LEBW1414-00

March 2001

PETROLEUM A&I GUIDE

PETROLEUM ENGINES

APPLICATION and INSTALLATION GUIDE

CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Table of Contents
Marketing Profit Center Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Installation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Long Term Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Petroleum Engine Selection, Ratings, and Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Petroleum Equipment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Engine Packaging for Electric Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Petroleum Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Two-Bearing Generator Offshore Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Two-Bearing Generator Land Rig Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing Generators Without Bases . . . . . . . . . .25 Equipment Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Engine Packaging for Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Mobile and Service Rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Torque Converters, Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Transmission and Torque Converter Ratings and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . .40 Mud Pump Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Alignment and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 General Alignment Information Defining Types of Misalignment . . . . . . .43 Crankshaft Deflection Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Alignment of Close-Coupled Driven Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Alignment of Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 TMI Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Available electronically in the Technical Information section of https://oilandgas.cat.com

1976, 1979, 1982, 1985, 2001 Caterpillar

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Table of Contents
Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Speed Droop Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Isochronous Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Electric Load Sharing Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Electronic Governing and Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Generator Set Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 General Information and Cooling System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Coolant Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 Watermaker Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Interconnection of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 Expansion Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Emergency Radiator Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Installation Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 Radiator Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118 Jacket Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Extreme Cold Weather Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Sizing and Installing Radiators for EPA Certified Engines . . . . . . . .125 Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Lubricating Oil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Scheduled Oil Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Prelubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Duplex Oil Filter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 Remote Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 Tilt Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 Supplemental Bypass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 Fuel Delivery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 Fuel System Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Fuel Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Crude Oil Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Air Intake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Engine Room Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164 Combustion Air Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165 Air Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165 Crankcase Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 DC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

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Table of Contents
AC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 Oilfield Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177 Shutoffs and Alarm Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Starting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 Electric Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 Air Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 Starting Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189 Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191 Fuel Conservation on Petroleum Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Daily Engine Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Engine Support Systems Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 Design Review Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

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MARKETING PROFIT CENTER LOCATIONS

CAT POWER SYSTEMS NORTH AMERICA (PSNA)
NORTH CENTRAL REGION 330 S.W. Adams St., LD-LL30 Peoria, IL 61602 Ph: (309) 675-4605 Fax: (309) 675-4303 NORTHEAST REGION 175 Powder Forest Dr. Weatogue, CT 06089 Ph: (860) 658-3411 Fax: (860) 651-4118 Speed No.: *0-119 NORTHWEST REGION 12600 SE 38th St. Suite 205 Bellevue, WA 98006 Ph: (425) 865-0251 Fax: (425) 865-0919 Speed No.: *0-037 SOUTH CENTRAL REGION 8300 FM 1960 West Suite 340 Houston, TX 77070 Ph: (281) 677-2525 Fax: (281) 807-6535 Speed No.: *0-112 SOUTHEAST REGION 7621 Little Avenue Suite 202 Charlotte, NC 28226 Ph: (704) 752-1321 Fax: (704) 752-1316 Speed No.: *0-120 SOUTHWEST REGION 1450 N. Tustin Avenue Suite 217 Santa Ana, CA 92705 Ph: (714) 560-4010 Fax: (714) 835-2737 Speed No.: *0-106 CANADIAN REGION 3700 Steeles Ave. West Suite 902 Woodbridge, ON L4L 8K8 Ph: (905) 850-3655 Fax: (905) 850-3661 Speed No.: *7-25

CATERPILLAR AMERICAS CO. (CACo) 701 Waterford Way, Suite 200 Miami, FL 33126-4670 Ph: (305) 476-6800 Fax: (305) 476-6801 CATERPILLAR OF AUSTRALIA LTD. (CofA) 1 Caterpillar Drive Private Mail Bag 4 Tullamarine Victoria 3043 Australia

CATERPILLAR ASIA PACIFIC LTD. (CAPL) Singapore Branch 7, Tractor Road, Jurong Singapore 627968 Republic of Singapore P.O. Box 0520 Jurong Town Post Office Singapore 916118 Ph: 662-8333 Fax: 662-8302 CATERPILLAR CHINA LIMITED (CCL) 37/F., The Lee Gardens 33 Hysan Ave. Causeway Bay G.P.O. Box 3069 Hong Kong Ph: (852) 2848-0333 Fax: (852) 2848-0440 (852) 2848-0400 (852) 2848-0236 (852) 2848-0223 (852) 2868-5435

CATERPILLAR POWER SYSTEMS INC. Sanno Grand Bldg., 8th Floor 2-14-2 Nagatacho Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo 100 Japan Ph: (03) 3593-3231 Fax: (03) 3593-3238 CATERPILLAR S.A.R.L. 76, Route de Frontenex P.O. Box 6000 CH-1211 Geneva 6 Switzerland Ph: (22) 849 44 44 Fax: (22) 849 45 44 Tlx: 413323 Cble: CATOVERSEA

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Following are installation requirements for Caterpillar Diesel Engines applied in petroleum applications, except for 3600 Series engines. Reliability of machinery is a major factor affecting satisfactory performance. Machinery must be properly installed in an acceptable environment to achieve reliability. The installation plan must assure machinery will be able to function in its environment. Caterpillar is not responsible for choice or performance of components mentioned herein that are not manufactured or serviced by Caterpillar. It is the installers responsibility to consider and avoid possible hazardous conditions which could develop from the systems involved in the specific engine installation. The suggestions provided regarding avoidance of hazardous conditions apply to all applications and are necessarily of a general nature since only the installer is familiar with the details of his installation. The suggestions should be considered general examples only and are in no way intended to cover every possible hazard in every installation. The engine installation should be designed and sized according to the requirements of the application. Engine installation layout is important for ventilation, cooling and the filtering of dirt and sand from the air. Space must also be planned for auxiliary equipment. In addition, heat and noise levels should be adequate for workers comfort and comply with local, state, marine classification society or country codes. Considerations must be given to how the engine package is delivered to the site, i.e. by crane or other methods. Multiple Use Facility Drill rigs have auxiliary equipment such as boiler units, compressors, etc. For this reason, it is important for the room to have ample space for maintenance and repair of all the equipment. specific maintenance practices. However, the installation must be designed for ease of servicing to ensure adequate maintenance. Lifting Capabilities The room enclosures should have adequate clearance to allow lifting of the generator sets for repair work, etc. Clearances There are different types of clearances: overhead, side and front/rear. Overhead Clearances Overhead clearance is the clearance above the engine and generator. Special consideration should be made for clearances above the mufflers, exhaust stacks and cylinder heads to allow space for maintenance work. Side Clearances In a single or multiple generator set application, there should be sufficient space between engines for drain carts, tool carriages and other equipment. As a rule, the space between engines should be equal to at least the width of the engine. Front/Rear Clearances The room should be designed to provide sufficient area in front for removing the radiator and camshaft from the block in case of major overhauls. In a similar manner, there should be sufficient space at the rear of the generator for removal of the rotor. Access Accessibility is an important feature in any engine room design. There will be periodic preventive maintenance on the engine, so easy access should especially be provided to: lube oil filters and drain plug fuel and air filters jacket water pump turbocharger heat exchanger

Serviceability
Adherence to proper maintenance practices is critical to engine or generator set reliability. Caterpillar publishes guidelines and service intervals for every engine and generator model. Reference should be made to these guidelines for
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Routine Maintenance Access should be available through the service entrance in the case of regular routine maintenance. The entrance should be designed to handle the removal of generator sets, parts, fluids and tools. Maintenance personnel should be able to pass through freely. Major Repair Rooms should be able to handle major repairs, which may involve weight and size constraints. Service Convenience

Temperatures Pre-Start The engine should be equipped with starting capabilities especially in cold conditions. Provisions such as jacket water heaters, battery heaters, oil heaters, ether start aids and antifreeze concentration must be planned for to ensure proper starting. These measures are taken in cold ambient conditions. Operational

In order to maintain temperature and prevent derating of the engine during operation, adequate air and coolant flow are necessary. Radiators, if Air so equipped, provide cooling air for the room, as Air should be in sufficient supply for use with air well as the engine. Heat exchanger and remote tools as well as ventilation purposes. radiator cooling remove much of the heat from the room, but ventilation will still be necessary Water for radiant heat. Water is an important resource for cooling purposes as well as for cleaning the room, engine, Installation Considerations and hands. Handling Air Pressure Lift Points Doors Lift points on drill rig power modules are imporAir restrictions in enclosed engine rooms can cre- tant as they provide support to the equipment ate a pressure differential between the room and when it is moved. the surrounding areas. A 1.02 psi (7 kPa) pressure differential can create a 3086 lb (1400 kg) When lifting, all supporting members (chains and force exerted on a 3.28 6.56 ft2 (1 2 m2) cables) should be parallel to each other and as door (as pressure is equal to weight divided by perpendicular as possible to the top of the object area). The door design and proper ventilation being lifted. should be taken into consideration when design- When it is necessary to remove a component on ing the room. an angle, remember that the capacity of an eyebolt is reduced when the angle between the Air Velocity supporting members and the object becomes While air temperatures must be controlled, air less than 90 degrees. Eyebolts and brackets velocities affect worker comfort. The typical air should never be bent and should only be loaded under tension. motion conditions include:
Air Velocity (fpm) m/min
50 100 150 200 1300 1 2000 15.2 30.5 45.7 61.0 396.0 306.0 610.0

Conditions
Offices, seated worker Factory, standing worker Capture velocity, light dust Maximum continuous exposure Capture velocity, rain Maximum intermittent exposure

To move only the engine, use the lifting eyes on the engine itself. To remove the generator only, use the lifting eyes that are on the generator. Center of Gravity (CG) Calculations This information is important, especially when they are hoisted by overhead cranes. Components with a lower center of gravity have less tendency to tip over when lifted.
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Table 1. Conditions from air velocity

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Long Term Storage Engine Storage When an engine is not started for several months, the lubricating oil drains from the cylinder walls and piston rings. Rust can then form on the cylinder liner surface, increasing engine wear and decreasing engine life. To prevent excessive engine wear:

Open Storage of Generators Test the main stator windings with a megohmmeter: before the initial start-up of the generator set every three months* if the generator is operating in a humid environment if the generator has not been run under load for three months* or more

Be sure all lubrication recommendations mentioned in the Maintenance Schedule *This is a guideline only. If the environment is extremely intervals chart are completed. humid or salty, it may be necessary to perform the Megger more frequently. Refer to one of the following publica If freezing temperatures are expected, check Test tions for Megger Test information: the cooling system for adequate protec- SEBU6918, SR4B Generators and Control Panels Opertion against freezing. A 50/50 solution of ation and Maintenance Manual Ethylene Glycol based antifreeze and * SENR5359, SR4B Generator Service Manual approved water will give protection to 33F (36C). If an engine is out of operation and if use of the engine is not planned, special precautions should be made. If the engine will be stored for more than one month, a complete protection procedure is recommended. Refer to SEHS9031, Storage Procedures for Caterpillar Products, for more detailed information on engine storage. Your Caterpillar dealer will have instructions for preparing your engine for extended storage periods. Generator Storage When a generator is stored, moisture may condense in the windings. Use a dry storage space and space heaters to minimize condensation. Removing Generator Moisture Drying does not always produce desired results. It may be necessary for the generator to be dipped and baked by a qualified rebuild shop. Energize the space heaters in the generator (if equipped). Space heaters can be installed on generators (see the Parts Manual). They warm the windings to remove moisture. The heaters should be connected at all times in high humidity conditions, whenever the generator is not running. Refer to SEHS9124, Special Instructions, Clean and Dry Gen Set, or contact your Caterpillar dealer.
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PETROLEUM ENGINE SELECTION, RATINGS, AND CONFIGURATIONS Petroleum Engine Selection

General Horsepower, Torque, and Machine Productivity

To better understand torque and horsepower, consider that a very small engine can provide One of the major concerns in applying petroleum sufficient torque for a very large machine if there engines is proper application of engine horse- is enough speed reduction. But, although the power to obtain desired performance, economic machine could have sufficient torque, it would operation, and satisfactory engine life. Successful operate at such a slow speed as to be unproapplication of petroleum engines requires under- ductive. Productivity of most machines is approxstanding of power requirements, how engines are imately proportional to horsepower input. rated, applicable emissions requirements, and Horsepower is the time rate of doing work. Or knowledge of the proper selection and use of restated, horsepower is proportional to the prodthese ratings. uct of torque times rpm. Some basic relationPower Requirements Compared With Past Experience Before selecting an engine model and rating, power demand must be analyzed. This is simplified if experience is available with a similar machine powered by an engine of known rating and fuel rate performance. This experience helps decide whether the machine was underpowered, correctly powered, or overpowered. Calculated Horsepower Demand ships are: English units bhp = T RPM 5252 T = 5252 bhp RPM 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb min

Where: T = Torque, ft-lb Metric units Machine load demand can be estimated mathebkW = T RPM matically when no actual machine experience is 9537 available. Using basic engineering principles on work and energy and data on the type of task to T = 9537 bkW RPM be accomplished, it is possible to convert all functions of a machine to torque demand and T = Torque, Nm then to power demand. Calculation may be the only way available to estimate power requirements Torque Rise Effect on Performance at the start of a new machine design. Of course, this approach is accurate only if all factors are For equipment (such as a plunger pump) which considered and assumptions are correct. For is capable of lugging the engine (i.e., applying applications such as pumps or other continuous sufficient load to pull the engine speed down loads, where demand is known quite well, cal- below rated speed at full throttle), it is important culated values are quite accurate. In other appli- to consider two other characteristics of engine performance. These are torque rise and response cations, actual demand can differ significantly. to sudden load change. Engine Measured Power Demand Torque Rise % = Usually, the most practical way to assess power (Peak Torque) (Rated Torque) 100 Rated Torque demand and engine capability is to make a selection based on calculation or comparison with past Cat Diesel Engines used in mechanical drives experience and test it. There is no substitute for typically provide high torque rise to perform well a rigorous evaluation of an engine in the machine in a wide variety of applications. or application. This provides final proof of machine performance acceptability, or it will A torque curve is the graphical representation of torque versus speed. identify shortcomings in need of correction.
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Some modification to the torque curve of a noncertified engine is possible in those cases where this is required to achieve satisfactory machine performance. Consult your engine supplier if this need exists. If torque rise capability is higher than necessary, the machine driveline may be subjected to torque levels which may shorten the life of gearing and bearings. For this reason it is sometimes desirable to let the machine operator shift to a lower gear to increase engine speed instead of always lugging the engine without a gear change. So, the decision to use an extra high torque rise engine must also consider driveline capability. By contrast, an engine with insufficient torque rise will seem weak and may even stop running before the operator has time to make a gear change. This is not acceptable either. The best compromise is to use enough torque rise to satisfy machine performance requirements, but not so much that driveline life becomes unacceptable.

air/fuel ratio setting provides optimum machine responsiveness and acceptable level of transient smoke for a particular application. Adequate Machine Performance Manufacturers and customers develop their own ideas of what constitutes adequate machine performance. Insufficient power causes low productivity and user dissatisfaction. Excessive power costs more to purchase, requires heavier drive system components, and may reduce equipment life if the operator is careless. The ideal machine is responsive, productive, and durable, satisfying the owners need for performance and overall value. Tolerances

Actual engine power output may vary by up to 3% from nameplate value on a new engine. Similarly, where load demand of some work-producing device is published, the manufacturers Devices such as blowers and centrifugal pumps tolerance should be added to demand power if cannot lug an engine because power demand power needs are to be met in all cases. drops off faster than engine capability as speed is reduced. The amount of torque rise available Fuel Heating Value in these applications is generally meaningless Fuel heating value affects the ability to achieve because torque rise is not required, except as it rated power output because fuel is delivered to may contribute to the ability to accelerate the load. the engine on a volumetric basis. Allowance Generation sets are constant speed applications should be made for lower heat content fuel (higher API than standard) where the power level and do not need torque rise capability. is critical. Response Effect on Performance Fuel rates are based on fuel oil of 35 API {60F A naturally aspirated engine has the fastest (16C)} gravity having an LHV of 18,360 Btu/lb response to sudden load increase because (42,780 kJ/kg) when used at 85F (29C) and required combustion air is immediately available. weighing 7.001 lb/U.S. gal (838.9 g/L). However, few naturally aspirated engines meet emissions requirements. They are also more Auxiliary Loads costly and heavy. In addition to the engines main load, allowance There is a momentary lag in the response of a must be made for engine-driven auxiliary loads. turbocharged or turbocharged and aftercooled Extra loads imposed by a cooling fan, alternator, engine because it takes a moment for the turbo steering pump, air compressor, and hydraulic to accelerate upon load increase. Progress in tur- pump may represent a significant proportion of bocharger development has produced smaller, total engine power available. faster responding turbochargers and, therefore, After establishing main load power demand and turbocharged engines which respond quickly adding all auxiliary power demands, some addito sudden load increase. With steady load tional power should be allowed for peak loads and speed, turbo response is of no consequence. (such as grades and rough terrain) and reserve Air/fuel ratio controllers, also called smoke lim- for acceleration, where applicable. iters, momentarily limit fuel delivery until sufficient air is available for combustion. They respond to inlet manifold boost pressure. The proper
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Engine Rating Conditions Ratings are based on SAE 1995 standard ambient conditions. Ratings are subject to 3% Power Tolerance. Ratings are valid for air cleaner inlet temperatures up to and including 122F (50C).

Power Setting Determines Maximum Fuel Rate

Horsepower output of a basic engine model can be varied within its design range by changing the engine fuel setting or speed setting. Both settings affect the engines maximum fuel rate and, therefore, the horsepower output capability. Thermal and mechanical design limits will not be Note: Horsepower shown on the performance exceeded if an appropriate engine and rating curve for generator set applications may be is selected. slightly below the advertised horsepower to match a generator nominal output. Caterpillar Ratings are Offered Engine performance is corrected to inlet air stan- in a 5 Tier Format dard conditions of 29.31 in. hg (99 kPa) dry INDUSTRIAL A CONTINUOUS RATINGS barometer and 77F (25C) temperature. These For heavy duty service when engine is values correspond to the standard atmosoperated at rated load and speed up to pheric pressure and temperature as shown in 100% of the time without interruption or SAE J1995. load cycling. Performance measured using a standard fuel with Time at full load up to 100% of the duty fuel gravity of 35 API having a lower heating cycle. value of 18,390 Btu/lb (42,780 kJ/kg) when used at 84.2F (29C) where the density is Typical examples are: pipeline pumping, 7.001 lb/US gal (838.9 G/L). well service mixing units. The corrected performance values shown for Caterpillar engines will approximate the values INDUSTRIAL B RATINGS obtained when the observed performance data (Mud Pump Service) is corrected to SAE J1995, ISO 3046-2 & 8665 For service where power and/or speed & 2288 & 9249 & 1585, EEC 80/1269 and are cyclic. DIN 70020 standard reference conditions. Time at full load not to exceed 80% of the duty cycle. Engine Ratings Typical examples are: oil field mechanical Another concern in applying engines is the proper pumping/drilling, independent rotary drive, application of engine power to obtain desired perwell service blenders, cementers. formance, economic operation, and satisfactory engine life. Successful application of engines requires an understanding of how they are rated INDUSTRIAL C INTERMITTENT RATINGS and how to properly select and use these ratings. (Hoisting Service) For service where power and/or speed are Published ratings are representative statements cyclic. The horsepower and speed capaexpressing engine power and speed capability bility of the engine which can be utilized under specific loading conditions. There are sevfor one uninterrupted hour followed by one eral ratings for each configuration of petroleum hour of operation at or below the IND A engine model. Continuous power. Engine Capability Determines Ratings Time at full load not to exceed 50% of the duty cycle. Horsepower rating capability is determined by engine design. Combined capability and dura Typical examples are: off-highway truck, bility of all engine components determine how fire pump application power, blast hole much horsepower can be produced successfully drills, oil field hoisting, nitrogen pumping, in a particular application. well service kill pumps, cementers, electric drill rig power (also called Prime power).

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INDUSTRIAL D RATINGS For service where rated power is required for periodic overloads. The maximum horsepower and speed capability of the engine can be utilized for a maximum of 30 uninterrupted minutes followed by one hour at IND C Intermittent power.

Engine Determines Rating Validity A properly maintained engine in actual use will determine whether a particular rating level is appropriate. Ratings which are validated by acceptable field experience are retained. Continuing engine development results in ongoing engine improvement and some increase in ratings may result from this process.

Time at full load not to exceed 10% of the duty cycle. Engines are Developed for Typical examples are: offshore cranes, fire Specific Rating Levels pump certification power, coil tubing units, Engines are designed and developed to produce offshore cementer. specific power levels for particular applications. INDUSTRIAL E RATINGS

Subsequent lab and field experience confirms rating validity. Increasing engine horsepower For service where rated power is required beyond approved levels to compensate for for a short time for initial starting or sudden excessive load is not acceptable. Excessive overload. For emergency service where engine wear or damage can result. standard power is unavailable. The maximum horsepower and speed capability of Rating Curves the engine can be utilized for a maximum Consult Technical Marketing Information (TMI) of 15 uninterrupted minutes followed by or Petroleum Engine Performance handbooks for one hour at IND C Intermittent power rating curves which show available ratings at varor duration of emergency. ious speeds for each model and configuration. Time at full load not to exceed 5% of the Specification sheets also carry some of this information for preliminary sizing purposes. duty cycle.

Typical examples are: oil field well servic- Special Ratings ing frac/acid pumping. Most engine applications are well understood and NOTE: APPLICATION EXAMPLES ARE FOR utilize one of the above existing published ratings REFERENCE ONLY. FOR EXACT DETERMI- which have been confirmed by thousands of NATION OF RATING TIER REFER TO SPECIFIC hours of successful experience. However, occaAPPLICATION INFORMATION AND GUIDE- sionally, a unique application merits special ratLINES IN TMI. ing consideration because of unusually low load factor or unusually short life requirements. In this Life Related to Load Factor case, consult your engine supplier. Factory appliUse of an oversized engine contributes to longer cation engineers will require that a special rating engine life because it runs at a lower overall load request data sheet be submitted for review before factor. It also provides quicker response to sud- a special rating can be considered for approval. den load changes. Load factor is the ratio of aver- Emissions certification regulations reduce the age fuel rate to the maximum fuel rate the engine feasibility of some special rating requests. can deliver when set at a rating appropriate for a particular application. This value is expressed as Altitude Derating a percent. Each model and rating has established maximum altitude capabilities for lug and nonlug applications. For higher altitude operation, power Some of the application conditions considered settings must be reduced approximately 3% per by a manufacturer in determining a rating for an 1000 ft. (305 m) above that ratings altitude limit. application are: load factor, duty cycle, annual Mechanically controlled diesel engines do not operating hours, historical experience at a par- self-derate enough so that the fuel setting can be ticular rating level, and expected engine life left unchanged. If they are not reset to approprito overhaul. ate power levels, naturally aspirated engines may Factors Involved in Establishing a Rating
11 LEBW1414-00

smoke badly and turbocharged engines may suffer excessive thermal and mechanical loading, resulting in internal damage without giving external indication of distress. Engine derating curves are contained in the TMI. Actual Power Output Derives from Load Demand Regardless of engine rating (power and speed setting), the actual power developed by an engine is determined by the load imposed by driven equipment. For example, an engine set to produce 500 hp (373 kW) will actually produce only 40 hp (30 kW) if the driven load demands only 40 hp (30 kW). For this reason, average fuel consumption indicates average load demand. Average fuel consumption also indicates load severity on the engine by comparing it with the rated fuel rate associated with that rating. When this ratio is expressed as a percent, it is called load factor.

Turbocharging, using energy from waste exhaust gas, provides an efficient means to increase air flow. The power rating of a turbocharged engine is usually limited by internal temperatures, turbocharger speed, and structural limits. Compression of the air by the turbocharger increases air temperature. An aftercooler between the tubocharger and intake manifold cools the hot compressed air. This increases air density and allows more air to be packed into the cylinder and more fuel to be burned. The rating is typically limited by internal temperature limits, turbocharger speed, and structural limits.

Because turbochargers and aftercoolers provide more air to the engine, the engine fuel rate can usually be increased to use this extra combustion air. As a result, engine component loading or turbo speed become the limit on rating. Caterpillar Diesel Engines do not utilize turbos or aftercoolers as add-ons. Rather, engines are designed and developed in all aspects for these Engine Configurations higher loading levels. Then they are tested On a given engine model, a power range capa- thoroughly to assure long life and satisfactory bility is created by providing different engine performance. configurations such as naturally aspirated, turbocharged, and turbocharged-aftercooled. Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled with engine jacket water (JWAC). Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled with a separate lower temperature fresh water circuit (SCAC). Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled in an air-to-air cooling device (ATAAC). Emissions requirements many times determine the type of aftercooling used. Internally, these engines may differ significantly. Naturally aspirated engines generally do not meet emissions regulations. Increasing power output by injecting more fuel requires additional air for complete combustion and internal cooling. This requires additional mechanical strength of internal components and additional design features such as oil jet cooling for pistons. In any engine, the mass flow of air supplied to each cylinder determines the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned. The entire engine must be designed for strength and durability at approved power levels.

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PETROLEUM EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

There are many different ways to transmit power Mechanical Drives from rig engines to the mud pumps, rotary table, drawworks, and auxiliary loads. Representative Mechanical drives may be either direct drive or examples are discussed in this section to define use a torque converter. nomenclature of these various drives and enable Conventional Rig proper application of engines with correct ratings. The most common rig is the conventional rig. It The terminology discussed is representative, but may also be called a compound rig, although recognize that the petroleum industry does not compounds may also be used with independent have complete agreement on nomenclature. drives, Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Clutches are between Petroleum drives will be discussed under the fol- the engines and compound with either direct lowing headings: drive or torque converter drive. Mechanical Drives Conventional Rig Split Rig Mobile Rig Electric Drives DC SCR Service Rigs Cementing Acidizing Fracturing Nitrogen Pumping The drawworks/rotary table is on an elevated structure to provide ground clearance under the rotary table for safety valves (blowout preventers). Rig engines are also elevated on a substructure. This simplifies power transmission to the drawworks. Engine outputs are connected together with the compound. A number of clutches control power distribution. Normally, engines operate in compound while hoisting and separately when running the rotary table and mud pumps. The approved engine rating is the pumping and drilling rating.

MAST (DERRICK)

DRAWWORKS

ENGINES

COMPOUND

SUBSTRUCTURE MUD PUMPS

CONVENTIONAL RIG
Figure 1.1

13

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TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL RIG

Figure 1.2

SPLIT RIG
Figure 1.3

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Split Rigs Split rigs utilize independent drives to power the various pieces of drilling machinery, Figure 1.3. The approved engine rating for independent mud pump application is the pumping and drilling rating. Hoisting ratings are approved for independent drawworks/rotary drive applications. (Pumping and drilling rating can be used if engine commonality is desired.) Independent rotary drives are sometimes used with conventional rigs. Pumping and drilling rating is approved for this application. Figure 1.4
ENGINE TRANSMISSION DRAWWORKS

AC auxiliary generator sets supply electric Mobile workover rig describes a truck or trailerpower necessary on a mechanical rig. In this mounted unit used to pull rod and tubing from a application, prime power generator set rating producing well. The unit consists of engine(s), should be utilized. transmission(s), and drawworks. Auxiliary engines power such things as mud Additionally, some rigs include a limited rotary mix pumps, supercharger pumps, or air comtable capacity for use during well bore cleanout, pressors. Depending upon the particular appliwhile drilling out plugs (packers), or limited cation, duty cycle, load factor, etc., either A, B, redrilling in an existing well. A workover rig is also or C rating tier levels are applicable. Electric commonly called a service rig. motor drives may be used in place of auxiliary Occasionally, a mobile workover rig includes a engine drives. chassis-mounted mud pump. This is required to kill a flowing well, provide circulation during Mobile Rigs cleanout and while drilling out plugs, etc. Mobile units are defined as oil field drilling or Normally, a mobile workover rig will use an indeworkover units permanently mounted on wheels. pendent mud pump kill unit. They are frequently called chassis or carrier units, self-propelled or trailer mounted. They are a ver- Mobile drill rig describes a truck or trailersion of the split rig. A workover rig performs mounted unit used to drill a well. The unit consists underground repair of an existing well. It may be of engine(s), transmission(s), drawworks, and called a pulling unit when there is no provision rotary table. of rotating the tubing string. Mud pumps are normally independent units. The rig may even be used for both drilling and workover, or the basic unit can be sold into either Figure 1.4 shows a back-in workover rig. It is rep- application. In such cases, the major difference resentative of the workover rig carrier designa- is depth capacity. A drawworks and derrick used tion. A drive-in carrier has the drivers cab located for drilling (where heavy casing is handled) has a at the hinge point of the derrick. smaller depth capacity than when used for workThese rigs may also be trailer-mounted (not over (where lighter tubing or rods are handled). shown). Manufacturers sales specifications will state both drilling and workover depth capacities. Depending upon power and derrick capacity, dual purpose rigs (workover/drilling) can drill to more than 12,000 ft. (3600 m) and workover to more than 20,000 ft. (6000 m).

Carrier Designations

15

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Figure 1.5
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Drive Train Configurations for Mobile Rigs Figure 1.5 shows various drive trains. There is a great variety, and the drawings are not all-inclusive.

As Figure 1.6 illustrates, different motor assignments are used when hoisting or pumping and drilling.

A main and spare AC generator is required for If the unit is a trailer unit, the power system dropauxiliary power. The AC generators could be sepbox (K) and drive axle (J) are eliminated. arately driven by smaller Caterpillar Engines. On the twin engine in-line, the two engines could Figures 4.19 and 13.1 are a representative diesel also be offset from each other, or the rear engine engine power modules for DC drives. The DC elevated to eliminate the dropbox (C). generator is at the rear of the engine and utilizes Rigs using only a torque converter behind the an AC blower for forced ventilation. Many of engine may have a drawworks with either a two- these DC rigs are being converted to SCR. or three-speed transmission or high-low drum SCR Drives (Figure 1.7) clutches. AC generators supply power to an AC switchgear. AC power is then fed to the SCR Electric drives are commonly SCR. Older DC (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) modules where the drives may still exist. The same engine ratings AC is rectified to DC. An integral DC control are applicable to both drives. Both utilize DC panel connects the SCR modules to various DC motors due to their high torque at 0 rpm and their motors (Motor Assignment). variable speed characteristics. The drives differ in As Figure 1.7 illustrates, different motor assignthe method used to produce DC power. ments are used when hoisting or pumping and drilling. DC Drives (Figure 1.6) Auxiliary AC power is normally supplied from DC generators supply power to DC motors. A the same generators. Utility transformers are norDC control panel regulates the DC and provides mally required as the AC generators are normally means to connect the DC generators to various 600V AC. 600V AC provides the most acceptDC motors (Motor Assignment). able DC voltage, when rectified.

Electric Drives

Figure 2.10 and 17.10 are representative diesel engine power modules for SCR drives.

Figure 1.6
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Figure 1.7

Some Electric rigs power variable frequency AC Undersized generators may cause circuit breaker motors instead of DC motors. This has no essen- tripping or slower drawworks acceleration. tial change for the engine or generator construction. If the variable frequency device is a diode Service Rigs front end device, the AC generators do not have Service rigs perform well servicing. This broad to be oversized. category generally includes those oilfield activities that provide underground repair or alteration AC Generators for SCR Drives of an existing well (workover) and technical well SCR drives require special generators. The rated servicing. Workover rigs are discussed under the voltage is usually 600V AC (for both 50 and subject Mobile Rigs. 60 Hz). This voltage changes to 800V DC through Technical well services provide support functions the SCR system, to power the DC motors. Operating DC motors at variable speeds causes to well drilling (cementing and logging) or prothe generator Power Factor to vary. For exam- vide means to change productivity of underple, the drawworks go from 0 PF to 1.0 PF every ground formations (acidizing and fracturing). hoisting cycle. Operation of the mud pumps at Technical well service rigs are not equipped to do mechanical work on a well. low strokes also causes a low PF. Accordingly, AC generators are oversized to 0.6 or 0.7 PF to provide more generator ampere capacity. Testing of gen sets with oversize generators is limited to the engines hp capacity. Testable capacity of the gen set is given by the equation: EkW = (bhp rad fan hp) Gen eff 0.746. Additionally, the generator must be form wound to provide additional mechanical bracing of the generator winding. This bracing resists the forces caused by current surges resulting from operation of the SCR controllers. Generator winding temperature rise design limit is also lowered to compensate for additional heating caused by the SCR load.
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Service rigs that utilize large engines are used to perform three distinct services: cementing, acidizing, and fracturing. The unit consists of an engine(s), transmission(s), and piston-type pump(s). Equipment is usually mounted on a commercial truck chassis or may be trailer-mounted. Figure 1.8 shows an acidizing/fracturing unit. A cement unit is not illustrated but is similar except with smaller engines. Cementing is the process of pumping cement down a well bore to anchor casing. Cementing can be required several times during the drilling of a well.

Acidizing is the process of pumping an acid down the casing of a completed well into the desired producing formation. Certain types of rock can be dissolved by acid, and this dissolving process creates channels by which hydrocarbons can more readily flow to the well bore. Fracturing is the process of applying an ultrahigh pressure [2,000-15,000 psi (13783103448 kPa)] down the casing of a completed well to a desired producing formation. This pressure fractures the rock and creates channels by which hydrocarbons can more readily flow to the well bore. Nitrogen pumpers can be used with fracturing units. Nitrogen is used for foam-frac in formations that would be damaged by a large volume of fracturing fluid. Nitrogen can also be used to remove the frac fluid from a well after the fracturing operation. (The nitrogen expands on removal of pump pressure.)

The same service rig may be used to acidize or fracture. This does require changing the fluid end of the pump to match various pressure and flow requirements. Cementing units normally are not used to acidize or fracture, although the unit appearance is similar. Cementing units normally carry mixing equipment not found on acidizing/fracturing units. Cementing a well requires less power [100500 hp (75-373 kW)] than fracturing or acidizing [500-10000 hp (373-7460 kW)]. Cementing is thus usually done with trucks with two engines of approximately 400 hp (300 kW) each. Fracturing and acidizing are usually performed by trucks that have a 1250-2250 hp (9301575 kW) engine. Multiple trucks are used for high power acidizing and fracturing operations.

Figure 1.8

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ENGINE PACKAGING FOR ELECTRIC DRIVES

Properly designed power modules are essential for diesel electric drives. Power modules must withstand vibrations and maintain original alignment under all operational and environmental conditions. Misalignment can cause vibration and shorten the life of couplings and generator bearings. The stationary frame of two-bearing driven equipment tries to rotate with the engine crankshaft. If the petroleum base were not rigid enough, engine torque would cause excessive base flexing. Misalignment results, proportional to load, which will not show up during a conventional static alignment check.

The major cause of misalignment is flexing of the Bases for Two-Bearing Generator Drives base due to weakness in design. Other causes are poor installation methods and incorrect align- A Caterpillar petroleum base is a torsionally rigid structure. Three-point suspension maintains ment procedures. proper relationship and alignment of all equipment and, by isolating external forces, prevents Petroleum Bases engine block distortion. Caterpillar petroleum bases are designed to eliminate frequent, periodic realignment. The follow- TORQUE REACTION OF 1 BEARING ing criteria has been met with properly installed VS 2 BEARING GENERATOR Caterpillar bases: A. Engine torque does not cause excessive misalignment. B. Substructure flexure during operation does not cause bending movement of the base. C. The power module is able to withstand rough handling during transportation without permanently distorting the base and misaligning driven equipment. Tip over angle of the Caterpillar petroleum land rig base with engine-generator arrangement is a minimum of 42 degrees (.74 rad). D. The petroleum base is free of torsional or linear vibrations in the engine operating speed range. One-Bearing and Two-Bearing Generators Caterpillar offers different bases for single- and two-bearing generators. Whereas bases for twobearing generators must be sturdy to provide support and maintain alignment, the base on single-bearing generators can be lighter because the base does not have to withstand torque reaction. Bolting the generator stator housing to the flywheel housing eliminates the need for the oil field base to absorb the engines driving torque, Figure 2.1. Close-coupled two-bearing generators are like single-bearing generators in that torque reaction is taken through the flywheel housing.
CRANK ROTATION GENERATOR MOVEMENT 1 BEARING GENERATOR OR CLOSE-COUPLED 2 BRNG. GEN.

FLYWHEEL HOUSING TO GENERATOR BOLTED JOINT ABSORBS TORQUE REACTION

ENGINE MOVEMENT

BASE MUST MAINTAIN ALIGNMENT AGAINST TORQUE REACTION 2 BEARING GENERATOR

Figure 2.1

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20

Alignment Responsibility The Caterpillar base assures the user of onesource responsibility for both packaging and alignment.

Two-Bearing Generator Offshore Power Modules

The Caterpillar petroleum offshore base consists of a base-within-a-base. The inner base is threepoint mounted with integral spring isolators Three-Point Mounting and limit stops to the outer base. The outer The three-point suspension system must be used base can be welded to the rig support structure. as there is a possibility the substructure sup- The inner base structure is not the same as engine porting the base can deflect due to external rails used in other applications. See Figures 2.3 and 2.7. forces or settling. Three-point mounting isolates the unit from substructure deflection, thus maintaining proper relationship and alignment of all equipment and preventing engine block distortion. More than three mounting points can cause base distortion, Figure 2.2. Objectionable vibration can occur in adjacent machinery or structures if the power module is not mounted on well supported structures or is not anchored securely. In addition to the threepoint mounting, vibration isolators may be required to isolate objectionable vibrations. The other base must be supported by large girders. The outer base can be welded or bolted to the rig structure. Inadequate support may result in power module vibrations, Figure 2.4.

SPRING ISOLATOR OUTER BASE

INNER BASE

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.2

21

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Figure 2.4

Provision for High Tilt Angles

Engines on isolators have movement when subject to high tilt angles. Repeat cycles may dam- To optimize sound isolation, spring isolators age connections to engine such as exhaust or include a mounting isolation pad and special coolant. If tilt angle is extreme, the power mod- washers under the hold down bolt heads. ule could fall out of the vibration isolator.

To prevent these conditions, limit stops are included with each isolator, Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5
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! WARNING
IMPROPER LIFT RIGGING CAN ALLOW LOAD TO TUMBLE CAUSING INJURY AND DAMAGE
2438 mm (96 INCH) MAX. 1524 mm (60 INCH) MIN.

1. WEIGHT, CENTER SYMBOL LOCATION AND INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN HEREIN APPLY TO UNIT AS SHIPPED BY CATERPILLAR. WEIGHT kg ( POUNDS) 2. USE PROPER SPREADER BAR AS DESCRIBED, BECAUSE CENTER OF GRAVITY IS ABOVE BASE LIFT POINTS. 3. ATTACH TWO PROPER RATED CABLES FROM BASE LIFT POINTS TO SPREADER BAR. 4. POSITION SPREADER BAR OVER CENTER SYMBOL FOR LEVEL LIFT.

Figure 2.6

4W-1422 1

The 40 ft. 9 in. (12.42 m) base has no decking provided from rear of generator to rear of base. Lifting of heavy power modules must be done Customer-supplied auxiliary equipment is to be properly to avoid damage or injury. Engine or mounted here, necessitating customer-supplied generator lift points should not be used to lift the decking and reinforcement. entire power module. Lift Requirements Figure 2.6 shows the decal included with each power module, showing proper lift methods.

Two-Bearing Generator Land Rig Power Modules

Caterpillar land rig base uses 18 in. (457 mm) Figure 2.8 wide flange beams. Available lengths of 25 ft. 9 in., 30 ft. 9 in., 40 ft. 9 in. (7.85 m, 9.37 m, 12.42 m) allow matching base length to equipment needs. Alignment integrity is provided by using a basewithin-a base design. Figures 2.8 and 2.9.

INNER BASE OUTER BASE

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Figure 2.7

SPRING ISOLATOR
23

PLANKING OR CONCRETE

FIRM SOIL

Figure 2.9

Because ground conditions may vary from well location to well location, vibrations may result Three mounting points are built into the base, which are not due to misalignment or unbalanced Figure 2.8. This maintains alignment of engineparts. Unstable ground, discussed above, may generator on uneven surfaces and during most be reacting to normal forces within the engine/ rig moves. generator combination, whereas at another well Required site preparation is a level firm soil location no such reaction may occur. which may be planked or a concrete surface, See the section on Vibrations for further inforFigure 2.9. mation. Rough handling may occur during rig moves. This requires that alignment should be checked Package Handling after such rig moves. Cable tow and lift ends are part of land rig base, Three-Point Mounting Additionally, certain types of soil, such as fine clay, loose sand, sand near the ground water level, or soil that is freezing or thawing, are particularly unstable under dynamic loads. Loose planking under the power modules may also cause power module vibration.
AIR CLEANER

Figure 2.10. Cable wrap protection against sharp bends is provided. Pipe end is above bottom of base to protect cable from constant abrasion when skidding on hard surfaces, Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10
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CABLE LIFT PROVISION

Roof and Walkway Roofs and walkway wings can be added by the customer for servicing and weather protection, Figure 2.11. Width of the wings should suit the customer. It should be at least as wide as the radiator. All connections of the bracing to the base should avoid stressing or flexing the I-beams flange or vertical member. Guard rails, cable runs, lighting, exhaust piping, etc., can be added according to customer preference. See Figures 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5 for additional details.

ROOF BRACE ENGINE NON-SKID DECKING PLATE

TYPICAL LAND RIG BASE USAGE WITH WEATHER PROTECTION

ADDED WING

Figure 2.11

Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing Generators Without Bases

Caterpillar Engines equipped with mounting feet, similar to those shown in Figure 2.14, are designed to flex. Bolting the feet to the rig structure provides proper mounting. Do not weld the engine to the rig structure.

Figure 2.12

25

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NOTE: A one-inch block of flexible mounting material may be used under each mounting location to provide sufficient clearance to isolate subbase flexing. Several types of resilient pads isolate noise but not vibration. Some may even amplify first order vibrations. As a general rule, resilient mounting pads should have at least 0.250 in. (6.0 mm) static deflection; less than this results in reduced noise but little or no vibration isolation. Consult the supplier for specific information.
Figure 2.13

On larger Caterpillar Engines, engine rails are extended to mount the generator. These rails should not be notched or the cross braces removed when generator interference is encountered, Figures 2.12 and 2.13.

When a generator set is installed on a base that has a deck place surface, make sure the generator set rests firmly on the base beams, Figure 2.14. Mounting on the deck plate will cause considerable vibration of the deck plate or other structures on the base. This is true whether or not a generator base is under the generator set, Figure 2.15.

A single-bearing generator set is still subject to vibrations if bolted to an uneven base or one The preferred method of mounting is to provide steel pads between the generator base and base that flexes.

