). .nother techni%ue is known as fast thermal management (4T ). +t is accomplished b# rapidl# !ar#ing the c#cle to c#cle intake charge temperature b# rapidl# mixing hot and cold air streams. +t is also expensi!e to implement and has limited bandwidth associated with actuator energ#.

-aria(le eGhaust gas &ercentage Exhaust gas can be !er# hot if retained or re-inducted from the pre!ious combustion c#cle or cool if recirculated through the intake as in con!entional E>* s#stems. The exhaust has dual effects on 8AA+ combustion. +t dilutes the fresh charge& dela#ing ignition and reducing the chemical energ# and engine work. 8ot combustion products con!ersel# will increase the temperature of the gases in the c#linder and ad!ance ignition. Aontrol of combustion timing 8AA+ engines using E>* has been shown experimentall#. -aria(le *al*e actuation

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"ariable !al!e actuation ("".) has been pro!en to extend the 8AA+ operating region b# gi!ing finer control o!er the temperature-pressure-time histor# within the combustion chamber. "". can achie!e this !ia two distinct methods:

Aontrolling the effecti!e compression ratio: . !ariable duration "". s#stem on intake can control the point at which the intake !al!e closes. +f this is retarded past bottom dead center (0?A)& then the compression ratio will change& altering the in-c#linder pressure-time histor# prior to combustion. Aontrolling the amount of hot exhaust gas retained in the combustion chamber: . "". s#stem can be used to control the amount of hot internal exhaust gas recirculation (E>*) within the combustion chamber. This can be achie!ed with se!eral methods& including !al!e re-opening and changes in !al!e o!erlap. 0# balancing the percentage of cooled external E>* with the hot internal E>* generated b# a "". s#stem& it ma# be possible to control the in-c#linder temperature.

:hile electro-h#draulic and camless "". s#stems can be used to gi!e a great deal of control o!er the !al!e e!ent& the componentr# for such s#stems is currentl# complicated and expensi!e. echanical !ariable lift and duration s#stems& howe!er& although still being more complex than a standard !al!etrain& are far cheaper and less complicated. +f the desired "". characteristic is known& then it is relati!el# simple to configure such s#stems to achie!e the necessar# control o!er the !al!e lift cur!e. .lso see !ariable !al!e timing.

-aria(le fuel ignition qualit$ .nother means to extend the operating range is to control the onset of ignition and the heat release rate is b# manipulating fuel itself. This is usuall# carried out b# adopting multiple fuels and blending them con the fl#c for the same engine . Examples could be blending of commercial gasoline and diesel fuels & adopting natural gas or ethanol c. This can be achie!ed in a number of wa#sD

0lending fuels upstream of the engine: Two fuels are mixed in the li%uid phase& one with low resistance to ignition (such as diesel fuel) and a second with a greater resistance (gasoline)& the timing of ignition is controlled b# !ar#ing the compositional ratio of these fuels. 4uel is then deli!ered using either a port or direct injection e!ent.

8a!ing two fuel circuits: 4uel . can be injected in the intake duct (port injection) and 4uel 0 using a direct injection (in-c#linder) e!ent& the proportion of these fuels can be used to control ignition& heat release rate as well as exhaust gas emissions.

Cearn (urn engines Principle . lean burn mode is a wa# to reduce throttling losses. .n engine in a t#pical !ehicle is si9ed for pro!iding the power desired for acceleration& but must operate well below that point in normal stead#-speed operation. =rdinaril#& the power is cut b# partiall# closing a throttle. 8owe!er& the extra work done in

1'(

pumping air through the throttle reduces efficienc#. +f the fuel)air ratio is reduced& then lower power can be achie!ed with the throttle closer to full# open& and the efficienc# during normal dri!ing (below the maximum tor%ue capabilit# of the engine) can be higher.

The engines designed for lean burning can emplo# higher compression ratios and thus pro!ide better performance& efficient fuel use and low exhaust h#drocarbon emissions than those found in con!entional petrol engines. Kltra lean mixtures with !er# high air-fuel ratios can onl# be achie!ed b# direct injection engines.