DECK PLATE

Figure 2.14

FLEXIBLE MOUNT AT MOUNTING FEET ON BASE BEAMS

BASE BEAMS

DECK PLATE

GENERATOR BASE

BASE BEAMS

Figure 2.15
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BASE BEAMS UNDER MOUNTING FEET

STEEL PADS TO PROVIDE CLEARANCE TO DECK PLATE

DO NOT BOLT DECK PLATE TO GENERATOR BASE

26

beams. The deck plate should be cut out at the pad location. Pads eliminate contact with the deck plate, reducing vibration transmission into the base. The mounting recommendations of Figure 2.15 also apply to engines with mounting rails, Figure 2.13. Other auxiliary equipment installed on the same base as the engine may create vibrations. Reciprocating air compressors are a frequent cause of vibrations. These and other similar auxiliary equipment should be mounted on isolators. Flexible connections should be used on compressor air lines, etc.

natural thermal growth, tolerances are greatly affected and could easily result in bearing or crankshaft damage. The main structural strength of an engine is the cast iron block. The plate steel oil pan, which supports the engine, is a deep, heavy weldment. Lugs or brackets are welded to the sides of the oil pan and hold the engine to the standard mounting rails, Figure 2.16. Expansion/Thermal Growth

Any engine will expand in length, width, and height from cold start to operating temperature. THIS GROWTH MUST NOT BE RESTRAINED. Equipment Mounting (The effect of thermal growth on alignment will be discussed later.) As engine temperature Mounting Engine to Base increases to operating level, the entire engine The standard Caterpillar mounting channel or grows in length due to thermal expansion. box rails are required. They properly support and anchor Caterpillar 3508, 3512, and 3516 Vee- Cast iron has a coefficient of expansion of type Oilfield Engines, Figure 2.16. These rails, 0.0000055, and that of steel is 0.0000063. This while rigid enough, flex slightly to isolate the means that the block of an engine 94 in. engine block from deflection caused by shim- (238.8 cm) in length will grow 0.083 in. ming error or non-rigid mounting structure. A (0.212 cm) if its temperature is increased from proper engine mounting system helps ensure 50F (10C) to 200F (98.8C). Using 0.0000063 dependable performance and long life if all equip- as the plate steel coefficient of expansion, a steel weldment of 94 in. (238.8 cm) will grow 0.089 in. ment is properly aligned. (0.226 cm) through the same temperature range. The small difference in growth between the block and the lubricating oil pan is compensated for in the design of the engine by making holes in the flange of the attached component (rails) larger than the attaching bolts. A fitted bolt is installed at the right rear corner of the block to oil pan to provide a reference point for making alignment. Clearance between the mounting bolts and the mounting rails to the base will then allow slip to compensate for thermal growth. Engine mounting rails also increase in temperature, but to a lesser degree. Therefore, as much clearance is not necessary for the mounting bolts Figure 2.16 through the engine rails as would be predicted by engine growth. Engine Construction Diameter of the clearance-type bolts used between A Caterpillar Engine is built as a rigid structure. the engine rails and base mounting blocks must If the engine is mounted on a pair of longitudi- be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than the diameter of nal rails, the tops of which are in the same plane, the holes in the engine rails. This clearance allows the engine will hold its own alignment and allow the engine mounting rails to grow without conall working parts to operate in the manner for finement, Figure 2.17. which they were designed. If the engine is subjected to external forces, or is restrained from its
27 LEBW1414-00

It may be necessary to remove the engine to facilitate final welding. Figure 2.18. Generator Mounting 1. Mounting blocks are used between the generator mounting feet and base supporting members. This eliminates the need to machine base supporting pads, Figure 2.19. One shim pack of approximately 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) to 0.060 in. (1.5 mm) is installed between each mounting block and generator foot at original installation to permit possible replacement of generator. Use Grade 8 bolts and hardened steel washers. 2. The mounting blocks must be welded to the base supporting members. Use only two mounting blocks on each side of generator, one at each end. The generator should be aligned before the mounting blocks are welded. The generator will act as an alignment fixture to hold the mounting blocks in place. 3. Recheck alignment and add or remove shims between the generator mounting feet and mounting blocks. See the section Alignment for alignment details.

Figure 2.17

Chocks should not be welded against the front of the engine rail. There must be a minimum of 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) clearance between them and the engine rails to allow sufficient room for thermal growth. It is common marine practice to install a fitted bolt at the right rear corner of the engine mounting rail. This is not required with the Caterpillar base-within-a-base design. Mounting Instructions The engine and generator must be mounted and anchored according to the following rules. Failure to do so may result in reduced life or premature failure.

Engine Mounting The following information applies to engines utilizing the 10 in. (254 mm) rails instead of the base-within-a-base concept. 1. No shimming is allowed between the engine and engine channel or box rails. Figure 2.18 2. Four mounting blocks and shims are used between the engine rail and the base-supporting member on two-bearing units. This eliminates the need to machine base-supporting pads, Figure 2.17. Use Grade 8 bolts and hardened steel washers. 3. Mounting blocks must be welded to the basesupporting members. Use only two mounting blocks on each side of the engine, one at each end. This minimizes engine block bending due to base bending. The engine should be positioned before the blocks are welded. The engine will serve as an alignment fixture, and the blocks can be tack welded in place. Figure 2.19
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ENGINE PACKAGING FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

Figure 3.1

Engine Supports Two types of engine supports are used mounting rails, Figure 3.2, and mounting feet, Figure 3.3. Caterpillar 3508, 3512, 3516 (and some 3412) Vee-type Oilfield Engines utilize mounting rails. The standard Caterpillar mounting rails are required.

ALIGNMENT CHOCKS (REAR AND FRONT SIDE ONLY)

MOUNTING BLOCK (4) AND SHIMS CLEARANCE TYPE BOLTS

DO NOT USE FRONT RAIL RESTRAINT

Figure 3.2

29

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Mounting Engines to Rig The proper engine mounting system helps ensure dependable performance and long life, if all equipment is properly aligned.

engine. The alternative of raising the compound is normally more costly.

The engine should be mounted on a pair of longitudinal beams, the tops of which are in the same plane. If the tops of the beams are not flat, add sufficient shims between the engine mounting surface and mounting beams. Bolting engines Figure 3.4 to an uneven surface can cause harmful distortions in the engine block, springing of the mounting beams, and high stress in welds or base metal. Refer to section on crankshaft deflection test for the means of assuring the engine block is not stressed.

PROPER PRACTICE

Mounting blocks are not required under the center of the engine rail, Figure 3.2. A mount located Figure 3.5 there will distort the block if the beams to which Mobile and Service Rigs the rails are bolted bend. Engine-Transmission Mounting The chassis of mobile rigs have two long stringers. Frame flexing can occur due to off-highway usage. Additionally, well site preparations may not result in a flat operating surface. Service units can also have extreme frame flexing due to feedback from the plunger pump. These considerations require that some type of three-point mounting of the engine-transmission package be utilized. It supports the engine at a single point at the front (a minimal torsional restraint) and at two points (each side) on the flywheel housing. This system allows large amounts of rig frame deflection without undue stresses to the mounting pieces or engine. Front Support Most mobile rig engines utilize the mobile equipment engine configurations with a trunnion-type support, Figure 3.6. This is not a true trunnion support in that it cannot rotate. For this reason, the frame connection to the trunnion must allow an engine rocking motion to occur (minimal torsional restraint). The radiator has to be mounted separately on the rig chassis.

IMPROPER PRACTICE

Figure 3.3

The diameter of clearance-type bolts holding the engine rails or feet to the mounting blocks on the oilfield base must be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than the diameter of the holes in the engine rails. This clearance allows the engine mounting rails or feet to grow without confinement, Figure 3.2.

Each engine or generator mounting bolt must bolt through solid material, Figure 3.4. If a mounting bolt is overhung, it will cause distortion, Some engine installations will require the wide front support of the standard industrial engines, Figure 3.5. Figure 3.3. To provide a single mounting point When engines are being installed for repower, the at the front, this mount must be modified, vertical distance from the crankshaft centerline to Figure 3.10. The wide front support is used where the engine rails/feet may be different between it is inconvenient to separately mount the radiaold and new engines. Modifications to the longi- tor. It will also find usage on helicopter rigs where tudinal beams may be required to lower an the engine and radiator weight is restricted.
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Rear Engine Mounts Rear mounts support the rear of the engine and most of the transmission weight. Rear mounts also supply resistance to longitudinal and torsional forces. In addition, the transmission must be supported so that the transmission causes no appreciable bending moment at the flywheel housing rear face. See the section Overhung Power Transmission Equipment for the method to calculate bending moment, Figure 3.12. Certain transmissions provide mounting pads to support the rear of the engine and cause no appreciable bending moment at the flywheel housing rear face. Using this mount, instead of the engine rear mounts and transmission mounts, eliminates the transmission bending force on the flywheel housing and need for the bases discussed later in this section (assuming trunnion front support). Approval from the transmission supplier should be received before this mounting is used.

TRUNION FRONT SUPPORT

Figure 3.6

Figures 3.7 through 3.11 illustrate the various mounting concepts. They are all equally suitable, subject to the limitations discussed below. Figure 3.7 illustrates the use of a base to support the engine, transmission, and radiator. This base is mounted to the chassis at three points.

Figure 3.7
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Figure 3.8 illustrates tying together the transmission and rear engine supports with a short base. This base has two mounting points to the chassis. The front of the engine has a trunnion mount plus the radiator is not engine-mounted.

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9 is a modification of Figure 3.8. It shows a power package which can be moved by helicopter. Such packages require rear engine feet for support whenever the transmission is removed from the engine for transportation.

Figure 3.9
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Figure 3.10 illustrates how to make a single-point mount out of the wide front support. If space is no limitation, the fabricated single-point mount could attach to the bottom of the wide front support.

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11 illustrates the overhanging weight of the transmission being supported on springs. Calculations are required to determine spring sizing. The use of springs is limited to trailer rigs or service rigs. The trailer fifth wheel gives, essentially, a three-point mount during transit to minimize deflection forces on the flywheel housing.

Figure 3.11
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Forces and deflections of all components of the mounting system must be resolved. If the third mount is a spring, with a vertical rate considerably lower than vertical rate of the rear engine support, the effect of the mount is in a proper direction to reduce bending forces on the flywheel housing due to downward gravity forces but the overall effect may be minor at high gravity force levels. Supports with a vertical rate higher than the engine rear mount are not recommended since frame deflections can subject the engine power transmission equipment structure to high forces. Another precaution is to design the support so it provides as little resistance as possible to engine roll. This also helps to isolate the engine/ transmission structure from mounting frame or base deflection. Overhung Power Transmission Equipment Power transmission equipment, which is directly mounted to the engine flywheel housing, must be evaluated to ensure the overhung weight is within tolerable limits of the engine. If not, adequate additional support must be provided to avoid damage.

CAUTION: Mobile applications require consideration of dynamic bending movement imposed during normal machine movement or abrupt starting and stopping. The dynamic load limits and the maximum bending moment that can be tolerated by the flywheel housing can be obtained from your Caterpillar Engine supplier (source Caterpillar Technical Marketing Information) [TMI]. For determination of the bending moment of overhung power transmission equipment installations, see Figure 3.12. To compensate for power transmission systems which create a high bending moment due to overhung load, a mount as shown in Figures 3.7, 3.8, 3.9 or 3.10 is required.

Figure 3.12

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34

Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives

Clutches Both plate-type clutches and air clutches are used. Plate-type clutches are primarily used to drive small pumps and compressors. Engines driving mud pumps, drawworks, or a rotary table normally use air clutches. Cyclic loading greatly affects clutch sizing. Centrifugal pumps cause no cyclic loading while duplex mud pumps cause the greatest amount. Consult the clutch manufacturer to determine applicable clutch load factors.

Auxiliary Drives Engines on mechanical drill rigs are sometimes called upon to drive one or more secondary loads in addition to the primary load. These may be driven from a front power takeoff, gear-driven auxiliary drive, front crankshaft pulley, front stub shaft, or a rear-mounted power takeoff driven from the top of some transmissions.

Auxiliary loads may be driven directly or indirectly through belt or chain drives. Those which are direct driven may or may not require special coupling arrangements, depending upon torsional characteristics of the total engine and load system Plate-type clutches can operate with a limited for both ends of the engine. A torsional analysis amount of side load. Clutch supports or pillow is recommended to identify any destructive torblock bearings allow greater side loads. Such sional criticals unless previous experience on supports or bearings must be mounted on the identical installations has proven the system safe. same skid as the engine, Figure 3.13. Belt and Chain Drives Belt and chain drives are generally free from torsional problems. Large input shafts, etc. may cause torsional problems, however. Belt and chain drives introduce side loads due to belt or chain pull plus tensioning forces. The larger the drive pulley or sprocket, the greater the power that can be transmitted. Increasing drive pulley or sprocket diameter for any given side pull increases the torque requirement of the drive. Consequently, shaft size, the drives bearing spacing and size, and capacity of the drive gears limit the total horsepower the drive is capable of delivering regardless of side load limitations. It is important to remember that belt or chain tensioning must be added to the dynamic side load when calculating the total. Failure to do this may CLUTCH SUPPORTS overload bearings, chains, or belts and cause premature failure. Follow recommended practices Figure 3.13 on belt or chain tensioning as well as those for Excessive side loading of plate-type clutches can belt or chain size and width. cause the driven plates to rotate off-center with Refer to the Technical Marketing Info (TMI) for the drive plates. The result is destruction of the data on specific equipment. teeth and failure of the clutch plates. Running the engine without the clutch engaged (for long peri- Belt and chain drives may cause engine or driven ods of time) can damage the clutch pilot bearing. machine to shift under heavy load due to torque reaction plus belt and chain preload tension. Belts Air clutches utilize an expanding air bladder for or chains may also cause the PTO (Power Take the clutch element, Figure 3.14. The output shaft Off) shaft or crankshaft to deflect which causes must be supported by two support bearings. Air bearing failures and shaft bending failures. pressure to operate the clutch is supplied by an The driven sprocket or pulley should always air connection through the drilled passage in the be mounted as close to the supporting bearing output shaft. Clutch alignment tolerances are as possible. reduced as air pressure to the clutch increases.
35 LEBW1414-00

Figure 3.14

Side load limits shown in TMI must not be exceeded. Sometimes, due to the heavy side load, it is necessary to provide additional support for the driving pulley or sprocket. This can be done by providing a separate shaft which is supported by a pillow block bearing on each side of the pulley or sprocket, see Figure 3.14. This shaft can then be driven by the engine or clutch through an appropriate coupling. The size of the driving and driven sprockets or pulleys is also important. A larger pulley or sprocket will give a higher chain or belt speed. This allows more horsepower to be transmitted with less chain or belt tension. If it is suspected that an engine or the driven machine is shifting under load, it can be checked by measuring from a fixed point with a dial indicator while loading

and unloading the engine. Torque reactive vibrations or torque reactive misalignment will always occur under load.

System Considerations
Substructure Suitability Substructures must have sufficient strength and rigidity to support the weight of engines, compounds, etc., and withstand imposed vibrations and torque from mud pumps and engines. Lateral bracing provides resistance to sway, Figure 3.15. Pin joints should be tight. On older rigs, it is sometimes necessary to repair worn pin joints. Figure 3.15 illustrates that there should be no appreciable unsupported span of the compound

Figure 3.15
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skid. Unsupported spans tend to allow the skid Compound Ratio to sag, causing harmful vibrations. The compound ratio refers to the ratio of the pulley/sprocket diameters that transmit power from Engine Spacing the compound to mud pumps and drawworks, Engine spacing is normally determined by the Figure 3.16. Changing one or both of these puldistance between compound shafts. leys or sprockets changes the operating speed Verify that using optional heavy-duty air clean- of mud pumps and drawworks. The result is to ers does not cause interference with machinery reratio the compound. or restrict personnel movement. If necessary, brackets and piping can be fabricated to remotely mount the air cleaner. Engine radiators may also interfere with other radiators or restrict personnel movement. Radiators with the fan supported on the radiator can be modified for right or left offset (as required). Engine Operating Speeds Most drilling contractors prefer to limit chain speed to a given fpm (m/s) that gives a corresponding engine speed in the range of 1000 to 1100 rpm, depending upon chain size and type. Torque converter drives usually can operate at 1200 rpm.
Figure 3.16

It is important the compound ratio be such that mud pumps and drawworks rated speed are reached with the engine at rated speed. Engine life and performance are reduced when operated Engines without torque converters must operate with high loads at low rpm. at this speed. It is recommended that the engines If mud pumps are not operated at their rated be set for this rated rpm to assure optimum perspeed, the compound ratio should be sized to formance, particularly under hoisting conditions. allow the engine to operate at its rated speed. Engine governor springs/settings and turbo- Either ratio selected should not allow either the charger matches will have to be changed from the mud pump or engine to be overloaded. 1200 rpm values when operating in the 1000 rpm During many repowers, the engines removed range, subject to engine certification limits. The operated at speeds (e.g., 900 rpm) which may Governor speed droop percent increases as the be below the chain speed limits. Under such conoperating speed is lowered. Improper springs ditions, the replacement engines can be operresult in engines operating at a lower rpm when ated at a higher speed corresponding to the chain switching from mud pump to hoisting service speed limitation. with a resulting lowered hoisting rate. This higher speed may necessitate reratioing Proper turbocharger matches reduce fuel conmud pump drives (changing the ratio), or the sumption, exhaust smoke and improve response. engines may have to be throttled back when An engine should be set, with proper governor operating the pumps. Verify engine overload does springs/settings and turbocharger, for the full not occur when throttled back. The drawworks load operating speed and altitude. drive may not have to be reratioed, with the Engine rated power changes as the rated speed resulting benefit of shorter trip time. is changed. Consult the appropriate specifica- When new engines are replacing naturally aspition sheet. rated engines in direct drive hoisting service, Above the engine altitude capability, improper lower gear selections may be required. Neverturbo match can damage pistons and other com- theless, trip time is normally equal to or better bustion components. Consult the TMI for a spe- than that with the original rig power. cific engine altitude capability.
37 LEBW1414-00

Torque converter speed ratios are an important consideration. The torque converter output shaft Once the engine accelerates, the hoisting speed speed does not match engine speed. The approxis faster, provided the compound is operating at imate relationship of output shaft speed to engine a higher speed than with the previous rig power. speed of a properly sized system is as follows: Engines with low torque rise may be able to Speed Ratio accelerate to rated speed when coming off the Torque Converter Full Load No Load slips. However, they then may slow down con1 Stage 80% 90-95% siderably as layers of cable building up on the 3 Stage 50-60% 90-105% drawworks drum increases line speed/engine load 50-60% 90-105% and begins to lug the engine back. Cat Engines Type 4, 1 Stage have a high torque rise. This allows the draw- National and Allison torque converters are single works transmission to be operated in a higher stage, Figure 3.17. Twin Disc and Allison Transgear with more weight on the hook than with low missions use single stage torque converters. torque rise engines when hoisting the drill string. The engine is better able to maintain rated speed The compound ratio must be selected accordas layers of cable build up on the drawworks ingly. Engine throttle settings may have to be drum. The remaining hoisting cycle is thus faster. reduced during light load operation to prevent operating the compound chain above recom If the compound is operating at a higher speed mended speeds. than with the previous rig power, time will also be saved with the faster rate the empty blocks NATIONAL ALLISON are lifted when tripping out. Three factors account for this: In hoisting service, the heaviest drill string load should be able to be lifted in other than the lowest drawworks transmission gear under normal conditions.

Torque Converters
When torque converters are used, the clutch is normally on the torque converter output shaft. Clutch capacity has to be increased beyond a direct drive system. Caterpillar Engines are compatible with rigs that do or do not use torque converters. Figure 3.17 In hoisting service, engines without torque converters may require a lower gear selection than Transmissions engines with torque converters. Transmissions fall into three broad classifications, The use of torque converters increases the heat all of which transmit power through sets of rejection to the engine radiator (up to 50%), gen- mechanical gears, either spur or helical types, or erally requiring oversized radiators. planetary designs. Where multi-speed capability is provided, it is accomplished either mechanically or automatically (hydraulically, pneumatically, etc.). Due to the large number of transmissions commercially available, the transmission discussion will be restricted to general operating principles and considerations.

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When selecting a transmission, the package Automatic, Semiautomatic, and designer must work closely with the transmission Preselector-Type Transmissions manufacturer. As the names imply, these transmission types CAUTION: REGARDLESS OF THE TYPE OR affect the gear changes either completely autoBRAND OF TRANSMISSION SELECTED, THE matically or as predetermined by the machine DESIGNER MUST ENSURE THAT IT HAS THE operator. CORRECT HORSEPOWER, TORQUE, AND Engine power engagement/disengagement SPEED CAPABILITY TO MATCH THE DIESEL clutching is normally fully automatic and does ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS. not require the machine operator to physically Mechanical Transmission The mechanical transmission provides the lowest cost method of providing multiple output speeds when the driven equipment input speed range or torque requirements exceed the operating capability of the diesel engine. Mechanical transmissions are usually equipped with some type of clutch assembly to facilitate not only engine starting but also to change gear ratios. move a clutch pedal or lever. For disengagement the operator need only move the selector lever to a neutral position. As with the mechanical transmission, the automatic type must be carefully matched to the engine operating horsepower, torque, and speed characteristics. However, with the automatic types, additional match consideration may be required since they normally utilize a torque converter, hydraulic coupling, or other type of nonmechanical engagement device for the power engagement/disengagement function. This is nearly always accomplished hydraulically. The automatic-type transmissions provide operator ease of machine operation, as well as a nearly constant power flow to the driven equipment during gear changes. A number of commercial manufacturers offer a wide range of automatic-type transmissions. The package designer/installer must work closely with the transmission supplier to ensure the transmission properly matches the machine application and provides the desired operating features.
Figure 3.18

This type of transmission is applicable to both semimobile and mobile installations where the momentary loss of power to the driven equipment when gear changes are affected does not pose operating problems. Generally, the mechanical transmission is employed when the gear speed change requirements are not a constant requirement and the speed shifts do not have to be executed rapidly. Todays modern mechanical transmission, when properly matched to the engine-driven equipment, will provide reliable trouble-free service. Frequent gear changes, however, will accelerate clutch wear and maintenance costs.

Generally, the higher cost of an automatic transmission can be justified with a machine requiring high productivity and frequent load cycle changes. When using automatic-type transmissions, other installation considerations are required since most types require a system to cool the transmission oil. Caterpillar offers jacket water connections to supply cooling water to customer or transmission manufacturer-supplied heat exchangers.

Also offered are complete heat exchanger packages on some engines, but care must be exercised to ensure that the Caterpillar system is capable of handling the transmission heat rejection. The cooling system capacity of the systems offered by Caterpillar can be obtained from your Installation is simplified since mechanical trans- Caterpillar Engine supplier. missions do not normally require oil cooling systems as do the automatic types.
39 LEBW1414-00

ALLISON

TWIN DISC

Figure 3.19

Engine Mounted Transmissions Engine mounted automatic transmissions are commonly used on workover and service rigs, Figure 3.19. Due to weight and space limitations, engine mounted transmissions are generally preferred to drawworks mounted transmissions. The most common transmission is a five or six speed power shift transmission with manual shift controls. These transmissions have a built-in torque converter. The transmission is normally not shifted on-the-go due to drawwork stress. Torque converters in these transmissions automatically lock up as the converter output shaft accelerates to a set ratio of the engine speed. As an engine is loaded and slows down, the transmission is adjusted to go back into converter drive at about 100 rpm to 120 rpm above peak torque rpm. Transmissions used with competitive engine models are usually adjusted to return to converter drive at higher engine rpms. Caterpillar recommends that proper lock-up be used for Caterpillar Engines. Rigs using only a torque converter behind the engine may have a drawworks with either a twoor three-speed transmission or high-low drum clutches.

Miscellaneous Considerations When adding torque converters to an existing rig, or repowering with more powerful engines, it is necessary to verify the compound, drawworks, and derrick assemblies can handle the increased horsepower or torque. Normally, a clutch is required with torque converters and transmissions. Running only one engine in a compound will rotate the output shaft of the other engines converter or transmission and will damage the unit because the lubrication pump is normally driven off the input shaft. Contact the manufacturer regarding lubrication recommendations when the output shaft is rotating and engine is stopped.

Transmission and Torque Converter Ratings and Adaptation

Contact the respective manufacturers for information and performance curves not contained in this section, such as stall torque, etc. Allison transmissions and torque converters contain a flywheel as an integral part of their unit. Caterpillar Engines require a Caterpillar optional Allison adapter which includes a special flywheel. The Allison flex plates bolt to the Caterpillar flywheel. Access holes are provided in the flywheel housing to give access to certain mounting bolts, Figure 3.20.

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In either case, over heating can occur if the converter is loaded heavier than these assumptions. Where available, the Caterpillar transmission torque converter oil cooler is sized for 70% converter efficiency. Actual heat rejection capacity is in the TMI. Customer flanges are included. A cooler connection group may be available if the customer desires to supply his own cooler. NOTE: Other torque converters or transmission applications may require adaptation on the part of the dealer or OEM. Torque Converter and Transmission hp/kW Ratings Contact the torque converter or transmission suppliers for their approved ratings. NOTE: For convenience, transmission/torque converter manufacturers list their approved input hp/kW as the equivalent without fan engine hp/kW that the engine is to be set for. Yet these matches assume a net input hp/kW that includes normal accessory losses. To these manufacturers, without fan hp/kW is a gross hp/kW that excludes normal accessory losses such as engine radiator fan and certain hydraulic pumps. For proper transmission/torque converter rating for a nonradiator-cooled application or an application Figure 3.20 with extra auxiliary hp/kW loads, consult the Allison transmissions and torque converters do manufacturer. not necessarily have the same engine adaptation Use of Allison and Twin Disc transmissions for even though the same series designation is used. pumping and drilling applications is not anticipated because the lower engine speed does not Oil Coolers provide for an optimum converter match. Torque converters and/or transmissions reject Mud Pump Calculations heat which must be removed. Commonly, this heat is transferred into the engine cooling system. When sizing engines to drive mud pumps, several Torque converter efficiency varies with the calculations may be required, depending upon applied load and may have a peak efficiency the extent of information available. of about 90%. Mud pump input power (hpin) can be calculated By convention, to allow operating tolerance, the by the following formula: heat load from torque converters is assumed to psi gpm kPa L/s hpin = ____________ = ____________ be 30% of the engine bhp. 1543 or 1457 671 or 634 Transmissions, with lock up capability, are water or mud water or mud assumed to have a heat load of 20% of the 1543/671 or 1457/634 reflect different voluengine bhp. metric efficiencies.

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Determination of engine power requires addition of drive train power losses. Engine hp = hpin + drive train hp losses A reserve margin of 10% to 20% is commonly added. Many times only the pump stroke speed is known. Gallons per stroke (liters per stroke) can be derived as follows: (volume per pump stroke, not volume per pump piston stroke) (Dia)2 Stroke Triplex: ____________________ 97.9 424000 English Metric (Dia)2 Stroke Duplex: ___________________ + 147 63600 English Metric [(Dia)2 (rod)2] Stroke ______________________________ 147 63600 English Metric (Dia = diameter of piston) It is also useful to know the common operating speeds of mud pumps when sizing belt ratios: Duplex: 40 to 65 strokes per minute Triplex: 100 to 175 strokes per minute Internal gear reduction ratios can be found in manufacturer spec sheets or by inspection of the mud pump, Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21
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ALIGNMENT AND VIBRATION

Improper alignment results in excessive vibration, short life of generator/compound bearings and coupling or clutch parts and a need for frequent realignment. Good alignment practices include proper shimming, correct torque on holddown bolts, accurate dial indicator usage, allowances for bearing clearances, thermal growth, and other characteristics of the engine. CAUTION: BEFORE MAKING ANY ATTEMPTS TO MEASURE RUN OUT OR ALIGNMENT, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT ALL SURFACES TO BE MEASURED OR MATED BE COMPLETELY CLEAN AND FREE FROM GREASE, PAINT, OXIDATION, OR RUST AND DIRT ALL OF WHICH CAN CAUSE INACCURATE MEASUREMENTS. Checking Parallel Alignment Parallel misalignment can be detected by attaching a dial indicator, as shown in Figure 4.2, and observing the dial indicator readings at several points around the outside diameter of the flywheel as the wheel holding the indicator is turned.

General Alignment Information Defining Types of Misalignment

Parallel Alignment Parallel or bore misalignment occurs when centerlines of driven equipment and engine are parallel but not in the same plane, Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.2

As a rule of thumb, the load shaft should indicate to be higher than the engine shaft because: A. Engine bearings have more clearance than most bearings on driven equipment. B. The flywheel or front drive rotates in a drooped position below the centerline of rotation. C. The vertical thermal growth of the engine is usually more than that of the driven equipment. Engine main bearing clearance should be considered when adjusting for parallel alignment. NOTE: Both parts can be rotated together if desired. This would eliminate any out-of-roundness of the parts from showing up in the dial indicator reading. With non-Caterpillar couplings, the rubber driving elements must be removed or disconnected on one end during alignment since they can give false parallel readings.

Figure 4.1

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Figure 4.5 illustrates that misalignment can occur Angular or face misalignment occurs when cen- in more than one plane. For this reason, alignment terlines of driven equipment and engines are not readings must be taken at 90 degree intervals as the units are rotated when checking alignment. parallel, Figure 4.3. Angular Alignment

BORE MISALIGNMENT UP/DOWN

Figure 4.3

BORE MISALIGNMENT RIGHT/LEFT

Checking Angular Alignment Angular misalignment can be determined by measuring between the two parts to be joined. The measurement can be easily made with a feeler gauge, and it should be the same at four points around the hubs, Figure 4.4. If the coupling is installed, a dial indicator from one face to the other will indicate any angular misalignment. In either case, the readings will be influenced by how far from the center of rotation the measurement is made. NOTE: The face and bore alignment affect each other. Thus, the face alignment should be rechecked after the bore alignment and vice versa. After determining that the engine and load are in alignment, the crankshaft end play should be checked to verify that bolting the coupling together does not cause end thrust. Figure 4.5
FACE MISALIGNMENT RIGHT/LEFT FACE MISALIGNMENT UP/DOWN

Figure 4.4
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Inaccurate Flanges

Shimming

Inaccurate flanges cause apparent misalignment Shim packs under all equipment should be 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) minimum and 0.125 in. and make accurate alignment impossible. (3.2 mm) maximum thickness to prevent later Face runout refers to the distance the hub face is corrections requiring removing shims when there out of perpendicular to the shaft centerline, are too few or zero shims remaining. Excessive Figure 4.6. thickness of shims may compress with use. Shims should be of nonrusting material. Handle shims carefully. Engines and generators are recommended to use four mounting feet. Before they can be aligned, each foot must be carrying its portion of the load. Failure to do this can result not only in misalignment, but also in springing of the substructure, high stress in welds or base metal, and high twisting forces in the engine or generator, Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.6

Bore runout refers to the distance the driving bore of a hub is out of parallel with the shaft centerline, Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.7

The face and bore runouts of flywheel, clutch or coupling, driven members, and hubs must be checked when inconsistent alignment results occur. Face or bore errors must be corrected. Bore-to-pilot diameter runout error should not be more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) on the flywheel and 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) on adapters bolted to the flywheel. Flange face runout should not be more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm).

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Procedure for Tightening Engine and Generator Mounting Bolts

Bolt Torque

A bolt is properly torqued when it is stretched a After alignment, each mounting surface must calculated amount. Proper stretch clamps the carry its portion of the load. Figure 4.9 shows the driven device to the base securely. The clamp is procedure used to verify proper shimming of gen- then maintained during movement caused by erator or engine has been accomplished. When vibration. An undertorqued bolt cannot maintain the proper number of shims has been established, clamping force while vibrations are present. It will add or remove shims evenly when making align- gradually work loose and allow misalignment to ment corrections. occur, Figure 4.10. Bolts of the size used on Caterpillar oilfield bases require very high torque values. As an example, a 1 in. (25.4 mm) bolt has a torque of 640 80 ft. lbs (868 108 Nm). A torque wrench, extension and torque multiplier are required to obtain this high value. Do not use special bolt lubricants as the effective bolt clamping force can be excessive. Caterpillar bolts are made of Grade 8 steel, one of the strongest available. They are identified by six raised or depressed lines on the nut or bolt head. Figure 4.9 shows the recommended torque for various Caterpillar bolts; however, these values may be too high for standard commercially available hardware. Make sure mounting bolts are not bottomed out in hole, resulting in low effective bolt clamping force. After completion of the final shimming and bolting operation, recheck the alignment.

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

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Mounting Bolt Location Each engine or driven equipment mounting bolt must bolt through solid material. If a mounting bolt is in an overhung condition, it will cause distortion, Figure 4.11.

PROPER PRACTICE

IMPROPER PRACTICE
Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12

Dial Indicators A dial indicator measures very small changes in distance. Alignment of shafting requires measurement of small changes in distance dimensions. The indicator must be rigidly located so the specified alignment values can be measured. Support Brackets

Dial indicator brackets must not bend due to weight of the indicator. Commercially available dial indicator brackets may not give adequate support when the indicator is rotated, causing false readings. Therefore, magnetic base dial indicator supports are not recommended.

To check support bracket rigidity, rotate the same configurations of bracket and indicator through a An indicator support bracket must rigidly sup- circle while indicating on the bracket side of the port the indicator when fixed to one of the shafts coupling. A maximum reading of less than and rotated. The support bracket allows location 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) is allowed. It may be necof the dial indicator at the measurement point. essary to temporarily bolt a very rigid reference Proper brackets can be adjusted to work with arm onto the bracket side of the coupling for the varying driveline configurations, Figure 4.12. indicator to read against to allow the same configuration of bracket and indicator, as when taking an alignment reading. Caterpillar recommends using the bracket, Figure 4.13, when performing alignment checks. Use two 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) diameter threaded rods or bolts to assemble the adapter. It may be necessary to fabricate different brackets when checking clutch alignments.

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Figure 4.13

II

II

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III

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The quick check is to remember that reading of B + D should equal C. (This is valid where driving and driven shafts are rotated together while checking alignment.) The quick check is useful for identifying improper procedures such as: Sagging indicator brackets, dial indicator finger riding on flywheel chamfer, or Figure 4.14 indicator not properly positioned causing indicator to run out of travel.
II

+7 B + D = C C
III
IIIIIIIII

II

II

3 + 10 = +7

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II

+10

II

II

II

II

There is a quick way to check the validity of dial indicator face alignment readings. As Figure 4.14 shows, readings are taken at four locations designated as A, B, C, and D. When taking readings, the dial indicator should be returned to location A to be sure indicator reading returns to zero. Values shown in Figure 4.14 are for a unit that is not in alignment.

II

II

II

II

II

Accuracy of Dial Indicator Readings

IIIIIIIIII

II

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A
III
IIIIIIIII

III
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I

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IIIIIIIIIII
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IIIIIIIIII

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IIIIIIIII
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II

3. If the gauge reads more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm), cylinder block distortion has 3512 and 3516 Engines mounted on bases not occurred due to improper mounting. supplied by Caterpillar may require a crankshaft deflection test. This applies to bases that support the engine at six or more points. Unevenness in such a large number of mounting points can bend the engine block.

Crankshaft Deflection Test

In contrast, the use of four mounting blocks cannot bend the engine block. Four mounting blocks can induce a twist in the engine block, but this cannot be detected with a crankshaft deflection test. See the section Procedure for Tightening Engine and Generator Mounting Bolts. This test can be performed on all Caterpillar Oilfield Engines equipped with crankcase inspection doors to assure the engine block is not unduly stressed. It should be performed under cold engine conditions as this is the safest condition. 1. Remove an inspection door from the block to expose the center crankshaft throw. Rotate the crankshaft in the normal rotation direction. When the cheeks of the center throw just pass the connecting rods, install a Starrett No. 696 distortion dial indicator or similar tool. As a precaution, tie a string to the gauge and secure it outside the engine to facilitate retrieval should the assembly fall into the oil pan. Zero the dial indicators rotating bezel. Properly seat the indicator by rotating it on its own axis until it will hold a zero reading.
Figure 4.15

Loosen the hold-down bolts between the engine rails and mounting blocks. Check carefully for loose shims, improper locations of fitted bolts, interference from clearance bolts, or any other constraints to proper engine block movement. Make any needed adjustments and secure the hold-down bolts, making sure alignment of the engine has not been disturbed. 4. Repeat the distortion check procedure. Consult your Caterpillar dealer if the engine block is still bent.

2. With the indicator still set at zero, rotate the crankshaft in the normal direction until the indicator nearly touches the connecting Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators rods on the other side of the crankshaft. (Do Factors Affecting Alignment not allow the indicator to touch the connectThe input shaft of remote-mounted equipment is ing rod.) always positioned higher than the engine crankThe dial indicator reading must not vary shaft. This compensates for vertical thermal more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) throughgrowth, flywheel sag, and main bearing oil film lift out the approximately 300 degrees of crankon crankshaft. These factors cause the relative shaft rotation. positions of crankshaft and load input shaft to Rotate the crankshaft back to its original shift between static and running conditions. position in the opposite rotation direction. The indicator must return to its original reading of zero to make a valid test. If not, the indicator shaft points were not properly seated and the test procedure must be repeated.

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Bearing Clearances The generator rotor shaft and engine crankshaft rotate in the center of their respective bearings, so their centerlines should coincide. Alignment is made under static conditions while the crankshaft is in the bottom of its bearings. This is not its position during operation. Firing pressures, centrifugal forces, and engine oil pressure all tend to lift the crankshaft and cause the flywheel to orbit around its true center, Figure 4.16. Generally, driven equipment will have ball or roller bearings which do not change their rotational axis between static and running conditions.

Figure 4.17 Figure 4.16

Torque Reaction Flywheel Sag With the engine not running, the weight of the overhanging flywheel and coupling causes the crankshaft to bend. This effect must be compensated for during alignment since it results in the pilot bore and outside diameter of the flywheel rotating lower than the true crankshaft bearing centerline during alignment. Caterpillar recommends alignment checks be performed with the coupling in place, Figure 4.17. The tendency of the engine to twist in the opposite direction of shaft rotation and the tendency of the driven machine to turn in the direction of shaft rotation is torque reaction. It naturally increases with load and may cause a vibration. This type of vibration will not be noticeable at idle but will be felt with load. This usually is caused by a change in alignment due to insufficient base strength allowing excessive base deflection under torque reaction load. This has the effect of introducing a side-to-side centerline offset which disappears when the engine is idled (unloaded) or stopped.

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Thermal Growth

As engine and generator reach operating temperatures, expansion or thermal growth will Crankshaft horizontal growth occurs at the oppooccur. This growth is both vertical and horizontal. site end of the engine from the thrust bearing. This growth has to be planned for when driven Vertical growth occurs between component equipment is connected to that end of the engine. mounting feet and their respective centerlines of The growth is slight if the driven equipment is rotation. This thermal growth depends on the bolted to the engine block, since the block and type of metals used, the temperature rise that crankshaft grow at approximately the same rate, occurs, and vertical distance from the center of Figure 2.12. rotation to the mounting feet, Figure 4.18.

Vertical compensation consists of aligning equipment to a non-zero value, Figure 4.25.

GENERATOR VERTICAL GROWTH ENGINE VERTICAL GROWTH

Figure 4.18
HORIZONTAL THERMAL GROWTH COUPLING CLEARANCE

Figure 4.19
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Horizontal compensation consists of using a coupling that allows sufficient relative movement between driving and driven members. The equipment must be positioned so the horizontal growth moves into the coupling operating zone, not away from it. Failure to do so results in excessive crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or coupling failure. Sufficient clearance has been allowed if it is determined during a hot alignment check that the crankshaft still has end clearance. Location of thrust bearings on 3500 Series Caterpillar Engines is at the center of the crankshaft. It is at the rear of the crankshaft on other Caterpillar engines. Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling Caterpillar couplings use an internal gear design with a rubber element between the gears. Silicone grease aids in the dampening characteristics.

Figure 4.20

Clearances involved in internal gear design allow accurate alignment measurement to be made Interpreting Dial Indicator Readings without removing the rubber element, Figure 4.20. With front crankshaft drives, indicator readings The coupling for front-driven equipment is similar may appear to show the driven shaft is lower than to the rear-drive coupling illustrated here. On front the engine. This occurs because the dial indicadrives, the driven element, Figure 4.20, is suptor is mounted on the driven shaft instead of the ported on the engine crankshaft as it does not engine, reversing the indicator reference point, weigh as much as the driving element. Figure 4.21, due to the coupling configurations.

Figure 4.21

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For cold alignment, the generator is mounted Refer to the following Caterpillar Special Instruc- higher than the engine to compensate for thertion for more detailed information and spe- mal growth, bearing clearances, and flywheel cific instructions on mounting and alignment droop, Figure 4.21. procedures. Installation of Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling Alignment Procedures
Form No.
SEHS7654 SEHS7259-06 SEHS7073-01

Title
Alignment General Instructions Alignment of Single Bearing Generators Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators

Final alignment should be performed after all major equipment has been installed on the base. Shift generator fore and aft as necessary to assure Engines should be filled with oil and water and the inner member of the coupling is properly positioned between the rear retaining plate of the ready to operate. coupling and engine flywheel to allow for horiMisalignment between the diesel engine and all zontal growth. Failure to do so can result in excesmechanically driven equipment must be kept to sive crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or a minimum. Many crankshaft and bearing fail- coupling failure. ures can be traced to incorrect alignment of the drive systems. Misalignment at operating tem- Using a flexible steel scale or depth gauge, measperatures and under load will always result in ure coupling end clearance to check that horizontal thermal growth will not cause metal-to-metal vibration and/or stress loading. contact within the coupling, Figure 4.23. Measure Since there is no accurate and practical method distance (axial clearance dimension) from the for measuring alignment with the engine running outer face of inner coupling member to the outer at operating temperature and under load, all face of grease retainer plate. The distance should Caterpillar alignment procedures must be per- be 0.34 0.03 in. (8.6 0.8 mm) for front drives formed with the engine stopped and the engine and 0.41 0.03 in. (10.4 0.8 mm) for rear and all driven equipment at ambient temperature. drives (flywheel-mounted couplings.) Place driven equipment in its final position as closely as possible without taking indicator read- Other Couplings ings. There should be a minimum of 0.030 in. Flexible element of other couplings may need to (0.76 mm) and a maximum of 0.125 in. (3.2 mm) be removed during alignment checks. Element of shims under each mounting surface of the stiffness can prevent accurate alignment readings. driven equipment. With coupling element removed, driving and Position driven equipment, using the leveling and driven members of the coupling should be rotated alignment screws, Figure 4.22. together during alignment checks. This prevents face or bore runout of piece parts from affecting dial indicator readings. When both members are rotated together, only equipment misalignment will register on dial indicator readings.

When using the Caterpillar viscous dampened coupling, the rubber elements should be installed at this time. Install the coupling grease retainer plate. Install the silicone grease after coupling end clearance is correct.

Figure 4.22
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Figure 4.23

Final Alignment

Use indicator support brackets to mount two dial indicators to simultaneously measure bore and When the generator is moved to correct face face misalignment. See Figure 4.24 for proper alignment, it will be necessary to recheck bore alignment and vice versa. format to record alignment readings. Be sure crankshaft end thrust is always in the same direction before taking a face reading. Zero both dial indicators at the top and take readings every 90 degrees (1.5 rad). Rotate the complete assembly by barring the engine over. When the engine drives more than one generator, recheck alignment of each generator after all generators have been aligned.

alignment limits for various generator drive arrangements.