The main drawback of lean burning is that a complex catal#tic con!erter s#stem is re%uired to reduce @=x emissions. 7ean burn engines do not work well with modern 3-wa# catal#tic con!erter_which re%uire a pollutant balance at the exhaust port so the# can carr# out oxidation and reduction reactions_so most modern engines run at or near the stoichiometric point. .lternati!el#& ultra-lean ratios can reduce @=x emissions.

Heavy-duty gas engines 7ean burn concepts are often used for the design of hea!#-dut# natural gas& biogas& and li%uefied petroleum gas (76>) fuelled engines. These engines can either be full-time lean burn& where the engine runs with a weak air-fuel mixture regardless of load and engine speed& or part-time lean burn (also known as clean mixc or cmixed leanc)& where the engine runs lean onl# during low load and at high engine speeds& re!erting to a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture in other cases.

8ea!#-dut# lean burn gas engines admit as much as -(G more air than theoreticall# needed for complete combustion into the combustion chambers. The extremel# weak air-fuel mixtures lead to lower combustion temperatures and therefore lower @=x formation. :hile lean-burn gas engines offer higher theoretical thermal efficiencies& transient response and performance ma# be compromised in certain situations. 7ean burn gas engines are almost alwa#s turbocharged& resulting high power and tor%ue figures not achie!eable with stoichiometric engines due to high combustion temperatures.

8ea!# dut# gas engines ma# emplo# pre-combustion chambers in the c#linder head. . lean gas and air mixture is first highl# compressed in the main chamber b# the piston. . much richer& though much lesser !olume gas)air mixture is introduced to the pre-combustion chamber and ignited b# spark plug. The flame front spreads to the lean gas air mixture in the c#linder.

This two stage lean burn combustion produces low @=x and no particulate emissions. Thermal efficienc# is better as higher compression ratios are achie!ed.

anufacturers of hea!#-dut# lean burn gas engines include >E Oenbacher& :drtsild& itsubishi 8ea!# +ndustries and *olls-*o#ce plc.

.@ ?iesel M Turbo&

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Honda lean burn systems =ne of the newest lean-burn technologies a!ailable in automobiles currentl# in production uses !er# precise control of fuel injection& a strong air-fuel swirl created in the combustion chamber& a new linear air-fuel sensor (7.4 t#pe =2 sensor) and a lean-burn @=x catal#st to further reduce the resulting @=x emissions that increase under clean-burnc conditions and meet @=x emissions re%uirements.

This stratified-charge approach to lean-burn combustion means that the air-fuel ratio isn]t e%ual throughout the c#linder. +nstead& precise control o!er fuel injection and intake flow d#namics allows a greater concentration of fuel closer to the spark plug tip (richer)& which is re%uired for successful ignition and flame spread for complete combustion. The remainder of the c#linders] intake charge is progressi!el# leaner with an o!erall a!erage air:fuel ratio falling into the lean-burn categor# of up to 22:1.

The older 8onda engines that used lean burn (not all did) accomplished this b# ha!ing a parallel fuel and intake s#stem that fed a pre-chamber the cidealc ratio for initial combustion. This burning mixture was then opened to the main chamber where a much larger and leaner mix then ignited to pro!ide sufficient power. ?uring the time this design was in production this s#stem (A"AA& Aompound "ortex Aontrolled Aombustion) primaril# allowed lower emissions without the need for a catal#tic con!erter. These were carbureted engines and the relati!e cimprecisec nature of such limited the 6> abilities of the concept that now under 6+ ( ulti-6ort fuel +njection) allows for higher 6> too.

The newer 8onda stratified charge (lean burn engines) operate on air-fuel ratios as high as 22:1. The amount of fuel drawn into the engine is much lower than a t#pical gasoline engine& which operates at 1,.-:1_the chemical stoichiometric ideal for complete combustion when a!eraging gasoline to the petrochemical industries] accepted standard of A18'. This lean-burn abilit# b# the necessit# of the limits of ph#sics& and the chemistr# of combustion as it applies to a current gasoline engine must be limited to light load and lower *6 conditions. . ctopc speed cut-off point is re%uired since leaner gasoline fuel mixtures burn slower and for power to be produced combustion must be ccompletec b# the time the exhaust !al!e open Stratifie% charge engines +n a stratifie% charge engine& the fuel is injected into the c#linder just before ignition. This allows for higher compression ratios without cknock&c and leaner air)fuel mixtures than in con!entional internal combustion engines.

Aon!entionall#& a four-stroke (petrol or gasoline) =tto c#cle engine is fuelled b# drawing a mixture of air and fuel into the combustion chamber during the intake stroke. This produces a homogeneous charge: a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel& which is ignited b# a spark plug at a predetermined moment near the top of the compression stroke.

1'-

+n a homogeneous charge s#stem& the air5fuel ratio is kept !er# close to stoichiometric. . stoichiometric mixture contains the exact amount of air necessar# for a complete combustion of the fuel. This gi!es stable combustion& but places an upper limit on the engine]s efficienc#: an# attempt to impro!e fuel econom# b# running a lean mixture with a homogeneous charge results in unstable combustionD this impacts on power and emissions& notabl# of nitrogen oxides or @=x.

+f the =tto c#cle is abandoned& howe!er& and fuel is injected directl# into the combustion-chamber during the compression stroke& the petrol engine is liberated from a number of its limitations.

4irst& a higher mechanical compression ratio (or& with supercharged engines& maximum combustion pressure) ma# be used for better thermod#namic efficienc#. /ince fuel is not present in the combustion chamber until !irtuall# the point at which combustion is re%uired to begin& there is no risk of pre-ignition or engine knock.

The engine ma# also run on a much leaner o!erall air)fuel ratio& using stratifie% charge.

1''

Aombustion can be problematic if a lean mixture is present at the spark-plug. 8owe!er& fueling a petrol engine directl# allows more fuel to be directed towards the spark-plug than elsewhere in the combustionchamber. This results in a stratified charge: one in which the air)fuel ratio is not homogeneous throughout the combustion-chamber& but !aries in a controlled (and potentiall# %uite complex) wa# across the !olume of the c#linder.

. relati!el# rich air)fuel mixture is directed to the spark-plug using multi-hole injectors. This mixture is sparked& gi!ing a strong& e!en and predictable flame-front. This in turn results in a high-%ualit# combustion of the much weaker mixture elsewhere in the c#linder.

?irect fuelling of petrol engines is rapidl# becoming the norm& as it offers considerable ad!antages o!er port-fuelling (in which the fuel injectors are placed in the intake ports& gi!ing homogeneous charge)& with no real drawbacks. 6owerful electronic management s#stems mean that there is not e!en a significant cost penalt#.

:ith the further impetus of tightening emissions legislation& the motor industr# in Europe and north .merica has now switched completel# to direct fuelling for the new petrol engines it is introducing.

+t is worth comparing contemporar# directl#-fuelled petrol engines with %irect-in:ection %iesels. 6etrol can burn faster than diesel fuel& allowing higher maximum engine speeds and thus greater maximum power for sporting engines. ?iesel fuel& on the other hand& has a higher energ# densit#& and in combination with higher combustion pressures can deli!er !er# strong tor%ue and high thermod#namic efficienc# for more ]normal] road !ehicles. Four-*al*e engines

. ,-"al!e engine is designed for better performance than a regular 2-"al!e engine 9ore &o6er : The ,-!al!e pro!ides for a greater intake and exhaust area resulting in more power ore ileage: ,-!al!e not onl# enhances the performance but also returns a !er# good fuel econom# a ore green: Aomfortabl# meets 0/+++ regulations 8hat is the 0-*al*e engineK .n engine that has !al!es that let the air-fuel mixture into the combustion chamber to be burned and then draw out the exhaust gas after the combustion. . con!entional engine has one intake !al!e to let in the air-fuel mixture and one exhaust !al!e to let out the