For instructions on installation of shims and mounting bolts on the engine, refer to the Engine Figure 4.25 illustrates the method to be used, Mounting Section. provides instructions to be followed and lists

Figure 4.24
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TWO BEARING ALIGNMENT 21 INCH (534 mm) BASE AND BASE-WITHIN-A-BASE TYPE

Figure 4.25

After completion of the final shimming and bolt- To check for outside stresses, loosen the mounting bolts between the driven equipment and ing operation, recheck coupling alignment. engine flywheel housing. There should be no conCrankshaft end play should be checked after unit tact between flywheel housing and driven equipis up to operating temperature. It should be ment housing at this time to assure neither between 0.007 to 0.025 in. (0.178 to 0.635 mm). housing is being stressed. Clearance between the two separated faces should be parallel within Realignment Limits 0.005 in. (0.13 mm). See Figure 4.26. Oilfield Realignment is not required until field check lim- generators are extra heavy and may distort the its are reached. When these limits are reached, flywheel housing when it is not parallel to engine. units should be realigned to limits shown in previous paragraphs.

Alignment of Close-Coupled Driven Equipment

Close-coupled components, such as single-bearing generators, close-coupled two-bearing generators, transmissions, compounds, etc., rely on bolting together of two piloted housings to determine alignment. When two piloted housings are joined together in a parallel manner, they are in alignment. However, outside stresses can be introduced by poor mounting practices and allow the flywheel housing to flex. This can contribute Figure 4.26 to high vibration.
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To avoid this, make sure there is a minimum 0.001 in. (0.03 mm) gap for the full 360 degrees when making this parallelism check. A dial indicator mounted between flywheel and generator rotor is sometimes used to check alignment. However, after the generator housing is piloted into and bolted to the flywheel housing, alignment is not checked by the dial indicator method. When the dial indicator method produces results in conflict with the parallelism check of the two housings, Figure 4.26, such conflict indicates the rear bearing of the driven equipment is not centered in relation to the engine and is subject to generator manufacturers accepted tolerances, flywheel housing nominal runout, and flywheel droop. Generator mounting feet should not be shimmed after the generator housing is bolted to the flywheel housing. Such practices stress both the generator housing and flywheel housing and can cause vibrations. It is not necessary to make this check on smaller Caterpillar Generator Sets where the engine does not have rear mounting feet but relies on the generator supports, Figure 4.18. However, this check is necessary on smaller Caterpillar Engines where the driven equipment is also rigidly connected to another piece of equipment. A common example of this would be a mechanical drive where the clutch mechanism is bolted to the compound. Poor mounting practices with this arrangement can cause excessive stresses in the flywheel housing. Single bearing generators are recommended to have a pilot shaft extension and loose fitting flex plates or no pilot shaft extension but with piloted plates. This aids in maintaining proper alignment. If vibration is noted at assembly of a generator having coupling plates piloted into the flywheel, correction can often be made by repositioning coupling plates 14 turn with respect to the original location. Start the unit and observe the change in vibration. A second or third relocation may be necessary to find the position of lowest vibration. Locate plates at point of lowest vibration. This procedure allows manufacturing tolerances to attempt to cancel each other. Before bolting coupling plates onto the flywheel, always rotate engine to the same position (i.e., no. 1 TDC). Tighten half the bolts while the flywheel is in this position. Then rotate as necessary
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to tighten other bolts. This procedure assures that any sag in the crankshaft is always as the same position when the plates are fastened to flywheel.

Alignment of Mechanical Drives

Improper alignment will result in excessive vibration, short life of compound bearings and clutch parts and a need for frequent realignment. Good alignment practices include proper shimming, correct torque on hold-down bolts, and accurate dial indicator usage. See the section on General Alignment Information for additional information. Alignment Procedures Final alignment should be performed after all major equipment has been installed on the base. Engines should be filled with oil and water and ready to operate. When clutches are used that contain air bladders, pay careful attention to air pressure; the allowable amount of misalignment goes down as air pressure increases. Alignment limits must not exceed limits established for a Caterpillar viscous dampened coupling or for the clutch, whichever is smaller. Clutches are to be disengaged when alignment is checked, Figure 4.27. Rotate clutch slowly through 360 degrees (6 rad) and check total indicator reading at 90 degree (1.5 rad) intervals. Shim engine, as required, to achieve correct alignment, Figure 4.5.

ALIGNMENT CHECK
Figure 4.27

Dial indicator readings will include an error due to runout of clutch or flywheel parts. Where excessive runout is suspected, check and correct as required. Non-Cat Bases Bases not manufactured by Caterpillar must meet several design criteria. These bases must be rigid enough to limit torsional and bending forces caused by torque reaction and subbase flexing. They must prevent excessive bending forces from passing to the engine block, couplings, and driven unit during shipment. To prevent resonance, they must have a natural frequency out of the operating speed range. They must allow sufficient space for shimming so proper alignment can be accomplished.

If the frequency of a forced vibration is the same as the natural frequency of free vibrations, excessive vibration results. This is called resonance and can cause serious problems. Mass Elastic System Engine vibration may be of the following types and causes: 1. Linear vibration vertical and/or horizontal inertia forces due to lack of balance in reciprocating or rotating machinery. 2. Torque reaction not a vibratory force, but may excite vibration.

3. Torsional vibration of shafting occurs in any rotating mass elastic system (two or more masses connected by an elastic shaft) where periodic forces are present. Where Vibration these forces recur near the natural frequency of torsional vibration, resonance may develop All mechanical systems with mass and elasticity and cause dangerous stress. are capable of vibration. Engines produce vibration due to combustion forces, torque reactions, 4. Axial vibration of shafting when torques structural mass and stiffness combinations, and are applied to a crankshaft, it is alternately manufacturing tolerances on rotating composhortened and lengthened. This could be nents. These forces may create conditions rangtroublesome if the natural axial frequency is ing from unwanted noise to high stress levels, near a torsional frequency. and possible ultimate failure of engine or driven Generator sets need no isolation for protection components. from self-induced vibrations. However, isolation The same amplitude and frequency of vibration is required if: generated by the engine could result in structural damage if a fixed installation were housed in a 1. Engine vibration must be separated from building structures. building, or close to sensitive instruments or equipment, such as computers. 2. Vibrations from nearby equipment are transOther influencing factors are foundation design, mitted to inoperative generator sets. soil load characteristics, and other machinery 3. System is supported on a flexible mounting operating in close proximity. surface, such as a trailer bed. Vibrating stresses can reach destructive levels at engine speeds which cause resonance. Reso- Vibration isolators prevent the transmission of posnance occurs when natural system frequencies sible damaging generator set vibration throughout a building. Noise is also reduced. coincide with engine excitation frequencies. Engine vibrations are produced and maintained When an engine and generator are to be assemby regular, periodic driving forces set up by bled to each other, vibration studies and tests unbalanced moving masses. These are called must be completed to assure satisfactory, trouble-free operation on the job site. With factory forced vibrations. assembled generator sets, the responsibility is Free vibrations have no driving force. When set assumed by the manufacturer. In any case, wherin motion such vibrations, if undamped, would ever assembly takes place, someone must continue indefinitely with constant amplitude and assure the integrity of the installation from a natural frequency. vibration standpoint. Perfectly balanced rotating devices can vibrate if not properly aligned.
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Vibration Measurement Vibration measurements on large engine units should be made using the Caterpillar Vibration Analyzer, Part No. 4C-3030. If Caterpillar measuring equipment is not available, an equivalent device capable of measuring peak-to-peak displacement at selected frequencies, overall velocity, and overall displacement should be used.

Point 3 Horizontal direction at the rear of the engine; locate the probe on the side of the block at the crankshaft centerline. Point 4

Vertical direction at the rear of the engine; locate the probe on the block top deck (or rear housing) Vibration should be measured at nine points on a in the plane of the crankshaft centerline. two bearing generator set. Comparable points on non-generator driven equipment may be impor- Point 5 tant. These points are illustrated in Figure 4.28 Vertical direction at the generator front bearing; and are described below. locate the probe on the bearing housing at the shaft centerline. Point 1 Horizontal direction at the front of the engine; Point 6 locate the probe on the left side of the block at the Horizontal direction at the generator front bearcrankshaft centerline. ing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing housing at the shaft centerline. Point 2 Vertical direction at the front of the engine; locate Point 7 the probe on the block top deck in the plane of Vertical direction at the generator rear bearing; the crankshaft centerline. locate the probe on the bearing housing at the shaft centerline.

VIBRATION MEASURING POINTS

Figure 4.28
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Point 8 Horizontal direction at the generator rear bearing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing housing at the shaft centerline. Point 9

This is applicable to both Diesel and Gas Engines (reference: EDS 73.1, Linear Vibration). Consult the manufacturer of the driven equipment for applicable vibration limits. If the measured vibration levels exceed the limits, contact your Caterpillar dealer representative or Caterpillar factory representative for assistance.

Axial direction at the generator rear; locate the probe on the rear right outside edge of the Warning: It is not an acceptable practice to lower generator structure (not sheet metal) at the shaft the package vibration levels when operating at centerline. stable conditions by tightening the snubber bolts Vibration measurements must be made at the on the Caterpillar vibration isolators. This pracadvertised driven equipment rating (100% load). tice will only hide vibration problems. If additional data is desired, it is recommended that measurements be made at 0% load, 50% Linear Vibration load, and 75% load. It may be useful to take Linear vibration is exhibited by noisy or shaking vibration measurements also at plus and minus machines, but its exact nature is difficult to define 10% of rated speed, at no load. without instrumentation. Human senses are inadData must be reported in terms of peak-to-peak displacement (mils) at half order frequency, first order frequency, overall velocity level (in/s) and overall displacement (mils) for each of the nine measuring locations. A chart can be used to record and report the measured vibration data. Vibration Limits equate to detect relationships between the magnitude of vibration and period of occurrence. A first order (1 rpm) vibration of 0.010 in. (0.254 mm) displacement may feel about the same as third order measurement of 0.002 in. (0.051 mm).

Vibration occurs as a mass is deflected and returned along the same plane and can be illusThe vibration levels for any load condition, at any trated as a single mass spring system (see of the nine measuring locations, must not exceed Figure 4.29). With no external force imposed on the following guideline limits: the system, the weight remains at rest and there 1. Peak-to-peak displacement at half order fre- is no vibration. But when the weight is moved or displaced and then released, vibration occurs. quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm) The weight travels up and down through its orig2. Peak-to-peak displacement at first order fre- inal position until frictional forces cause it to rest. quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm) When external forces, such as engine combus3. Overall displacement = 8.5 mils (0.22 mm) tion, continue to affect the system while it vibrates, it is termed forced vibration. 4. Overall velocity = 1.35 in/s (34.3 mm/s)

MASS-SPRING SYSTEM
Figure 4.29

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Time required for the weight to complete one Velocity is extremely important; but because of movement is called a period (see Figure 4.30). its changing nature, a single point has been chosen for measurement. This is peak velocity normally expressed in inches per second. Velocity is a direct measure of vibration and provides best overall indicator of machinery condition. It does not, however, reflect the effect of vibration on brittle material. Relationship between peak velocity and peak-topeak displacement is compared by: V Peak = 52.3 D F 106 Where: V Peak = Vibration velocity in inches per second peak. D = Peak-to-peak displacement, in mils (1 mil 0.001 in.).

ILLUSTRATION OF A PERIOD
Figure 4.30

Maximum displacement from the mean position F = Frequency in cycles-per-minute (cpm). is amplitude; interval in which the motion is repeated is called the cycle. Acceleration is another characteristic of vibraIf the weight needs one second to complete a tion. It is the rate of velocity change. In the examcycle, the vibration frequency is one cycle per ple, note that peak acceleration is at the extreme limit of travel where velocity is 0. As velocity second. increases, acceleration decreases until it reaches If one minute, hour, day, etc., were required, its 0 at the neutral point. frequency would be one cycle per minute, hour, day, etc. A system completing its full motion Acceleration is dimensioned in units of g 20 times in one minute would have a frequency (peak), where g equals the force of gravity (980 6650 mm/s2 = 386 in./s2 = 32.3 ft./s2). of 20 cycles per minute, or 20 cpm. Establishing vibration frequency is necessary Acceleration measurements, or gs, are used when analyzing a problem. It allows identifica- where relatively large forces are encountered. At tion of engine component or condition causing very high frequencies (60,000 cpm), it is perhaps the best indicator of vibration. the vibration. Total distance traveled by the weight, from one peak to the opposite peak, is peak-to-peak displacement. This measurement is usually expressed in mils, one mil equaling one-thousandth of an inch [0.001 in. (0.025 mm)]. It is a guide to vibration severity. Vibration acceleration is calculable from peak displacement : g Peak = 1.42 D F2 108

Machinery vibration is complex and consists of many frequencies. Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are all used to diagnose particular Average and root-mean-square (rms) are used to problems. Displacement measurements are measure vibration (rms = 0.707 times the peak better indicators of dynamic stresses and are, of vibration). These terms are referred to in the- therefore, commonly used. Note that overall, or total peak-to-peak displacement, described in oretical discussions. Figure 4.31, is approximately the sum of indiAnother method to analyze vibration is measur- vidual vibrations. ing mass velocity. Note that the example is not only moving but changing direction. The speed of the weight is also constantly changing. At its limit, the speed is 0. Its speed or velocity is greatest while passing through the neutral position.

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REFERENCES FOR DISTANCES

Figure 4.32

PEAK-TO-PEAK DISPLACEMENT
Figure 4.31

Isolation
Generator sets need no isolation for protection from self-induced vibrations. They easily withstand any vibrations which they create. However, isolation is required if engine vibration must be separated from building structures, or if vibrations from nearby equipment are transmitted to inoperative generator sets. Caterpillar Generator Sets with isolation mounts between the generator set and base already satisfy these requirements. Running units are rarely affected by exterior vibrations. Methods of isolation are the same for external- or self-generated vibrations. Isolation Location Several commercial isolators provide various degrees of isolation. Generally, the lower the natural frequency of the isolator, the greater the deflection (soft) and more effective the isolation. Weight of generator sets can be unequally distributed among the isolators, within the limits of the isolators. However, isolator overloading will eliminate isolator benefits. Isolators are most effective when located under generator mounting and engine front support (see Figure 4.32). If additional support is desired, place an isolator midway between front and rear mounts and under radiator.

To apply isolators, wet weight and center of gravity of the assembled unit must be established. Assuming engine and generator are assembled to a base, wet weight (WT) and assembled center of gravity can be calculated. A common reference is needed (see Figure 4.32). In this case, use the rear face of the flywheel housing or engine block. Because measurements are to both sides of the reference, one direction can be considered negative. WT (D) = WE (D2) WG (D1) + WR (D3) WE (D2) WG (D1) + WR (D3) D = ___________________________ WT WT = wet weight WE = engine weight WG = generator weight WR = radiator weight D1,2,3 = distances If additional equipment is added, the process is repeated to determine a new center of gravity. Having established center of gravity for the total unit (see Figure 4.33), loading on each pair of isolators is determined by: B A S1 = WT __ S2 = WT __ C C

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Isolation Methods Vibration is reduced by commercially available fabricated isolators or bulk isolators. Both techniques utilize static deflection, with increased deflection resulting in greater isolation. Although internal damping of various materials cause performance differences, the vibration chart in Figure 4.35 describes the general effect deflection has on isolation. By using engine rpm as the nominal vibration frequency, magnitude of compression on isolating materials can be estimated. The unit can be separated from supporting surfaces by these soft commercial devices, i.e., those which deflect under the static weight. Mounting rails or fabricated bases withstand torque reactions without uniform support from the isolators.

DETERMINATION OF ISOLATOR LOCATION

Figure 4.33

Isolators are sized to have natural frequencies far removed from engine exciting frequencies. If these frequencies were similar, the entire unit would resonate. The transmissibility chart in Figure 4.34 depicts this condition. It also shows the significant improvement caused by decreasing the mounting natural frequency to allow a ratio increase above 2 , or 1.414.

TRANSMISSIBILITY CHART
Figure 4.34
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Rubber Rubber isolators are adequate for applications where vibration control is not severe. By careful selection, isolation of 90% is possible. They isolate noise created by transmission of vibratory forces. Avoid using rubber isolators with natural frequencies near engine excitation frequencies. Adding rubber plates beneath spring isolators block high frequency vibrations transmitted through the spring. These vibrations are not harmful but cause annoying noise. Spring The most effective isolators are of steel spring design. They isolate over 96% of all vibrations and noise transmitted from rotating machinery to the foundation or mounting surface. Conversely, isolators can absorb disturbances generated by adjacent machinery and prevent damage from being transmitted to idle equipment. Spring-type linear vibration isolators are included in offshore power modules. These isolators permit mounting the generator set on a surface capable of supporting only the static load. A detail of a spring-type isolator shows the addition of thrust blocks to restrict lateral movement without interfering with the spring function (see Figure 4.37). Limit stops are also included, for tilt angle requirements.

BASIC VIBRATION CHART

Figure 4.35

Piping connected to generator sets requires isolation, particularly when generator sets mount on spring isolators. Fuel and water lines, exhaust pipes, and conduit could otherwise transmit vibrations long distances. Isolator pipe hangers, if used, should have springs to attenuate low frequencies, and rubber or cork to minimize high frequency transmissions. To prevent buildup of resonant pipe vibrations, support long piping runs at unequal distances (see Figure 4.36).

PIPE RUNS SUPPORT

Figure 4.36 Figure 4.37

VIBRATION ISOLATOR

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No allowance for torque or vibratory loads is required. As with direct mountings, no anchor bolting is usually required. However, when operating in parallel, vertical restraints are recommended and the isolator firmly fastened to the foundation. Spring isolators are available with snubber for use when engines are side loaded or located on moving surfaces. Other Isolation Methods Fiberglass, felt, composition, and flat rubber do little to isolate major vibration forces. These materials tend to compress with age and become ineffective. Because deflection of these types of isolators is small, their natural frequency is relatively high compared to the engines. Attempting to stack these isolators or apply them indiscriminately could force the system into resonance.

Vibration carried throughout an enclosure causes early failure of auxiliary equipment. Relays, switches, gauges, and piping are adversely affected. Noise, while normally only annoying, can attain levels objectionable to owners and operators. If operating near property lines, noise could exceed local ordinances. Torsional Vibration

Torsional vibrations occur as subjects, such as an engine crankshaft, twist and recover. Standard generator set components withstand normal stresses caused by combustion forces and torque reactions. A generator set must prevent the natural frequency of the drive train from approaching the units operating speed. Failure of crankshaft, couplings, gears or bearings may result Land rig power module include composition pads without this attention. at the three internal mounting points. Land rig Torsional vibrations originate with the piston power modules have reduced concern over vibration stroke. The simplified drive train in Figure 4.38 transmission. Composition pads are easily illustrates relationship of shaft diameter, length, designed to remain in place during the frequent and inertia on the natural system frequency. rig moves. If no isolation is required, auxiliary generator sets may rest directly on the mounting surface. Factory assembled units are dynamically balanced and theoretically there is no dynamic load. Practically, the surface must support 25% more than the static weight of the unit to withstand torque and vibratory loads. Unless the engine is driving equipment which impose side loads, no anchor bolting is required. This normally applies to all non-parallel generator set mountings. Thin rubber or composition pads minimize the units tendency to creep or fret foundation surfaces. External Isolation Piping connected to generator sets requires isolation, particularly when generator sets are mounted on spring isolators. Fuel and water lines, exhaust pipes, and conduit could otherwise transmit vibrations long distances.
Figure 4.38

TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS

Even though generator sets, factory packaged on Caterpillar designed bases, avoid critical speeds where resonant conditions occur, all applications, whether packaged by Caterpillar or others, require a torsional vibration analysis. This assures compatibility of the engine and driven If isolator pipe hangers are used they should have equipment. It must be performed by either the springs to attenuate low frequencies, and rubber customer or by Caterpillar, depending on the cusor cork to minimize high frequency transmissions. tomers preference. Customer performed analyTo prevent buildup or resonant pipe vibrations, ses are subject to Caterpillar review and approval long support piping should run at unequal dis- and Caterpillar does not assume responsibility for analysis performed by others without specific tances (see Figure 4.36). Caterpillar review and approval. Without the
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approval, no warranty for vibration caused problems can be claimed from Caterpillar. For Caterpillar-performed analyses, a complete set of technical data (see below) must be submitted to Caterpillar before calculations are undertaken. The report will include a mathematical determination of the natural frequency, critical speeds, relative amplitudes of angular displacement, and approximate nodal locations of the complete elastic system (both engine and driven equipment). See the Special Additions section of the price list for ordering information. NOTE: Consult factory on compound installations. There may be additional charges for analyses of applications where more than one engine drives a single load. A separate torsional analysis is also required for each engine with different driven equipment in multiple engine installations. Technical data required: 1. The operating speed range.

9. For reciprocating compressor applications, a harmonic analysis of the compressor torque curve under various load conditions. If not available, a torque curve of the compressor under each load condition through one compressor cycle. The WR2 of all available flywheels for the compressor. Couplings A coupling must be torsionally compatible with engine and driven load so that torsional vibration amplitudes are kept within acceptable limits. A mathematical study called a torsional vibration analysis should be done on any combination of engine-driveline-load for which successful experience doesnt already exist. A coupling with the wrong torsional stiffness can cause serious damage to engine or driven equipment. All couplings have certain operating ranges of misalignment, and the manufacturers should be contacted for this information.

2. Load demand curve on generator sets which Some drives, such as U-joint couplings, have difhave a load dependent variable rigidity ferent operating angle limits for different speeds. coupling. As a general rule, the angle should be the same 3. General arrangement drawing or sketch of on each end of the shaft (see Figure 4.39). The complete system, including data on equipyokes must be properly aligned and sliding spline ment driven from front of engine. connections should move freely. If there is no 4. With driven equipment on both ends of the angle at all, the bearings will brinell due to lack engine, the power demand of each end is of movement. required. In addition, simultaneous front and rear power (maximum engine load) is Cyclic Irregularity required. Cyclic irregularity is a nondimensional ratio 5. Make, model, WR2 (rotational inertia), and tor- describing degree of crankshaft twist occurring sional rigidity on all couplings used between between two successive firings of cylinders during steady-state operation. Formulas to reprethe engine and driven equipment. sent this movement were derived before modern 6. WR2 of each rotating mass. Weight of each instrumentation allowed measurement. The ratio reciprocating mass. is expressed as: 7. Torsional rigidity and minimum shaft diam- Cyclic irregularity: rpm rpm eter or detailed dimensions of all shafting (maximum) (minimum) ________________________ in the driven system whether separately rpm (average) mounted or installed in a housing. 8. The ratio of the speed reducer or increaser. System speed varies with connected rotating The WR2 and rigidity submitted for a speed mass. Cyclic irregularity differs, therefore, for a reducer or increaser should state whether or basic engine, one driving a generator, or addinot they have been adjusted to engine speed. tional equipment. This ratio compares merits of large slow speed engines which were custom made, but has little value applied to modern medium speed engines.

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UNIVERSAL JOINT SHAFT DRIVE

Figure 4.39

Good alignment practices include proper shimming, correct torque on hold-down bolts, accuThe engine itself is designed and built to run very rate dial indicator usage, allowances for bearing smoothly. Objectionable vibration generally clearances, thermal growth, and accounting for arises from either poor driveline component other characteristics of the engine. match to the engine or unbalance of the driven equipment. Reciprocating equipment with large imbalances, for example, can cause premature failure of the mounting structure or undesirable vibration even though the unit is properly mounted, aligned, and isolated from the engine. Out-of-Balance Driven Equipment Even though the engine and the driven load are in balance, it is also possible to encounter undesirable and damaging vibration as a result of the driving or connecting equipment having a misalignment or out-of-balance condition. Long shafts, drives, gear assemblies, clutches, or any type of coupling where misalignment, out-of-balance, or mass shifting may occur, are probable sources of vibration. Alignment An unsatisfactory engine mounting nearly always results in alignment problems between the engine and the driven machinery. Assuming that failure of the driven equipment does not occur first, the forces or loads transmitted to the engine in the form of pounding, twisting, flexing, or thrust could result in engine crankshaft and bearing failure. Costly failures of this nature can be avoided if, at the design and installation stage, the importance of proper alignment between the engine and driven load and adequate mounting to maintain alignment is considered. If this is possible, a suitable flexible coupling must be incorporated into the drive train to compensate for misalignment.

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NOISE Definitions
Noise can be defined as all unwanted sounds. Music is sound and can be pleasant to some people and noise to others. Noise and sound are often used to describe the same physical characteristics. Noise is generally random in nature without distinct frequency components. Noise can produce undesirable psychological effects on people and physical damage to the ears. Noise can be annoying and affect verbal communications at work and away. At times, it may impact behavior, including short term and long term hearing loss, muscle tension, respiratory reflexes, stress level, heart function, etc. Recognizing this, many governmental agencies around the world have established regulatory limits for various levels of noise. The noise from the engine comes mainly from combustion, mechanical forces and from the exhaust and air intake sources. Frequency of sound refers to the rapidity or cycles of an oscillation in a unit time. The conventional unit is Hertz (Hz) one Hz being one cycle per second. Sound Pressure The extensive audible range of sound complicates noise ratings. The human ear hears pressure levels that are about 100,000 times stronger than the lowest pressure it is affected by. For this reason, measuring instruments have extraordinary range and are scaled in decibels (dB). The decibel scale is logarithmic, which allows the wide range of sound pressures to be measured in only two- or three-digit numbers. Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB = Measured pressure 20 log10 ___________________ Reference pressure The reference pressure is taken as: 20 Pa or 2 104 microbars = 0 dB. The relationship between Pa and dB is that when multiplying the sound pressure (Pa) by 10, 20 dB is added to the dB level. Decibel (dB), is the relative measurement of amplitude of sound. Sound is a pressure which makes the membrane in the human ear deflect. The softest pressure the human ear can hear is 20 Pa (1 atmospheric pressure = 1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.5 psi) but the ear can take pressures up to more than 1 million times higher. Frequency Weighting Networks The ear is more sensitive to high frequencies than low frequencies. To approximate the effect of sound on the average person, measurements are weighted according to frequencies corresponding to the sensitivity of the ear. Loudness can be measured by filtering the microphone signal to reduce the strength of the low frequency signals and give more weight to frequencies in the 5,00010,000 Hz range. The signal from the measuring microphone is fed to an amplifier, then to an attenuator, which is calibrated in decibels. The signal is then fed to one of four weighting networks, referred to as A, B, C, and D. The response of the network chosen modifies the input signal accordingly. The most commonly used network is weighting A (A-scale), and it is known as dBA or dB(A).

Sound Waves and Measurement

As sound waves radiate, their strength diminishes (see Figure 5.1). As distance traveled doubles, the wave amplitude is reduced by one-half. This rule applies if the first measuring point is at least two or three times the largest dimension of the noise source, usually about three feet.
Distance
X 2X 4X

Sound Strength
100% 50% 25%

Figure 5.1. Distance vs. wave amplitude.

Sound waves impinging on a microphone produce voltages proportional to sound pressures. The signals measure amplitude or strength, of the sound pressure waves. Amplitude and frequency are the only sound properties measurable using ordinary techniques.

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Figure 5.2 shows the response characteristics for an A filter. The result of adjustments throughout the frequency range is a total decibel rating with a correction for various frequencies to approximate the human ears sensitivity.
Signals entering filter A weighted filtering High frequencies Low frequencies dB total Relative Response dB +5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 A -35 -40 -45 -50 20 50 100 200 Signals leaving filter

Band Designation (Center Frequency) 8000 Hz

Band Limits 11300 Hz 5650

4000 2830 2000 1415 1000

dB(A) total

707 500 353 250

176 125 88 63 Hz 44 Hz

STANDARD OCTAVE BANDS (ANSI STANDARD S1.11 IEC 225)

Figure 5.3
500 1000 2000 5000 10,000

Frequency Hz

Loudness The human ear does not use sound pressure decibels to judge loudness. Rating noise loudness is a complex operation because human hearing is also frequency sensitive.

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A FILTER

Figure 5.2

Octave Band Levels

Sounds with frequencies in the 5,000-10,000 Hz More detail is required of the frequency dis- range are the easiest to hear; sounds with very tribution of a noise than provided by an low frequencies are the hardest. Hearing loss A-weighted measurement. Measurements from exposure to noise is frequency sensitive. are made with filters subdividing sounds over the entire audible range into standardized frequency Direction of Sound bands, permitting the pressure levels of only the Sound is mostly directional, meaning that the sound within each subdivision to be measured. sound tends to move more in one direction Each filter spans an octave; that is, the upper fre- than another. quency limit is twice the lower limit as shown in Figure 5.3. Sound levels in each octave are meas- The contour of the sound wave can be complex. ured in decibels and are referred to as octave By measuring the sound pressure level three dimensionally around the engine, the contour can band levels. be determined (see Figure 5.4). It is not only the source of the sound which will give the direction, but also any kind of reflective surface in the area of the engine, i.e. floor, walls or ceiling.

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Engine

Figure 5.6 shows the versatility of the decibel system. Although calculations are made on the basis of sound power, the system uses measured or calculated sound pressures. Use the difference in the pressure levels of two sounds to find how their combined level exceeds the higher of the two. First adjust the levels for the distances from the source to the spot where the noises are being added. To add a third level, use the same process to combine it with the total of the first two.
Decibels added to higher of two noises to obtain total in dB 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 .5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Difference between two noises in dB

CONTOUR OF A SOUND WAVE

Figure 5.4

Noise Addition When standing by an engine, the noise heard from other engines operating in the same area will depend on the spacing of the engines and where the person is in relation to the spacing. A chart showing the combined effect of up to ten equal sound sources is shown in Figure 5.5.
10
Increase in sound pressure dB or dB(A)

ADDITION OF UNEQUAL SOUNDS

Figure 5.6

8 Increase in dB or dB(A)

Sound Level Conversions

6

Sound level information is presented both in terms of sound power level, SWL, dB(A), and sound pressure level, SPL, dB(A). SWL is the total sound power being radiated from a source, and its magnitude is independent of the distance from the source. Relative loudness comparison between engines is simply a comparison of their sound power levels at equivalent operating conditions.
2 3 4 5 6 Number of sources 7 8 9 10

ADDITION OF EQUAL SOUNDS

Figure 5.5

When the sound power level (SWL) is known, the sound pressure level (SPL) at any distance from a point source (such as exhaust noise) can be calculated.

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The equation for determining the sound pressure Noise Exposure level of exhaust noise without any correction for As mentioned before, exposure to excessive ambient temperature and pressure, is: noise causes permanent hearing damage and Sound Pressure Level, SPL dB(A) = adversely affects working efficiency and comSound Power Level, SWL dB(A) 10 Log 10 (CD2) fort. Recognizing this, the U.S. Government creWhere C = 2 For exhaust source adjacent to a ated the Occupational Safety and Health Act flat surface, such as a horizontal (OSHA) which established limits for industrial exhaust pipe adjacent to a flat roof. environments. or C = 4 For exhaust source some distance from surrounding surfaces, such as a vertical exhaust stack some distance above roof. D = Distance from exhaust noise source (m). For C = 4 = SPL = SWL - 20 Log10 D - 10.99 SPL measurement requires only a simple sound level meter. However, the sum of sound waves arriving from every direction depends on the acoustic characteristics of the environment and varies with position relative to the noise source. SPL cannot be used to describe the strength of a noise source without specifying relative position and room acoustic properties of the test environment. A disadvantage is that sound pressure level conversion is valid for a point source only. It cannot be used for mechanical noise since the source (overall engine) is quite large. When an individuals daily noise exposure, designated D(8), is composed of two or more periods of noise at different levels, the combined effect is calculated by: D(8) = (C1/T1) + (C2/T2) + ... + (Cn/Tn). Where Cn is duration of exposure at a specified sound level and Tn is total time of exposure permitted at a specified sound level (see Figure 5.7). The noise exposure is acceptable when D(8) is equal to or less than 1.
Duration of Daily Exposure (hours)
8 6 4 3 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.25

Allowable Level dB(A)

90 92 95 97 100 102 105 110 115

If the sound pressure level of a point source at some distance is known, the sound pressure PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURES level at another distance can be calculated using Figure 5.7 this formula: SPL2 = SPL1 20 Log10 (D2 D1) Where: SPL1 = known sound pressure level, dB(A) SPL2 = desired sound pressure level, dB(A) D1 = known distance, ft. (m) D2 = desired distance, ft. (m)

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TMI DATA
TMI contains the specific noise values (SPL) for Exhaust the specific engine at different ratings. Various Sound pressure level data is recorded with the definitions are used and most can be found under mechanical sound source isolated. HELP in TMI. Measurements Free Field The instrumentation used are Larsen/Davis and Free field means that it is a 100% open area with- Hewlett-Packard. All measurements are for without any kind of sound reflections or other modi- out radiator fan arrangements. fying factors. Tolerances for the overall and for the octave band data is shown below: Sound Pressure Level, SPL, Mechanical or Exhaust Overall Plus or minus 2 dB(A) Sound pressure level is presented under two index headings: mechanical or exhaust. Over one thousand data points per engine are used to prepare this data. There are eight octave bands and one overall reading taken at four engine speeds, four loads, three distances, and four positions around the engine. Mechanical Sound pressure level data is obtained by operating the engine in an open free field and recording sound pressure levels at a given distance. The data is recorded with the exhaust sound source isolated. 60 Hz 125 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz 8000 Hz Plus or minus 5 dB(A) Plus or minus 5 dB(A) Plus or minus 4 dB(A) Plus or minus 3 dB(A) Plus or minus 2 dB(A) Plus or minus 2 dB(A) Plus or minus 2 dB(A) Plus or minus 2 dB(A)

The confidence level of the above data is 99.73%, which means that only 27 out of each 10,000 engines measured of the same configuration as listed could fall outside of the nominal values plus the tolerances shown for the same engine, the repeatability tolerance is 1 dB(A).

ENGINE INSTALLATIONS
Engine packages include an engine and some piece of driven equipment, such as a generator or a compressor. Guidelines for installation design are provided, along with information on using noise data on Caterpillar units from TMI. in a building or area that is noise sensitive. Since internal combustion engines produce high noise levels at low frequencies, many traditional noise control approaches are relatively ineffective. Every aspect of facility design must therefore be reviewed with special emphasis on low-frequency attenuation characteristics in order to meet site criteria.

Some installations require very little noise abatement (for example, a remote facility far from people). Very sensitive installations, on the other hand, may require extensive noise abatement A typical approach to designing an engine instalmeasures. Because of the variety of noise crite- lation is as follows: ria that may apply to a given site, it is impossi- Recognize the special requirements of engine ble to provide a description of abatement installations. The first step is to become measures meeting all site criteria. It is the responaware of the special noise characteristics of sibility of the facility designer to ensure that the engine installations. Possible sources, paths, specific criteria of the site are met. and receivers of large-engine noise are It is strongly advised that a noise control expert be involved in the facility design process from the beginning if the engine unit is to be installed
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reviewed.

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Identify site noise criteria. For example, is the installation in a remote or a populated area? Is it within a building sensitive to noise (for example, a laboratory or a hospital)? What regulations, standards, or restrictions apply to noise? The noise criteria form an essential part of the design goals. Since criteria vary from site to site, all the criteria that apply

to a particular site cannot be identified. However, some guidelines for site noise criteria are provided. Identify and select appropriate noise abatement measures. Guidelines for attenuation of noise, both through commercially available equipment and through facility construction, are provided.

NOISE CONTROL
Noise can be either airborne or structure-borne transmitted. Airborne noise is transmitted through air. Structure-borne noise is vibration transmitted through a structure; typically supporting the engine. Noise control methods are different for the two sources. Noise control refers to appropriate technology used for noise attenuation to acceptable levels. stiffness) may coincide with pure-tone frequency components of the engine noise, resulting in very efficient transfer of energy. Conventional building acoustics generally is based on statistical descriptions of noise, and therefore does not address resonance effects.

For some installations, airborne noise must be controlled at several receiver points: inside the Noise criteria at various frequencies for typical engine room; in other rooms in the building; and outside the building. The simplest way to reduce areas are shown in Figure 5.8. airborne noise within a building is through good building layout. Equipment rooms should be sitAirborne Noise Control uated far from sensitive receiver locations in the Airborne noise control is a straightforward and building. This takes advantage of the fact that well-developed area compared with structure- propagating sound energy diminishes with disborne noise control. There is abundant infor- tance from the source. In addition, there are two mation available on sound absorption and other methods of controlling airborne noise: with transmission properties of common construction high transmission loss walls and with absorption. materials, and there are accepted and proven It is helpful to review some terminology before procedures for applying that information. discussing the sound transmission characterisHowever, it is important to recognize that much tics of walls. The transmission loss (TL) of a parof the conventional information and procedures tition is a measure of the ratio of energy incident were developed for higher-frequency noise, and on the wall to that transmitted through the wall, thus may not be appropriate for engine units, expressed in dB. The less relative sound transwhich produce strong low-frequency acoustic mitted through the wall, the higher the TL of the energy. For example, structural and acoustic wall. TL is a function of frequency. resonances (conditions of minimum dynamic

Octave Bands in Cycles Per Second

Highly Critical Hospital or Residential Zone Night, Residential Day, Residential Commercial Industrial-Commercial Industrial Ear Damage Risk

31.5
71 73 76 81 81 87 112

63
63 69 71 75 77 85 108

125
44 52 59 65 71 81 100

250
37 44 50 58 64 75 95

500
35 39 44 54 60 71 94

1000
34 38 43 50 58 70 94

2000
33 38 43 47 56 68 94

4000
33 38 43 44 55 66 94

8000
33 38 43 43 54 66 94

NOISE CRITERIA
Figure 5.8
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The sound transmission class (STC) of a partition is a single-number rating calculated from the partition TL. A reference contour is adjusted against the measured TL data, and the STC rating equals the value of the adjusted contour at 500 Hz. The STC rating does not include information in frequency bands below 125 Hz. This rating is useful for designing walls that provide insulation against the sounds of speech and music; it is inappropriate for industrial machinery with lowfrequency energy such as engine units. TL data should be used instead, whenever possible. In typical partitions, sounds at higher frequencies are attenuated more than sounds at lower frequencies. The highest transmission loss values are found in cavity wall (two-leaf) constructions, where the two separate wall layers are well isolated. The transmission loss values increase with the masses of the individual leafs, the depth of the airspace, and the characteristics of any sound-absorptive material in the airspace. It should be noted that noise leaks can severely degrade the performance of a partition. Materials are tested for their transmission loss characteristics in a controlled laboratory setting, with all edges sealed. But in typical construction, sound leaks may occur at the edges of the wall, at openings for pipes or electrical outlets, and across shared ceilings (so-called flanking paths). A wall with a leakage area equal to 0.01% of that of the wall area cannot exceed STC = 40, no matter how high the STC of the wall construction. A partition may include elements with various transmission loss characteristics, for example, windows and doors. The transmission loss of the partition must be calculated taking all elements into consideration. To estimate the total airborne noise transmission loss of a facility, subtract the noise value for each receiver from the estimated room-average sound pressure level. If there is more than one space, the sum of the individual contributions must not exceed the criterion. Mechanical Noise Many techniques for isolating generator set vibrations are applicable to mechanical noise isolation. Modest noise reductions result from attention to noise sources, i.e., reducing fan speeds, coating casting areas, and ducting air flows. But for attenuation over 10 dB(A), units must be totally isolated. One effective method utilizes concrete
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blocks filled with sand to house the generator set. In addition, the unit must incorporate vibration isolation techniques. A rough guide comparing various isolation methods is illustrated in Figure 5.9. Completely enclosed engines are impractical due to openings required for pipes, ducts, and ventilation. Enclosures with numerous openings rarely attain over 20 dB(A) attenuation.
Approximate sound level reduction dB(A) Original machine 0

Vibration isolators

Baffle

Absorption material only

Rigid sealed enclosure

15-20

Enclosure, and isolators

25-30

Enclosure, absorption and isolators

35-40

Double walled enclosure, absorption and isolators

60-80

ILLUSTRATION OF ISOLATION METHODS

Figure 5.9

Intake Noise Intake noise attenuation is achieved through either air cleaner elements or intake silencers. Noise attenuation due to various air cleaners and silencers can be supplied by the component manufacturer.

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To determine the DIL required by a particular application, information is required on the actual Exhaust noise is typically airborne. Exhaust noise (unsilenced) and desired noise levels at the emisattenuation is commonly achieved with a silencer sion point. The difference between these values typically capable of reducing exhaust noise is the silencer DIL. The desired source level is 15 dB(A) when measured 10 ft. (3.3 m) perpendetermined from the criteria governing the site. dicular to the exhaust outlet. Locating it near the engine minimizes transmission of sound to the When used to attenuate exhaust noise, the exhaust piping. Since the number of cylinders silencer must be sized to accommodate the specand engine speeds result in varied exhaust fre- ified volume of flow without imposing excessive quencies, specific effects of mufflers must be pre- backpressure. The flow area for a given backpressure can be calculated from the engine dicted by the muffler manufacturer. exhaust flow (CFM) and the exhaust temSilencers/Mufflers perature. The pressure drop will determine the Silencers are used to attenuate airborne noise in required size of the silencer. Exhaust Noise piping and duct systems. Their effectiveness generally is frequency sensitive, so it is essential that they be matched to the frequency content of the noise. There are two major categories of silencers; dissipative and reactive. Dissipative silencers use absorptive, fibrous material to dissipate energy as heat. They are effective only for high frequency applications (i.e., 500 to 8000 Hz). Sound Absorption Treatments Acoustically absorptive surfaces convert acoustic energy into heat and are generally described by sound absorption coefficients in octave bands. Absorptive surfaces may be used to reduce the reverberant (reflected) sound field within a room. As mentioned above, reducing the reverberant field within a room can also reduce the noise Reactive silencers, on the other hand, use a field outside the room. It should be noted that change in cross-sectional area to reflect noise absorptive materials do not attenuate the direct back to the source. They are typically used sound field. for low-frequency applications (such as internal combustion engines), and they may incorporate The absorption of a room may be estimated on perforated tubes to increase broadband per- an octave-band basis from the absorption coefformance. The effectiveness of a reactive silencer ficients and the area of each room surface (ceildepends on its diameter, volume, and overall ing, walls, and floor). Alternatively, the room design. Multi-chamber silencers provide maximum absorption may be determined through reversound attenuation with some flow restriction. beration time measurements. Using this inforStraight-through silencers offer negligible flow mation and the source sound power data, the restriction with slightly lower sound attenuation. noise reduction that can be obtained by adding absorption to a room may be determined. Stack silencers are designed to be inserted directly Information on the absorption coefficients of a into a stack and withstand a harsh environment. material or element may be obtained from the Finally, some manufacturers offer combination manufacturer. heat-recovery silencers for hot gas exhaust. A wide variety of commercially available sound Most manufacturers offer silencer dynamic absorbing elements are available for almost every insertion loss (DIL) information in octave bands application. Ceiling treatments include lay-in tiles from 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in accordance with or boards (for suspended ceilings), tiles that can ASTM E-477. DIL is the difference in sound level be directly affixed to the ceiling surface, and with and without a silencer installed in pipe or suspended absorbers. Acoustic wall panels range duct with air flow. Some manufacturers rate from architectural panels with attractive finishes silencers as being industrial, commercial, or to perforated metal panels filled with absorbing residential grade; in such a case, the DIL of materials. Concrete blocks with slotted faces and the silencer should still be requested in order to acoustical fill may be used to add sound absorpdetermine the grade of silencer most suitable for tion to normal concrete block wall construction. the installation.