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exhaust gases. 0ut the ,-!al!e engine has two intake and two exhaust !al!es. . t#pical 2-!al!e engine has just 1)3 combustion chamber head area co!ered b# the !al!es& but a ,-!al!e head increases that to more than (BG& hence smoother and %uicker breathing. ,-!al!e design also benefits from a clean and effecti!e combustion& because the spark plug can be placed in the middle. a , !al!es are better to be dri!en b# twin-cam& one for intake !al!es and one for exhaust !al!es. ,-!al!e t#pe and its shape is designed with the minimum area necessar# for the two intake and two exhaust !al!es. a .t the same time it is designed with a minimum intake and exhaust !al!e angles to reali9e an optimum combustion chamber shape.

9 ERITS+ The first merit of ,-!al!e design is that it allows the spark plug to be positioned in the center of the combustion chamber to pro!ide more efficient flame spread and combustion. +n other words& it enables highl# efficient combustion. .lso& the ,-!al!e design enables greater o!erall !al!e area than a 2-!al!e s#stem for more efficient (per unit of area) intake and exhaust function. This is the second major merit. 'O9PARISION OF 0--AC-ES O-ER /--AC-ES . con!entional engine has one intake !al!e to let in the air-fuel mixture and one exhaust !al!e to let out the exhaust gases. 0ut the ,-!al!e engine has two intake and two exhaust !al!es ,-!al!es is better than two because ,-!al!es gi!e an engine steadier low-speed performance and a better acceleration feeling a That is wh# most race engines and high-performance engines ha!e four !al!es. 4or example& `amahaes `f*- 1 oto>6 race machine has four !al!es.

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The name of the game is !elocit# and turbulence)mixing of the intake charge at differing engine speeds. .t low engine speeds& one intake !al!e gi!es increased !elocit#& hence better gas mixing and better c#linder filling. +f #ou open a second intake !al!e at low engine speed& the !elocit# drops dramaticall#& lea!ing poor intake filling and a lean intake charge. The result is engine knock and less tor%ue. =n the other hand& at high *6 & breathing is the name of the game. The !al!es are open such a short length of time #ou need the maximum a!ailable intake area. Therefore 2 intake !al!es work better at high *6 . .ll of this is of course subject to the exhaust s#stem design. . proper extractor exhaust can make a significant difference on a two !al!e s#stem and a restricti!e exhaust can nullif# all the gains of a , !al!e s#stem.

:hen #ou ha!e onl# 2 !al!es& the air)fuel mixture entering the c#linder can be tangential to the circle of the c#linder& gi!ing a high degree of swirl& better air)fuel mixing and hence better performance at lower re!s in an /+ engine. .t higher re!s& enough turbulence is a!ailable to create good mixing& and so , !al!es are better& as the# allow greater airflow.

OH engine design =8" means =!er8ead "al!e - an engine design where the camshaft is installed inside the engine block and !al!es are operated through lifters& pushrods and rocker arms (an =8" engine also known as a c6ushrodc engine). .lthough an =8" design is a bit outdated& it has been successfull# used for decades. .n =8" engine is !er# simple& it has more compact si9e and pro!en to be durable. =n the downside& it]s difficult to precisel# control the !al!e timing at high rpm due to higher inertia caused b# larger amount of !al!e train components (lifter-pushrod-rocker arm). .lso& it]s !er# difficult to install more than 2 !al!es per c#linder& or implement some of the latest technologies such as "ariable "al!e

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Timing - something that could be easil# done in a ?=8A engine.

OH! or SOH! engine =8A in general means =!er8ead Aam while /=8A means /ingle =!er8ead Aam. +n a /=8A engine the camshaft is installed in the c#linder head and !al!es are operated either b# the rocker arms or directl# through the lifters (as in the picture). The ad!antage is that !al!es are operated almost directl# b# the camshaft& which makes it eas# to achie!e the perfect timing at high rpm. +t]s also possible to install three or four !al!es per c#linder The disad!antage is that an =8A engine re%uires a timing belt or chain with related components& which is more complex and more expensi!e design.

,-c#linder '-!al!e /=8A engine

"OH! or #$in !am engine ?=8A means ?ouble =!er8ead Aam& or sometimes it could be called cTwin Aamc. . ?=8A setup is used in most of newer cars. /ince it]s possible to install multiple !al!es per c#linder and place intake !al!es on the opposite side from exhaust !ales& a ?=8A engine can cbreathec better& meaning that it can produce more horsepower with smaller engine !olume. Aompare: The 3.(-liter "1 ?=8A engine of 2BB3 @issan 6athfinder has 2,B hp& similar to 2,( hp of the (.5-liter "' =8" engine of 2BB3 ?odge ?urango. Pros+ 8igh efficienc#& possible to install multiple !al!es per c#linder and adopt !ariable timing. 'ons+ ore complex and more expensi!e design. ,-c#linder 11-!al!e ?=8A engine

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Electronic Engine 9anagement electronic control s$stems engines are subject to !er# high stresses during compression and ignition& and increasingl# stringent emission standards ha!e made better control of the diesel combustion process necessar#. Electronic controlled diesel s#stems gi!e !er# precise control of the fuel injection and combustion process. Electronic controls ha!e deli!ered other benefits besides a reduction in fuel consumption and emissions& such as an increase in power and tor%ueD impro!ed engine responsi!enessD a reduction in engine noise and diesel knockD and impro!ed and expanded diagnostic capabilities through the use of scan tools. electronic control s#stems monitor and control man# !ariables& including:

Engine speed: o to maintain a smooth functional idle&

o o

and to limit the maximum safe engine speed& power& and tor%ueD and to keep the engine output to within safe limits.

4uel injector operation:

o

including the timing& rate and !olume of fuel injected.

>low plugs and heater elements:

o

Aontrol of pre-heating of the intake air to support %uick cold starting and reduced cold run emissions.

Exhaust emissions:
o

.nal#sis of exhaust gas to determine combustion efficienc# and pollutants.

.nd the data bus:

o

.n electronic communications network that allows exchange of data between computers necessar# for efficient operation and fault diagnosis.

=ther inputs monitored include:

crankshaft position& throttle position& brake and clutch operation& batter# !oltage& cruise control re%uest& air& oil fuel& exhaust and coolant temperatures&

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and intake air& oil and fuel pressures.

The EAK is a micro-computer. +t is constructed from printed circuitr#& and contains a large number of electrical components& including man# semiconductor de!ices.

+ts input de!ices recei!e data as electrical signals. The# come from sensors and components at !arious locations around the engine. +ts processing unit compares incoming data with data stored in a memor# unit. The memor# unit contains basic data about how the engine is to operate. .nd an output de!ice pulses the electrical circuit of the solenoid-t#pe injection !al!es. +t is normall# located in a safe place& behind a kick-panel in the foot-well& under the passenger seat& or in the boot& and connected b# a multi-plug& or plugs& to the !ehicle$s wiring harness.

The core function of a basic EAK in an E4+ s#stem is to control the pulse width of the injector. ore sophisticated models also control other functions such as idle speed& ignition timing& and the fuel pump. These wider s#stems are called engine management s#stems. The more precise control the# allow is !er# effecti!e in reducing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.

The EAK adjusts %uickl# to changing conditions b# using what are called programmed characteristic maps& stored in the memor# unit. The# are programmed into the EAK& just as data is programmed into a computer. Aharacteristics means the engine$s operating conditions. .nd the# are called maps because the# map all of the operating conditions for the engine.

The# are constructed first from d#namometer tests& then fine-tuned& to optimise the operating conditions and to compl# with emission regulations. This data is stored electronicall#.