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Sound absorbing elements are selected on the basis of their sound absorption coefficient in the octave bands of interest. In addition, the elements must survive their environment, be easy to maintain, and offer acceptable flame spread properties. Enclosures and Barriers Enclosures and barriers block and reflect directradiated sound from a noise source. A barrier provides a shadow zone of sound attenuation between the source and the receiver, much as light casts a shadow behind a wall. Full enclosures may be used around the source or around the receiver (e.g., personnel in affected areas). Partial barriers may be used to protect noise sensitive areas, by locating receivers in the shadow zone. The effectiveness of a barrier in blocking noise transmitted through it is a function of its sound transmission characteristics. Both enclosures and barriers should be lined with absorptive material to be fully effective. In the case of an enclosure without absorption, the reverberant field inside the enclosure can greatly increase the interior sound pressure so that noise outside the enclosure is also increased. In the case of a barrier without absorption, the noise is simply reflected elsewhere. Transmission loss and absorption are the main selection criteria for barriers and enclosures, and each is a function of frequency. Openings in enclosures should be acoustically treated, for maximum effectiveness. Also, when using sound barriers it is important to control flanking path (sound paths around the barrier). There are many types of commercially available enclosures and barriers. Complete enclosures for specific types of mechanical equipment are available, some of which include silenced air inlets/exits and a reactive silencer for exhaust noise. Several types of modular panels are available that may include sound absorbing material on one or both sides of the panel. Outdoor barriers, designed to resist wind and seismic forces, are also available to block or reflect noise outdoors. Along with acoustical performance, practical issues must be considered in using barriers or enclosures. Engine enclosures require ventilation to dissipate the heat that builds up within the enclosure. The enclosure must be accessible for maintenance and inspection and may require panic latches on doors. Acoustic materials within the enclosure must be fire-resistant.
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Structure-borne Noise Control

The purpose of a vibration isolation system (whether simple or compound), or a wave barrier, is to control the transmission of structureborne noise from the engine unit to the building structure, either directly or through the ground. Those measures are intended to control noise close to the source, where control measures generally are most effective. However, even with effective isolation mounting of the engine unit it still may be necessary to provide additional structure-borne noise attenuation in the building construction. The simplest way to attenuate structure-borne noise along a path (at least conceptually) is to increase the distance between the source and receiver, since the amplitude of structure-borne noise decreases with increasing distance from the vibration source. The attenuation of noise in concrete-frame buildings has been found to be about 5 dB per floor for frequencies up to 1000 Hz. Attenuation for vibrations traveling along continuous concrete floor slabs typically range from 1.5 to 2 dB/meter. In general, there is less attenuation along horizontal building structures. Another way to attenuate structure-borne noise is through structural discontinuities. A discontinuity, or impedance mismatch, causes a reflection of energy back toward the source, thereby controlling noise transmission. Such discontinuities are usually filled with a resilient material to prevent debris falling into and shorting out the gap. Semirigid fiberglass board is normally used to fill wall gaps, while asphalt-impregnated fiberglass board is normally used between on-grade slabs, foundations, and footings. Many times, large buildings already incorporate expansion joints to allow for thermal expansion and contraction. These may be used to attenuate structure-borne noise by placing the source and receivers on opposite sides of the expansion joint. It is essential that construction elements, pipes, or any other rigid connections do not bridge these discontinuities. In addition to the source and the path, receiver locations can also be treated to control structureborne noise in some situations. For example, a floating floor construction may be used to isolate the receiver (e.g., a person or some piece of vibration-sensitive equipment) from building vibration.
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path. Especially in this area, designers are strongly urged to consult qualified professional noise conFoundation Design is a very important and often trol engineers for noise-sensitive installations. overlooked aspect of large-engine unit facility design. Large-engine units, as noted above, emit Engine units usually are mounted on concrete relatively strong low frequency energy struc- pad or metal deck foundations, using the spring ture-borne as well as airborne. If the facility design mounts between the unit base and the foundadoes not account for both forms of noise, it is likely tion. Some of the smaller engine units come with that site noise criteria will not be met. (Foundation isolators between the engine/generator and base design for installations where noise is not an issue and do not require additional spring mounts for the unit base. Since the unit base provides suffiis discussed in the Mounting section.) cient stiffness for alignment and relative deflecUnfortunately, structure-borne transmission and tion of the engine and the driven equipment, radiation is much more difficult to analyze than there is no need to rely on the foundation for addiairborne noise. Whereas it may be relatively tional stiffness. Thus a foundation that is adestraightforward to estimate the airborne noise quate for supporting the static load of the unit transmission loss of the building structure and will be satisfactory for many installations where various types of noise control systems, and noise is not a critical concern. thereby assess the adequacy of a facility design, reliable quantitative estimates of structure-borne In installations where noise is a major concern, noise transmission may be extremely difficult or attention must be directed toward all elements of impossible to obtain with current technology, the isolation system and to the structural paths particularly at low frequencies. Thus, the usual between the foundation and the rest of the buildapproach for noise-sensitive installations is to ing structure. Adequate isolation often can be over-design for structure-borne noise, to ensure achieved with a simple system, but some instalthat it is not a problem. This means taking care lations may require a compound isolation system. to control every possible structure-borne noise Foundation

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GOVERNORS
The purpose of the governor is to control the diesel engine speed by regulating the amount of fuel injected. Diesel engines that do not have to meet emissions standards typically utilize a hydra-mechanical (or hydraulic) governor and mechanically actuated unit fuel injection systems. This governor regulates speed by controlling the position of the fuel control rack. The speed control lever on the governor is positioned by the operator using some type of control lever, cable, or remote air actuator. Devices such as air-fuel ratio controls, shutdown solenoids, and manual shutoffs also operate on the governor. Most diesel engines that meet emissions standards utilize an electronic governoring and control system. The Electronic Control Module (ECM) is engine mounted and used in conjunction with unit fuel injectors that are electronically controlled. This governor regulates speed by controlling the activation of the electronic solenoid on the unit fuel injector. Speed setting can be remotely set with various electrical devices. Functions such as air-fuel ratio, shutdown function, and altitude sensing are electronically controlled in the ECM. See the section on Electronic Governing and Control System for further information.

LOCATION FOR SHUTOFF SOLENOID

AIR-FUEL RATIO CONTROL

SHUTOFF SHAFT THROTTLE SHAFT

SPEED DROOP GOVERNOR

Figure 6.1

Speed droop hydra-mechanical governors available on Caterpillar Engines are not all the same in construction, but their speed droop characteristics are the same. They are generally available in approximately 3% or 8% versions, Figure 6.1. Load sharing between engines Mechanical rigs

Engines on a direct drive mechanical compound must have load sharing, i.e., they must have speed If the speed of an engine drops from no load to full droop. Without droop, it is not possible to balload operation, the governor is said to have speed ance the load between engines, with the result that droop. Speed droop is expressed as a percentage one engine will tend towards full fuel and the other of full load speed. For example, a 10% speed engine will tend towards fuel off. This is true even droop governor with a full load speed of 1200 RPM for ECM controlled engines which have an would have a no load speed of 1320 RPM. adjustable feature called Top Engine Limit, TEL. TEL equipped engines provide speed droop under certain operating conditions, but not under the range of conditions encountered on direct drive mechanical compounds.

Speed Droop Governors

Engines on a mechanical compound, but with each engine equipped with a torque converter, can operate successfully with Zero speed droop in the governor. The slip in the torque converter allows the load to balance between engines, assuming the engine speed settings are close to each other.

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Load sharing between engines Generator sets

Lite plants on mechanical rigs are typically 3% speed droop. They can be 0% speed droop if they The air line to the drillers console must be propare not operated in parallel, and equipped with erly sized for best hoisting response. Too small or too large reduces response rate. optional hydraulic or electric governors. Generator sets for SCR drill rigs require 0% (or isochronous) operation. This is accomplished with a load sharing isochronous electric governor. These are typically referred to as Woodward 2301A load sharing governors or equivalents. The newer electronic controlled engines have a load sharing module available, but this module is sensitive to the extreme electrical noise encountered on SCR drill rigs, plus it cannot be used to parallel with older engines that are controlled with master/slave type load sharing control systems. For 3500B engines for SCR rig service, Caterpillar therefore recommends the use of the direct fuel control attachment. This allows the engine to be controlled with the 2301A load sharing governor or equivalent. Customer supplied shutoff and vent valve are recommended as it is an aid during engine servicing.
SHUTOFF AND VENT VALVE To DRILLERS CONSOLE

accomplished through the air actuator. The air actuators operate between 10 psi to 60 psi (69 kPa to 414 kPa), Figure 6.2.

AIR ACTUATOR

Figure 6.2

Governor Force and Motion Data

The TMI contains information on (1) arc of motion and (2) force level required to operate the governor speed control on each engine Hydra-mechanical model. This allows the designer to select or Speed Droop Governor design an appropriate cable control, air control or Engines equipped with speed droop governors some lever-link arrangement if a factory supplied can be shut down by rotating the hand throttle unit is not available. shaft beyond a detent into a fuel off position. A manual shutoff shaft and provisions for mount- Design for Linkage Over-Travel ing an optional DC shutoff solenoid are available Non-factory supplied control mechanisms must on most Cat Engines. be designed with a stop which prevents overThe manual shutoff shaft can have a lever loading the governor throttle lever when it installed on it to provide a mechanical or pneu- reaches its limit of travel. But this causes a probmatic method of stopping the engine whereas lem when the stop on the control linkage is the solenoid option provides for remote electric reached before full speed position of governor lever is reached. This causes power complaints shut down of the engine. because the engine is prevented from operating When operated at less than rated full load speed, at rated power, because the linkage did not allow the governor speed droop percentage increases the engine to develop rated speed. because of the reduced flyweight force. Governor springs should be changed to provide proper The best approach is to use a spring-loaded droop. If not changed, engine power, response, breakover governor throttle lever which accepts motion of the control linkage beyond the travel of and load sharing will be reduced. the governor throttle shaft. It is easy to adjust corAir-fuel ratio controls are available as standard rectly and visually check that the governor speed or optional equipment for speed droop gover- control lever will travel its full range. nors. This control minimizes smoke when accelerating or applying load to engine. They are Engine Shutdown Control recommended for workover, service rigs, and Engine shutdown is done by shutting off the fuel drawworks applications. supply in some manner. Usually this is done with Air actuator governor controls are available for a direct mechanical connection which pulls the many engines. Engine shutdown cannot be rack to shutoff, or with a solenoid which does the
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same thing. Safety shutoffs are discussed more completely in another chapter. The 3300 and 3400 hydra-mechanical governors are available with an attachment 24V DC speed trim adjusting motor. This feature is often desirable on generator set service, Figure 6.3.

HANDLE FOR MODE SELECTION AND MANUAL CONTROL

MECHANICAL SHUTOFF LEVER

SHUTOFF SOLENOID GOVERNOR CONTROL MOTOR

LINKAGE

Figure 6.3

Isochronous Governors
Isochronous governors are usually referred to as constant speed or 0% speed droop. Their noload and full-load speeds are the same. The isochronous governors used by Caterpillar are the Woodward PSG and 3161. These governors are serviced by Caterpillar, Figures 6.4 and 6.5. Although these governors are isochronous, they can be adjusted to provide 3% speed droop, (8% on 3161). The speed droop adjustment is external on the PSG and internal on the 3161.
PSG GOVERNOR
Figure 6.4

The PSG governor, which operates on engine oil, is available for smaller generator set engines and is normally supplied with an electric speed changing motor. The 3161 is supplied on the 3508, 3512, and 3516 for mechanical rig service. It has features
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similar to the Caterpillar speed droop governors. The 3161 is supplied with a 10 to 60 psi (69 to 414 kPa) air actuator for drill rig service. A shutoff and vent air valve should be added into the governor air signal line near the engine, Figure 6.2. This allows a serviceman to hold the engine at low speed, if desired.
PNEUMATIC SPEED CONTROL AIR-FUEL RATIO CONTROL

NONPARALLEL CONTROL (STANDBY)

THROTTLE SHAFT

Figure 6.6

Electric Load Sharing Governors

A Woodward 2301A electric load-sharing governor system is available on most Caterpillar Engines, Figure 6.9, including 3500B SCR rig units with the direct fuel control feature added. It is isochronous and provides automatic and proportional load division between paralleled AC generators and still maintain isochronous speed.

3161 GOVERNOR
Figure 6.5

An EG3P or EG6PC actuator is mounted on the engine, Figure 6.6. They require a 0 to 200 mA Engines equipped with isochronous governors input signal. The 3500B with direct fuel control cannot be shut down by use of the governor con- also requires this same 0 to 200 mA input signal, trol. These engines contain a manual shutoff pro- but includes a coil that simulates the current input vision. PSG-equipped diesel engines have a requirements of the EG3P or EG6PC actuator. hand-operated shutoff lever mounted next to the The load sharing 2301A is recommended for governor. Diesel engines equipped with the 3161 SCR drives. Isochronous hydraulic governors governors have a hand-operated shutoff plunger cannot maintain proper load division during the lever located near the governor. large load swings when tripping (operating the drawworks). 2301A Standby Governor Speed adjustment from the face of the switchgear For standby generator sets, a 2301A Governor is can be provided by using a sealed 50 ohm rheostandard on most engines. The control box does stat. Engine shutdown from the switchgear can not allow parallel operation, Figure 6.6. This be accomplished by connecting a pushbutton governor provides faster response than speed across the min-fuel terminals of the governor, droop governors. An EG3P or EG6PC actuator except on 3500B series. A manual shutoff is also is mounted on the engine, Figure 6.7. provided at the engine. Additional Isochronous Governor Features SCR control systems, provided by many SCR system suppliers, contain a load-sharing governor integral with the switchgear circuitry and is referred to as a master/slave control system. Though these systems provide essentially the same features as the 2301A Governor, Caterpillar is not responsible for aspects of these systems.
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Duplex mud pumps cause a cyclic load fluctuation occurring at the pump stroke speed. This cyclic load will cause a cyclic reading on the frequency meter plus a cyclic motion of the engine fuel control.

2301A Governor Control Unit Installation/Environment Mounting Mount control unit at a location of minimum vibration with four 1/4-20 bolts (6.4 mm) (length as required) through the 5/16 in. (7.9 mm) mounting holes in the plate assembly. For ease of adjustment, control unit should be mounted so switchgear electrical indicating instruments are readable when making governor adjustments. For stable speed control, control unit ambient temperature must remain constant and be within a 60F to +150F range (50C to +65C). As a general rule, mount the voltage regulator higher than the governor to minimize temperature buildup within the switchgear cubicle. Do not expose control unit to intense AC magnetic fields like electrical buses or circuit breakers. Speed droop or actuator instability can occur due to the erroneous signals picked up. A solid metallic barrier should be used between the governor compartment and circuit breaker and/or bus area.

EG3P or EG6PC ACTUATOR

Figure 6.7

NOTE A: Lube oil idle speed switch maintains low idle speed until oil pressure closes switch. Another switch may be added in series for low speed control at the switchgear. NOTE B: Approximately 1% speed change per 20 ohms. 250 ohms maximum remote speed settling potentiometer. NOTE C: 20K droop potentiometer. Leave open if not used. NOTE D: 2 second acceleration time per 50 MFD. Leave open if not used. NOTE E: Shielded wires should be twisted pairs. NOTE F: Ground battery negative to switchgear frame and neutral bus. NOTE G: Run shielded cable from component to component. Do not run through terminal points. Ground shielded cable at control box only. NOTE H: Installed on engine by Caterpillar Inc. NOTE J: Speed range of magnetic pickup 1800-5400 hz. NOTE K: All external wiring to be furnished by customer.

WIRING DIAGRAM STANDBY CONTROL

Figure 6.8
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Wiring Since the 2301A system is designed to be sensitive to small signal changes, certain input lines must be shielded from picking up stray signals from adjacent equipment. Shield all lines indicated in the wiring diagram, Figures 6.8 and 6.10, and do not run shielded lines in the same conduit with heavy current carrying cables. As Figure 6.10 indicates, the paralleling lines should be closed through contacts of an auxiliary relay. The recommended contacts are sealed, mercury wetted, dry reed or equivalent.

Electrical noise can be picked up if the paralleling lines go direct to the circuit breaker. Also, cir- Condition of control batteries should be periodicuit breaker auxiliary contacts sometimes provide cally checked. Lead-acid batteries should be poor connections to the extremely small mV/mA changed on a regular schedule. signals that flow through paralleling lines. It may be desirable to have a low voltage alarm To minimize electrical interference, the required set at 22V on a 24V system. shielded cable must be run from component to On land rigs, the battery should be disconnected component, not through terminal points. All during rig moves to prevent discharge. shields must be grounded only at the control box because it is a ready reference point. Shielded A battery charger or Power Pak by itself is not cable must not have an outside metal sheath recommended. The governor is unstable during which could cause a multiple ground. The bat- low voltage transients. Also during a dead bus tery negative and shielding of various cables must condition, engines would shut down due to no connect to a common point to provide effective governor power input. grounding. See the section labeled Electrolytic If electric starting is used on standby units, that and Galvanic Action Protection for further infor- standby battery can be used to operate that govmation when in a marine environment. ernor; however, no other engine governor or starter can be connected to it. The voltage dip during cranking will cause instability on any 2301A equipped engines that are running. If the standby Wiring to governor components should be generator will run in parallel with main generat16 gauge or larger stranded wire. ing units, cranking battery must be separate from A control battery and battery charger are required control battery. for the governor system. The control battery is As with any electrical component, the control unit must be mounted in a dust-free environment.

used only during undervoltage or dead bus conditions. Normally, the battery charger float charges the battery and operates the governors. Recommended system contains one battery set and two battery chargers. Battery chargers should be fused separately and on the emergency generator circuit, if so equipped. If battery maintenance presents a problem, a nickel cadmium battery should be used. A nickel cadmium battery rating equivalent to 2 ampere-hours (7200 Coulomb) per engine is sufficient for four hours running without either battery charger operating. With lead-acid batteries, a capacity of 10 amperehours (36 000 Coulomb) per engine is required.

PARALLEL CONTROL (LOADSHARE)

Figure 6.9
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NOTE A: All external wiring, contacts and potentiometers to be furnished by customer. NOTE B: Run shielded cable from component to component, not through terminal points. Ground shielded cable at control end only. NOTE C: Governor paralleling contacts (terminals 10 and 11) are closed simultaneously with generator circuit breaker by an auxiliary circuit breaker contacts directly, but through a relay solenoid. NOTE D: Ground battery negative to switchgear frame and neutral bus.

NOTE E: Load sensor input voltage (terminals 1 through 3) may be either 120 or 208 volt AC by simple reconnection of load sensor transformers. (Reconnection Terminal Board). All units shipped for 208-volt AC connection. NOTE F: On 3500B with Direct Fuel Control, this connects to terminals 01 (+) and 02 () of the 40 pin connector at the bottom of the Engine Instrument Panel. NOTE G: Ramp switch connected to terminals 14 and 15 is engine-mounted oil pressure switch which maintains low idle speed until oil pressure closes switch. Another manual switch may be added (in series) for low speed control at switchgear. NOTE H: Optional shutdown switch(es) may be connected to terminals 22 and 23 for remote shutdown at drillers console, at switchgear, etc.

NOTE I: Governor may be operated in parallel, without carrying load if required, by wiring load sharing control switch as shown (switch shown in non-load sharing position). NOTE J: A switch may be connected and labeled as: Position 1. STOP 2. LOW SPEED 3. FULL SPEED 4. LOAD SHARE Connection Shutdown Switch Note H Ramp Switch Note G Load Share Switch Note I Load Share Switch Note I

2301A WIRING DIAGRAM LOAD SHARING CONTROL

Figure 6.10

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various sensors and transducers, the ECM detects unintentional grounds, shorts, and open circuits, A load-sharing control switch can be used where thereby saving time during diagnosis of engine it is desired to remove load from the engine problems. The engines electronics stores records before opening the generator circuit breaker. This of past performance. This will allow troubleshootreduces wear on the circuit breaker and miniers to see if operation contributed to problems. mizes transient speed changes. In full speed position, engine load is reduced to less than 10%. See The ECM also provides cold start modifications to injection timing. This provides reduced smoke Note I, Figure 6.10. and reduced engine warm-up time. Miscellaneous Installation wiring diagrams and programming features vary somewhat between the various The Electronic Control Module (ECM) is a full engine models. For specific and complete inforrange electronic governor. It is a computer and mation, consult the proper Installation guide. has full authority over engine fuel delivery. These presently are: Injection timing is varied as a function of operatSENR1025-03, for 3176C, 3196, 3406E, ing conditions to optimize engine performance 3456, 3408E & 3412E for emissions, fuel consumption, and ease of LEMB7301-00 for 3500B series engines. operation. The electronic system also includes mechanical or hydraulic actuated electronically controlled unit fuel injections (MEUI or HEUI), Alarm, Derate, Shutoff Options the wiring harness, switches, and sensors. The The ECM monitors functions such as exhaust personality module is the software for the ECM. temperature, air cleaner restriction, water temThe ECM is engine mounted and cooled with peratures, and crankcase pressure continuously. diesel fuel. See Figure 6.11. If important parameters enter into a dangerous condition, the engine can protectively respond in various ways. Alarm mode provides alarm only for monitored engine parameters. Derate mode will alter engine RPM or hp when specific operating parameters are exceeded. Shutdown mode will shut down the engine when specific operating parameters are exceeded. For example, it may derate itself several percent every few seconds/minutes to protect itself from unplanned down time. Consult the specific Installation Guide for specific details. With proper communication links and software, real time or historical data can be accessed and remotely displayed or analyzed. Programming Parameters Many programmable parameters affect engine operation. Certain parameters affecting engine operation may be changed with an Electronic Figure 6.11 Service Tool, (ET). Some parameters may affect engine operation in ways an operator may not The ECM monitors many engine parameters, and expect. Parameters are stored in the ECM and generates diagnostic codes, as required. This may be protected from unauthorized changes by ECM data becomes the source for the data dis- passwords. Certain parameters are accessible played on the engine instrument panel. Electronic only with Factory Passwords. Other parameters controlled engines have a self-diagnostic capa- are accessible with Customer Passwords. Refer to bility. In addition to monitoring the engine with the specific Installation Guide for details.
ECM LEBW1414-00 84

Electronic Governing and Control System

Auxiliary switch requirements All non-Caterpillar provided switches connected to the electronic control system must be two wire design and externally connected to the battery negative. Internally grounded or case grounded switches must not be used. Applied voltage to switches by the ECM will normally not exceed 12 VDC. Switch contact plating should not corrode or oxidize. Gold plated switch contacts are recommended. Normal current draw through the switches by the ECM will not exceed 5.0 mA. Pin Connector Requirements All connections to the electrical control system are through pin type connectors. Field added wiring should be tested with a 45 N (10 lb) pull test on each pin/wire. This test ensures the wire was properly crimped in the pin, and the pin properly inserted into the connector. (Do not solder wiring connections.) All unused connector socked slots must be sealed. Wiring Harness Routing All wiring connections have connector seals to keep out water and other contaminants. Wiring added should not have short radius bends or tension on the connectors. Routing of all harnesses should ensure that connector seals are not stressed because the harness wiring curvature is too close to the connector. See Figure 6.12.
INCORRECT INSTALLATION

Battery Circuit Requirements and Considerations Proper grounding for the engine electrical systems is necessary for proper performance and reliability. Improper grounding results in unreliable electrical circuit paths. That may damage main bearings, crankshaft bearing journal surfaces, and aluminum components. Stray electrical currents can also cause electrical noise which degrades control and system performance. These problems are often very difficult to diagnose and repair. The customer must provide an AWG 4 (or larger) ground wire from the engine Electronics Ground Stud to the battery negative. All ground paths must be capable of carrying any conceivable fault currents. An AWG 4 (or larger) wire is recommended to handle alternator currents. The alternator and other electrical loads should be grounded at the same point (starting motor negative or battery negative) to avoid stray electrical currents. Grounding through frame members is not recommended. Use of an alternator or battery charger without a battery is not recommended as a power source for electronic engines. The battery provides noise suppression in addition to starting capability for the engine. Certain smaller engines can operate on 12 VDC systems. Larger engines require 24 VDC. The acceptable voltage range is 20 to 28 VDC. Lower voltage will first cause the loss of instrumentation but the engine may keep operating with the voltage as low as the 10 VDC. This is not recommended for normal operation. A temporary loss of power (as in one or two milliseconds when switching) will not affect engine operation. A loss of DC power for a longer period (over 0.25 second) will cause the engine to stop running, depending upon injection duration and other loads on the ECM. 3500B engines require a power source of 24 VDC 10 Ampere continuous, 20 Ampere intermittent, clean electrical power source. Welding on an Electronic Engine

HARNESS PULLED TOWARD CENTER TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR

HARNESS PULLED UP TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR

WIRE EXITING PULLED UP ON CONNECTOR INCORRECTLY

CORRECT INSTALLATION

WIRE EXITING STRAIGHT OUT OF CONNECTOR CORRECTLY HARNESS CORRECTLY ROUTED

Before welding near an electronic engine, the following precautions should be observed: Turn the Engine Control Switch to the OFF position.
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Figure 6.12

 Disconnect the NEGATIVE battery cable at pre-programmed low speed. The TPS can be fitthe battery. If a battery disconnect switch is ted with a pneumatic operator for control. provided, open the switch.
THROTTLE POSITION VS. PWM INPUT

Disconnect the ECM harness connectors. Connect the welder ground cable directly to the member being welded. Place the ground cable clamp as close as possible to the weld to reduce the possibility of weld current damage to bearings, hydraulic components, electrical components and ground straps. Do not use electrical components, the ECM, or Electronics Ground Stud for grounding of the welder. Protect wiring from welding debris or splatter. Use standard welding techniques to weld the materials together. Suppression of Voltage Transients

100% (Programmed High Idle) Throttle Position % 0% (Programmed Low Idle) 0 5 10 90 95 100

5% Deadband Insures engine will reach Low and High Idle Engine drops to Low Idle and a fault is logged

SPEED CONTROL WITH PWM INPUT

Figure 6.14

Direct Fuel Control 3500B Gen Sets

Control of 3500B gen sets is recommended with an optional 0-200 mA engine governor converCaterpillar recommends transient suppression at sion. This provides for control by the 2301A type the source of the transient. Inductive devices such load sharing control. It allows for parallel operaas relays and solenoids can generate voltage tion with non-3500B gen sets, including operatransients on control system inputs, and degrade tion in systems with master-slave control electronic control system performance. Field schemes. Also see Note F in Figure 6.10. installed relays and solenoids should include built-in transient suppression diodes where pos- The Direct Fuel Control disables the governor system in the ECM. Low idle and overspeed funcsible. See Figure 6.13. tions are retained. 0 mA control returns the engine POWER POWER to the ECM set low idle, not to engine stop. Shutdown can be done at the engine or by wiring in a remote routine stop switch. Data Connections The ECM provides output pins that are dedicated to the communications data link. The data link is available to share data between the ECM, electronic service tools, and electronic display modules. See the specific Installation Guide for details.

Figure 6.13

Throttle Position Sensor Non-generator Sets The Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) eliminates the mechanical throttle and governor linkages. The TPS utilizes operator lever movement and sends an electrical speed signal to the engine Electronic Control Module (ECM). The TPS signal, along with the speed/timing signal is processed by the ECM to control engine speed.

Generator Set Performance

A governor should provide a stable speed control when the load remains constant, Figure 6.15. This is unrelated to any particular speed, but is merely a tolerance on speed at any steady load. Caterpillar governors have a steady-state speed tolerance of 0.33%, while Woodward governors offer 0.25%.

The TPS signal is a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Transient speeds are temporary excursions (dips signal. See Figure 6.14. Note that 0 signal does or overshoots) from steady-state speeds caused not stop the engine, but lets engine operate at a by sudden imposition or detraction of load.
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Figure 6.15

Wherever a load is applied to or removed from a generator set, the engine speed rpm, voltage and frequency are temporarily changed from its steady-state condition. This temporary change is called transient response. When a significant load is applied, the engine speed temporarily reduces (generally referred to as frequency or voltage dip) and then returns to its steady-state condition. The degree of this dip depends on the amount of active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) changes based upon total capacity and dynamic characteristics of the generator set. On removal of load, the engine speed increases momentarily (generally referred to as overshoot), then returns to its steady-state condition. The time required for the generator set to return to its normal steady-state speed is called recovery time. This is illustrated graphically in Figure 6.15.

on a drill rig is applied by the drawworks when lifting empty blocks. Motor Starting The gen sets ability to start large AC motors without large frequency or voltage dips depends on the entire system. System factors include: Available engine power Capacity of the generator Energy stored in the rotating inertia of the gen set Acceleration of the motor and its load (motor characteristics).

A properly sized generator will support the high starting kVA (skVA) required and sustain adequate output voltage for the motor so it can proGenerator sets on offshore rigs have to meet the duce the needed torque to accelerate its load to transient response requirements of the various rated speed. marine classification societies. These requirements are demonstrated on a resistive load bank After the initial voltage dip, it is important that the generator restore voltage to at least 90% to with various step load changes. develop adequate torque to accelerate its load to In addition, jackup drill rigs can impose large AC rated speed. Full voltage starting causes the motor block loads with their leg jacking systems. largest voltage dip. (See the section on motor starting.) Typically, other AC motors on land or offshore rigs do not Voltage Regulators present significant transient response challenges due to the size of these motors in comparison to The voltage regulator is a key component in determining the amount of voltage/frequency the engine and generator capacity. deviation and recovery time on the AC motor The DC motors, powered through the SCR con- portion of the load, such as when jacking up a trol system, are considered to be soft-start. The jackup drill rig or when performing load bank severest transient DC load (but of short duration)
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acceptance testing. There are several different types of regulators: Constant voltage Volts/Hertz (Caterpillar standard) 2 Volts/Hertz Digital Voltage Regulator (adjustable Volts/ Hertz)

A constant voltage regulator attempts to maintain rated voltage as the load is applied. Since the generator is maintaining rated voltage, even though the speed has reduced, it is maintaining the applied AC load (ekW). This results in an increased RPM drop during large AC load changes. Constant voltage regulators are the most common regulation system on drill rigs. Some offshore rigs have begun to use Volts/Hertz (Volts-perHertz) regulation systems to improve stability and transient response during certain non-drilling functions. The voltage temporarily reduces when the speed drops during the starting of large AC motors. This voltage reduction improves the overall voltage and frequency recovery time. Digital Voltage Regulators are programmable to compensate for changes in the inertia of the engine generator and local load requirements. It will provide constant voltage control, with Volts/Hertz operation when under frequency.

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COOLING SYSTEMS
block should be a minimum of 165F (74C). Coolant will exit at 175 to 210F (79 to 99C), A No. 2 diesel fuel, when mixed with the proper depending on inlet temperature, load, temperamount of air and compressed to the ignition tem- ature regulator, and pressure. Cooling system perature, will produce in excess of 19,500 Btu/lb pressure determines maximum allowable temof heat energy (45,5000 kJ/kg). perature. 200F (94C) is the maximum for nonAs a general rule, 38% of this energy will be used pressurized systems, and 210F (99C) is the to produce useful work, 30% will be discharged maximum for pressurized systems. into the exhaust system, 27% will be rejected into Jacket water temperatures are maintained high the engine cooling system, and 5% is radiated to enough by water temperature regulators to prothe environment. vide efficient engine operation. Light load oper-

General Information

The cooling system has a direct effect on the operation and service life of the engine. If the cooling system is not correctly sized, does not have good maintenance, or is not operated correctly, the engine can overheat or overcool. This can shorten the engine service life and/or result in poor engine performance. Caterpillar oilfield Engines are equipped with the basic components required for a closed circuit cooling system. A closed system recirculates the coolant. The components are all engine mounted with the exception of the water system heat exchanger or radiator. These two items may be mounted on the same oilfield base. DO NOT use sea water or impure untreated water in the jacket system as it causes corrosion.

ation in cold weather, particularly where engines are not protected from wind, may result in low engine operating temperatures. Extended operation under these conditions may cause engine damage. Maximum jacket water temperature limits are controlled by size of radiators or heat exchangers.

Cooling System Functions

Figure 7.2 shows the basic components of common liquid cooled engine cooling systems. These basic components are: coolant, the water pump, the engine oil cooler, coolant temperature regulators, the fan and the radiator. In operation, the water pump pushes coolant through the engine oil cooler and into the cylinder block. The coolant Caterpillar oilfield Engines are designed to oper- then flows through the cylinder block and into ate with a jacket water temperature differential the cylinder head(s) where it flows to the hot of approximately 18F (10C) measured across areas of the cylinder head(s). Additional comthe engine under full load. Coolant entering the ponents that will transfer heat to the coolant are

STACKED CORE AFTERCOOLER CIRCUIT

RADIATOR EXPANSION TANK JACKET WATER OUTLET

AFTERCOOLER WATER OUTLET

Figure 7.1
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aftercoolers, water cooled exhaust manifolds, water cooled turbocharger shields and housing and torque converter oil coolers. After flowing through the cylinder head(s), the coolant goes into the coolant temperature regulator housing.

Water Temperature Regulators The thermostat (regulator) and bypass line maintain proper operating temperature. The regulator directs all or part of the water discharged from the engine jacket to the cooler. The bypassed coolant is sent to the expansion tank on heat exchanger cooled engines or to the water pump inlet on radiator cooled engines where it mixes with cooled water before returning to the engine jacket. Thermostats with higher operating temperatures are available for field installation. See the section on Lubrication Requirements for High Sulfur Fuels. Caterpillar Engines equipped for radiator cooling have temperature regulators in a controlled outlet configuration, Figure 7.4.

Most Caterpillar Engines equipped for expansion tank/heat exchanger cooling have the same temperature regulators but in a controlled inlet conFigure 7.2 figuration, Figure 7.5. This does cause the heat When the engine is cold, the temperature regu- exchanger to be pressurized to the higher JW lators prevent the flow of coolant to the radiator water pump pressure. and direct the coolant back to the water pump Operating temperature of the jacket water on inlet. As the temperature of the coolant becomes inlet-controlled systems will be higher than that warmer, the temperature regulators begin to open for the outlet-controlled system by the amount and permit some flow of coolant to the radiator of the temperature rise across the engine. or heat exchanger. The jacket water pump has sufficient capacity to The regulator opens to maintain the correct maintain proper flow through the engine while engine temperature. The amount that the regu- circulating water through a heat exchanging cirlator opens and the percent of coolant flow to the cuit with moderate line resistance. An increase radiator depends on the load on the engine and in pipe diameter is required when external resistthe outside air temperature. ance reduces water flow below the required minCaterpillar provides a radiator or heat exchanger imum. Refer to TMI or Engine Performance book. and expansion tank system designed to perform satisfactorily with each engine manufactured and Aftercooler Designs to be compatible with various power levels The engine aftercooler reduces the temperature selected. Modifications to the cooling packages of the charge air provided by the turbocharger. are not acceptable without approval because of This results in cooler combustion and exhaust possible disturbance to coolant flow paths. temperatures plus reduced engine emissions. See Figures 7.1 and 7.3 for typical external comJacket Water Aftercooling (JWAC) ponents such as heat exchangers and expansion Figures 7.2 and 7.4 illustrate this configuration. tanks. Aftercooler water is the engine jacket coolant. The The expansion tank and heat exchanger perform aftercooler temperature will be up to 210F (99C). the same function as the radiator. A radiator fan provides air flow through the cooling fins of the Separate Circuit Aftercooling (SCAC) radiator to transfer coolant heat to the air. An external water supply is used to accomplish heat In this configuration, the aftercooler water source is a separate, cooler source of treated coolant. transfer when using a heat exchanger. This configuration is typically designed for an aftercooler inlet coolant temperature of 140F (60C). 140F (60C) is a practical limit for most
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EXPANSION TANK

JW TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

AFTERCOOLER

JW HEATER JW HEAT EXCHANGER JW PUMP

AC HEAT EXCHANGER AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR AC WATER PUMP

RH VIEW
Figure 7.3

LH VIEW

RADIATOR COOLING CONTROLLED OUTLET THERMOSTATS

Figure 7.4

radiator cooled applications and provides emis- at least 140 gpm (530 L/m) with an ambient temsion compliance for many engines. This is utilized perature of 86F (30C) and at site conditions (including altitude considerations). on the 3500B series of engines. See Figure 7.1. In order to ensure emissions compliance in use, optional or customer supplied radiators must be capable of rejecting enough heat to allow proper operation at worst case site conditions and also must supply 140F (60C) SCAC cooling water to the aftercooler inlet, with a SCAC flow rate of
91

Figure 7.6 shows a SCAC radiator with side-byside cooling sections. This radiator configuration can work with both suction or blower fan configurations. On larger engines, radiator width may become unacceptably large.
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HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING CONTROLLED INLET THERMOSTATS

Figure 7.5
OUTLET JW THERMOSTAT AC JW RADIATOR AC PUMP

BYPASS LINE

AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

RETURN ENGINE DRIVEN JW PUMP PIPING PART OF ENGINE SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER

RADIATOR COOLING SIDE-BY-SIDE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS

Figure 7.6

Figures 7.1 and 7.7 show an SCAC radiator with stacked core cooling sections. This radiator configuration will only work with a blower fan configuration. SCAC cooling systems include an aftercooler thermostat to prevent too cold of coolant in the aftercooler. Cold aftercooler water, at high engine loads, can cause excessive engine cylinder pressure. See Figure 7.8.

Figures 7.3 and 7.5 show the SCAC system used with heat exchanger cooling for offshore drilling power modules. Dual heat exchanger circuits includes expansion tanks to provide venting and filling requirements.

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OUTLET JW ENGINE THERMOSTAT

AC PUMP RADIATOR BLOWER FAN BYPASS LINE AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

RETURN ENGINE DRIVEN JW PUMP PIPING PART OF ENGINE SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER

RADIATOR COOLING STACKED CORE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS

Figure 7.7

3500B AC PUMP AND LINES

Figure 7.8

Air-to-Air Aftercooling (ATAAC) In this configuration, the aftercooler core is relocated from the engine to the radiator. Cooling with the ambient air reduces charge air temperature. Engines subject to more stringent emissions requirements use the ATAAC aftercooler configuration. This is utilized on most of the smaller Caterpillar electronic controlled engines. Air piping routes turbocharger outlet air to the ATAAC section of the radiator and back to the engine inlet manifold.
93

If the ATAAC radiator is locally made, the charge air section must be designed to deliver air to the engines air intake manifold at a temperature specified for the engine model with ambient air temperature equal to (77F) 25C, maximum air temperature to turbocharger equal to 97F (36C), maximum pressure drop from the turbocharger compressor exit to engine intake manifold of 4 in. Hg (13.5 kPa), and zero cooling system ram air velocity. Specified inlet manifold air temperature and turbocharger compressor exit conditions can be found in the TMI. The recommended
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Cooling System Protection

AIR

ATAAC SECTION

All pipe and water passages external to the engine should be cleaned before initial engine operation to ensure there will be flow and foreign materials will not be lodged in the engine or cooler. Electrical systems should be designed so no continuous electrical potential is imposed on cooling system components. Any electrical potential may cause cooling system materials to be damaged by electrolytic processes.

ER AT W

Galvanic activity in saltwater circuits produces a corrosive action with metal, resulting in deterioration of system components. Proper cathodic protection should be employed by installing sacrificial zinc rods in sea water flow passages at numerous locations. Sufficient zinc rods are installed on Figure 7.9 Caterpillar components. In order to maintain this protection, the zinc rods must be inspected regcharge air cooler location should provide paral- ularly and replaced when deteriorated. Refer to lel air flow through the jacket water radiator and the section on Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity charge air cooler. If a series (stacked) arrange- Protection for additional information. ment between the charge air cooler and jacket water radiator is selected, the charge air cooler Coolant Considerations must be located upstream relative to the jacket Properties water radiator, or any other stacked coolers in the system and special consideration must be Water is used in the coolant mixture because it is the most efficient, best known, and universally given for core cleaning and servicing. available heat transfer agent. However, each Connections water source contains contaminant levels to Use flexible connections for all connections to various degrees. At operating temperatures of the engine (rubber hoses are not recommended). diesel engines, these contaminants form acids or The positions of flexible connections and shut- scale deposits that can reduce cooling system off valves are important. Shut-off valves (used service life.
JW SECTION

on larger engines) should be located to provide a flexible connection and also allow engine repair without having to drain the entire cooling system. Orient the flex connector to take the maximum advantage of its flexibility. When selecting connectors, consider normal thermal expansion and maximum expected movement.

Prime consideration in closed cooling systems is to ensure no corrosion or scale forms at any point. Therefore, select the best quality water available, but never use salt water.