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+gnition timing is crucial in this process. 0etween one spark and the next& the EAK uses data it recei!es on engine load and speed to determine when the next ignition point will occur. +t can also correct the map !alue& using extra information such as engine coolant temperature& intake air temperature& or throttle position. 6utting all of this together& it arri!es at the best ignition point for that operating condition.

'ommon Rail )irect In:ection or 'R)I A*?+ is an intelligent wa# of controlling a diesel engine with use of modern computer s#stems. A*?+ helps to impro!e the power& performance and reduce harmful emissions from a diesel engine. Aon!entional ?iesel Engines (non-A*?+ engines) are sluggish& nois# and poor in performance compared to a A*?+ engine.

A*?+ or common rail direct injection s#stem is also sometimes referred to b# man# similar or different names. /ome brands use name A*?e ) ?+A=* ) Turbojet ) ??+/ ) T?+ etc. .ll these s#stems work on same principles with slight !ariations and enhancements here and there.

A*?+ s#stem uses common rail which is like one single rail or fuel channel which contains diesel compresses at high pressure. This is a called a common rail because there is one single pump which compresses the diesel and one single rail which contains that compressed fuel. +n con!entional diesel engines& there will be as man# pumps and fuel rails as there are c#linders.

.s an example& for a con!entional , c#linder diesel engine there will be , fuel-pumps& , fuel rails each feeding to one c#linder. +n A*?+& there will be one fuel rail for all , c#linders so that the fuel for all the c#linders is pressuri9ed at same pressure.

The fuel is injected into each engine c#linder at a particular time inter!al based on the position of mo!ing piston inside the c#linder. +n a con!entional non-A*?+ s#stem& this inter!al and the fuel %uantit# was determined b# mechanical components& but in a A*?+ s#stem this time inter!al and timing etc are all controlled b# a central computer or microprocessor based control s#stem.

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To run a A*?+ s#stem& the microprocessor works with input from multiple sensors. 0ased on the input from these sensors& the microprocessor can calculate the precise amount of the diesel and the timing when the diesel should be injected inside the c#linder. Ksing these calculations& the A*?+ control s#stem deli!ers the right amount of diesel at the right time to allow best possible output with least emissions and least possible wastage of fuel.

The input sensors include throttle position sensor& crank position sensor& pressure sensor& lambda sensor etc. The use of sensors and microprocessor to control the engine makes most efficient use of the fuel and also impro!ed the power& fuel-econom# and performance of the engine b# managing it in a much better wa#.

=ne more major difference between a A*?+ and con!entional diesel engine is the wa# the fuel +njectors are controlled. +n case of a con!entional Engine& the fuel injectors are controlled b# mechanical components to operate the fuel injectors. Kse of these mechanical components adds additional noise as there are man# mo!ing components in the injector mechanism of a con!entional diesel engine. +n case of a A*?+ engine& the fuel injectors are operated using solenoid !al!es which operate on electric current and do not re%uire complex and nois# mechanical arrangement to operate the fuel +njection into the c#linder. The solenoid !al!es are operated b# the central microprocessor of the A*?+ control s#stem based on the inputs from the sensors used in the s#stem. Gasoline )irect In:ection Engine + 6ort fuel injected (64+) engines are the most commonl# used spark ignition (/+) engine in current !ehicles. +n certain