Water hardness is usually described in parts per million, ppm (grains/gal), of calcium carbonate content. Water containing up to 60 parts per milMaterial compatibility must also be evaluated. lion (3.5 grains per gallon) is considered soft and The internal surface must be compatible with the causes few deposits. coolant used over the anticipated operating temperature and pressure ranges. The liner material of Treated Water the flexible connection must also be compatible Never use water alone as a coolant. Supplemenwith potential coolant contaminants, such as lube tal coolant additives are required because pure oil and system cleaning solutions. The outer cover water is corrosive at engine operating temperamust be compatible with its environment (tem- tures. Corrosion inhibitors or antifreeze solution perature extremes, ozone, grease, oil, paint, etc.). added to water maintains cleanliness, reduces scale and foaming, and provides pH control.
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Exposing engine coolant to freezing temperatures requires additional antifreeze. Ethylene glycol or Dowtherm 209 are recommended to protect against freezing and inhibit corrosion. Boratenitrite solutions such as Caterpillar inhibitor are compatible only with ethylene glycol and can Caterpillar cooling inhibitor is compatible with replenish the original corrosion inhibitors in the ethylene glycol and propylene glycol base antiantifreeze. freezes but not with Dowtherm 209, or Cat Extended Life Coolant (ELC). With a 30% mix- Figure 7.10 defines the concentration of ethylture of glycol containing corrosion inhibitors, no ene glycol required for system protection. It also additional inhibitors are required. To maintain describes the effect on coolant boiling temperaconstant protection, additives should be replen- ture which reduces coolant afterboil. The concentration should exceed 30% to assure protection ished every 250 operating hours. against corrosion, but above 60% will needlessly For conventional heavy duty cooling systems the penalize heat transfer capabilities. Generally, a antifreeze/coolant is recommended. radiator derates 2% for each 10% of antifreeze conNOTE: If cooling water comes in contact with centration. Use of antifreeze year around decreases domestic water supplies, water treatment may radiator capabilities at least 6F (3.3C). be regulated by local codes. Temperature A 3%6% concentration of inhibitor is recommended to maintain a pH level of 8.5 to 10. Sudden changes in coolant composition should be avoided to minimize nonmetallic component failure.
(F) (C) 160 149 138 127 116

Coolant/Antifreeze (Glycol) Glycol in the coolant provides boil and freeze protection, prevents water pump cavitation, and reduces cylinder liner pitting. For optimum performance, Caterpillar recommends a 50/50 glycol/water coolant mixture. Ethylene glycol is commonly used in heavy duty (HD) coolant/antifreezes. Propylene glycol is also common. Both ethylene glycol and Propylene glycol have similar fluid properties in a 50/50 glycol/water mixture. Both ethylene glycol and propylene glycol provide similar heat transfer, freeze protection, corrosion control, and seal compatibility. The following charts define the temperature protection provided by the two types of glycol.
Concentration % Glycol/% Water
50/50 60/40

320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80

BOILING TEMP

105 93 82 71 60 49 38

RECOMMENDED CONCENTRATION RANGE 3067% (SEA LEVEL)

26 15 4 6 18

FREEZING TEMP

29 40 51 62

Ethylene Glycol Protection Against Freezing Boiling

33F (36C) 60F (51C) 223F (106C) 226F (108C)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %

COOLANT FREEZING AND BOILING TEMPERATURES VS. ETHYLENE GLYCOL CONCENTRATION

Figure 7.10

Propylene Glycol Protection Against Concentration % Glycol/% Water Freezing Boiling

50/50 20F (29C) 222F (106C)

Extended Life Coolant (ELC)

Caterpillar provides Extended Life Coolant (ELC) for use in heavy duty diesel engines, natural gas NOTE: Do not use propylene glycol in concen- engines, and automotive engines. The Caterpillar trations that exceed 50 percent glycol because of ELC anticorrosion package is totally different propylene glycols reduced heat transfer capa- from conventional coolants. Caterpillar ELC is bility. Use ethylene glycol in conditions that an ethylene glycol based coolant which contains require additional boil or freeze protection. organic acid corrosion inhibitors (which turn into
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carboxylates) and antifoaming agents. Caterpillar ELC has nitrites that serve as corrosion inhibitors that protect against cavitation corrosion. Caterpillar ELC also has TT (toly-triazole, a yellow [non ferrous] metal corrosion inhibitor). Caterpillar ELC has been formulated with the correct levels of additives to provide superior corrosion protection for all metals in diesel engine cooling systems. Caterpillar ELC extends coolant service life to 6000 Service Hours or Four Years. Caterpillar ELC does not require frequent additions of supplemental coolant additives, SCA. A one time only coolant Extender is the only maintenance addition required. The extender should be added to the cooling system at 3000 Service Hours or Two Years.

Corrosion Resistance The coolant must prevent the formation of rust and pits in the engine and other components. Since all water can cause corrosion, water alone is not a good coolant. Both distilled water and softened water are unacceptably corrosive when corrosion inhibitors are not added.

Always add Caterpillars corrosion inhibitor, Cooling System Conditioner, or equivalent to the water antifreeze mixture at the time of the initial fill of the cooling system if the initial fill does not include it. (This is not necessary when using Caterpillar Antifreeze. The Caterpillar formula includes all necessary inhibitors for initial fill.) If water only is used (not recommended), it is extremely important that conditioner be added. Caterpillar ELC is available Premixed with distilled Use 3P2044, quart (0.118 L), or 6V3542, water in a 50/50 concentration. The Premixed 1/2 pint (0.24 L), Cooling System Conditioner. ELC provides freeze protection to 33F (36C). Because modern antifreezes contain considerThe Premixed ELC is recommended for initial fill able dissolved chemical solids to accommodate and for topping off the cooling system. ELC aluminum components, over-concentrations can Concentrate is available to lower the freezing reduce heat transfer and cause water pump seal point to 60F (51C) for Arctic conditions. ELC leakage or failure. Concentration should be used to adjust the coolant freeze point as required where Caterpillar NOTE: Do not over inhibit your cooling system ELC Premixed freeze protection is not acceptable. or damage will result. Contact your Caterpillar dealer for part numbers Chromate Corrosion Inhibitors and available container sizes. Chromate is another corrosion inhibitor. In genCaterpillar recommends the Extended Life Coolant eral, special testing equipment must be utilized in as it provides extended coolant service life, cor- order to measure the coolant consist. Inapprorosion protection, extended water pump seal ser- priate amounts of corrosion inhibitor can do harm vice life, and extended radiator service life. to the system. These are being phased out of NOTE: The Caterpillar EC-1 specification is an usage due to toxicity and environmental concerns. industry standard developed by Caterpillar. The EC-1 specification defines all of the performance Water Quality and Treatment requirements that an engine coolant must meet Standard Temperature in order to be sold as an extended life coolant Usable water for cooling systems must meet the for Caterpillar engines. Caterpillar ELC meets following criteria: the industry performance requirements of Chloride (CL) 2.4 grains/gal (40 ppm) ASTM D4985 and D5345 for heavy duty low silMaximum icate coolant/antifreezes. Caterpillar ELC also meets the industry performance requirements Sulfate (S04) 5.9 grains/gal (100 ppm) of ASTM D3306 and D4656 for automotive Maximum applications. Total Hardness 10 grains/gal (170 ppm) NOTE: Do not mix ordinary ethylene glycol or Maximum propylene glycol mixtures with ELC. Completely Total Solids 20 grains/gal (340 ppm) flush system before converting from one to the Maximum other coolant. pH 5.59.0 Water softened by removal of calcium and magnesium is acceptable.
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Coolant Testing The coolant should be maintained throughout the life of the application. Dealers have available laboratory testing services which can measure not only the glycol levels but also the main corrosion inhibiting additives, as well as contaminants. Caterpillar recommends additives be kept within certain ranges depending on the type of coolant as well as the application. If regular coolant is being used, a prescribed dose of Supplemental coolant Additive or SCA is usually added at 250 hour intervals which recharges the corrosion inhibitors in the form of nitrates, nitrites, borates, and silicates. If ELC (Extended Life Coolant) is used, Caterpillars Cooling System Conditioner is added which contains a carboxylate or organic acid corrosion inhibitor, nitrites, and other ingredients necessary to ensure the coolant remains corrosion resistant. Overtreatment should also be avoided since this can cause problems as well; do not add treatment unless testing shows additive depletion. Caterpillar also has specifications covering contaminants such as chlorides, sulfates, hard water minerals, as well as dissolved gases. These must be checked by analytical methods since they can destroy a system even if corrosion inhibitor additives are in correct proportions. Coolant Conditioners and Filters For 3400 Series and smaller engines a cartridgetype chemical coolant conditioner is available. The conditioner reduces potential cylinder block and liner pitting and corrosion. A. Consult the factory for suitable coolant conditioners which should be applied and maintained in accordance with published instructions. B. If a dry charged additive water filter is selected, the following plumbing recommendations should be followed. 1. The filter inlet and outlet are ordinary 0.375 in. (9.5 mm) inside diameter rubber hoses. Connect the hoses to obtain the highest possible coolant pressure differential across the unit. Heater hose connecting points at the coolant pump inlet and the temperature regulator housing are recommended. If uncertain, plumb the inlet to a point on the discharge side of the water pump and the outlet to a point near the water pump inlet.
97

2. The outlet should be orificed with an 0.125 in. (3.2 mm) internal diameter orifice. This will prevent excessive coolant flow through the filter which can bypass the radiator core and reduce effectiveness of the cooling system. Inlet and outlet lines should include shutoff valves so the filter can be serviced without draining the cooling system. System Venting Air and entrained combustion gas must be purged and/or vented from the cooling system. Air can be trapped in the cooling system at initial fill or enter through combustion gas leakage during operation. System deterioration or water pump cavitation will result. Air trapped in high points of the cooling system during initial fill is difficult to purge and requires venting, Figure 7.11. Entrained combustion gas requires deaeration capabilities built into the system. Deaeration is performed by the Caterpillar expansion tank or Caterpillar radiator top tank. If these deaeration components are not included, custom deaeration must be provided. Centrifugal deaeration gas separators are available on the aftermarket. Alternatively, see the section on Expansion Tanks for use of enlarged pipe diameters for deaeration. Caterpillar-supplied cooling systems completely vent during initial fill at rates up to 5 gpm (0.32 L/s). External piping will also vent provided piping is installed without air traps and no higher than engine connecting points on heat exchanger systems. Figure 7.12. The expansion tank (surge tank) must be the highest point of a radiator cooled system, Figure 7.13. Radiator air venting requirements for each engine are available on request. A cooling system that will not purge itself on initial fill must have vent lines from the highest points of the system to the radiator expansion tank or to the expansion tank of a heat exchanger system. Lines must enter the tank above normal water level, have a continuous upward slope, and contain no air traps. An adequate vent line should be 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) tubing. Caution: The constant full level in the expansion tank must be above all piping. For additional information on radiator cooling, see the section Radiators with Expansion Tanks.
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Watermaker Installation Requirements

Connecting watermakers to the jacket water circuit of 3508, 3512, 3516 Engines.

The following guidelines are intended to assist the designer and installer of watermaker systems to avoid installations which may damage or impair Watermaker Circuit engine operation. These guidelines in no way guar- Flexible connectors are required on all connecantee performance of the watermaker system. tions to the engine. Rubber hoses are not recWatermaker system performance, as it affects ommended and are generally not approved by marine classification societies. Use of flexible the engine, must be verified at startup. metal connectors is recommended. Watermaker performance will depend upon the amount of heat received from the engine. Refer All connections are to be made external of the to TMI or Engine Performance book for heat engines pump, thermostat and bypass system, rejection and jacket water pump flow data. This i.e., between engine and cooler, Figure 7.14. The data is for the engine at rated load and speed with

fully open thermostats. As load on the engine and/or engine speed decreases, external water flow decreases. The amount of heat and waterflow available to the watermaker will be approximately proportional to the load on the engine.

INCORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.11

CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.12

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98

CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.13

engine jacket water bypass line is not to be mod- Shutoff valves in each line to the watermaker should be installed. This also applies for autoified or blocked. matic systems since it allows deactivating the Watermaker piping should not block access to system for servicing. engine fuel and oil filters. All external piping must be level, without air Flow resistance imposed on the jacket water traps, and below the expansion tank or radiator pump by watermaker and piping from the engine top tank. All high points must be vented to the must not exceed the limits shown in TMI or expansion tank/radiator top tank. Engine Performance book.

Figure 7.14

99

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Expansion Volume When the jacket water volume of the watermaker and piping exceeds the allowable external volume for the engine-mounted expansion tank, an auxiliary expansion tank must be added. Refer to Figure 7.24 for allowable external volume of the engine-mounted tank. (Refer to the section on Auxiliary Expansion Tank if an additional tank is required.) The engine mounted tank is always required. Expansion volume required for radiator-cooled engines must be coordinated with the radiator supplier. Additionally, a deaerator is required if watermaker flow bypasses the deaeration features of the radiator. Deaerator should be capable of venting air at the rate of 10% of the engine

displacement per minute. The deaerator must vent to radiator top tank. Watermaker Controls Watermaker controls may be either manually operated valves or thermostatically controlled valves, Figures 7.15, 7.16, and 7.17. Any failure of watermaker control system (electrical, air, etc.) must shut off jacket water flow to the watermaker and return the flow to the engine heat exchanger. The watermaker must be connected between the engine jacket water connections and the heat exchanger or radiator. Required flow diverters or connections are not supplied by Caterpillar.

MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Figure 7.15

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM SERIES FLOW

Figure 7.16
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AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM PARALLEL FLOW

Figure 7.17

For safety, valve(s) in the engine heat exchanger circuit should contain .25 in. orifices (6.35 mm) so there will be a slight water flow in case all valves are inadvertently left closed. This orifice assures water flow to actuate engine alarm system.

Do not use a circulating pump by itself because the circulating pump head pressure will damage engine thermostats if they are closed.

Although the mixing tank is not Caterpillar supplied, it can be used with any of the suggested The thermostat valve, Figures 7.16 and 7.17, circuits. should have a temperature setting that will not An auxiliary electrical heater may be installed interfere with engine thermostats. This valve as shown. should begin to divert water flow to the engine heat exchanger at no more than 190F (88C) Interconnections of Engines and be fully diverting at 205F (96C) for engines with outlet controlled thermostats. Engines with Central cooling systems utilize a single external inlet controlled thermostats should be 185F circuit supplying coolant to several engines. Although separate cooling systems for each (85C) and 200F (93C) respectively. engine is preferable, use of a single radiator or heat If the watermaker cannot handle the full engine exchanger system is possible. Practical experiheat rejection and/or cannot handle full water flow ence has shown that only identical engines at the of the engine, the automatic system, Figure 7.17, same loads and speeds can be successfully commust be used. The circuit, Figure 7.17 connects bined in a joint cooling system. A failure on one the watermaker in parallel with the heat exchanger engine can adversely affect all engines. For this whereas the circuit, Figure 7.16, connects the reason, interconnected engines should have isowatermaker in series with the heat exchanger. lating valves. Check valves are required on the It should be remembered the volume of water output line of each engines to prevent recirculaflow to the watermaker depends upon load and tion through an engine that is shutdown with the watermaker size, up to the engines maximum thermostats opened. flow limits. The cooling system for mixed engines with mixed speeds, loads and thermostat configuration are Mixing Tank very difficult to design and are rarely successful. When the watermaker is a long distance from the They must meet the required criteria (water flow, engine or where watermaker requires a constant temperatures, pressures, etc.) for each engine water flow, a mixing tank and circulating pump while operating in all possible combinations with other units. are required, Figure 7.18.
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Figure 7.18

A single auxiliary expansion tank is permissible. It must connect into each engine-mounted expansion tank (if so equipped). See the section on Auxiliary Expansion Tank. If a shutoff valve is installed between auxiliary expansion tank and each engine-mounted expansion tank, a 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) line must be connected from below the shutoff valve to the top of the auxiliary expansion tank. The line should enter above the normal full water level.

Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems Water Specifications

Caterpillar used two water classifications: fresh water and sea water.

Fresh Water Fresh water refers to drinkable water. Prior to chemical water treatment for engine corrosion inhibiting, it must be in a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0, Coolant return header to the engines must be containing no more than 40 ppm chlorides. Total large enough and so located that no engine jacket dissolved solids must be less than 340 ppm. Total water pump inlet operates in a vacuum. sulfates must be no more than 100 ppm. Total If auxiliary jacket water pumps are required, refer hardness must be less than 170 ppm. This is the to the section on mixing tanks and Figure 7.18. cooling water that is used within the engines jacket water system. SCAC engines require that a separate set of common cooling lines be provided for the after- Sea Water cooler function. Sea water refers to salt water, river water, lake water and all waters that do not meet the freshwater requirement. Heat exchanger components in contact with this water should be copper-nickel

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construction, or equivalent, highly corrosion resist- Engine-mounted heat exchangers require the ant material. This is not the water retained within least amount of pipe fitting since jacket water connections to the heat exchanger are made at the engines jacket water system. the factory, Figure 7.3. Remote-mounted heat Inboard Heat Exchanger Cooling exchangers require connecting jacket water inlet Inboard heat exchangers are recommended for and outlet at the engine to shell side of the use with Caterpillar oilfield Engines. Caterpillar exchanger. inboard heat exchangers are shell and tube-type. The selected heat exchanger must accommodate Heat is transferred from hot jacket water to cold sea water temperature and flow required to cool sea water. Heat exchangers are usually mounted the engine when operating at maximum anticion the oilfield base, but may be mounted directly pated load with stated temperature differential. on smaller engines. Heat exchanger cooled systems require a sea water pump to circulate sea water through the heat exchanger tubes or plates. It is good design practice to always put the sea water through the tubes. The tubes can be cleaned by pushing a metal rod through them; the shell side requires chemical cleaning which is only available at shore-side facilities. Offshore drill rigs provide the main and standby sea water pumps. Sea water is pumped into a pressurized header for use throughout the rig, including the engines. The fresh water is circulated through the heat exchanger shell, across the tubes by the enginedriven water pump. Most shell and tube heat exchangers are of either the single-pass or the two-pass type. This designation refers to the flow in the cold water circuit of the exchanger. In the two-pass type, the cold HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES water flows twice through the compartment where jacket water is circulated; in the single- Figure 7.19 pass type only once. When using a single-pass exchanger, the cold water should flow through Heat exchangers should always be located at a the exchanger in a direction opposite to the flow lower level (elevation) than the coolant level in of jacket coolant to provide maximum differen- the expansion tank. tial temperature and heat transfer. This results in improved heat exchanger performance. In a two- Heat Exchanger Sizing pass exchanger, cooling will be equally effective Occasionally, special applications exist which using either of the jacket water connection points require an inboard heat exchanger size not availfor the input and the other for return. able as a Caterpillar unit. When these conditions Factory supplied 150 gpm (9.5 L/s) two-pass exist, it is necessary to obtain a heat exchanger heat exchangers are recommended because rig from a supplier other than Caterpillar. In order to water header size is reduced. A 150 gpm (9.5 L/s) expedite the selection of a nonstandard heat engine driven sea water pump is NOT available. exchanger, a Heat Exchanger Selection WorkThe rig main and standby sea water pumps must sheet is included, Figure 7.20. Heat exchanger be sized to provide flow to a header system that suppliers will provide information and aid in selecting the proper size and material for the supplies all engines. application.

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Heat Exchanger Sizing Worksheet

Heat Exchanger Sizing Data Required by Heat Exchanger Supplier Engine Jacket Water Circuit: 1. Jacket water heat rejection* 1a. Jacket water engine outlet temperature 2. Jacket water flow* 3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature 4. Sea water flow 5. Allowable jacket water pressure drop 6. Allowable sea water pressure drop Drop 7. Auxiliary water source (sea water or fresh water) 8. Heat exchanger material (admiralty or copper-nickel) 9. Shell connection size** 10. Tube side fouling factor** Aftercooler Water Circuit: 1. Aftercooler circuit water heat rejection* 1a. Aftercooler circuit engine inlet temperature 2. Aftercooler circuit water flow* 3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature 4. Sea water flow* 5. Allowable Aftercooler Circuit Water Pressure Drop* 6. Allowable sea water pressure drop* 7. Auxiliary water source (sea water or fresh water)* 8. Heat exchanger material (admiralty or copper-nickel) 9. Shell connection size** 10. Tube side fouling factor***

________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________

Btu/min (kW) F (C) gpm (L/sec) F (C) gpm (L/sec) ft. (m) water ft. (m) water

h sea water h fresh water h adm. metal h cu-ni ________________ ________________

________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ h h h h ________________ ________________

Btu/min (kW) F (C) gpm (L/s) F (C) gpm (L/s) ft. (m) water ft. (m) water sea water fresh water adm. metal cu-ni

***Refer to TMI (Technical Marketing Information) ***Refer to engine general dimension drawing ***Fouling Factor, a descriptive quantity often found on heat exchanger specifications, refers to the heat exchangers ability to resist fouling. As defined in Caterpillar literature, fouling factor is the percentage of the heat transfer surface which can be fouled without losing the heat exchangers ability to dissipate the engines full heat load. A factor of 0.0001 0001 is assumed for sea water systems. Figure 7.20
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For a given jacket water flow rate, the performance of a heat exchanger depends on both the cold water flow rate and differential temperature. To reduce tube erosion, the flow velocity of the cold water through the tubes should not exceed 6 fps (183 cm/s). At the same sea water flow rate, the flow resistance and the flow velocity will be greater through a two-pass heat exchanger. The heat exchanger should be selected to accommodate the cold water temperature and flow rate needed to keep the temperature differential of the jacket water below about 18F (10C) at maximum engine heat rejection. Thermostats must be retained in the jacket system to assure that the temperature of the jacket water coolant returned to the engine is approximately 175F (79C). Size heat exchangers to accommodate a heat rejection rate approximately 10% greater than the tabulated engine heat rejection. The additional capacity is intended to compensate for possible variations from published or calculated heat rejection rates, overloads or engine malfunctions which might increase the heat rejection rate momentarily. It is not intended to replace all factors which affect heat transfer, such as fouling factor, shell velocity, etc.

This type of cooling system is not widely used for oilfield engines. Sufficient ocean currents or river currents, etc., are not always available to maintain adequate cooling. They should be used with caution as overheating can result.

Keel Cooler Types

Fabricated Keel Coolers Fabricated keel coolers may be made of pipe, tubing, channel, I-beams, angle or other available shapes. The choice of materials must be compatible with materials used in the vessels hull in order to prevent galvanic corrosion. Sizing of Fabricated Keel Coolers Engine water temperature maximum limits are controlled by size of the keel cooler. Heat transfer rates through any cooler depend mainly on cooling water temperature, cooling water flow and heat transfer surface area. A cooler may have to operate at its maximum capacity at zero hull speed. The minimum area calculated includes a fouling factor. Materials used in cooler construction, condition of waters in which the vessel will operate, and service life expectancy will influence the size selection of a new cooler. See the keel cooler sizing worksheet for aid in determining size of keel coolers for use with jacket water circuits.

Pay particular attention to the shell side pressure drop to ensure the entire cooling system flow resistance does not exceed the limitations on the Keel cooler area recommendations contained in engine freshwater pump. the graphs (Figure 7.21 and 7.22) apply only to keel coolers made of structural steel (chanMaximum Sea Water Temperature nel, angle, half pipe, etc.) welded to the ships Size heat exchangers such that the seawater is shell plating. These recommendations take into not heated above approximately 130F (54C). account the thermal resistance to heat transfer Higher sea water temperatures will result in foul- of the steel plate, the internal and external water ing of the heat transfer surfaces with chalk-like films, and the internal and external surface corcompounds. rosion factors. The coefficient of heat transfer of Temperature rise can be calculated with the fol- the fresh water film flowing inside the cooler is based upon a flow velocity of 3 ft/sec (0.9 m/sec). lowing formula: The coefficient of heat transfer for the raw water Heat Rejection (Btu/min) _______________________ film varies with the velocity of water flow past the T (deg F) = Flow (gpm) 7.99 cooler due to vessel speed. Surface corrosion factors are based on treated fresh water and polKeel Coolers luted river water. Miscellaneous factors become A keel cooler is an outboard heat exchanger so predominant in the resultant heat transfer rate which is either attached to, or built as part of, the that the type of material used and thickness of submerged part of a ships hull. The heated water metal become minor considerations. from the engine(s) circuit(s) is circulated through the cooler by the engine driven water pump(s).

105

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KEEL COOLER SIZING WORKSHEET

Engine Model __________________ Rating __________________ Hp (kW) at __________________ rpm For Engine Jacket Water: 1. Jacket water heat rejection* ____________________________________________ Btu/min (kW) 2. Jacket water flow* ________________________________________________________ gpm (L/s) 3. Current speed classification (Refer to Figure 7.22) _____________________________________ 4. Anticipated maximum sea temperature ________________________________________ F (C) 5. Minimum cooler area required (From Figure 7.22) _____________________________________ Sq ft/Btu/min (m2/kW) 6. Minimum area required (Line 1 times line 5)__________________________________Sq ft (m2)
*Refer to TMI or Engine Performance Book. Temperature assumed to be 210F (99C). Figure 7.21

Normal deterioration of the coolers inner and outer surfaces in the form of rust, scale and pitting progressively reduce a keel coolers effectiveness over a period of years. Protective coatings and marine growths will also reduce the rate of heat transfer. It can take 45 years before deterioration stabilizes in keel coolers. It must be designed considerably oversize when new.
C 29.4 26.7 Anticipated Maximum Sea Water Temperature 23.9 21.1 18.3 15.6 12.8 10.0 7.2 4.4 1.7 F 85
dA

Because of the severe deterioration of heat transfer characteristics associated with structural steel coolers, adequate cooler size sometimes becomes impractical. This is particularly true in regions of high sea water temperature (over 85F [30C]). In these regions, the use of packaged keep coolers, or box coolers, made of corrosion-resistant materials is suggested. These coolers can provide

ts

80
no

bo ve

no

1K no

an

3K

75 70 65 60 55

8K

(Per Revision of 8/11/90)

50 45 40 35

Thermostats start open 175F (79C) or above

These requirements apply to Keel Coolers made of structural steel only. Consider use of packaged Keel Coolers made of corrosion-resistant materials where sea water temperature may exceed 65F (18C)

.006 .032

.007 .037

.008 .042

.009 .048

.010 .053

.011 .058

St

.012 .063

ill W at

ts

er

.013 .069

.014 .074

.015 .079

sq ft per Btu/min sq m per kW

Cooler Area Required

Figure 7.22
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more heat exchange surface area in a given volume on, or within the hull, than the coolers made of structural steel.

Expansion Tanks
Functions Expansion tanks perform the following functions: Vent gases in the coolant to reduce corrosion. to prevent loss of coolant due to displacement by gases. Provide a positive head on the system pump. to prevent cavitation. Provide expansion volume. to prevent coolant loss when the coolant expands due to temperature change.
Figure 7.23

Provide a place to fill the system, monitor its Figure 7.23 shows the preferred method of conlevel, and maintain its corrosion inhibiting necting a remote expansion tank into the engine cooling system. The enlarged section of pipe is chemical additives. necessary to allow entrained gas to separate out Provide a place to monitor the system coolant of the water flow. level. an alarm switch located in the expan- Expansion Tank Volume sion tank will give early warning of coolThe expansion tank allows for thermal expanant loss. sion of the coolant. In addition to the thermal expansion, there should also be volume for afterType of Expansion Tank boil and sufficient reserve to allow operation with small leaks until they can be repaired. For stanEngine-Mounted Expansion Tank dard temperature systems, a volume of 15% of (Manufactured by Caterpillar) the total system is sufficient. The engine-mounted expansion tank provides all of the above functions for the engines jacket Auxiliary Expansion Tank water circuit. Caterpillar also provides an expan(Jacket Water Circuit) sion tank for Petroleum 3500B engines auxiliary water circuit (the aftercooler circuit). It can pro- An auxiliary expansion tank is not required vide adequate expansion volume for only a mod- when an engine-mounted or base-mounted heat est amount of jacket water. Figure 7.24 describes exchanger is used. Calculations to determine if an the allowable external volume using only the auxiliary tank is required must be made if a remotemounted heat exchanger, keel cooler, or devices engine-mounted JW expansion tank. such as watermakers are added. Figure 7.24 The factory-installed expansion tank must be contains data indicating coolant capacity limits of used with the heat exchanger and/or keel cool- engine-mounted expansion tanks. ing system. If it is absolutely necessary to remove the engine-mounted tank, consultation with An auxiliary expansion tank provides additional Caterpillar Application Engineering on tank relo- expansion volume for the cooling system. The cation and design is recommended. Modified function of this auxiliary tank need not be conexpansion tank performance should be verified cerned with deaeration and can, therefore, consist of a simple tank containing no baffle system. by testing. The engine cooling system, including the enginemounted tank, is designed to provide proper system venting. Air must also vent from the engine-mounted tank through the connecting
107 LEBW1414-00

pipe to the auxiliary tank. Additional air vent piping may be required if the auxiliary expansion tank is not located directly above the enginemounted expansion tank. Figure 7.25 shows the recommended method of adding expansion volume to the cooling system. The auxiliary tank should be supported separately and isolated with a flexible connector

against vibration from the engine-mounted tank. A pressure cap or vent cap is required. Auxiliary tank minimum volume should include total expansion volume required plus the water volume to the low water level in the tank. Figure 7.26, Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, can be used to determine minimum volume required.

Table of Cooling System Volumetric Data

Cooling System Volumetric Data Column A Column B Allowable External Volume Engine Jacket Water System Volume With Engine Mounted Tank With Engine Mounted Tank U.S. Gal Liters U.S. Gal Liters
0.0 0.0 2.1 2.1 0.0 0.0 10.0 10.0 14.0 14.0 64.0 48.0 32.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 8.0 0.0 0.0 38.0 38.0 53.0 53.0 243.0 182.0 122.0 7.5 7.5 14.7 14.7 12.0 12.0 23.6 23.6 37.5 42.8 75.3 85.3 101.4 28.0 28.0 55.6 55.6 45.0 45.0 94.5 94.5 142.0 162.0 285.0 323.0 384.0

Engine Model
3116 3126 3304B 3306B 3176 3196 3406C 3406E 3408C 3412 3508 3512 3516

Figure 7.24

Figure 7.25
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Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, Engine Jacket Water

Engine Model ____________________ Rating ____________________ Hp at ___________________ rpm 1. Allowable external volume ___________ gal/L, with engine-mounted tank. (This value shown in Figure 7.24). 2. Total Volume of jacket water contained in external cooling circuit (not furnished as part of engine) ___________ gal/L. See Figure 7.34, for volume per length of standard iron pipe. 3. Line 2 minus Line 1 ___________ gal/L. If this value is zero or less, additional tank is not required. If this value is greater than zero, an auxiliary tank is required. 4. If required, the minimum volume of the auxiliary expansion tank can be determined by: a. Engine volume, Figure 7.24, Column B ___________________________________________ b. External volume Line 2 __________________________________________________________ c. Multiply line a by 0.07 ___________________________________________________________ d. Multiply line b by 0.05 ___________________________________________________________ e. Total of lines c and d ____________________________________________________________ (This is the minimum volume of the jacket water auxiliary expansion tank.) For Separate Circuit Aftercooler: 1. Total volume of aftercooler external water ___________ gal/L. 2. Multiply Line 1 by 0.02 ___________ gal/L. 3. Add the cold fill volume desired in auxiliary expansion tank to Line 2. Total of Line 2 and cold fill volume ___________ gal/L. (This is the minimum volume of the aftercooler circuit auxiliary expansion tank.)
Figure 7.26

closed fresh water circuits. Strainer connections should be no smaller than the recommended Strainers and Filters line size. A differential pressure gauge across the Strainers are used with large fabricated coolant duplex strainers indicates pressure drop and piping systems to protect the cooling system enables the operator to determine when strainers from physical damage due to circulating abra- need servicing. sive materials and the plugging that occurs when Pressure drop across a strainer at maximum large foreign materials enter the system. Areas water flow should be considered as part of the having abundant marine life or shallow water systems external resistance. Suppliers can help drilling are benefited most by strainers. in proper selection of strainers and furnish the

System Considerations

Strainers should be installed as close to the hull values of pressure drop versus flow rate. The strainer selected should impose no more than as possible on the sea water inlet circuits. 3 ft. (1 m) water restriction to flow under clean Welded structural steel keel or skin cooler sysstrainer conditions. tems need strainers installed between the cooler and pump inlet. Material, such as weld slag and Careful initial cleaning of the fabricated cooling corrosion products, must be removed from the system in addition to annual cleaning will keep system to prevent wear of cooling system com- accumulation of wear-causing debris to a minimum. Maintenance of proper water coolant ponents. inhibitor concentrations will aid in minimizing Full-flow strainers of the duplex type are desirformation of debris. able. Strainer screens should be sized no larger than 0.125 in. (2.3 mm) mesh for use in sea water Some form of continuous bypass filter should circuits and 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) mesh for use in also be used to remove smaller particles and
109 LEBW1414-00

sediment. Element size of the continuous bypass Coolant velocities can be varied for a known pump flow by increasing or decreasing the size filter should be 20 to 50 microns. of the pipe and components in the system. TMI Water flow through the bypass and filter should or Engine Performance book lists flow values of not exceed 5 gal per min (19 L per min). engine driven pumps. Figures 7.27 and 7.28 are No filtering system is required on the engine useful graphs for converting water flow to velocjacket water circuit when the heat exchanger is ity for pipes and tubes. mounted on the oilfield base. When electric sea water supply pumps are used, it is recommended that flow be adjusted for individMarine Growth ual engines with a balancing cock or glove valve Marine growth in sea water cooling systems on the supply side of each engine. Pressure gauges occurs in many areas of the world. Increased on supply and return lines should be installed as temperature and flowing food source are primary a means of monitoring system operation. causes. Experience is the best guide in knowing where marine growth is excessive. System Pressure and Pressure Drop Marine growth refers to minute marine plant or animal life which enters the sea water cooling system, attaches itself, and grows. Sea water strainers have minimal effectiveness due to the minute size of the adolescent plant or animal life. (Strainers are effective with more mature plant or animal life.) Piping and heat transfer equipment resist cooling water flow, causing an external pressure head which opposes the water pump output. Cooling water flow is reduced as external head increases. Total system resistance to flow must be limited to ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is determined by size and length of pipe, number and Marine growth can be controlled with varying type of fittings and valves used, coolant flow rate, and losses contributed by heat transfer devices. degrees of success by several methods. Excessive external heads demand pumps with Periodic mechanical cleaning of heat exchanger, additional pressure capacity. etc., removes accumulated growth. It may be necDepending upon arrangement, sea water differessary to clean sea water headers also. ential pressure at the engine heat exchanger can Periodic chemical treatment combats marine be between 3 psi (21 kPa) and 12 psi (83 kPa). growth. Chemical type and concentration must be controlled to prevent deterioration of the sea Relief valves are required where sea water system water cooling system components. Contact a valve sequencing could result in system overpressures. Pressure control valves are required knowledgeable chemical supplier. where sea water flow to engines could be acciContinuous low-concentration chemical treat- dentally diverted to ballast pumps, mud tanks, etc. ment via either bulk chemical or self-generating processes are offered by various manufacturers. Check valves are not required on outlet of heat exchangers discharging into a common discharge manifold. Recirculation between heat Coolant Velocity exchangers does not occur. Coolant flow in the system must be maintained in a velocity range to achieve optimum heat A low sea water pressure alarm should be used in transfer without erosion damage to system com- case sea water pumps are inadvertently turned off ponents. Jacket water external circuit velocities or to warn of gas entrainment of sea water pumps between 2 to 8 ft. per sec (0.6 to 2.5 m per sec) are during an attempted blowout. acceptable. Sea water circuit velocities between Total system resistance to flow must be limited to 2 to 6 ft. per sec (0.6 to 1.9 m per sec) are accept- ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is deterable. Experience has shown these velocity ranges mined by size and quantity of pipe, fittings, and provide required cooling and adequate system life. other components in the cooling system. As resistance (pressure drop) increases, water pump flow decreases.

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110

m/s 3.5 3

fps 12

1.50 in. (38.1 mm)

2.00 in. (50.8 mm)

2.50 in. (63.5 mm)

3.00 in. (76.2 mm)

3.50 in. (89.0 mm) 4.00 in. (102.0 mm)

10 4.50 in. (114.0 mm)

2.5

VELOCITY

8 5.00 in. (127.0 mm) 6

1.5 4 1 2

.5

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

gpm

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

L/s

FLOW

VELOCITY VS FLOW Standard Pipe Sizes 1.5 to 5 in. (38.1 to 127 mm)
Figure 7.27
1.25 in. (31.8 mm) 1.75 in. 2.12 in. 2.38 in. (41.8 mm) (53.3 mm) (60.0 mm) 3.25 in. (83.0 mm) 3.50 in. (89 mm) 2.75 in. (95.3 mm) 4.00 in. (102.0 mm)

m/s 3.5 3

fps 12

1.00 in. 1.50 in. 2.00 in. 2.25 in. 2.50 in. 2.75 in. (25.4 mm) (38.1 mm) (50.5 mm) (57.0 mm) (63.5 mm) (70.0 mm)

10

4.75 in. (121.0 mm) 4.75 in. (121.0 mm)

2.5

VELOCITY

5.00 in. (127.0 mm)

2 6 1.5 4 1 2
Nom. Tube Size 0.65 in. (1.65 mm) Wall V= 0.321 Q 0.408 Q = A ID2 For Other Wall Thicknesses V = Vel (tps) Q = Flow (gpm) A = in2 (ID) ID = Inside Dia.

.5

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

gpm

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

L/s

FLOW

VELOCITY VS FLOW Tube Sizes from 1 in. to 5 in. O.D. (25.4 mm to 127 mm) (Common Usage Wall Thickness)
Figure 7.28

External resistance imposed on the pump (also called external head) includes both the resistance downstream of the pump outlet connection and resistance ahead of the pump inlet. Resistance to flow in the external circuit of a closed circulating system consists only of the frictional pressure drop.

Curves showing water flow versus external system head for engine jacket water pumps are available in the TMI. Maximum external resistance must not be exceeded in the cooling circuit added by the customer in order to maintain minimum water flow. Flows lower than the minimums shown in TMI or Engine Performance book for each pump circuit will shorten the life of the engine.
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111

Typical Friction Losses of Water In Pipe (Old Pipe) (Nominal Pipe Diameter)
Gallons Per Minute
gpm 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 75 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000

Head Loss in Feet Per 100 Ft (m per 100 m)

Gallons Per Minute

gpm 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 75 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000 L/s 0.34 0.63 0.95 1.26 1.58 1.9 2.21 2.52 2.84 3.15 3.79 4.42 4.73 5.05 5.68 6.31 7.89 9.46 11.05 12.62 14.20 15.77 17.35 18.93 20.5 22.08 23.66 25.24 26.81 28.39 29.97 31.55 47.32 63.09 78.86 94.64 110.41 126.18 157.7 189.3

3/4" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2-1/2" L/s (19.05 mm) 1" (25.4 mm) (31.75 mm) (38.1 mm) 2" (50.8 mm) (63.5 mm) 0.34 10.5 3.25 0.84 0.40 0.16 0.05 3" (76.2 mm) 0.63 38.0 11.7 3.05 1.43 0.50 0.17 0.07 0.95 80.0 25.0 6.50 3.05 1.07 0.37 0.15 1.26 136.0 42.0 11.1 5.20 1.82 0.61 0.25 1.58 4" (101.6 mm) 64.0 16.6 7.85 2.73 0.92 0.38 1.9 0.13 89.0 23.0 11.0 3.84 1.29 0.54 2.21 0.17 119.0 31.2 14.7 5.10 1.72 0.71 2.52 0.22 152.0 40.0 18.8 6.60 2.20 0.91 2.84 0.28 5" (127 mm) 50.0 23.2 8.20 2.76 1.16 3.15 0.34 0.11 60.0 28.4 9.90 3.32 1.38 3.79 0.47 0.16 85.0 39.6 13.9 4.65 1.92 4.42 0.63 0.21 113.0 53.0 18.4 6.20 2.57 4.73 0.72 0.24 129.0 60.0 20.9 7.05 2.93 5.05 0.81 0.27 145.0 68.0 23.7 7.90 3.28 5.68 1.00 0.34 6" (152.4 mm) 84.0 29.4 9.80 4.08 6.31 1.22 0.41 0.17 102.0 35.8 12.0 4.96 7.89 1.85 0.63 0.26 7" (177.8 mm) 54.0 17.6 7.55 9.46 2.60 0.87 0.36 0.17 76.0 25.7 10.5 11.05 3.44 1.16 0.48 0.22 8" (203.2 mm) 34.0 14.1 12.62 4.40 1.48 0.61 0.28 0.15 43.1 17.8 14.20 5.45 1.85 0.77 0.35 0.19 54.3 22.3 15.77 6.70 2.25 0.94 0.43 0.24 65.5 27.1 17.35 7.95 2.70 1.10 0.51 0.27 9" (228.6 mm) 32.3 18.93 9.30 3.14 1.30 0.60 0.32 0.18 38.0 20.5 10.8 3.65 1.51 0.68 0.37 0.21 44.1 22.08 12.4 4.19 1.70 0.77 0.43 0.24 50.5 23.66 14.2 4.80 1.95 0.89 0.48 0.28 10" (254 mm) 25.24 16.0 5.40 2.20 1.01 0.55 0.31 0.19 26.81 17.9 6.10 2.47 1.14 0.61 0.35 0.21 28.39 19.8 6.70 2.74 1.26 0.68 0.38 0.23 29.97 7.40 2.82 1.46 0.75 0.42 0.26 31.55 8.10 2.90 1.54 0.82 0.46 0.28 47.32 7.09 3.23 1.76 0.98 0.59 63.09 12.0 5.59 2.97 1.67 1.23 78.86 8.39 4.48 2.55 1.51 94.64 12" (305 mm) 11.7 6.24 3.52 2.13 110.41 1.1 7.45 4.70 2.80 126.18 1.4 10.71 6.02 3.59 157.73 1.8 189.27 2.5

Figure 7.29

When designing engine cooling systems, pressure drop (resistance) in the external cooling system can be calculated by totaling the pressure drop in each of the systems components. Figures 7.29 and 7.30 can be used to determine pressure drop through pipe, fittings, and valves. Suppliers of other components, such as strainers and sea cocks, can provide required data on their products.
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It is always necessary to evaluate the design and installation of cooling circuits by testing the operation and effectiveness of the completed system to ensure proper performance and life.

112

Resistance of Valves and Fittings to Flow of Fluids EXAMPLE: The dotted line shows that the resistance of a 6-inch Standard Elbow is equivalent to approximately 16 ft. of a 6-inch Standard Pipe. NOTE: For sudden enlargements or sudden contractions, use the smaller diameter, d, on the pipe size scale.

Figure 7.30
113 LEBW1414-00

Emergency Radiator Circuits

Some offshore drilling contractors may desire to install a radiator on one drill rig engine in order to supply some power whenever the sea water Radiators system becomes inoperative, Figure 7.31. Radiator cooling is the most common type of The radiator core must be suitable for 30 psi closed cooling systems. Radiator cooling pro(206 kPa) operation due to the controlled inlet vides a closed, self-contained system that is both temperature regulators. The radiator core opersimple and practical for most installations. ates near the engine jacket water pump pressure plus radiator cap pressure setting. See the sec- Cooling of the engine parts is accomplished by tion Water Temperature Regulators for additional keeping the coolant circulating and in contact with the metal surfaces to be cooled. The pump information. draws the coolant from the bottom of the radiaThe radiator should have an expansion tank to tor, forces it through the jackets and passages, collect any entrained gas. The pressure cap and ejects it into a tank on top of the radiator. should be removed and replaced with a 3/8 in. The coolant passes through a set of tubes to the (10 mm) vent line to the engine-mounted expanbottom of the radiator and again is circulated sion tank. A 1/4 in. (8 mm) orifice should be through the engine by pump action. A fan draws installed to limit flow. If more than one engine air over the outside of the tubes in the radiator is connected to this radiator, each engine must and cools the coolant as it flows downward. It have a vent line with a shutoff valve to be closed should be noted that the coolant is pumped when the engine is not running. See the section through the radiator from the top down. Radiators with Expansion Tanks for additional vent line information.

See the section Watermaker Installation Requirements for proper circuit requirements. Figure 7.15 is the proper circuit.

Figure 7.31
LEBW1414-00 114

The top tank is used for filling, expansion, and deaeration of engine coolant. Extended systems using added coolant may require enlarged top tanks. The top tank is fitted with a pressure cap. This cap allows coolant level to be checked and replenished as necessary. The cap also seals the cooling system and limits its pressure with a spring loaded disc valve. The cooling system is designed to operate under a pressure of 4 to 7 psi (27.6 to 48.3 kPa) which results in a top tank temperature of 210F (99C). This limit minimizes water pump cavitation and prevents steam formation in the engine water jacket. For each 1 psi (6.9 kPa) of pressure, the boiling point is raised about 3F (2C). The radiator fan represents a parasitic load of about 1.5% to 8% of the engine gross power output.

Ambient air temperature may not be the same as the air temperature flowing across the radiator core. An engine equipped with an engine-mounted radiator and blower fan will increase the air temperature as it flows across the engine to the radiator. The ambient temperature rise for different radiator locations is found in Figure 7.32.
Blower Fan Suction Fan
None Not Recommended with generator

Engine only, outside or in a large engine room Engine/generator outside or in a large engine room Engine/generator in enclosure with external muffler Engine/generator in enclosure with internal uninsulated muffler

5.4F (3C) 7.2F (4C) 12.6F (7C) 16.2F (9C)

Information on attachment radiator fan groups is Figure 7.32. Estimated air to core rise. available in the TMI. A selection of radiators with engine-driven fans is available for each Caterpillar Engine model. These radiators are fin and tube type and are generally available in two sizes for each engine; the smaller designed for 110F (43C) maximum ambient, and the larger for 125F (52C) maximum ambient. 140F (60C) are available for some configurations. Specific values can be supplied, as ambient capability will vary with engine power.

The effects of antifreeze must be considered when sizing a radiator. The ability to transfer heat diminishes when water is mixed with ethylene glycol. The loss in ambient capability due to antifreeze is about 1.8F (1C) for each 10% glycol, up to 50%. Fan noise should be considered when selecting radiator location. Fan noise transmits through the air inlet as well as the outlet. Soft flexible joints between the radiator and the ducting will minimize vibration and noise transmission. Position the radiator so prevailing winds do not act against the fan. One form of wind protection for radiators is a baffle located several feet from the radiator air discharge. Another method is to install an air duct outside the wall and mounting the air inlet or outlet vertically. Large radius bends and turning vanes prevent turbulence and excessive air flow restriction. Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces radiator performance. If radiator air flow is to be ducted, consult TMI or your radiator manufacturer regarding the allowable backpressure. An engine installation in an enclosed space requires that the inlet air flow rate to the enclosed space include the combustion air requirements of the engine, unless the air for the engine is ducted directly to the engine from the outside.
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Performance
Radiator Design Criteria and Considerations The following factors must be considered when designing and installing a radiator cooling system. Size the radiator to accommodate a heat rejection rate approximately 10% greater than the engines heat rejection. The additional 10% will compensate for possible variations from published or calculated heat rejection rates, overload, and system deterioration. Even if the expected load is less than the engine rated power, size the radiator to match engine rated power. Correction factors to the observed ambient air temperature capability for the engine must not be overlooked. Altitude above sea level reduces the density of air and its ability to cool the radiator. A good correction factor is 2F (1.38C) deducted from the observed ambient temperature capability for each 1000 ft. (305 m) above sea level.
115

Figure 7.33

Air flow losses and Efficiency Particular attention should be given to items restricting air flow, both in front of the radiator and to the rear of the fan. The additive effects of guards, bumpers, grills, and shutters in front of the radiator, pulleys, idlers, engine-mounted accessories, and the engine itself behind the fan can drastically reduce air flow.

Fan drives sometimes require an outboard bearing on the crankshaft pulley. These drives must have a flexible coupling between the pulley and the engine crankshaft. This coupling must not interfere with the longitudinal thermal growth of the crankshaft. CAUTION: Fan belt and drive guard may not be factory supplied due to the large number of possible configurations which we cannot identify. OSHA and other government bodies may have regulations concerning this. The user is responsible to provide such guards where required but not factory supplied.

Fan Drives Caterpillar fan drives are designed to prevent excessive crankshaft loading and to resist vibrations.

Nominal Size In (mm)

1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 4 4-1/2 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 3.18 6.35 9.53 12.70 19.05 25.40 31.75 38.10 50.80 63.50 76.20 88.90 101.60 114.30 127.00 152.40 177.80 203.20 228.60 254.00 304.80

Actual I.D. In (mm)

0.270 0.364 0.494 0.623 0.824 1.048 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.468 3.067 3.548 4.026 4.508 5.045 6.065 7.023 7.982 8.937 10.019 12.000 6.86 9.25 12.55 15.82 20.93 26.62 35.05 40.89 52.25 62.69 77.90 90.12 102.26 114.5 128.14 154.00 178.38 202.74 227.00 254.50 304.80

Pipe Dimensions Standard Iron Pipe Actual O.D. In (mm)

0.405 0.540 0.675 0.840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.550 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.563 6.625 7.625 8.625 9.625 10.750 12.750 10.29 13.72 17.15 21.34 26.68 33.40 42.16 48.26 60.33 73.02 88.90 101.60 114.30 127.00 141.30 168.28 193.66 219.08 244.48 273.05 323.85

ft per gal.
336.000 185.000 100.400 63.100 36.100 22.300 12.850 9.440 5.730 4.020 2.600 1.940 1.510 1.205 0.961 0.666 0.496 0.384 0.307 0.244 0.204

m per Liter
27.000 16.100 8.300 5.000 2.900 1.900 1.030 .760 .460 .320 .210 .160 .120 .097 .077 .054 .040 .031 .025 .020 .016

ft per cu. ft.

2513.000 1383.000 751.000 472.000 271.000 166.800 96.100 70.600 42.900 30.100 19.500 14.510 11.300 9.010 7.190 4.980 3.710 2.870 2.300 1.825 1.526

m per m3
27,049.0 14,886.0 8083.0 5080.0 2917.0 1795.0 1034.0 760.0 462.0 324.0 210.0 156.0 122.0 97.0 77.0 54.0 40.0 31.0 25.0 19.6 16.4

Figure 7.34
LEBW1414-00 116

Radiator Installation Criteria

Piping Coolant connections must be as large as (or larger than) applicable engine coolant connections. Outlet piping to the radiator must have a continuous upward slope. Low spots will cause engine to be an air trap to combustion gas leakage, Figures 7.11, 7.13 and 7.43. In order to maintain the correct flow relationship in the radiator top tank, it is recommended that no lines tee into the vent lines. Offset Radiator Where compound spacing causes radiator interference, it is possible to offset radiators to gain clearance. This is most successful where the radiator fan is radiator mounted. Figure 7.35 Crankcase Breathers Crankcase breather fumes should be ducted away from the radiator core when blower fans are used. See the section on Crankcase Ventilation for further information. Miscellaneous Guards should be fabricated for all exposed belts, pulleys, or fans.

Radiator Mounting on Mobile Equipment

Several of the 3408/3412 radiators require a base when engine-mounted, Figure 7.35. The bottom of these radiators is lower than the engine. The base raises the engine. In such cases, engine height may become unacceptable. For example, the derrick may no longer lay down. Figure 7.36 illustrates the base has not been used Figure 7.36 and radiator is supported off the carrier frame. Determine that upper radiator connections do not interfere with derrick. Many times in-line engine configurations will mount between the carriers frame members. The radiator usually will not fit. Optional mobile fan drives can then be used to provide a high mount fan drive up to the limits of their adjustments. The customer will have to supply the radiator or at least fabricate new water lines and supports.

117

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off. Double clamps are desirable for all hose connections under pressure. Radiator ambient capacity will be reduced by things such as: fan air recirculation due to vehicle cab, oil-to-air coolers added to core, watercooled exhaust manifolds, torque converter coolers, etc. Radiator Structure Caterpillar industrial radiators such as the 3300 Series unit construction type and the 3400 Series bolted core are not designed for applications with extreme machine vibration and large impact loads. The maximum total amplitude of vibration allowed at any point on the radiator core is 10 mil (5 mil). Core isolation is provided by rubber mounts from the radiator frame sufficient to limit core vibration amplitude for relatively high frequency vibration; but low frequency vibration in the order of 15 Hz may amplify radiator core Figure 7.37 motion beyond 10 mil. In these cases special The radiator top braces on radiators 17.0 ft2 machine frame or radiator support modifications (1.6 m2) and larger may not be adequate to must be made. restrain the radiator during off-road travel. This Radiator Performance Criteria would be particularly true with cross-mounted engines. For this reason, a sturdy brace is required Since many of the radiators used by equipment between the radiator top tank and rig structure, manufacturers will not be Caterpillar designed, a Figure 7.37. Brace angle should not be shallower complete evaluation of the cooling system is than that for the existing brace (which is to be required to prove the capability of the system. discarded). This bracing recommendation is an Caterpillar Application Engineering can provide engine installation requirement to be met by specific information on methods and criteria used engine installer. to evaluate radiator performance criteria or refer Additionally, service units require the radiator bottom supports to be securely connected to the rig. This protects against the large side-to-side chassis movements caused by the triplex pump. The radiator top may require side bracing as the radiator shock mounts allow large top end movement. Piping between the engine and the radiator should be flexible enough to provide for relative motion between the two. Hoses less than 6 in. (15.24 cm) in length provide little flexibility and are difficult to install. If the hose is more than 18 in. (45.7 cm) in length, it is susceptible to failure from vibration or coming loose at the connections. Long hoses on the inlet require wire support on the inside diameter to prevent collapsing. Support the piping with brackets, when necessary, to take weight off a vertical joint. High quality hose, clamps and fittings are a prerequisite for long life and to avoid premature failure. It if also necessary to bead pipe ends to reduce the possibility of a hose blowing
LEBW1414-00

to EDS 50.5, Form LEKQ3296. A cooling system test needs to be performed in accordance with EDS 50.5 when a Cat radiator or expansion tank is NOT used. Additional Heat Load Frequently, the engine cooling system is utilized to cool additional systems, such as transmissions and torque converters. The heat rejection of these devices must be considered when sizing the radiator. The additional heat load which must be added is 30% of flywheel power multiplied by 42.4 Btu/min/hp. (0.74 watt/hr/kW) on engines driving mud pumps. Use a factor of 20% of flywheel power for torque converters built into transmissions. Because the torque converter oil cooler is on the pressure side of the engine water pump, pressure rated hose should be used and anchored

118

3516 (1200)
Connections Only gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) (water) Cooler Only Oil gpm (L/s) Oil psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (oil pressure drop) Heat Rejection btu/min (kW) (SAE 30W Oil) 125 (7.9) 5 (34.5)

Auxiliary Cooling Provisions 3512 3508 3412 3412 (1200) (1200) (1200) (1800)
100 (6.31) 5.6 (38.6) 75 (4.7) 6.7 (46.2) 200 (12.7) 10 (69) 70 (4.41) 75 (517.1) 20 (137.9) 9558 (170) 215 (13.6) 10 (69) 70 (4.41) 75 (517.1) 20 (137.9) 9558 (170)

3408 (1800)
165 (10) 10 (69) 37 (2.33) 75 (517.1) 16.4 (113) 5688 (101)

3406

3306

3304

100 (6.3) 10 (69) 40 (2.52) 75 (517.1) 20 (137.9) 3750 (67)

(69) 16 (1.01) 75 (517.1) 20 (137.9) 2225 (39) 20 (1.26) 75 (517.1) 15 (103.4) 900 (16)

Figure 7.38

securely. See Figure 7.39. Hose clamps are inadequate to anchor securely. The cooler device must not present undue restriction to engine coolant flow.

Figure 7.38 lists the cooler or cooler connections available on oilfield engines. The btu/min heat Coolant Level rejection capacity may vary if other than SAE Caterpillar recommends a water reserve of 2 gal30W oil is used. lons (7.57 L) or 12% of system capacity, whichWater lines to the cooler must be high quality and ever is greater, be provided. In systems where anchored to the engine so that hose failures due total coolant capacity is more than twice engine to rubbing cannot occur. capacity, a reserve of 5% is sufficient. Radiators With Expansion Tanks Commercially available radiators may use expansion tanks instead of top tanks. Such a radiator must also meet the criteria listed in this section, Figure 7.41, and the section on Remote-Mounted Radiators. Expansion and Afterboil Volume An expansion volume equal to 10% of system capacity must be provided to accommodate coolant expansion and afterboil occurring at engine shutdown. Failure to allow for this can result in coolant overflow, dilution of antifreeze by subsequent makeup coolant, and possible water pump cavitation caused by reduction in coolant level. In systems where total capacity is more than twice engine coolant capacity, an expansion volume of 8% can be used, Figures 7.40 and 7.41.

The radiator should contain a low coolant level mark, Figure 7.40. It should be at or above the coolant level established under the coolant level heading. This mark should be based on a cold water condition.

TORQUE CONVERTER CONNECTIONS

Figure 7.39

Cold Fill and Low Coolant Level Marks Caterpillar recommends a cold fill mark be noted on the expansion tank or surge tank, Figure 7.40. This indicates to the operator when the cooling system is full.

119

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RADIATOR TOP TANK REQUIREMENTS

Figure 7.40

Radiator Overfilling A radiator brim-full will expel water through the overflow when the engine is started and brought up to operating temperature. If the radiator is refilled to brim-full when it is shut down, water will again be expelled when the engine is started.

flow rate is 110 gpm, the 1 gal volume would be changed 110 times per minute.

Any entrained air present in the external system is also drawn into the water pump, causing cavitation. Cavitation can also be caused by undersized piping creating a vacuum at the water pump inlet, causing water to boil. A cavitating pump Continued operation under this cycling will result reduces the amount of water being circulated, in diluting the cooling system anti-freeze and corusually resulting in engine damage. rosion protection. Additionally, makeup water may be poor quality Water Pump Cavitation and cause harmful deposits. Given proper conditions of pressure and temOperating personnel should be instructed to perature, all liquids will form a gaseous state NOT fill radiators brim-full, but up to the cold (boiling point). In the cooling system pump inlet, a gas or vapor bubble will displace liquid and fill mark only. reduce the amount of liquid that can be pumped. Air/Gas Venting This loss of pumping volume can be observed as Combustion gas leakage and entrained air must be a loss in water pump pressure rise. The maxivented from the cooling liquid. The venting mum pump rise loss acceptable at the cavitation requirement for each engine is shown in EDS 50.5. temperature is 10% of the pressure rise observed Separation of gas from a liquid medium requires at 120F (48C) coolant temperature to the pump a low coolant velocity at the top of the radiator while operating at rated speed. Acceptable cavand a relatively quiescent flow. Coolant velocity itation temperature for a given engine is 210F across the top of a radiator core should be (98C) minus the temperature rise across the approximately 2 fps (9.4 cm/s). Another way of engine when fully loaded. EDS 50.5 shows a stating this limit is based on the rate of change of method for calculating temperature rise. As a the fluid volume above the core. The maximum general rule, temperature rise will be in the range rate of change of volume should be 200 changes of 10F to 18F (5.5C to 10C). The TMI proper minute. For example, if the volume of water vides heat rejection to jacket water and pump above the core is 1 gal and the engine coolant flow which allows temperature rise calculations.
LEBW1414-00 120

Figure 7.41

Cavitation characteristics observed during an evaluation can be affected by system air venting capability. If air venting problems are present, cavitation temperature should be rechecked after a solution to the venting problem is found. Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown)

engine room, engine room temperature should be below 75F (24C). Duct work should be supported independent of engine or radiator.

Static pressure imposed by duct work must be determined for each installation. The radiator manufacturer should be consulted to determine Drawdown capability from full coolant level with permissible static pressure. 180F (82C) pump inlet temperature and engine operating at rated speed must be 12% of the total Radiator Air Flow system volume with no more than a 10% loss in pump pressure rise. This level, so established, is Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces radithe low level reference position and should be ator performance. If radiator air flow is to be marked in such a manner on the radiator top ducted, consult the radiator manufacturer regardtank that it can be accurately detected by visual ing allowable backpressure. An engine installation inspection. A metal plate or sight glass should in an enclosed space requires that the inlet air volbe provided. The 12% value is appropriate for ume include engine combustion air requirements. a system which uses a 7 psi pressure cap, but lower pressure systems should provide 16% Remote-Mounted Radiators drawdown capability. Remote systems impose added restriction on cooling water flow by additional piping and fitDuct Work tings. An auxiliary pump in series with the engineDuct work and adjustable shutters can be used to mounted pump should not be used to overcome direct some or all of the warmed radiator air for this restriction. Consideration should be given to heating purposes. If this air is used to heat the radiator design and larger piping.
121 LEBW1414-00

TMI contains performance curves of various jacket water pumps. Refer to Figures 7.27, 7.28, 7.29 and 7.30 for information on water velocity versus flow, frictional losses of water in pipe, and resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids. Remote-mounted radiators should never be located more than 57 ft. (17.5 m) above the engine. At greater heights, the static head developed may cause leakage of the engine water pump seals.

Remote radiators may also be on the same level as the engine, Figure 7.43. Oversize piping may be required to minimize piping loss.

As shown in Figure 7.43, do not run the engine water outlet line below the engine. Such design does not allow the engine to vent air or combustion gas to the radiator. Vent plugs could vent for initial fill, but combustion gas produced during operation would accumulate in the engine coolThe radiator top tank loses its air venting capa- ing system and cause severe engine damage. bility if it is located below the level of the engine Radiators for use with expansion tanks must regulator housing. When a radiator must be withstand a water operating pressure of 30 psi mounted lower than the engine, the factory sup- (207 kPa). (Caterpillar radiators are not recomplied expansion tank must be used, Figure 7.42. mended for this pressure.) This higher tube Radiator design operating pressure must be increased by 1 psi (6.9 kPa) for every 2 ft. (610 mm) the engine is above the radiator. Radiator pressure caps should not be used. It should be removed and the opening sealed. For best operation, water flow through the radiator should be reversed. This ensures gas or air does not get trapped in the radiator top tank, Figure 7.42. pressure results because the thermostats in an expansion tank circuit are changed to a controlled inlet configuration. See the section on Water Temperature Regulators. Conventional radiator tubes may flex and leak due to this pressure.

Figure 7.42

Figure 7.43
LEBW1414-00 122

Figure 7.45 indicates the correct size heater for each engine model at minimum ambient room temperatures to maintain engine jacket water at approximately 90F (32C). Heater sizing is based on wind velocity around the engine of 0 mph (0 kmh). When a 15 mph (24 kmh) wind is present, heater requirement doubles. Time required for temperature to stabilize is 10 hours. Wattage requirements for shorter time periods are inversely proportional to the 10-hour requirements. These heaters do not require circulating pumps. Physical location and exposure to wind can affect sizing. Contact Caterpillar for special voltages, threephase current, and special heaters for ambient temperatures lower than those listed. For those who install their own systems, these suggestions should be noted.
WATER HEATER
Figure 7.44

1. Mount heater as low as possible. 2. Cold water inlet to heater should be from lowest possible point in the engine cooling system.

Jacket Water Heaters

Jacket water heaters should be considered for 3. Avoid cold water loops any situation where cold water must rise to enter the heater. faster, easier starting in ambient air temperatures below 70F (21C). All automatic installations, 4. Join hot water side of heater near top of standby generators, etc., should include these engine cooling system, but below the therheaters, Figure 7.44. mostats. CAUTION: DO NOT CREATE HOT JACKET WATER HEATER SIZES WATER LOOPS. Hot water line should enter (Minimum Ambient Room Temperatures F/C, engine in either a horizontal or slightly No Wind and 10 hour warmup to 90F/33C) inclined plane, eliminating the possibility of forming a steam pocket. kW required
Engine Model
3516 3512 3508 3412 3408 3406 3306 3304

Attachment Units to achieve 3.0 kW 2 3.0 kW 40F/40C

10/23 30/34 40/40 40/40 40/40 40/40 40/40 40/40 9 kW 7.5 kW 5.5 kW 4.5 kW 3.5 kW 3 kW 1 kW .75 kW

5. Use same pipe size (or larger) as heater connections.

Cold Weather Considerations

Form SEBU5338-01 Cold Weather Operation, contains information on operation, lubrication, and maintenance in cold weather conditions. Methods of retaining engine heat are discussed below. Commercially available radiator shutters should be considered. Fan air flow across the engine increases heat lost to radiation. Particularly at light load, shutters minimize this heat loss and raises the engine temperature.
123 LEBW1414-00

Figure 7.45

Commercially available diesel fuel fired jacket water heaters should be considered on engines that must start when no AC power is available. Engine enclosures or engine room enclosures are recommended to retain engine heat. Extreme Cold Weather Considerations

low fan speed air requirements. The opening is adjustable. The enclosure door will have to be opened by hand for summertime operation. The house should be as airtight as possible. This includes an air barrier under the engine oil pan, as illustrated.

To minimize air changes in the engine room, combustion air can be ducted to the air cleaner from outside, as shown. An air source valve is included so the engine can be started and idled The radiator should be in a separate room from on the warmer air in the engine room. The engine the engine. Absence of the radiator air flow will should be operated on outside air. Otherwise, a ensure the engine environment is kept at a warmer vacuum may be caused in the engine room, depending upon how airtight the engine room temperature in cold weather. is. Air cleaner adapters are available to connect In warm temperatures, the weather enclosure is ducting. either removed or opened. Radiator cooling air is drawn in through a roof door in the radiator room Heavy duty air cleaners can be utilized for produring winter operation. Normally, radiator dis- tecting the engine from air cleaner plugging due to ice fogs, if they occur. charge air is utilized for rig heating. If emissions regulations allow them, two-speed Crankcase breather fumes should be piped out of radiator fans are recommended because they the engine room to minimize oily deposits. In offer several advantages for utilization of engine extremely cold weather, the fumes may have to heat. First, lower fan speed reduces air flow and be discharged into the engine room due to consequently increases air temperature rise of the breather outlet freezing. Fumes should be disradiator air flow utilized for rig heating. Second, charged as remotely as possible from engine air radiator fan horsepower is considerably reduced. cleaner inlets. An alternative sometimes used is to discharge the fumes under the power module Sensors for the two-speed motor and shutters base where it is generally warmer. have to be protected from being affected by the cold air coming through the roof door. The roof Lube oil and jacket water heaters should be prodoor area is sized to accommodate only the vided. They are required for cold startup after a Extreme conditions require additional protection, Figure 7.46. This protection is commercially available.

Figure 7.46
LEBW1414-00 124

rig move. (Power is supplied by a small cold start generator set.) They also can be used to maintain the temperature of an engine that is not running. On many rigs all engines are generally run at all times, as there is no reliable way to keep the engine ready for service at a moments notice, with a resultant increase in fuel usage. Jacket water heaters are readily available, but oil heaters are not. Oil is difficult to heat without circulation. Thus, immersion-type oil heaters are generally not recommended as they lead to coking of the oil. Unitized oil and water heaters are commercially available which overcome the problem. They employ oil and water circulating pumps for proper system operation. Exhaust piping should be so arranged that exhaust will NOT be drawn into the radiator or combustion air inlet. Sizing and Installing Radiators for EPA Certified 3500B Engines Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for detailed information on EPA regulations. Caterpillar radiators meet these requirements. Radiators must be sized to properly cool both the jacket water and SCAC systems at maximum ambient conditions and the conditions described below to comply with the EPA regulation. Failure to do so may be considered tampering. Jacket water system sizing for EPA-certified engines remains the same as non-certified engines. The SCAC system, however, must be properly sized to comply with EPA legislation. Specifically: SCAC radiator system must provide a maximum of 140F (60C) coolant to the aftercooler at 140 gpm (530 L/min) minimum flow on an 86F (30C) ambient day. Ambient is defined as air temperature outside of the engine room or building in which it is installed. Unless air cleaners are ducted to air at ambient temperature (inside or outside of the engine room), there will be an air temperature rise to the air cleaner. This rise will increase the intake manifold temperature and therefore affect emissions. To compensate for this air rise to the air cleaners (in cases where ducting is not possible), SCAC water temperature must be lowered by the amount of air temperature rise above ambient in a 1:1 ratio. Caterpillar 3500B engine-mounted radiators are sized to allow for a 7F (4C) air rise to the inlet

face of the radiator core (ATC) without ducting the air cleaners. Optional Caterpillar high ambient radiators (122F, 50C) are available that allow up to a 19F (10C) ATC rise where ducting is not practical. For non-Caterpillar radiators or remote-mounted radiators, compensate for the air rise to the air cleaners by using the aforementioned 1:1 ratio. For example, if the temperature rise to the inlet of the air cleaner is 10F (6C), the SCAC water temperature to the aftercooler must be 140F 10F = 130F at 86F ambient (60C 6C = 54C at 30C ambient). Depending on the installation, it may be more economical to duct the air cleaners to an ambient air location, or provide a larger SCAC radiator. Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for proper usage of auxiliary radiator control devices (such as variable frequency drives, multi-speed motors, dampers etc.) to ensure they are in compliance with the regulators. Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria Although Caterpillar-designed cooling packages are recommended for many applications, there are occasions where equipment manufacturers prefer to supply their own radiators. The following additional items should be considered with these radiators. Radiator Structure Mobile equipment applications require radiator construction which incorporates bolted top and bottom tanks with side channel support. Reinforcing strips should be used on both sides of the core header-to-tank bolted joint to limit distortion. Compressed rubber is often incorporated between the core and the inboard side of the channel members to provide additional core support. A complete evaluation of the cooling system is required to prove the capability of the system. Reference material for such an evaluation is provided by Engine Data Sheet EDS 50.5. Another useful reference for evaluating radiator top tank design is provided by EDS 52.1. Cooling Capability Caterpillar requires the maximum coolant discharge temperature to the radiator to be 210F (98C) for sea level operation and recommends a minimum ambient capability of 110F (42.9C)
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125

during full load operation at all operating speeds. This includes all additional heat loads which might be imposed on the cooling system such as torque converter coolers or air-to-oil coolers which might be added in front of the radiator. As indicated in EDS 50.5, certain measuring devices are required to evaluate cooling capability. A suitable method for measuring engine power could be a fuel meter, fuel setting indicator (rack position), or dynamometer. Additional measured data are engine speed, jacket water and aftercooler coolant temperatures in and out of radiator, air temperature to the radiator (several locations), and ambient air temperature which is sampled far enough from the machine to eliminate effects of heat generated by the operating machine. Location of the test site should be such that heated air which has passed through the radiator is not forced back through the radiator in an unrealistic manner by walls or other adjacent structures (recirculation of air). Recirculation of air can also be an inherent characteristic of the cooling system but should be avoided. Locating narrow strips of cloth on small pieces of wire fastened at various locations around the outside surface of the radiator provides an excellent flow path indicator. Another useful tool for indicating air flow path can be made by attaching a narrow strip of cloth to the end of a long piece of wire which can be used as a probe around the engine or radiator periphery. Baffling of the radiator or air flow directors are often necessary to ensure that unheated ambient air is directed to the radiator for most effective cooling. This is an insidious problem which should not be overlooked. Cooling capability of a radiator and torque converter cooler are referenced to a 70% or 80% converter efficiency operating level as a general design consideration. Normally, the performance characteristics of speed and torque ratio, input and output power, and the heat generated by lost power is provided by the torque converter manufacturer. The efficiency characteristic will be associated with an engine speed, and cooling system operating characteristics should be observed at this engine speed whenever possible.

absorbing device be fastened to the output shaft. Torque converters can be used as load absorbing devices if a separate cooling method (such as cold plant water) is provided to the cooler. Extended operation at converter stall can be accomplished allowing all coolant temperatures to stabilize without excessive torque converter oil temperature. Note, however, that the cooling capability established in this manner does not include the equivalent of 20% to 30% flywheel horsepower which would normally be cooled by the engine cooling system. This must be included by calculation in the same manner as the calculation shown in EDS 50.5 for extrapolating observed temperature data to 210F (90C) radiator top tank conditions. The additional heat load which must be added is 20% to 30% of flywheel horsepower multiplied times 42.4 Btu/min/hp. Filling Ability (Reference EDS 50.5) The cooling system must accept a bucket fill method (interrupted) and continuous fill method at a minimum rate of 5 gpm (18.9 L/min) without air lock (false fill). The coolant should not be below the qualified low operating level after engine start and warm-up. The low coolant level is established during drawdown tests. False fill is a potential problem with all types of radiators. Pump Cavitation (Reference EDS 50.5) Verify capability in accordance with the earlier discussion of water pump cavitation. Cavitation characteristics observed during an evaluation can be affected by the system air venting capability. If air venting problems are present, the cavitation temperature should be rechecked after a solution to the venting problem is found. Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown) (Reference EDS 50.5) Verify capability in accordance with the earlier discussion of cooling level sensitivity (Drawdown). Air/Gas Venting (Reference EDS 50.5)

Verify capability in accordance with the earlier discussion of air/gas venting. See Figures 7.47, 7.48, and 7.49 for suggested vent and fill piping Equipment manufacturers often find that impos- routing. ing a load on the engine is difficult to accomplish during cooling test operations. Direct drive machines are the most difficult and usually require that some type of dynamometer or other load
LEBW1414-00 126

Other Radiator Considerations Radiator inlet and outlet diameters should be the same or, if possible, larger on the outlet and should be located on diagonally opposite sides to limit channeling of coolant flow on one side of the core. The bottom tank height of the radiator should be no less than the outlet tube diameter. Radiator Core Core frontal area should be as large as possible to minimize restriction to air flow. Low radiator core restriction usually results in being able to provide a larger diameter, quieter, slower turning fan, which demands less drive horsepower. Radiator cores which are nearly square can provide the most effective fan performance. They can be installed with a minimum of unswept core area. As a general rule, keep core thicknesses to a minimum with a maximum of 11 fins per inch. Increasing the number of fins per inch does increase the radiator heat rejection for a given air velocity through the core but at the cost of increasing the resistance to airflow. While the most economical initial cost will be maximum core thicknesses and fins per inch, this involves higher fan horsepower with consequent operating cost and noise penalties throughout the life of the installation. In addition, a radiator with more fins per inch is much more susceptible to plugging from insects and debris. Fan Recommendations A. Fan Diameter and Speed As a general rule, the most desirable fan is one having the largest diameter and turning at the lowest speed to deliver the required air flow. This also results in lower fan noise and lowest fan horsepower draw from the engine. Blade tip speed, while being only one of the elements of cooling fan design, is an item easily changed with choice of fan drive pulley diameter. An optimum fan tip velocity of 14,000 fpm (7112 cm/s) is a good compromise for meeting noise legislation requirements and cooling system performance requirements. Maximum acceptable tip speed is 16,000 fpm (9144 cm/s) for Caterpillar fans.

B. Fan Performance Proper selection and placement of the fan is critical to the efficiency of the cooling system. It requires careful matching of the fan and radiator by determining air flow needed and static air pressure which the fan must overcome. This must be done since most discrepancies between cooling system calculated performance and test results are traceable to the air side and directly related to items affecting fan air flow. There are two major considerations for proper fan selection: 1. Air flow needed to provide the required cooling. 2. Select a fan that provides the required air flow, and one that is relatively insensitive to small changes in static pressure. This desired design point is where a small change in static pressure does not cause a large change in air flow. Selecting a lower pressure point is not recommended as it could be in the unstable stall area where a small change in static pressure causes a large change in air flow. Performance curves for available Caterpillar fans are shown as air flow (cfm), static pressure head, (inches of water, gauge) and horsepower in the TMI. The Caterpillar curves are based on standard air density, an efficient fan shroud, and no obstructions. This is a theoretical air flow which is seldom possible because of some obstruction. Theoretical air flow sometimes can be approached with the fan in a properly designed close fitting shroud with no more than 0.0625 in. (1.6 mm) blade tip clearance. Such a close fitting shroud is not practical, and tip clearance is increased; a 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) clearance is generally recommended. When a fan speed different from those shown in the curves is needed, the additional performance data can be calculated using these fan rules: For Speed Changes cfm2 = cfm1 rpm2 _____ rpm1
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127

Ps2 = Ps1 hp2 = hp1

( ( ( ( (

rpm2 _____ rpm1 rpm2 _____ rpm1

) ) ) ) )

For Diameter Changes cfm2 = cfm1 Ps2 = Ps1 hp2 = hp1 Dia2 _____ Dia1 Dia2 _____ Dia1 Dia2 _____ Dia1 2 __ 1 2 __ 1
3

are somewhat less efficient than the venturi shroud, box-type shrouds are most commonly used because of lower cost. Properly positioned, a simple orifice opening in the box shroud is practical. Straight tunnel shrouds are usually less effective than venturi or box shrouds. The fan tip clearance should be 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) or less. A properly designed shroud will: 1. Increase air flow. 2. Distribute air flow across core for more efficient use of available area. 3. Prevent recirculation of air. As a general rule, suction fans should be no closer to the core than the projected blade width of the fan. Greater distance gives better performance. Consider also that enginemounted items close to the back side of the fan can introduce vibrations into the fan to cause fan failure, increase fan noise, and reduce air flow. Suction fans should be positioned so that two-thirds of the projected width is inside a box shroud orifice plate while a blower fan position is one-third inside the shroud.

For Air Density Changes Ps2 = Ps1 hp2 = hp1

Ambient Capability Adjustments (Air Flow or Fan rpm Changes) T2 = T1 T2 = T1

( (

cmf1 _____ cfm2 rpm1 _____ rpm2

) )

0.7

0.7

Maximum Ambient Capability = 210 T2 cfm = Air flow in cubic feet per minute. rpm = Fan speed in revolutions per minute. Ps = Static pressure in inches of water. hp = Fan horsepower. Dia = Fan diameter in inches. = Air density in pounds per cubic foot. T = Coolant top tank temperature minus ambient air temperature. C. Fan Shrouds and Fan Location Two desirable types of shrouds are: venturi and box. Maximum air flow and efficiency is provided by a tight fitting venturi shroud with sufficient tunnel length to provide straight air streamlines. Small fan clearances require a fixed fan or an adjustable shroud. Although they
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Proper Venting for Non-Standard Radiators

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL RADIATOR CORE

Figure 7.47

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL CROSS FLOW RADIATOR

Figure 7.48

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH HORIZONTAL RADIATOR

Figure 7.49
129 LEBW1414-00

LUBRICATION
The lubricating system of a modern diesel engine accomplishes three purposes. First, it lubricates friction surfaces to minimize friction losses. Second, it cools internal engine parts which cannot be directly cooled by the engines water cooling system. Third, it cleans the engine by flushing away wear particles. Proper lubrication requires clean oil free from abrasive particles and corrosive compounds. It requires a lubricant with sufficient film strength to withstand bearing pressures, low enough viscosity index to flow properly when cold and high enough to retain film strength when subjected to heat exposure on cylinder and piston walls. The lubricant must neutralize harmful combustion products and hold them in suspension for the duration of the oil change period. Your local Caterpillar Dealer should be consulted to determine the best lubricant for local fuels. Caterpillar elements is encouraged for adequate engine protection. Larger oil pans are available on some engines. They provide increased oil change intervals and/or increased tilt angle capability.

Lubricating Oil Requirements

Sulfur content of todays diesel fuels is increasing in certain areas. Fuel supplies around the world are limited and in order to maintain needed quantities, refineries are buying crude oil wherever available. Sulfur levels of these crude oils vary significantly. Sulfur content of refined diesel fuel is dependent upon the amount of sulfur in the crude supply, and the refiners ability to remove it.

When diesel fuel is burned in the engines combustion chamber, fuel sulfur is converted to sulThe 3600 Series diesel engines and all Gas fur oxides. These compounds will unite with engines have different, unique oil specifications water vapor to form acids. When the vapors cool and condense in the valve guides or in the pisand requirements. ton ring belt area, the acids attack metal and cause corrosive wear. One function of the engine Cleanliness lubricating oil is to neutralize the acids and retard Normal engine operation generates a variety of metal corrosion. contamination ranging from microscopic metal particles to corrosive chemicals. If the engine oil One factor that influences the formation of coris not kept clean through filtration, this contam- rosive acids is the engine jacket water outlet ination would be carried through the engine via temperature. If the outlet temperature is below 175F (70C), acid vapor is readily formed the oil. because of the lower dew point temperature and Oil filters are designed to remove these harmful corrosion can occur. This is true even in fuels debris particles from the lubrication system. Use with less than 0.5% sulfur. Under the above conof a filter beyond its intended life can result in a dition, the fuel performs as if it contained two plugged filter. to three times the percent of sulfur that it actuA plugged filter will cause the bypass valve to ally has. open releasing unfiltered oil. Any debris particles When corrosion occurs, the usual signs are liner in the oil will then flow directly to the engine. wear and ring wear. However, top ring wear is Solid particles are removed from the oil by not caused by corrosion but by the ring workmechanical filtration. Filter mesh size is deter- ing/sliding against a pitted surface. This pitted mined by the maximum particle size that can be surface can peel layers of chrome off the ring circulated without noticeable abrasive action. surfaces. Ring and liner wear will result in excesStandard oil filter systems on Caterpillar Engines sive oil consumption. meet these requirements and are sized to pro- Also, the water content of the oil increases vide reasonable time intervals between element because of the lower temperature. The water changes. Filter change intervals relate to oil can react with the additives, deplete them and change periods. form sludge. This reduces the oils protective Caterpillar filters are designed to provide property. maximum engine protection. Use of genuine
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17 15 13 11

1 2

TBN

9 7 5 3 1 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Y
Y X 1 2

X
% FUEL SULFUR, BY WEIGHT

TBN by ASTM D2896 Percentage of fuel sulfur by weight TBN of new oil Change the oil when the TBN deteriorates to 50% of the original TBN

Figure 8.1

Additives

Lubricating oil consists of a mixture of base oil fortified with certain additives. Depending on the type of base, paraffinic, asphaltic, naphthenic or intermediate (which has some of the properties of the former), different additive chemistries are used. High Sulfur Fuels Certain lubricating oil additives contain alkaline Caterpillar lube oil change period recommenconstituents which perform the neutralizing func- dations are based on the use of diesel fuels contion. The measure of alkalinity in a lube oil is taining 0.4% or less of sulfur by weight. Fuel termed TBN or Total Base Number. Oils having sulfur can produce rapid engine wear. Fuels of high initial TBN values will generally have more higher sulfur content than 0.4% will require reserve alkalinity or acid neutralizing capacity. reducing the oil change interval and/or use of To minimize engine corrosive wear caused by high TBN oil. These measures reduce the corincreases in fuel sulfur levels, engine oils with rosive effect of the sulfuric acid that is formed by higher alkalinity reserve (TBN) are essential. the sulfur and other by-products of combustion. Guidelines have been developed to be used in the selection of engine lubricating oils that may permit standard oil drain intervals when using diesel fuel with up to 1.5% sulfur content. This can be accomplished through use of oils with appropriate alkalinity reserves (new oil TBN values) and satisfactory verification procedures listed in oil analysis. Figure 8.1 contains the necessary information to select the appropriate new oil alkalinity value (TBN) for the sulfur level in the fuel being used.
131 LEBW1414-00

It must be kept in mind the new oil recommended TBN value will provide acceptable performance up to the standard drain interval, and we do not recommend selecting oils with significantly higher TBN values. More than 5 TBN above recommended is not advisable.

The properties of the specific lube oil used, load factor, and other variables may affect the rate of wear due to sulfur. The lube oil supplier should be consulted for the analysis parameters and limits which will assure satisfactory engine performance with his products.

Contamination Contamination refers to the presence of unwanted material or contaminants in the oil. There are seven major contaminants. 1. Wear Elements Wear elements are regarded as those elements whose presence indicates a part or component which is wearing. Wear elements include: copper, iron, chromium, aluminum, lead-tin, molybdenum, silicon, nickel, and magnesium.

2. Dirt and Soot Dirt can get into the oil via air blowing down past the rings and by sticking to the oil film and being scraped down from cylinder walls. Soot is unburned fuel. Black smoke and a Other SOS elements (e.g., copper, aluminum, dirty air filter indicate its presence. It causes tin and silicon) should not be ignored, however, oil to turn black. since acid corrosion is not the only cause of engine wear. Infrared analysis can provide oil 3. Fuel Unburned fuel may enter under cold condi- condition information indicating problems that tions or enter when the engine is not run- may be contributing to engine wear. ning, but with a high static fuel pressure. 4.

Oils of the same alkalinity value may not perform the same. Oil alkalinity can be achieved through a variety of additive formulations; some are more effective against acid corrosive wear than others. For this reason, it will be necessary to closely monitor engine wear with Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS) Atomic Absorption Wear Analysis. If oil recommendations are followed and excessive wear is indicated by unacceptable levels of iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr) wear particles, it will be necessary to shorten the oil change interval or change to another oil of higher TBN value. If such oils are not available, SOS can provide the information necessary to establish the maximum limit for a reduced drain interval.

5. 6. 7.

If the means are available to analyze used oil TBN by ASTM D2896, use Figure 8.1 to deterWater It can condense in the crankcase if the mine the minimum TBN allowable in used oil. engine operating temperature is insufficient. Minimum allowable TBN is determined by fuel sulfur content. These limits are higher for proThe usual means of entry is via leaks. portionately higher fuel sulfur contents. ConEthylene Glycol/Antifreeze trolled laboratory tests have demonstrated this is necessary because oil alkalinity concentraSulfur Products/Acids tion in critical areas having only small amounts Oxidation Products of oil (valve guides and piston ring belt areas) Oxidation products cause the oil to thicken; must be proportionately higher to effectively oxidation rate is accelerated by high tem- neutralize the higher quantities of acids properature of the inlet air. duced in those areas.

Coping with effects of fuel sulfur is not a simple problem. Oils with larger quantities of acid neuMany Caterpillar Dealers offer Scheduled Oil tralizing components will have higher ash conSampling as a means of determining engine tents. This may increase deposits on exhaust condition by analyzing lubricating oil for wear valve heads and turbocharger nozzle rings. Even particles. This program will analyze the wear though proper use of lubricants and oil drain rate of your engines, indicate any shortcomings intervals reduce the degree of corrosive attack, in engine maintenance, show first signs of exces- engine wear will increase when high sulfur fuel sive wear which would mean an upcoming fail- is used. ure, and help keep repair costs to a minimum. This program may not indicate lube oil condition Synthetic Lubricants

Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS)

nor predict a fatigue or sudden failure. Caterpillar Caterpillar Inc. neither endorses nor recommends recommendations for oil and oil change periods a brand or type of extended oil drain interval are published in Service Literature. Caterpillar crankcase oil for its engines. does not recommend exceeding published oil change recommendations without verification procedures.
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Crankcase oil is changed because it becomes contaminated with soot (unburned carbon), wear products, partially burned fuel, acids, dirt, and products of combustion. The additive components included in the oil become depleted as they perform their intended functions of dispersing soot, preventing oxidation, wear, foaming, etc. Caterpillar requires engine crankcase lubricants to meet Engine Service Designation API CH-4. Special Oil Formulations Caterpillar does not recommend the use of additives to extend oil change periods. Oil additives such as graphite, teflon, molybdenum disulfide, etc., which have been properly blended into an oil that meets API CH-4 specification can be used in Caterpillar Diesel Engines. These additives are not necessary to achieve normal life and performance of the engine.