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markets& a !er# small number of direct-injected spark ignition (?+/+) engines ha!e been introduced. 0oth use gasoline fuel. +n 64+ engines& fuel is injected into the intake port near the closed intake !al!e& producing a well mixed fuelLair charge in the combustion chamber. This is the most commonl# used engine t#pe in current !ehicles. These engines are t#picall# operated with a stoichiometric fuelLair ratio& which is the ratio that permits complete con!ersion of the fuel and ox#gen in the intake charge to form A=2 and 82=. .s a result of the premixed combustion& it produces !er# low particulate emissions. The le!els of other emissions directl# lea!ing the engine are relati!el# high& and compliance with regulated emission standards relies on the effecti!eness of the three-wa# catal#st& which reduces emissions b# 5(L55G as discussed in more detail below. +n ?+/+ engines& the fuel is injected directl# into the combustion chamber. .t higher load& the fuel is injected during the intake stroke to form a nearl# homogeneous fuelL air mixture at the time of ignition. .t lower load& the injection timing can be dela#ed until the compression stroke to produce a ggstratified$$ fuel mixture. This mixture is ideall# uniform& premixed& and stoichiometric near the center& and de!oid of fuel near the c#linder walls. This spatial locali9ation translates into a faster burn and allows the engine to be run more fuellean o!erall than 64+ engines& pro!iding impro!ed fuel econom# and better performance during transient acceleration) deceleration. +n practice& howe!er& it is difficult to reali9e this ideali9ed mixing& and fuel-rich and lean regions result& leading to reduced benefits. .dditionall#& because this engine injects fuel droplets directl# into the combustion chamber& particulate emissions are increased substantiall# relati!e to 64+ engines. 7ike 64+ engines& ?+/+ engines rel# on catal#tic de!ices to significantl# reduce engine-out concentrations of regulated emissions.

1. The engines use injectors that can spra# fuel directl# into the c#linder during the compression stroke& along with an extremel# high pressure fuel pump (2&BBB 6/+). 0efore >?+& it was far more common to use port fuel injection& where the injector spra#ed fuel at low pressure into the intake manifold. 2. The direct injection process allows the fuel to e!aporate in the c#linder and cool the air)fuel mixture. That helps a!oid premature ignition& soh 3. These engines can increase the compression ratio. The a9da engine goes to a 1,:1 ratio& which has ne!er been seen before in a production gasoline engine. The normal high is 12:1 or so& and that would re%uire premium fuel. ,. an# of the engines are using multiple injector spra#s per stroke. =ne spra# occurs as the air starts flowing in on the intake stroke. The second occurs right before the spark plug fires. This creates a stratified charge of fuel for a better burn pattern.

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the ad!antages of higher compression ratios &The higher the compression ratio& the more closel# packed the molecules of fuel and air are when the mixture is ignited b# the sparkplug& this causes a more powerful explosion b# making a more !iolent reaction which produces more power. 8igher compression makes the expansion ratio of the exploding hot gas greater which means that more energ# is impinged on the piston top& pushing it down harder& making more power. +ncreasing the compression ratio impro!es the thermal efficienc# of an engine and this is the primar# reason wh# higher compression increases power. +mpro!ing thermal efficienc# impro!es fuel econom# from getting more power from the same amount of fuel and a reduction of combustion chamber surface area to !olume. This means less wasted combustion heat and more expansion being used to dri!e the piston down.

UNIT Part A 1. 2. 3. ,. (. 1. -. '. 5. 1B. 11. 12. 13. 1,. 1(. 11. 7ist the features of 8AA+. 7ist the features of surface ignition engines. ?efine charge stratification :hat are the ad!antages of 4our !al!e engine. :hat is a 7ambda sensor 7ist out !arious sensors used on an +A engine. :hat is a 7ean 0urn engine. :hat are the ad!antages of >asoline direct engine o!er con!entional gasoline engine :hat is /urface +gnition. :hat are the ad!antages of stratified charge engines. :hat are the ad!antages of 8AA+ engine. :hat are the disad!antages of 8AA+ engine. :hat is the principle of 7ean burn engines. :hat is a 4our !al!e engine. :hat is a =!er 8ead "al!e engine. :hat is an electronic control unit.

1. 2. 3. ,.

Part < Explain the working of a 8omogeneous charge combustion engine. ?raw the sketch of an engine and locate !arious sensors used on it. Explain the working of Aommon rail direct injection diesel engine with a neat sketch. Explain the working of >asoline direct injection engine.

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(. 1. -. '. 5.

Explain the working of a 4our L "al!e engine and state the ad!antages of it. Explain the working of a 7ean 0urn engine. Explain the working of a /tratified Aharge engine. :hat are the methods of charge stratification :hat is a stratified charge engine. :hat are the ad!antages and disad!antages of stratified charge engine

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