The required viscosity is listed in Figure 8.2. Multiviscosity oils are acceptable. In extreme cold weather operation, where engines are located in enclosed heated rooms, some operators and contractors prefer to make their oil viscosity selection based on the expected range of temperature within the engine room. After a winter rig move, this may require use of space heaters in the engine room for an extended period of time before the engines can be started.
Caterpillar DEO Multigrade EMA LRG-1 API CH-4 API CG-4 and API CF-4 Viscosity Grade
SAE 0W20 SAE 0W30 SAE 0W40 SAE 5W30 SAE 5W40 SAE 10W30 SAE 15W40

Engine Oil Viscosity Ambient Temperature

Minimum

Maximum

Normal engine life and performance can be achieved by properly applying the engine, by servicing at recommended oil change period, by selecting the correct oil viscosity, by using a API CH-4 oil, and performing maintenance as outlined in the engine operation and mainte- Figure 8.2 nance guide. Lubricating Oil Heaters Caterpillar does not recommend the use of molybdenum dithiophosphate friction modifier Caterpillar does not recommend the use of additive in the engine oil. This additive causes immersion-type lubrication oil heaters due to their rapid corrosion of bronze components in tendency to overheat the oil in contact with the heating element. This overheating causes deteCaterpillar Diesel Engines. rioration and sludging of the lubricating oil and may lead to premature engine failure. Lubricating Oil Oils meeting Engine service classification API CH-4 are recommended for Caterpillar Diesel Engines. Publication Caterpillar Commercial Diesel Engine Fluids Recommendations, form SEBU6251-06, contains complete information. Viscosity is the property of oil which defines its thickness or resistance to flow. Viscosity is directly related to how well an oil will lubricate and protect surfaces that contact one another. Oil must be provided in adequate supply to all moving parts, regardless of the temperature. The more viscous (thicker) an oil is, the stronger the oil film it will provide. To avoid this condition, when using an oil heater, heater skin temperatures should not exceed 300F (150C) and have a maximum heat density of 8 W/in2 (12.5 W/1000 mm2).

40F (40C) 40F (40C) 40F (40C) 22F (30C) 22F (30C) 4F (20C) 5F (15C)

50F (10C) 86F (30C) 104F (40C) 86F (30C) 104F (40C) 104F (40C) 122F (50C)

Prelubrication
3512 and 3516 Vee-type engines have the capability to prelubricate all critical bearing journals before energizing the starting motors. The automatic system, standard on the 3516 drill rig engine utilizes a small air powered pump which fills the engine oil galleries from the engine oil sump until the presence of oil is sensed at the upper portion of the lubrication system. Starter motors are automatically energized only after the engine has been adequately prelubricated.
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133

Duplex Oil Filter System

Oilfield engines that require marine classification society certification must be capable of oil filter A. Exercise cleanliness during removal and change while running. installation of oil filters and lines. Keep all The optional Caterpillar Duplex Oil Filter System openings covered until final connections (available for 3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516 are made. offshore engines) meets requirements of the standard filter system plus an auxiliary filter sys- B. Use medium pressure high temperature (250F [120C]) hose equivalent to or tem with necessary valves and piping, Figure 8.3. exceeding SAE 100R5 specification. The system provides means for changing either main or auxiliary filter elements with the engine C Keep oil lines as short as possible and at least running at any load or speed. A filter change indias large as engine connections. cator is included to tell when to change the main filter elements. A vent valve allows purging of air D. Support hose as necessary to keep from chafing or cutting on sharp corners. trapped in either the main or auxiliary system when installing new elements. Air must be purged E. Use care in connecting oil lines so the direcfrom the changed section to eliminate possible tion of oil flow is correct. CAUTION: Engine turbocharger and bearing damage. The auxiliary damage will occur if oil filter is improperly system is capable of providing adequate oil filconnected. tration for at least 100 hours under full load and speed operation. The same filter elements are Tilt Angles used in both systems. Installations at a permanent tilt or slant angle Changing the filters when the engine is running should be reviewed to ensure the lubrication sysis not recommended when engine driven radia- tem will function properly. Transient and contintors are used since fan blast may disperse oil dur- uous tilt angle limits are shown for all engines in ing filter change. the TMI.
FUEL FILTER OIL FILTER

While remote filters have more potential for oil leaks, they seldom cause problems when the following recommendations are followed:

Supplemental Bypass Filters

Supplemental filters generally fall into two categories. The first are centrifugal filters. Centrifugal filters remove solids from the oil such as sludge, wear materials, soot and carbonous material. Centrifugal filters can extend the operating hours before the primary filters become restricted as indicated by oil filter differential pressure. The second category of supplemental filters is absorptive filters. Absorptive filters have an absorbent media such as cotton or cellulose fibers which absorb acids, moisture and remove contaminants from the oil.

DUPLEX LUBE OIL FILTER

Figure 8.3

Caterpillar Engines usually do not require a supRemote Filters plemental bypass oil filter system. However there Some Caterpillar Engines have the capability for may exist some unusual operating condition remote mounting the oil filter when space limita- which would cause the user to install a system. tion or serviceability is a problem on mobile type Centrifugal filters have proved helpful in extendland drill rigs. However, authorization from ing the primary filter life while absorptive filters Caterpillar Inc. must be obtained before making reduce acids and contaminants in the oil. any modification to the engine lubrication system.

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134

If used, system must have a non-drainback feature when the engine is shut down and a 0.125 in. maximum diameter orifice limiting flow to 2 gpm (7.57 L/min). Refer to engine general dimension drawings for recommended bypass filter supply location and oil return to the crankcase. Supplemental bypass absorptive filters increase oil capacity and may allow oil and filter change periods to be extended. However the drain intervals cannot be extended arbitrarily. Oil and filter life must be verified by adequate monitoring systems. Refer to the Caterpillar Operation Guide for recommended change periods.

135

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FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM

low pressure. It is injected by individual high pressure pumps into each cylinder through special The diesel engine fuel supply, delivery, and gov- high pressure fuel lines (6) to individual injectors erning systems have one primary purpose to contained in the cylinder head (DI). deliver clean fuel at the precise quantity and time needed to produce the required engine perform- Fuel in excess of engine demand is bypassed ance. To do this many precision components are through a pressure regulating valve (8) where all needed but the two major devices are the fuel or part of it returns to the fuel tank along with injection pump and the governor which controls any air which may have been purged out of the it. The fuel system supplied on a Cat Engine is system. On modern, unit fuel injected engines, essentially complete, requiring only the hookup the fuel flow also cools the injector. Fuel flow rate of fuel supply and return lines to a fuel tank, and is approximately 6 times the full load fuel consumption rate. Fuel coolers (13) may be required connection of governor controls. to prevent excessive fuel temperature. A complete fuel system includes all of the following basic devices also shown by schematic below. For every 10F (6C) that the fuel temperature rises above 100F (38C) the engine loses about In addition to these basic features, other devices 1% of the gross horsepower as a result of the are frequently used to provide additional func- expansion of the fuel (low viscosity). With very tions or to modify one of the basic functions. low viscosity, the fuel loses the capability to Examples are fuel heaters, primary filters, duplex lubricate and damage to the injection compofilters, fuel coolers, air-fuel ratio controllers, load nents will occur. To avoid this, the maximum fuel limiters, ether aids, load indicators, flow meters, temperature should not at any time exceed gauges, and shutoffs. 150F (66C). A complete fuel system includes all of the fol- If the system is drained, as during repair or filter lowing basic devices also shown by schematic change, a hand-operated fuel priming pump (9) below: is used to fill the system and expel the air. A pres-

System Description

1. Fuel Tank 2. Water Separator or Primary Filter 3. Transfer Pump 4. Secondary Filter 5. Injection Pump 6. Injection Lines 7. Injection Valves 9. Priming Pump 10. Fuel Pressure Gauge 11. Governor and Controls 12. Low Pressure Lines and Fittings 13. Fuel Cooler Fuel is drawn from the tank (1) through the optional water separator or primary fuel filter (2) by the engine-driven fuel transfer pump (3) and pumped through the secondary fuel filter (4) into the injection pump housing reservoir (5) (or individual cylinder unit injector) and maintained at
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sure gauge (10) shows pressure of filtered fuel supplied to the injection pump. If filters become plugged and require replacing, the gauge will read low when the engine is operating at load. The governor (11) controls the individual fuel rates from shutoff to full delivery in order to achieve desired engine speed, regardless of load.

or unit fuel injector

Component Description and Installation Requirements

Individual components of the fuel system are described here more completely as to purpose, recommended features, and installation requirements to achieve satisfactory performance and life. Fuel Tank It provides fuel storage and should have the following features: Adequate size for the intended application. The capacity of a fuel tank or tank system can be estimated by multiplying the average horsepower demand by the hours of operation between

8. Fuel Pressure Regulator

136

the required expansion volume. A small vent hole (about 0.19 in. [4.81 mm] diameter) in filler tube, just below top of tank, is required to make this This calculation does not allow for any reserve volume usable. capacity which should be added to this basic Venting to atmospheric pressure is necessary to requirement. prevent pressure or vacuum buildup. A large tank Appropriate material. Steel, aluminum, stainless can be collapsed by vacuum or burst by pressteel, or copper clad steel is used successfully. sure if not vented properly. The vent should Fuel tanks are best made from low carbon include a filter. rolled steel. Filler must be adequately sized and located for Water in fuel produces a voluminous, white cor- convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel rosion product when in contact with zinc. spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel Do not use zinc on significant surface area items spillage should not reach items which can soak such as fuel tanks and lines which have potential up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel. refuelings, and divide the result by 16 for U.S. gallons and by 4 for liters. for sitting in contact with stagnant pools of water for long periods of time. Fittings made of brass or coated with zinc should be acceptable because of limited exposure to stagnant water and a lack of sufficient surface area to produce enough corrosion product to cause plugging problems. Galvanized steel is essentially the same as zinc coated material. A 2 sloping bottom helps collect sediment and any major amounts of water, and a bottom drain is necessary to permit periodic removal of these contaminants. Fuel supply pickup should be off the bottom enough to leave 3% to 5% of the fuel in the tank. This should leave sediment and water in the tank until drained off periodically.

The fuel tank must meet stringent corrosion proFuel return line should normally enter the tank tection and leak detection regulations. at the top and extend downward, exiting above Expansion volume must be adequate to allow for the fuel level. Inlet and return lines should be sepexpansion of stored fuel during temperature arated in the tank by at least 12 in. (204.8 mm) change. Allowance of 5% of tank volume is ade- to avoid air pickup in the inlet line. quate. This can be provided by extending the The fuel tank should be grounded. filler neck down into the tank enough to create

REPRESENTATIVE BASIC FUEL SYSTEM (CONSULT TMI SCHEMATICS FOR EACH SPECIFIC MODEL)
Figure 9.1
137 LEBW1414-00

Tank Maintenance Fuel has a finite storage life of approximately one year, although this may vary widely depending upon initial quality, contaminant levels and storage conditions. Periodic exchange of fuel and filtering/treating to remove water, scale and bacteria growth will extend fuel life. Water contamination of fuel during long-term storage offers a medium for bacterial growth, forming a dark slime which: Plugs filters Deposits on tank walls and pipes Swells rubber products that it contacts Sulfur compounds are natural antioxidants, so the low sulfur fuels (0.05% by weight) now available will degrade quicker in storage. The diesel fuel will oxidize and form gums and varnishes which can plug fuel filters and injectors.

water. Fuel coolers may be necessary for proper engine performance. The following factors affect the need for fuel cooling equipment: Length of periods of continuous operation: If the operating periods are short, the amount of heat returned to the fuel tanks will be relatively small. Fuel coolers are not generally required for engines used in high performance applications, such as fracturing. Length of time between periods of operation: If the time between periods of operation is long, the heat will have an opportunity to dissipate. Volume of the fuel tank: If the volume of the fuel tank is large (larger than 3,000 gal. (11 000 L) per engine, it will accept a great deal of heat before the temperature of the fuel leaving the tank increases significantly.

Local experience may modify these recommenBecause microorganism growth occurs in the dations, particularly in hot climates. fuel/water layer, the tank should be designed to minimize this interface, and water bottoms should Offshore Rigs be drained regularly. Offshore rigs should have a fuel day tank installed Microbiocide additives, either water- or fuel-sol- in the engine room, Figure 9.2. All engine fuel uble, can be added to fresh fuel to inhibit microor- supply and return lines (or manifolds) should be ganism growth. Consult your local fuel supplier connected to this tank. This allows for venting of any air that may enter fuel delivery system. for recommended additives. In warm climates, large bulk storage diesel fuel The day tanks fuel level when full should not requires full filtering every six months to one year. exceed the top of the injection valves. If the full level is higher, static pressure in the supply and Every two years fuel should be completely return lines may allow fuel to leak into combuschanged to remove water, scale, bacteria growth, tion chambers when the engine is not running. oxidized gums/resins, and minimize filter clog- Engine damage can result. ging due to fuel separation into components such Where it is customary to install a large fuel as asphaltenes. day tank at the top of the engine room, an auxiliary day tank should be mounted near the Fuel Coolers engine room deck and float fed from the larger A fuel cooler may be required on engines with tank Figure 9.2. A capacity of 100-300 gal. unit fuel injectors, such as the 3500 series. (379-1136 L) is sufficient. The auxiliary day tank Typical applications will be those where the fuel isolates the pressure head of the day tank from tank is exposed to high ambient temperatures the engine fuel system. or where there are restrictions to the size of the tank. The fuel temperature must be kept below Land Rigs 150F (66C). For land rigs the fuel day tank refill mark must not By reducing the temperature of fuel and remov- be more than 12 ft. (3.65 m) below the engine ing harmful particles, coolers and filters improve fuel transfer pump. If the fuel day tank is more the quality of the fuel used by an engine. than 30 ft. (9.15 m) from the engines or if ambiThe excess fuel returned from some engines ent temperature is extremely low, larger fuel supequipped with unit injectors (1.7 liter, and 3500 ply and return lines should be used to ensure Family Engines) can absorb considerable heat adequate flow. The fuel day tank should have from the injectors and the surrounding jacket
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FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Figure 9.2

provisions to vent air in case it enters the fuel Baffles reduce sloshing and resulting air entrainment. They also prevent sudden shifts in the delivery system. tanks center of gravity, when in motion, as on a Elevated fuel tanks for land rigs should not exceed mobile machine. the limitations, Figure 9.2. Strong fastening of the fuel tank to the machine Where a portion of the rig engines are elevated is essential. This is especially important on a on a substructure, 100 gal. (380 L) day tanks mobile application where motion of a full tank installed next to each engine improve startabilgenerates sizeable forces. It is good practice to ity and isolate ground level engines from high use some nonmetallic cushioning material static fuel pressure. This requires an electric fuel between the tank and support members to avoid transfer pump at the main fuel tank location to fretting and wear on the tank. provide low pressure fuel to these individual float Filler must be adequately sized and located for controlled day tanks, Figure 9.3. convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel Mobile Rigs spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel Adequate fuel tank structural strength is required spillage should not reach items which can soak to avoid failure under application conditions up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel. which may include shock loading and steady Filler should be located near center of tank so vibration. that parking a mobile machine on a side tilt will

Figure 9.3
139 LEBW1414-00

not cause expanding fuel to back up into filler pipe and overflow. This will also help avoid spilling fuel from a full tank when operating on a grade. Fuel tanks should be shielded or located away from major heat radiating sources such as hot exhaust manifolds and turbochargers. Also, the cooling fan blast picks up enough heat from the radiator to raise fuel temperatures significantly if the air is directed at the fuel tank. This will result in some power loss because of the heated, expanded fuel. Water Separator and Primary Filter

likely to drain it out periodically. If the device is hard to see or difficult to service, it may not receive regular attention. The installation should include valves which can isolate the separator and primary filter when elements are changed. Excessive amounts of water, slimy material on filters, corrosion of fuel system components, or tank coatings may indicate fungus/bacteria in the fuel. Contact your fuel supplier for test kits to determine the degree of contamination and chemical additives to prevent recurrence.

Because water can collect and freeze at low points in fuel lines, filters, or other components Clean fuel meeting Caterpillars recommendathat contain fuel, a water separator should be tions assures maximum engine service life and placed as close to the fuel tank as practical in a performance; anything less is a compromise and visible, serviceable location. Usually, the sepathe risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuel not rator has a see-through feature that allows a meeting Caterpillars minimum fuel specifications quick visual check for presence of water and a will adversely affect combustion, filter life, startaquick-drain valve to let water out. bility and life of internal components. Clean fuel is of utmost importance to fuel injection system components if long, trouble-free service life is expected. All Caterpillar Engines are equipped with a main micronic filter system to protect the fuel injection pumps and valves. These filters are not designed to cope with great quantities of sediment and water. Both impurities should be removed by an optional primary filter. A fuel centrifuge used in place of a water separator is acceptable. A primary fuel filter should still be used because of contaminants that may be in the tank and piping as a result of construction. Lines and Fittings Pipes, hoses, and fittings must be mechanically strong, leak-tight, and resistant to deterioration due to age or environmental conditions. Sizing must be adequate to minimize flow loss. Routing must be correct, and flex connections, such as hose assemblies, must isolate engine motion from the stationary members in the system. The pipes should be of the same material as the tank, black iron or steel to avoid reaction with the fuel.

Copper pipe or tubing may be substituted in sizes The system should be located ahead of any fuel of 0.5 in. (13.0 mm) nominal pipe size or less. pumps since pumps have a tendency to emul- Valves and fittings may be cast iron or bronze sify the water with the fuel, which will reduce the (not brass). efficiency of the water trap. Give close attention Do not use zinc alloy or galvanized metal due to to the systems restriction since this will reduce its high chemical reaction with fuel. the fuel pump lift capability. The size of the pipe should be the same as the Any system can be damaged by water in the fuel; size of the engine fuel inlet. so water should be removed. Fuel system damage by water is always the responsibility of Piping and fittings must be sealed to prevent air or dirt contamination. Air in the system causes the user. hard starting and erratic engine operation. The water separator should be sized adequately to separate and store enough water between peri- Determine the fuel line sizing by the supply and odic drainings to prevent overfilling and water return line restriction. The maximum allowable restriction is published in the TMI. Supply and carryover into the engines fuel system. return lines should be no smaller than the fittings The water separator should be mounted in a vis- on the engine. ible location. If the operator sees water, he is more
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GPM (L/min)
2 (7.57) 4 (15.14) 7 (26.5) 10 (37.85) 19 (71.92)

Frictional Head Loss [ft. (m)] for 100 Feet (30.5 Meters) of Standard Weight Pipe at 60F (15.5C) at Seal Level Diesel Fuel Pipe Size
3/8 15.2 (4.63) 55.5 (16.92) 1/2 5.5 (1.67) 20.3 (6.18) 61.0 (18.59) 3/4 1.1 (0.34) 5.1 (1.55) 15.3 (4.66) 26.3 (8.01) 1 0.5 (0.15) 1.4 (0.43) 4.6 (1.4) 8.5 (2.6) 28.5 (8.68) 1-1/4 0.2 (0.06) 0.5 (0.15) 1.2 (0.36) 2.5 (0.76) 7.5 (2.28) 1-1/2 0.2 (0.06) 0.5 (0.15) 0.9 (0.27) 3.5 (1.07) 2

0.2 (0.06) 1.2 (0.36)

Figure 9.4. Frictional head loss, pipes. Frictional Loss in Pipe Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet (Meters) of Straight Pipe Ball 45 Std. Std. Check Angle Globe Diaphragm Valve Elbow Elbow Tee Valve Valve Valve Valve ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m)
0.28 (0.085) 0.35 (0.107) 0.44 (0.134) 0.56 (0.171) 0.74 (0.226) 0.86 (0.262) 1.10 (0.335) 0.70 (0.213) 0.78 (0.238) 0.97 (0.296) 1.23 (0.375) 1.6 (0.488) 1.9 (0.579) 2.4 (0.732) 1.4 (0.427) 1.7 (0.518) 2.1 (0.64) 2.6 (0.792) 3.5 (1.07) 4.1 (1.25) 5.2 (1.58) 2.6 (0.792) 3.3 (1.01) 4.2 (1.28) 5.3 (1.62) 7.0 (2.13) 8.1 (2.47) 10.4 (3.17) 3.6 (1.1) 4.3 (1.31) 5.3 (1.62) 6.8 (2.07) 8.9 (2.71) 10.4 (3.17) 13.4 (4.08) 8.6 (2.62) 9.3 (2.83) 11.5 (3.51) 14.7 (4.48) 19.3 (5.88) 22.6 (6.89) 29.0 (8.84) 16.5 (5.03) 18.6 (5.67) 23.1 (7.04) 29.4 (8.96) 38.6 (11.77) 45.2 (13.78) 58.0 (17.67) 40 (12.19)

Pipe Size (in.)

3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2

Figure 9.5. Frictional loss in pipe fittings.

allow air to enter the fuel system, causing erratic running and loss of power. Pipe joint compound should be used on pipe threads, taking care to Engine fuel pressure measured in the fuel return keep it out of the fuel system where it can cause line should be kept below 4 psi (27 kPa), except damage. for the 3300 Engine Family, which is 3 psi (20 kPa). A shutoff valve is not recommended, Routing for 3400 Series or smaller engines because damaging pressure may result if the valve were left Whenever possible, route fuel lines under any machinery so any leakage will be confined to closed when engine was started. the bilges or drip pans under machinery. Leaks If the engine is above the fuel tank, consider from overhead fuel system components may fall adding a check valve to the fuel supply line to onto hot machinery, increasing the likelihood of keep fuel from bleeding back to the fuel tank caus- fire danger. ing hard starting. Fuel lines should also be routed to avoid formaFuel lines should be designed with the application tion of traps which can catch sediment or pockin mind. Especially on mobile, off-highway ets of water which will freeze in cold weather. equipment, effects of vibration, shock loads, and motion of parts should be considered. Fuel lines All connecting lines, valves, and tanks should be should be well routed and clipped, with flexible thoroughly cleaned before making final connechose connections where relative motion is pres- tions to the engine. The entire fuel supply sysent. Lines should be routed away from hot tem should be flushed prior to engine startup. parts, like manifolds and turbochargers, to avoid fuel heating and potential hazard if a fuel line Transfer Pump should fail. This engine driven pump delivers low pressure Joints and fittings must be leak-tight to avoid (15 psi to 30 psi [103 kPa to 207 kPa]) fuel from entry of air into the suction side of the fuel system. the tank to the injection pump housing reservoir A joint which is leak-tight to fuel can sometimes (60 psi [414 kPa] on 3508, 3512, and 3516). It Figures 9.4 and 9.5 provide useful frictional loss data.
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is a gear-type pump with some limited priming capability when the pumping gears are full of fuel. This pump should be protected from abrasive wear and corrosion by a water separator or primary fuel filter. Secondary Filter

the effective pumping stroke. The governor controls fuel delivery to produce a governed speed, regardless of load. Injection Lines

On some smaller engines, individual fuel lines carry fuel at the very high pressure required for Because fuel injection pumps and injectors are injection, from individual injection pumps to each precision devices with extremely close clearances cylinder injector. These lines are heavy-walled, between working parts, particles which can cause strong, specially extruded tubing made only for damage must be removed in the secondary fil- this purpose. Because injection lines carry such ter. This filter is standard equipment on all Cat high pressure, they should not be bent or damDiesel Engines. When a secondary filter gets aged during installation or operation. plugged, an engine typically loses power or may run erratically. The fuel pressure gauge will indi- Injectors cate low fuel pressure under these conditions. The purpose of the injector valve is to spray the Filter media in Caterpillar fuel filters is developed correct pattern of atomized fuel into the comand carefully controlled to conform with Cat spec- bustion chamber (DI). It has a spring-loaded ifications on filtration efficiency and durability. Use valve which requires that the pressure rise to of filters of unknown capability may not protect some elevated level before valve opens at start the precision fuel system from contamination. of injection. This is necessary for a precisiontimed fuel delivery and assures a sharp cutoff of Fuel Pressure Regulator fuel at the end of each injection period. Somewhere in the fuel path, before or at the injec- Most emissions certified engines utilize unit injection pump, there is a pressure regulating valve tors. No high pressure injection lines are required. which limits the pressure of fuel supplied to the injection pump housing reservoir. This pressure Fuel System Attachments must be enough to fill the individual injection pump assemblies, but would become excessive Duplex Fuel Filter System if the transfer pump could not pump excess fuel Oilfield engines that require marine classification through a relief circuit back to the fuel tank. A society certification must be capable of fuel filter shutoff valve should never be placed in the fuel change while running. The optional Caterpillar return line because pressure may quickly build to duplex fuel filter system (available for 3406, damaging levels, depending upon the engine 3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516 Engines) model. The return line also allows air to escape meets the requirements of the engine and marine from the system. societies, Figure 9.6. Main and auxiliary filter sys3500 Series engines include a transfer pump tems are combined in one housing. The system relief valve that protects the system if a return provides for changing either main or auxiliary filline fuel shutoff valve is accidentally closed. ter elements with the engine running at any load and speed. A vent position in the control valve Priming Pump allows purging of air trapped in the housing when When a fuel system has air in it, the hand prim- installing new elements. Both main and auxiliary ing pump is used to fill the system with fuel and sections can be used simultaneously to extend purge air. Once this has been done, the priming running time in an emergency. The auxiliary syspump will not likely be used again until the fuel tem provides at least 100 hours full load running time with reasonably clean fuel. system is emptied for adjustment or repair. This system can be used when engine driven Injection Pump radiators are used, but only to select the standby Fuel is pumped at a very high pressure to each filter. Filter changing during engine operation is cylinder unit injector. The fuel volume pumped not recommended due to safety concerns around on each stroke is controlled by the rack (scroll hot surfaces and due to fuel being blown around system) or electric solenoid which determines by the radiator fan air flow.
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FUEL FILTER OIL FILTER

Caterpillar Engines burn a variety of fuels. Generally, use the lowest priced distillate fuel which meets the following requirements (fuel condition as delivered to engine fuel filters). Fuel specifications meeting the above requirements include: ASTM D396 No. 1 and No. 2 Fuels (Burner Fuels) ASTM D975 No. 1-D and No. 2-D Diesel Fuel Oil BS2869 Class A1, A2, B1, and B2 Engine Fuels DIN51601 Diesel Fuel DIN51603 EL Heating Oil

DUPLEX FUEL FILTER

1. Fuel Filter Housing 2. Priming Pump 3. Changeover Valve Handle Figure 9.6

Preferred Fuels Double-Wall Fuel Lines On engines without unit injectors, double-wall fuel lines are required by marine classification societies for unmanned engine rooms and other national association regulations on fire prevention. The system contains high pressure steel fuel lines inside steel tubes. The fuel line assembly bleeds off fuel that may have leaked from the main injector line to a collecting tank. The tank contains a float switch which can be wired to a warning alarm that activates when the tank fills. The tank can be connected to a larger reservoir. Distillate fuels which meet the following requirements are the preferred fuels for Caterpillar Engines: Complete information on diesel fuels is in Diesel Fuels and Your Engine, form SEBD0717.
Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel ASTM Specifications Requirements Test
Aromatics Ash Carbon Residue on 10% Bottoms Cetane Number Cloud Point 35% maximum 0.02% maximum (weight) 0.35% maximum (weight) 40 minimum (DI engines) 35 minimum (PC engines) The cloud point must not exceed the lowest expected ambient temperature No. 3 maximum 10% at 540F (282C) maximum 90% at 680F (360C) maximum Legal limit 30 minimum 45 maximum D1319 D482 D524 D613

Fuel Specifications
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillars fuel recommendations assures maximum engine service life and performance; anything less is a compromise and the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuel and fuels not meeting Caterpillars minimum fuel specifications will adversely affect combustion, filter life, injection system performance and service life, startability and/or, perhaps, service life of valves, pistons, rings, liners, and bearings. Fuel costs can represent 80% or more of total engine operating costs; it is good economics to carefully consider proper fuel selection. Fuel normally recommended for diesel generator sets is No. 2 furnace oil or No. 2D diesel fuel.

Copper Strip Corrosion Distillation

D130 D86

Flash Point API Gravity

D93 D287

(Contd)

143

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Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel ASTM Specifications Requirements Test
Pour Point Sulfur 10F (6C) minimum below ambient temperature 3% maximum D97 D3605 or D1552 D445

low cetane number fuel can also cause white smoke and odor at start-up on colder days. Engines running on fuels with low cetane numbers may need to be started and stopped using a good distillate fuel. Blended fuels or additives can change the cetane number. The cetane number is difficult and expensive to establish for blended fuels due to the complexity of the required test. White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors and aldehydes created by incomplete engine combustion. Ignition delay during cold weather is often the cause. There is not enough heat in the combustion chamber to ignite the fuel. Therefore, the fuel does not burn completely. Using a cetane improver additive can often reduce white smoke during engine start-up in cold weather. It increases the cetane number of diesel fuel which improves ignition quality and makes it easier for fuel to ignite and burn. Contact your local fuel supplier for information on where to obtain cetane improvers.

Kinematic Viscosity Water and Sediment Water Sediment Gums and Resins Lubricity

1.4 cSt minimum and 20.0 cSt maximum at 104F (40C) 0.1% maximum 0.1% maximum 0.05% maximum (weight) 10 mg per 100 mL maximum 3100 g minimum 0.018 in. (0.45 mm) maximum at 140F (60C) 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) maximum at 77F (25C)

D1796 D1744 D473 D381 D6708 D6079

Figure 9.7 *A higher cetane number fuel may be required for operation at a high altitude or in cold weather.

Cetane number is usually calculated or approximated using a cetane index due to the cost of Permissible Fuels more accurate testing. Be cautious when obtainThere are exceptions to the distillate only ing cetane numbers from fuel suppliers. Caterpillar recommendation for a suitable fuel. Higher cetane numbers indicate a shorter igniWith the addition of special equipment, 3500 tion lag and are associated with better all-around Series low speed Cat Engines will perform satis- performance in most diesel engines, especially in factorily on some crude oils and blended fuels. high speed engines. Since the composition of crude oils varies greatly and since worldwide specifications of blended Specific Gravity (ASTM D287) fuels are very broad, special care must be taken before using such fuels in Cat Engines. Unsuit- The specific gravity of diesel fuel is the weight of able characteristics of such fuels and precondi- a fixed volume of fuel compared to the weight of the same volume of water (at the same tempertioning requirements are discussed later. ature). The higher the specific gravity, the heavCaterpillar has established the following guide- ier the fuel. Heavier fuels have more energy or lines for fuel, as delivered to the fuel injection sys- power (per volume) for the engine to use. tem, to determine the suitability of a fuel having physical and chemical properties not meeting Lighter fuels like kerosene will not produce rated power. (Specification sheets usually show ratings Caterpillar Diesel preferred fuel requirements. when using fuel having 35 API density, at 85F (29C), weighing 7.001 pounds per gallon, and Fuel Properties having 18,390 BTUs per pound. The same fuel Cetane Number (ASTM D613) Measure of the of 35 API density weights 7.076 pounds per galignition quality of a diesel fuel as determined in lon at 60F (15C). When comparing fuel conan engine. The higher the cetane number the bet- sumption or engine performance, always know ter the ignition quality and the less the tendency the temperature of the fuel measurement for corto knock. rect gravity and density. Ignition delay also causes poor fuel economy, a Engine fuel settings should not be adjusted to loss of power and sometimes engine damage. A compensate for a power loss with lighter fuels
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(with a density number higher than 35 API). Fuel system component life can be decreased with very light fuels because lubrication will be less effective (due to low viscosity). Lighter fuels may also be a blend of ethanol or methanol with diesel fuel. Blending of alcohol (ethanol or methanol) or gasoline into a diesel fuel will create an explosive atmosphere in the fuel tank. In addition, water condensation in the tank can cause the alcohol to separate and stratify in the tank. Caterpillar recommends against such blends. Viscosity (ASTM D445 Kinematic Viscosity) Measure of a fluids resistance to flow. It is ordinarily expressed in terms of the time required for a standard quantity of the fluid at a certain temperature to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary viscosimeter. The higher the value, the more viscous the fluid. Since viscosity varies inversely with temperature, its value is meaningless unless accompanied by the temperature at which it is determined. With petroleum oils, viscosity is commonly reported in centistokes (CST). Other viscosity units used are Saybolt seconds, universalsus or, Saybolt seconds, furol-SSF. Less common are the Engler and redwood viscosity scales, whose principal applications are outside the U.S.A.

the lowest ambient temperature at which the engine will be expected to start and operate, fuel filter wax plugging will not be a problem. Sulfur (ASTM D1522 or D3605) Fuel sulfur forms compounds during combustion which react chemically with the lubricating oil. They reduce the oils effectiveness in preventing the formation and accumulation of deposits on the piston and piston rings. Sulfur compounds also promote corrosion and corrosive wear. When diesel fuel containing sulfur is burned in an engines combustion chamber, oxides of sulfur form and react with water vapor to create sulfuric acid. If these acid vapors condense, they chemically attack the metal surfaces of valve guides, cylinder liners, and may affect bearings. For example, when the temperature of the cylinder liners is lower than the dew point of sulfuric acid, and the lubricating oil does not have sufficient alkalinity reserve (TBN) to neutralize the acid, liners can wear ten times more quickly. When fuel sulfur damage occurs, there will be very little change in engine power. But, frequently, corrosive wear will lead to excessive oil consumption and blowby, causing a premature, expensive overhaul.

Maintain the crankcase breather system to prevent condensation in the crankcase oil which will High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam cause rapid TBN depletion. and follower wear on the fuel pump assembly because of the higher injection pressure. Fuel Maintain a regular Scheduled Oil Sampling atomizes less efficiently and the engine will be (SOS) oil analysis program. Infrared (IR) analysis is valuable as well. more difficult to start. Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate Follow standard oil change intervals unless SOS lubrication to plungers, barrels, and injectors; its or known sulfur content indicates differently. use should be evaluated carefully. Caterpillar recommends reducing the length of Flash Point (ASTM D93) Lowest temperature oil change periods or increasing crankcase fuel will give off sufficient vapor to ignite when capacities or raising the operating water temperature to offset the effects of higher quantities flame is applied. of sulfur. Pour Point (ASTM D97) Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow, a factor of significance in Water and Sediment (ASTM D1796) The percold weather startup and operation. A pour point centage, by volume, of water and foreign matter of 5F (3C) lower than the ambient temperature which can be removed from fuel by centrifugat which the engine will be expected to start and ing. These materials affect the rate of fuel filter operate should provide freedom from fuel filter plugging. plugging. If the fuel contains a pour point depres- Salt water is the greatest single source of fouling sant, the cloud point is the significant temperature. deposits and corrosion. Salt water can cause fuel Cloud Point Lowest temperature at which the injector and piston ring groove deposits and wear sample becomes clouded by the formation of in fuel system plunger and barrel assemblies. wax crystals. If this temperature is no higher than
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The coalescing type of separator is recommended because often the water in the fuel is mixed or broken into small particles which do not settle. This separator is used if particles are so fine they make the fuel cloudy. A coalescing type separator will separate all water from fuel. It can be put anywhere in the fuel line, such as next to the components that need the most protection from water. The elements are composed of two-stage paper media that are replaceable. The element is plugged when there is a lack of fuel pressure.

taminating fuel supply is completely used, then clean the fuel tank and use clean fuel. Microorganisms in Fuel All water and fuel offer a medium for bacterial growth. These simple life forms live in the water and feed on fuel.

Microorganisms or fungi in fuel cause corrosion and filter plugging. Bacteria may be any color, but is usually black, green or brown. Bacteria grows in long strings and has a slimy appearance. A biocide added to the fuel will kill the Make sure you know the percentage of sediment growth and/or slow its formation. Filtering the in the fuel you purchase. If the sediment or water fuel, or proper disposal after using the biocide, is for distillate fuels exceeds 0.05% to the engine, required to eliminate filter plugging. consider other sources for fuel, or special filtration, centrifuging or settling procedures. Fuel Copper Strip Corrosion should be tested often for both sediment and Corrosion (ASTM Test D130), is a discoloration water. Testing is the only way you can be assured formed on a polished copper strip when immersed that you are actually getting the quality of fuel in fuel for three hours at 212F (100C). Any fuel you paid for. showing more than slight discoloration should Sediment will gradually be caught in the fuel fil- be rejected. ter, but this will cause added expense in more Many types of engine parts are of copper or copperiodic filter changes. Very small sediment will per alloys. It is essential that any fuel in contact get through the filters and can result in fuel sys- with these parts be noncorrosive to them. There tem wear. It is important to remove as much sed- are certain sulfur derivatives in the fuel that are iment as possible before the fuel goes into your likely sources of corrosion. engine. This will reduce the ash and particulate contamination which causes deposits, corrosion Carbon Residue (ASTM D524) Percentage by weight of dry carbon remaining when fuel is and abrasive wear. burned until no liquid remains. Allow time for sediment to settle to the bottom of the tank. Your engine will use the cleaner fuel Ash (ASTM D482) Percentage by weight of at the top and you can drain the sediment from dirt, dust, sand, and other foreign matter remainthe bottom. However, as the specific gravity ing after combustion. becomes higher, the settling method of removing Fuel Stability sediment becomes less effective. Gums and Resins Sludge and Fibers The gums and resins that occur in diesel fuel are Both sludge and fibers can contaminate fuel dur- the result of dissolved oxidation products that do ing handling and storage. Storage tanks, fuel pipe not evaporate easily or burn cleanly. Excessive lines and barge transportation all contribute to gum in the fuel will coat fuel injection lines, these contaminants. pumps and injectors and will interfere with the Fibers cannot be removed except by filtering. close tolerances of the fuel systems moving Sludge will rapidly foul the centrifugal purifiers. parts. They will also cause rapid filter plugging. Both of these contaminants will clog strainers During fuel storage the fuel will oxidize and form and fuel filters. If fuel with sludge is burned in the more gums and resins. Reducing fuel storage periods (maximum of one year) will minimize the engine, it will cause filter fouling. formation of gums and resins. The only solution to a sludge or fiber problem is to replace (or clean) the filters often until the con-

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Fuel Separation

Fuel must remain stable in storage. If not properly refined, incorrect stability additives are used; or if fuel gets old, it can change its characteristics of being totally mixed to separating into components like asphaltenes. This will cause rapid fuel filter plugging and low engine power. To min- 2. Adequate mixing is essential. Lube oil and fuel oil, once mixed, will combine and not imize the occurrence of fuel separation, use good separate. 1. Mix used crankcase oil with an quality fuel with the correct additives from a repequal amount of fuel, 2. filter, and 3. then add utable supplier, and minimize the length of time the 50-50 blend to the supply tank before the fuel is stored. Do not store fuel for over a year. new fuel is added. This procedure should norFuel Storage mally provide sufficient mixing. Failure to achieve adequate mixing will result in preDiesel fuel is more prone to oxidative attack in mature filter plugging by slugs of undiluted storage and to thermal degradation in use than lube oil. gasoline because of more sulfur and nitrogen and higher molecular weight components with higher 3. Filter or centrifuge used oil prior to putting it distillation end points. The sulfur removal process in the fuel tanks to prevent premature fuel helps stabilize the fuel by reducing sediment filter plugging or accelerated wear or plugforming products. But the use of cracked stocks ging of fuel system parts. Soot, dirt, metal, (more unstable) has created the need for addiand residue particles larger than 5 microns tional treatment. should be removed by this process. If filtering or centrifuging is not used prior to adding Commercial diesel fuels will usually contain a the oil to the fuel, primary filters with variety of additives that improve or add desirable 5 microns capability must be located between properties. Fuel stability additives are extensively the fuel supply and engine. These will require used in diesel fuels to prevent oxidative breakfrequent servicing. down of the fuel into gums and polymeric sediment during storage. 4. Clean handling techniques of the used crankcase oils are essential to prevent introducing But the fuel still has a finite storage life which is contaminants from outside sources into the usually limited to about one year. Care should diesel fuel supply. Care must be taken in colalso be used to prevent water and other conlecting, storing, and transporting the used taminants from getting into the storage tanks to crankcase oil to the diesel fuel tanks. reduce the effectiveness of built-in resistance. Diesel fuel day tank sight glasses may become Mixing Used Crankcase Oil with Diesel Fuel blackened in time due to the carbon content in It is necessary to collect, store, and dispose of the crankcase oil. Ash content of the lube oil used crankcase oil from engines due to legisla- added to the fuel may also cause more rapid tion and ecological considerations. It is no longer accumulation of turbocharger and valve deposits acceptable to dump used crankcase oil into the than normal. oceans, rivers, and harbors from vessels or offCrude Oil Fuel System shore drilling and production platform installations. It may be necessary for engine operators Where economics justify or where limited fuel supto consider burning crankcase oil in their Cat plies necessitate, crude oil and heavier fuels (i.e., Engines. This can be done providing the pre- distillate-residual blends) can be permissible fuels cautions below are carefully followed. for Caterpillar 3500 Series low speed Engines. 1. Only diesel engine crankcase oils can be Caterpillar does not recommend using any of the mixed with the diesel engine fuel supply. The heavier fractions such as residuals or bottoms. ratio of used oil to fuel must not exceed 5%. Residual fuels or blended fuels with high (above Premature filter plugging will occur at higher 20%) percentages of residuals are unsuitable ratios. Under no circumstances should because they have a high viscosity range, low ignigasoline engine crankcase oils, transmission tion quality and vanadium and sodium contents
147 LEBW1414-00

oils, special hydraulic oils not covered by Caterpillar recommendations, greases, cleaning solvents, etc., be mixed with the diesel fuel. Also, do not use crankcase oils containing water or antifreeze from engine coolant leaks or from poor storage practices.

The same diesel power ratings may not always apply for Caterpillar engines burning crude oil or heavy fuels. Reasonable engine service life can be achieved when proper procedures are followed. However, the greater risks involved make it good practice to include slightly higher than Special fuel pretreatment equipment may be normal maintenance costs when figuring the required and is available from suppliers of fuel overall economics to be gained. treatment equipment. Also, it may be essential to start and stop the engine on a better quality, A fuel analysis should be performed (see FigASTM No. 2-D type fuel to prevent plugging and ure 9.8.). Include a distillation curve. Operation sticking fuel system components and to permit at light load is not recommended. On occasion, operation at 50% load has reportedly caused satisfactory startability. smoking. that shorten engine life. Such fuels may cause high wear rates in the fuel system, on the piston rings, cylinder liners, and exhaust valves. Also, filter problems and deposits in the piston ringbelt may be evidenced.
Crude Oil Chart Permissible Fuels as Delivered to the Fuel System
Minimum 35

Fuel Properties and Characteristics

Cetane number or cetane index (ASTM D613 or calculated index) (PC Engines) (DI Engines) Water and sediment % volume (ASTM D1796) Pour point (ASTM D97) Cloud point (ASTM D97) Sulfur (ASTM D2788 or D3605 or D1552) Viscosity at 100F (38C) (ASTM D445) API gravity (ASTM D287) Specific gravity (ASTM D287) Gasoline and naphtha fraction (fractions boiled off below 200C) Kerosene and distillate fraction (fractions boiled off between 200C and cracking point) Carbon residue (ramsbottom) (ASTM D524) Distillation 10% 90% cracking % Distillation residue (ASTM D86, D158 or D285) Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Salt (ASTM D3230) Gums and Resins (ASTM D381) Copper strip corrosion 3 hrs @ 100C (ASTM D130) Flashpoint F C (ASTM D93) Ash % weight (ASTM D482) Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Vanadium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Sodium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Nickel PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Aluminum PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Silicon (ASTM D2788 or D3605)

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum Maximum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

40 0.5% 10F (6C) below ambient temperature Not higher than ambient temperature 0.5% See page 133 to adjust oil TBN for higher sulfur content 1.4 cSt 20 cSt 45 30 0.8017 0.875 35% 30% 3.5% 540F (282C) 716F (380F) 60% 10% 20 psi (kPa) 100 lb/1,000 barrels 10 mg/100 mL No. 3 Must be legal limit 0.1% 35% 4 PPM 10 PPM 1 PPM 1 PPM 1 PPM

PPM = parts per million Figure 9.8

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Fourth Another problem created by highly volatile crudes (low initial boiling points) is vapor locking of the fuel system. This situation can be handled by an air eliminator. This, in some cases, can be an ordinary float-type steam trap inverted, Pretreatment of Crude Oils but it should be made of corrosion-resistant First The crude may contain excessive materials. It should be located after the auxiliary amounts of sediment and water that will require filters. If the engine is stopped occasionally and removal before they get to the engine. This can allowed to cool, coagulation may build up in this usually be accomplished with a settling tank, vapor trap and cause it to be inoperative. Figure 9.9, a centrifuge or special filtering equip- Fifth The proper oil change recommendation ment or a combination of these methods. The must be made in each case. Many crude oils concrude may also contain solid particles of wax at tain large amounts of material that accelerate ambient temperature that would plug the filters lube oil deterioration. For this reason, the stanrapidly. It is impractical to try to remove the wax, dard change period with recommended oils but the crude can be heated sufficiently to dis- should be reduced one-half. From this point, the solve it. The amount of heat needed will vary from length of change period with crude is determined one crude to another and will, therefore, have to by sulfur content the same as with distillate fuels. be determined in each situation. Frequently, With 0.4-1.0% sulfur, the change period should jacket-water heated fuel filters, available from again be reduced one-half. When sulfur content fuel equipment suppliers, are adequate. If not, an exceeds 1.0%, still further reduction is recomexternal heating system will be necessary. mended. In many cases, it may be desirable to Second The crude oil must not have too high install a larger capacity lube oil system to avoid a viscosity. For maximum life and minimum short oil changes. Engines for crude fuel operation should be equipped with higher temperature thermostats, bypass centrifugal oil filter, and fuel injector pushrod keepers. maintenance of the fuel pumping and injection systems, the viscosity of the crude oil in these systems should be within 1.4 to 20 cSt at 100F (38C). If the crudes natural viscosity is higher than this, it may be heated or diluted to reduce it. The degree of heating required will vary from one crude to another and will have to be established in each case. Another method of reducing viscosity is to blend the original crude with a sufficient amount of lighter distillate material. Again, the blending proportions would have to be determined for each crude. Third The crude must have a cetane number of at least 40. This brings its distillation characteristics into the picture. The cetane number should be determined by actual engine test because calculated numbers of crude oils are unreliable. Crude Oil Settling Tanks A great deal of sludge can be removed from crude oil by proper settling. A recommended settling system consists of two cone-bottomed tanks, Figure 9.9, each holding a little more than four days usable supply of fuel. Sludge in the bottom third is discarded before refilling. The tanks must be housed in a heated building, and each fitted with heating coils. Immediately after filling, hot water is circulated through the heating coil until the tank is heated to 100F (38C). The heat is then shut off and the fuel allowed to settle undisturbed for four days. During this time, fuel is being used from a second tank. Temperature inside the settling tank building should be maintained above 70F (21C), and the tanks must be vented outside the building.

A two-day supply of diesel fuel should be mainThe cetane number of a crude is a function of its tained for emergency use and to start and stop composition. Crude is generally subdivided into engine when the crude fuel is highly viscous or fractions by boiling temperatures. The combinaheavy with paraffins. tion of the gasoline and naphtha fractions, which have low cetane numbers, should not exceed 35% of the total crude. The kerosene, distillate and gas oil fractions combined should make up at least 30% of the total because they have high cetane numbers.
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Figure 9.9

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150

EXHAUST SYSTEM
Exhaust systems collect exhaust gases from 3. allow for relative shifting between reference points on engine exhaust components. This engine cylinders and discharge them as quickly shifting has numerous causes. It may result and silently as possible. A primary design confrom expansion and contraction of composideration of the exhaust system is to minimize nents due to temperature changes or by slow backpressure. Backpressure will indirectly raise but continual creep processes that take place the exhaust temperature which will reduce exhaust throughout the life of any structure. valve and turbocharger life. A well designed exhaust system will have minimum backpressure. In order to take care of vibratory stresses, softAll internal combustion engines generate heat as ness or flexibility of the flexible connection is of a result of combustion. The temperatures in prime concern. The connector must have high Caterpillar engines combustion chambers can fatigue life to withstand normal stresses for indefreach 3,500F (1927C). 30% of this total heat inite periods. Softness prevents transmission of vibration beyond the connection. Resistance to is expelled through exhaust. fatigue keeps it from breaking under vibratory or For safety reasons an exhaust system must be recycling stresses. gas tight. It should also be insulated, shielded, or isolated to avoid damage, injury, or distress from Optional Caterpillar flexible exhaust couplings exposure to, or contact with, its high tempera- meet these requirements. See Figures 10.1 and tures. Uninsulated exhausts greatly increase the 10.5. See Figures 10.3 and 10.4 for installation heat rejection into an enclosed engine room. To limitations for these flexible connections. prevent excessive engine room temperatures, the On land rigs, exhaust piping or muffler should exhaust system should be properly insulated. not be supported by brackets, etc., connected to CAUTION: Dry exhaust manifolds may require guards when the work space makes it easier for a person to fall against the exhaust system. OSHA and other government bodies may have regulations concerning this. The user is responsible to provide such guards where required but not factory supplied. the engine, Figures 10.1, 10.5, 10.6. Growth and shrinkage of the exhaust pipe must be planned, otherwise it will create excessive loads on exhaust piping and supporting structure. Long runs of dry exhaust pipes can be subjected to very severe stresses from expansion and contraction. From its cold state, a steel exhaust pipe will expand about 0.0076 inch per Flexible Connections foot of pipe for each 100F rise of exhaust temThe exhaust pipe must be isolated from the perature (0.11 mm/m for each 100C). This engine with flexible connections, Figure 10.1. amounts to about 0.65 inch expansion for each They should be installed as close to the engines 10 feet of pipe from 100F to 950F (52 mm/m exhaust outlet as possible. A flexible exhaust con- per meter from 35C to 510C). nection has three primary functions: It is of utmost importance that flexible pipe, when 1. isolate the weight of the exhaust piping from insulated, be insulated in such a way that the flexthe engine. No more than 60 lbs (28 kg) of ible pipe can expand and contract freely within exhaust piping weight should be supported the insulation. This generally requires either a by 3400 and 3500 Series engines. The limit soft material or an insulated sleeve to encase the is 25 lbs. (11.3 kg) on smaller engines. flexible pipe. 2. relieve exhaust components of excessive vibrational fatigue stresses; Long runs of exhaust pipe should be divided into sections having expansion joints between sections. Each section should be fixed at one end and be allowed to expand at the other. Figure 10.7 illustrates methods for connecting exhaust systems.

151

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weld straps must be removed prior to starting the engine. For maximum durability, allow the flexible connection to operate as close as possible to its free state.
Flanges must be parallel Free length L

PROPER MUFFLER MOUNTING

Figure 10.1
B or C L = 457 (457 mm I.D.)

Four (4) small straps can be tack-welded between the two end flanges to hold the engine exhaust flexible connection in a rigid position during exhaust piping installation. This will prevent the Figure 10.2 fitting from being installed in a flexed condition. Attach a warning tag to the fitting noting that the

Hose
Diameter 4 & 5 in. 6 in.

Installation Limits of Flexible Metal Hose-Type Exhaust Fittings A B C Maximum Offset Maximum Compression Maximum Extension Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
in. 1.0 1.5 mm 25.4 38.1 in. 0.25 0.25 mm 6.25 6.25 in. 0.25 0.25 mm 6.25 6.25

Hose
Diameter 8 & 12 in. 14 in. 18 in.

Installation Limits of Bellows-Type Flexible Exhaust Fittings A B C Maximum Offset Maximum Compression Maximum Extension Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
in. 0.75 0.75 0.90 mm 19.05 19.05 22.86 in. 1.50 3.00 3.00 mm 38.1 76.2 76.2 in. 1.00 1.00 1.75 mm 25.40 25.40 44.45

Figure 10.3. Installation limits for bellows and flexible connections.

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152

Spring Rate for Bellows-Type Flexible Fittings Spring Rate Axial

Diameter 8 in. 12 in. 14 in. 18 in. lb/in. 170 194 391 110 kN/m 29.7 33.9 68.5 19.3

Install piping with 9 in. (229 mm) minimum clearance from combustible materials. Exhaust heat must be discharged without causing discomfort to personnel or hazards to structures or equipment.

Extend exhaust stacks to avoid heat, fumes and odors. Also, the exhaust pipes should not be in close proximity to the air intake system for Figure 10.4. Spring rates. the engine or the crankcase ventilation system. Engine air cleaners, turbochargers, and aftercoolers clogged with exhaust products can cause Piping premature failures. Pipe outlets cut at 30 to 45 Physical characteristics of the equipment room on angles will reduce gas turbulence and noise. Rain offshore rigs determine exhaust system layouts. caps forced open by exhaust pressure will keep Arrangements with minimum backpressures are water from entering. favored. Securely support pipes and rubber dampers or springs installed in the exhaust pipe Muffler placement greatly affects silencing ability. See Figure 10.8. Locating it near the engine bracing to isolate vibrations. minimizes transmission of sound to the exhaust Piping must be designed with engine service in piping. Higher exhaust temperatures near the mind. In many cases, an overhead crane will be engine also reduces carbon buildup in the mufused to service the heavier engine components. fler; a drain removes condensation. For both installation economy and operating effi- During repowers, engine hp may be increased. ciency, engine location should make the exhaust Larger mufflers and/or piping may be required. piping as short as possible with minimum bends Avoid sudden changes in diameter if existing and restrictions. There should be a sleeve in wall exhaust piping is retained. These act as orifices openings to absorb vibration and an expansion and their pressure drop is hard to predict, but can joint(s) in the pipe to compensate for lengthways be very high. thermal expansion or contraction.

EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.5
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EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.6

1. Engine exhaust outlet. 2. Flexible pipe connection. 3. Long sweep elbow. 4. Longitudinal and lateral pipe support, fixing location of end pipe. 5. Lateral pipe support, allowing for longitudinal expansion.

6. Anchor point for vertical run of pipe. 6. NOTE: Allowance for expansion must be made on either side of 6. anchor. If muffler is used, it should be installed as section of pipe. 7. Expansion sleeve with spray shield. 8. Condensate trap (removable for cleanout).

Figure 10.7
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Mufflers For muffler location instructions see Figure 10.8. Exhaust noise attenuation is best performed with a quality muffler; however, attenuation characteristics of a muffler are not the same for all frequencies. Therefore, the effect of a given muffler upon a naturally aspirated or a turbocharged engine could be different. The effect of a given muffler could be quite different if the engine runs at two different speeds.The manufacturer must be contacted for any specific muffling characteristics. As an additional noise attenuation aid, the exit opening of the exhaust pipe should be cut at a 30 angle (0.52 rad), Figures 10.5 and 10.6. Consult the TMI for engine exhaust noise data.

effective silencing is required such as semi-residential areas where a moderate background noise is always present. Supercritical Provides maximum silencing for residential, hospital, school, hotel, store, apartment building and other areas where background noise level is low and generator set noise must be kept to a minimum.

At least 5 diameters of straight pipe upstream of the muffler and 2.5 diameters downstream are required to minimize turbulence and backpressure. Piping Combined engine exhaust systems can allow operating engines to force exhaust gases into engines which are not operating. This is not an acceptable installation practice. Recirculated exhaust gas will cause several problems. Gas will condense an appreciable amount of water which can cause engine damage. Also, soot can clog the turbocharger, aftercooler, or plug air cleaner elements. Use of an exhaust isolating valve has not been successful. Deterioration at exhaust temperatures tends to be high plus soot buildup causes the valve to leak. If the valve is not gas tight, it is ineffective. Check that generator power and control cables are not mounted too close to the exhaust. When moving a land-rig engine, exhaust outlets should face opposite forward movement. If headed forward, the turbocharger could rotate from the air forced into it, resulting in engine failure shortly after spudding the next well.

Figure 10.8

Rain Protection The exhaust end should be sloped and the pipe end angled to prevent water entering the pipe. Alternatively, some form of rain cap should be fitted to the vertical exhaust system.

Spark arresting mufflers are available. These are many times specified when the owner judges them to be beneficial.

Mufflers are rated according to their degree of silencing and commonly referred to by such terms Cleanliness as residential or critical and supercritical. Install an identifiable blanking plate to prevent Residential Suitable for industrial areas debris from falling into the turbocharger during where background noise level is relatively installation. The Caterpillar shipping cover can high or for remote areas where partly muffled be used for this purpose. Install it directly on top of the turbine housing. Attach a warning tag to noise is permissible. the plate indicating it must be removed prior to Critical Reduces exhaust noise to an starting the engine. acceptable level in localities where moderately
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Slobber Extended engine operation at no load or lightly loaded conditions (less than 15% load) may result in exhaust manifold slobber. Exhaust manifold slobber is the black oily fluid than can leak from exhaust system joints. The presence of exhaust manifold slobber does not necessarily indicate an engine problem. Engines are designed to operate at loaded conditions. At no load or lightly loaded conditions, the sealing capability function of some integral engine components may be adversely affected. Exhaust manifold slobber is not usually harmful to the engine; the results can be unsightly and objectionable in some cases. Exhaust manifold slobber consists of fuel and/or oil mixed with soot from the inside of the exhaust manifold. Common sources of oil slobber are worn valve guides, worn piston rings, worn turbocharger seals or light load poor combustion. Fuel slobber usually occurs with combustion problems. A normally operating engine should be expected to run for at least one hour at light loads without significant slobber. Some engines may run for as long as three, four or more hours before slobbering. However, all engines will eventually slobber if run at light loads. External signs of slobber will be evident unless the exhaust system is completely sealed. If extended idle or slight load periods of engine operation are mandatory, the objectionable effect of the engine slobber can be avoided by loading the engine to at least 30% load for approximately ten minutes every four hours. This will remove any fluids that have accumulated in the exhaust manifold. To minimize exhaust manifold slobber, it is important that the engine is correctly sized for each application. Exhaust Gas Recirculation Exhaust stacks must be designed so engine exhaust is discharged high enough and in a direction to keep it clear of air turbulence and eddy currents created by wind, radiators, and the rigs fresh air supply system. Engine air cleaners, turbochargers, and aftercoolers clogged with exhaust products will cause engine failures, Figures 10.5 and 10.6.

Exhaust Backpressure Backpressure limits recommended are 27 in. (685 mm and 6.7 kPa) of water for turbocharged engines and 34 in. (865 mm and 8.5 kPa) of water for naturally aspirated engines, measured at the fitting in the exhaust elbow provided for this purpose. There is no minimum backpressure requirement. To avoid excessive exhaust temperature, loss of power, increased fuel consumption, and soot from incomplete combustion caused by backpressure, a method of approximating the backpressure of the system in the design phase is provided. (See Exhaust Backpressure Calculation Worksheet, Figure 10.10). Figure 10.9 contains the data required to calculate exhaust backpressure. The chart is calculated with an exhaust temperature of 900F (482C). This should be increased/decreased 7% for every 100F/55C increase/decrease from 900F (482C). To ensure the above limits are not exceeded during operation, it is recommended the design limit be one-half of the above backpressure limits. Pressure drop includes losses due to piping, muffler, and rain cap, and is measured in a straight length of pipe 3 to 5 diameters from the last transition change after the turbocharger outlet. The backpressure should be measured as close to the engine as possible.

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156

PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT (METER) OF STRAIGHT PIPE AT 900F (482C)

4" (100 mm) dia

mm) dia

mm) d ia

ia

0m

5" ( 125

6" (15 0

(20

8"

10

"(

25

.08 (2)

m) d

)d

ia

.04 (1)

12

" (3

d m) 0m

ia

3 14" (

50 m

a m) di

16" (4

) dia 00 mm

2,000 (3320)

4,000 (6640)

6,000 (9960)

8,000 (13 280)

10,000 (16 660)

12,000 (19 920)

EXHAUST FLOW (CFM/m3H) NOTE: With 800F (427C), pressure drop increases 7%.

Figure 10.9

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EXHAUST BACKPRESSURE CALCULATION WORKSHEET

General Data EXHAUST FLOW DATA Engine Model __________________________________ Power: ________________ HP @ _____________ RPM __________________________________ CFM (m3/HR) ________________________________ lbs/min (kg/min) __________________________________ F (C) Stack (See TMI or Engine Performance book) PIPE DATA Exh. Pipe Inside Diameter _______________ in. (mm) Pressure Drop ____________________ inch H2O/ft (mm H2O/m) (See Figure 9.9) MUFFLER DATA Manufacturer _________________________________ Model _____________________________________ Muffler Pipe Connection Size _________________________________ in. (mm)

Calculation for Backpressure: I. Straight Pipe Resistance Total Length of Straight Sections of Exhaust Pipe _______________ ft. (m) X II. Elbow Resistance Inside Diameter of Elbows ____________ in. (mm) ____________ in. (mm) ____________ in. (mm) ____________ in. (mm) X X X X Quantity of Elbows _________ std. 90 _________ long sweep 90 _________ 45 elbow _________ square elbow Equivalent Length X X X X 2.75 (0.033) = _____ ft. (mm) 1.67 (0.02) = _____ ft. (mm) 1.25 (0.015) = _____ ft. (mm) 5.50 (0.066) = _____ ft. (mm) Pressure Drop Resistance

_______________ inch H2O/ft =

:______________ (mm H2O/m)

_______________ inch of H2O

:______________ (mm of H2O)

Total Equivalent Length _____________________ ft. (mm) Pressure Drop Total Equivalent Length X _______________ ft. (m) Resistance

_______________ inch H2O/ft

: ______________ (mm H2O/m) III. Muffler Resistance

_______________ inch of H2O

:______________ (mm of H2O) Resistance

Obtain from manufacturer; based on muffler data and exhaust flow data. IV. Total Exhaust System Resistance Straight Pipe Resistance Elbow Resistance Muffler Resistance +

_______________ inch of H2O

:______________ (mm of H2O) System Resistance = inch of H2O* (mm of H2O) *kPa = inch of H2O X 0.249

NOTE: Use additional pages for each pipe size. Figure 10.10

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AIR INTAKE SYSTEMS Engine Room Ventilation

Engine room ventilation must accomplish two things:

Offshore Rig Ventilation

In modern offshore installations, natural draft ventilation is too bulky for practical consideration. 1. Provide an environment which permits the Adequate quantities of fresh air are best supplied machinery and equipment to function prop- by powered (fan-assisted) systems. erly with dependable service life. Correct routing of ventilation air is vital. Without 2. Provide an environment in which person- it, air flow will not adequately maintain comfortnel can work comfortably and, therefore, able engine room temperatures. effectively. An engine not enclosed does not present ventilation problems; therefore, this discussion applies to engine rooms only. About five percent of fuel consumed by an engine is lost as heat radiated to the surrounding air. In addition, heat from generator inefficiencies and exhaust piping can easily equal engine radiated heat. Any resulting elevated temperatures in the engine room may adversely affect maintenance personnel, switchgear, and generator set performance. All engine room radiated heat is eventually absorbed by engine room surfaces. Some is transferred to the air or water through the enclosure. The remainder must be carried away by a flow of cool ventilating air which picks up the heat through contact with these surfaces. Ventilating systems must be designed to provide safe working temperatures and adequate air flow for machinery, equipment, and personnel at all times, but especially when the rigs hatches are closed for bad weather operations. For personal comfort, air movement of at least five feet per second should be maintained in working area adjacent to sources of heat or where air temperature exceeds 100F (38C).

General Information
There are three aspects to ventilation:

Long runs of hot, uninsulated exhaust pipe can dissipate more heat into an engine room than all Ventilation Air machinery surfaces combined. It is, therefore, The flow of air required to carry away the radiated important to completely insulate the exhaust sysheat of the engine(s) and other engine room tem within the engine rooms work area. Hot machinery. pipes and other hot surfaces within the engine room should also be insulated if localized high Combustion Air air temperatures are created because of them. The flow of air required to burn the fuel in the CAUTION: When refrigeration equipment is engine. installed within engine room space, ensure its location is such that any refrigerant leakage will Crankcase Fumes Disposal not be drawn into the engines combustion air. The crankcase fumes of the engine must be Severe engine damage will occur if refrigerants, either ingested by the engine or piped out of the such as Freon or ammonia, get drawn into the engine room. engines air intake system. Locating refrigerant compressors near an engine room air discharge Engine Room Temperature area is appropriate. A properly designed engine room ventilation system will maintain engine room air temperatures Offshore Rig Ventilation Systems within 15F (9C) above the ambient air tem- Recommended ventilating systems are described perature (ambient air temperature refers to the below: air temperature surrounding the vessel). In gen1. Bring outside air into the engine room through eral, engine room temperature should not exceed a system of ducts. These ducts should be 120F (49C). routed between engines, at floor level, and
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VENTILATION TYPE 1
Figure 11.1

discharge air up at the engines and generators. The most economical method is to use the service platform built up around the engines as the top of this duct, Figure 11.1 Type 1. This requires the service platform to be constructed of solid, nonskid plate rather than perforated or expanded grating. The duct outlet will be the clearance between the decking and oilfield base. Ventilation air discharge fans should be mounted or ducted at the highest point in the engine room. They should be directly over heat sources. This system provides the best ventilation with the least amount of air required. In addition, the upward flow of air around the engine serves as a shield which minimizes the amount of heat released into the engine room. Air temperature in the air discharge duct will be higher than engine room air temperature. If System No. 1 is not feasible, the following method is recommended:

Allow air to flow across the engine room from the cool air entry point(s) toward sources of engine heat such as the engine, exposed exhaust components, generators, or other large sources of heat. Ventilation air discharge fans should be mounted or ducted at the highest point in the engine room. They should be directly over heat sources. Engine heat will be dissipated with this system, but a certain amount of heat will still radiate and heat up all adjacent engine room surfaces. If the air is not properly routed, it will rise to the ceiling before it gets to the engines, Figures 11.3 A and B. This system will work only where the air inlets circulate the air between the engines. Air inlets located at the end of the engine room will provide adequate ventilation to only the engine closest to the inlet. Figure 11.3 B shows this incorrect system.

3. If System 1 or 2 is not feasible, the following method can be used; however, it provides the 2. Bring outside air into the engine room as far least efficient ventilation. away as practical from heat sources, utilizBring outside air into the engine room and ing fans or large intake ducts. Discharge this discharge it directly down on the engines with air into the engine room as low as possible, inlet fans, Figure 11.4 Type 3. Figure 11.2 Type 2.
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Ventilation exhaust fans should be mounted or ducted from the corners of the engine room. This system mixes the hottest air in the engine room with the incoming cool air, raising the temperature of all air in the engine

room. It also interferes with the natural convection flow of hot air rising to exhaust fans. Engine rooms can be ventilated this way, but it requires extra large capacity ventilating fans.

VENTILATION TYPE 2
Figure 11.2

INCORRECT VENTILATION
Figure 11.3A

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exceed 120F (49C). Where ambient temperatures exceed these values, Tr should be maintained at 15F (9C). 1. For use with ventilating flow System 1, Figure 11.1
POWER UNIT

C = He + Ha + Ca (English) 1.4 WTr C = He + Ha + Ca (Metric) 0.00168 WTr

NO AIR BETWEEN ENGINE

POWER UNIT

C = cfm (m3/hr) ventilating air required

POWER UNIT

He = Engine heat (Btu/min or kW) released to engine room per engine at maximum desired engine room temperature, Figure 11.5. Ha = Auxiliary or driven equipment heat (Btu/min or kW) released to engine room per each power module. If exact heat rejection data is not available, an estimated value is one-third of the engine heat rejection for each generator. W = Density (lbs/ft3 or kg/m3) of air at maximum outside ambient temperature, Figure 11.6. Tr = Maximum desired temperature rise (F or C) from outside ambient temperature to air temperature in engine room.

INCORRECT AIR FLOW

Figure 11.3B

Air Quantity Required for Ventilation

A method of calculating the quantity of air needed to reach any predetermined temperature in the engine room is determined by the following formulas: It is recommended the engine room temperature should generally be less than 100F (38C). Engine room work areas temperature should not

VENTILATION TYPE 3
Figure 11.4
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Ca = Combustion air requirements of engine, Emergency/Standby Generator Set Ventilation refer to TMI or Engine Performance Emergency/Standby generator sets are normally book. radiator cooled. The following additional guide2. For use with ventilating System 2, Figure 11.2 lines should be followed: Radiator air inlet and outlet ports should each be at least 1.25 times the radiator frontal area. Resistance of louvers should be considered when He + Ha calculating air flow restriction on the radiator fan. C = + Ca (Metric) 0.00084 WTr Additionally, these ports must be so arranged or 3. For use with ventilating System 3, Figure 11.4 deflected so air recirculation does not occur. The engine exhaust outlet must be arranged so H e + Ha exhaust gas does not recirculate into the radiaC = + Ca (English) tor air inlet. 0.4 WTr C = He + Ha + Ca (English) 0.7 WTr C = He + Ha + Ca (Metric) 0.00048 WTr If ventilation ports of the engine room are covered by watertight doors, it is recommended the engine air cleaner be ducted outside of the engine room. Otherwise, starting of the engine with the doors closed will result in a vacuum in the engine room.

Radiator Cooled Engines

Engine driven blower fans on Caterpillar radiators have an air flow in excess of that required for Total duct air flow restriction, including air cleaners, should not exceed 10 in. (2.49 kPa) of water engine room ventilation. measured while the engine is producing full rated Radiator cooling fans are sensitive to air flow power. It is good design practice to design comrestriction. Restriction in either inlet or outlet duct- bustion air ducts to give the lowest practical restricing should generally be less than 0.5 in. H2O tion to air flow, since this will result in longer times (0.13 kPa). The radiator supplier should be con- between filter element service or replacement. tacted for the exact value.

Heat Rejection to Atmosphere Btu/min. (kW) Rejection at Various Engine Room Ambient Temperatures Consult TMI for Actual Values Engine Model 85F/29C 100F/38C 115F/46C
3304 3306 3406 3408 3412 3508 3512 3516 910 (16) 1375 (24) 2100 (37) 3900 (68) 4200 (73) 5100 (90) 7690 (135) 10,200 (180) 775 (14) 1170 (21) 1785 (31) 3300 (58) 3570 (62) 4350 (77) 6550 (115) 8660 (152) 637 (11) 963 (17) 1470 (26) 2730 (48) 2940 (51) 3600 (63) 5390 (95) 7100 (125)

Figure 11.5 Density of Air at Various Temperatures lb./cu. ft. (kg/m3) F (C)
0.086 (1.38) 0.084 (1.35) 0.083 (1.33) 0.081 (1.30) 0.079 (1.27) 0.078 (1.25) 0.076 (1.22) 70 (21) 80 (27) 90 (32) 100 (38) 110 (43) 120 (49) 130 (54)

F/C
0/18 10/12 20/7 30/1 40/4 50/10 60/16

lb./cu. ft. (kg/m3)

0.075 (1.20) 0.074 (1.18) 0.072 (1.15) 0.071 (1.14) 0.070 (1.12) 0.068 (1.09) 0.067 (1.07)

Figure 11.6
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Combustion air duct velocity should not exceed 2,000 ft./min. (610 m/min). Higher velocities will cause unacceptable noise levels and excessive flow restriction.

Figure 11.8 illustrates a land rig installation where ventilation should be considered. Natural draft ventilation is almost completely blocked by roofs, SCR house, tool room, and vertical discharge radiators. Warm weather operation may result in unacceptable engine and generator temperatures.

EMERGENCY GEN SET OR PRODUCTION POWER HOUSE

Figure 11.7

LAND RIG ENGINES REQUIRING VENTILATION

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9 shows an engine room designed to provide a combination of ventilation and engine/ Land SCR rig engines equipped with suction or generator air inlet ducting. blower fan radiators have an air flow in excess of Ventilation is provided by the air discharged from that required for recommended engine ventila- the generator. In warm weather, the air source tion. As long as radiator air flow is not obstructed, valve is positioned to provide outside air to the no further ventilation requirements are needed. generator ventilation air inlet. Air discharged from Land rig engine installations with remote radia- the generator exits through the roof vent door tors or vertical discharge radiators should be and open rear of base, providing engine ventilainspected to determine if sufficient engine ven- tion as a secondary result.

Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems

tilation is provided.

Figure 11.9
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In cold weather, the air source valve will be posi- Air entering the engine air cleaners should not tioned to provide partial or total generator venti- be more than 10F (5.6C) above ambient air lation air from within engine room. temperature. If it is not practical to design the If doors are added to rear of base, make sure that engine room ventilation system to allow air with total enclosure is not airtight. This prevents pres- 10F (5.6C) or less temperature rise to reach surizing engine room (reducing generator venti- engine air intakes directly, it is advisable to run lation air flow) when doors are closed and air ducts from air cleaners to points where fresh, cool source valve is positioned to provide outside air air enters the engine room. to generator. An air duct size of 2.0 sq. ft. (0.19 m2) is adequate for 3508, 3512, and 3516s on up to 40 ft. (12.2 m) bases. The ducting to the air cleaners from air source valve can match the sizes of the optional air cleaner inlet rectangular adapters. Combustion air inlet ducting, if used, should be so placed that it is in the path of the cool air inflow. It should not be directly in front of the air intake ducts or close enough to allow salt spray or mist entering the engine room to enter engine intake ducts. Presence of salt in the intake air can damage an engine. Its presence in any significant quantity should be carefully avoided. Wire-reinforced, flexible hose must not be used as ductwork since it is susceptible to abrasion and abuse.

Combustion Air Intake

A diesel engine uses large quantities of air for combustion and requires that air enter its intake system with minimum restriction. Normal requirements for combustion will fall very close to 2.5 cfm (0.07 m3/min) per bhp for a Caterpillar Diesel Engine. High intake air temperature or high intake restriction raises engine exhaust temperature. Engine damage may result.

Figures 11.10 and 11.11 suggest ways of arranging air intakes to take full advantage of the engine rooms ventilating system. The air inlet must be located so exhaust fumes do not enter the engine. These fumes cause premature plugging of air cleaner elements and reduce combustion The air cleaner service indicator is actuated when efficiency. the restriction reaches 30 in. H2O (762 mm and 7.5 kPa). Above this value, engine performance On land rigs, also see Section Land Rig Ventilabegins to be noticeably affected. This restriction tion Systems. also includes any air inlet piping pressure drop. Thus, air inlet duct restriction should be held to Air Cleaners a minimum to prevent undue shortening of the air The standard Caterpillar petroleum engine cleaner service intervals. An air intake duct arrangements include dry paper, element-type restriction of less than 3 in. (76 mm and 0.75 kPa) air cleaners, Figure 2.10. (A dry paper element H2O is suggested. is the only type air cleaner which may be used.)

Figure 11.10

Figure 10.11

ENGINE ROOM AIR FLOW

1. Engine 2. Air cleaner with duct connection 3. Intake air duct 4. Ventilating cold air intake 5. Ventilating cold air vertical stack-type discharge 6. Ventilating cold air peripheral slotted 6. duct-type discharge 7. Engine intake air pickup
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Their filtration efficiency exceeds 99%, providing good protection to the engine. Pressure drop across a typical air cleaner will be 6.0 in. H2O (1.5 kPa) when clean. The on-engine piping system might typically add another 3.0 in. H2O (0.75 kPa) pressure drop.

CAUTION: Under no circumstances should the engines be operated without air cleaners.

The air inlet should be shielded against direct entrance of rain or show. The most common practice is to provide a cap or inlet hood which incorporates a coarse screen to keep out large objects. This cap should be designed to keep air Soot filters are included with electric drill rig flow restriction to a minimum. Some users have engines. Soot filters extend the dry paper elepiped to a front air intake location which gives a ment life and reusability by catching the majordirect air inlet and an internal means of achievity of oily, sooty deposits which would plug the ing water separation. dry paper element. Precleaners and prescreeners incorporated into Heavy-duty air cleaners are recommended for the intake cap design are also available. They desert or dusty atmosphere, Figure 11.12. Heavycan be used where special conditions prevail or duty air cleaners have a mechanical precleaning to increase the air cleaner service life. These section that lengthens the air cleaner life under devices can remove 70% to 80% of the dirt. The dusty conditions. Check that the additional size prescreener is designed to protect the inlet sysof heavy-duty air cleaners do not cause physical tem when trash is encountered. interference with other equipment. Heavy-duty air cleaners with exhaust-powered dust ejectors are available on 3400 Series and smaller engines. No changes should be made to exhaust system, such as adding mufflers, because they reduce or nullify dust ejector efficiency. Ducting for Remote Air Cleaners Ducting: Ducting should be constructed of formed steel or aluminum tubing. Elbows may be of these materials or molded rubber. Where vibration could present a fatigue problem, humpOil bath and oil-soaked screen-type air cleaners type connections of rubber or other flexible synare not acceptable since filtration efficiency rarely thetic material must be used. The hump-type joint exceeds 95%. There is the constant danger of allows vibration isolation as well as minor misimproper servicing resulting in even lower filtra- alignment due to manufacturing tolerances and tion efficiency or oil carryover into the engine air engine or air cleaner movement. intake system. Oil carryover causes aftercooler Piping diameter should be equal to or larger than plugging and possible turbocharger failure due the air cleaner inlet and outlet and the engine to increased exhaust temperatures. air inlet. A rough guide for pipe size selection would be to keep maximum air velocity in the piping in the 2,000 fpm to 3,000 fpm (10 m/s to 15 m/s) range. Consideration must be given to wall thickness of metallic components to ensure the clamp load of rubber joints will not deform piping. Sealing surfaces must be smooth to ensure proper fit and achieve a good airtight seal with mating parts. Fiberglass and molded plastic elbows are acceptable if they have sufficient strength to accept clamping loads and provide airtight leak proof ducting. Remote-Mounted Air Cleaners Air Inlet: CAUTION: When air cleaners are remote-mounted and air is piped to the turbocharger inlet, care must be taken to ensure air flow is introduced uniformly into the turbocharger compressor. Air striking the compressor wheel
166

Figure 11.12
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at an angle can result in pulsations causing premature failure. Air flow must enter the turbocharger through a smooth, straight pipe. Allow at least 2 in. of pipe (51 mm) between the point of attachment to the turbocharger and the bend radius center point, Figure 11.13.

Figure 11.13

When fabricated elbows are required, they should be constructed of sections not exceeding 15 (0.1745 rad) to allow a smooth flow of inlet air. To protect turbocharger components, care must be taken to remove all welding slag and splatter from the inside surface. When rubber elbows or joints are used, they should always be double clamped. T bolt type clamps providing 360 seal are recommended because of their higher clamping load capability. CAUTION: When using rubber or synthetic elbows or joints, review location to ensure that temperatures do not exceed the capability of the material. Where there is a width restriction, a plenum chamber can be fabricated as a space saver, Figure 11.14.

Figure 11.14

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CRANKCASE VENTILATION
Normal combustion pressures of an internal combustion engine cause a certain amount of blowby past piston rings into the crankcase. To prevent pressure buildup within the crankcase, vent tubes are provided to allow gas to escape. with a gradual slope from engine (1/2 in. per ft. [41.7 mm/m]), Figure 12.1.

All offshore rigs should have crankcase venting systems. Land rigs with engine driven blower fans, generators driven off the front of the engine, Caterpillar does not recommend venting crank- or cold weather enclosures should also have case fumes into the engine room. Fumes will clog crankcase fumes venting systems, Figure 12.2. air filters and increase air inlet temperature with Crankcase fumes must not be discharged into resulting engine damage. They can also cause air ventilating ducts or exhaust pipes. They will problems with electrical equipment. become coated with oily deposits creating a fire Crankcase fumes should be discharged through hazard. venting systems to atmosphere. A separate vent The crankcase pipe should vent directly to the line for each engine is required. atmosphere and be so directed that rain or spray Crankcase fumes vent pipes must be large cannot enter and run back into the engine. enough to minimize backpressure. If the equivalent length of straight pipe is equal to 20 ft. (6.1 m) or less, the size used for the fumes outlet on the engine will be satisfactory. For lengths greater than 20 ft. (6.1 m) use the next larger size pipe. As a general rule, the 3508, 3512, and 3516 Engines require a 2 in. (50 mm) I.D. crankcase fumes disposal line. Over 100 ft. of length (30.5 m), a 3 in. (75 mm) I.D. crankcase fumes disposal line is used. Loops or low spots in a crankcase vent pipe must be avoided to prevent condensation in the pipe and restriction of normal discharge of fumes. Figure 12.2 Where horizontal runs are required, install the pipe

Figure 12.1
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To minimize the amount of oil discharge through the vent pipe, a drip collector with drain may be installed near the engine, Figure 12.3. Under no circumstances should crankcase pressure vary more than 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water from ambient barometric pressure. Higher crankcase pressures will tend to worsen any existing oil leaks. Measurement should be made with engine at 180200F (6879C) at engine dipstick.

Figure 12.3

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Figure 12.4 illustrates a powered fumes disposal system. The valves with each engine should be adjusted to provide no more than 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water column crankcase vacuum. Adjust valves with only one engine operating. Fan capacity provides a 4:1 dilution of fumes volume. A backup fan should be available.

A damper could be placed at the end of the manifold at the cleanout port and set to provide 1 in. H2O (25.4 mm H2O) vacuum in engine crankcase instead of bleed valve at each engine.

Figure 12.4

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DC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS

DC drives are used on some older electric drill rigs. The following information is useful when considering repowers on these rigs. DC drives consist of an engine, DC generator, DC motor, and control equipment. Under certain conditions, the DC motor can become a generator and drive the engine-driven generator as a motor, preventing safety shutoffs from stopping the engine. This can occur when two generators are paralleled on a drawworks motor or when two engines are driving each of two motors on a mud pump or drawworks. To protect against these possibilities, the engine must be equipped with low oil pressure, high water temperature, and overspeed switches connected to the DC control system generator excitation cutout section. One set of contactors is sufficient regardless of the number of DC generators driven per engine, Figure 13.1.

HIGH WATER TEMPERATURE

LOW OIL PRESSURE

Figure 13.1

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When tripping pipe in or out of the hole, regenerative power surges can occur as the traveling block nears the crown block. These power surges drive the generator and engine above the engine governed speed (overrun). Regenerative power surges can cause nuisance tripping of the engine overspeed device. Overrun can be kept below the engine overspeed shutoff setting by controlling the rate of drop-off of DC generator excitation. The rate of excitation dropoff should be spread over as much as five seconds to minimize this power surge.

It is recommended that a separate engine be operated for each drawworks motor. This provides more engine frictional hp to help resist these power surges during tripping. To conserve fuel and increase engine life, the drillers console controls can be equipped to signal the air actuated governor to return to low speed when the generators on that engine arent being used, Figure 13.2.

Figure 13.2

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AC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS

The following items, normally supplied by oth- load sharing accuracy of the Woodward 2301A ers, are not all-inclusive but generally have an electric governor. influence on engine operation. Electrical Instruments Voltage Regulators Frequency meter: A dial-type meter is preferred Operation characteristics of voltage regulators affect engine performance when the AC loads are dominant, such as jacking an offshore rig or during load bank testing. The DC load controls (SCR modules) include DC excitation controls that are adjusted to match load application to engine capability. for accuracy of frequency readings below rated speed. Reed-type instruments are susceptible to frequency harmonics.

Voltmeter: Where three or more generating units are in an installation, it is recommended only one voltmeter per system be used. Individual generators can be connected to this single meter Where the AC loads can be dominant, Caterpillar through the synchroscope switch at the time of recommends the volts-per-hertz type regulator paralleling. A single voltmeter minimizes meter rather than the constant voltage type. When run- errors. A voltmeter continuously monitoring the ning at rated speed, there is no difference in oper- bus voltage should also be included. ating characteristics of the two types of voltage Ammeter: No special requirements other than at regulators; however, during overload conditions, least one ammeter and a three-phase selector the constant voltage type tends to stall the engine switch should be included per generator. while the volts-per-hertz regulator allows the engine to lug. Because of this characteristic, con- kW meter: A kW meter is recommended for parstant voltage regulators are sometimes referred allel operation involving either rectified systems or larger generator sets. to as hard regulators. A hard regulator maintains constant voltage as generator frequency varies. When an engine is subject to an overload, it begins to slow down. Constant line voltage keeps the electrical load above the engines capability, and the engine generally will not recover. Thus, the constant voltage regulator works against the engine and prevents engine recovery. The volts-per-hertz regulator maintains a voltage level proportional to frequency. Thus, as the engine slows down due to an overload, reduction in generator voltage reduces electrical load. This assists engine recovery. An engine-generator set equipped with a volts-per-hertz regulator can also pick up larger block loads with a smaller frequency dip. PF meter (power factor): PF meters are recommended under certain conditions of parallel operation; for example, where operating personnel frequently adjusts generator controls. Tinkering results in generator misadjustment and subsequent high ampere readings. When this happens, adjusting the generator controls until the amperes are rebalanced does not necessarily bring the generators back into balance. With a PF meter, proper generator voltage adjustment procedure is as follows: 1. In single-unit operation, use volt meter to determine proper generator voltage adjustment. 2. In parallel operation, use PF meter instead of a voltmeter or ammeter because generator voltages are properly adjusted only when all units show the same power factor.

Parallel operation requires the generators to be equipped with either a voltage droop or crosscurrent compensation system. A voltage droop KVAR meters perform the same function as system is standard on the optional Caterpillar PF meters. However, when the governors are not adjusted to carry the same kW load (or different voltage regulators. size generating units are used), calculation is Voltage droop or cross-current compensation required to determine proper readings. systems must operate effectively, particularly on rectified drill rigs, with a very low power factor. PF meters are also recommended for rectified Circulating current will proportionately reduce the power systems.
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Safety Considerations Reverse Power Relay (RPR): This system is required for parallel operation. The RPR opens the circuit breaker when generating units draw power from the line rather than supplying power to it.

short transients will not actuate the system. This device should signal the load reduction system.

Disconnecting the AC load on an SCR drill rig usually does not remove an overload because the major electrical load is the SCR powered equipment. Load reduction can be accomplished by selectively phasing-back noncritical SCRReverse power can occur due to improper govpowered loads or by reducing the power output ernor settings or an engine safety shutoff signal. setting of all SCR-powered equipment. CAUTION: shutting off the fuel of an engine operating in parallel does not stop it because the gen- Ampere overload protection: The ampere overerator becomes a motor as soon as it tries to run load device of the circuit breaker should be oversized if the protection system is temperature slower than other paralleled generators. sensitive. Loose connections or high switchgear As a general rule, the RPR setting should be 68% ambient temperatures can cause premature tripof the generator kW rating. At this value, the time ping of temperature sensitive circuit breakers. An delay should be less than two seconds. Caterpillar oversizing of 15% is suggested. (Consult appliDiesel Engines require a larger amount to motorcable electrical codes.) ize at rated speed. Exact frictional horsepower Automatic tripping mechanism of the circuit data is available if required. breaker: Breakers may be tripped electrically by Setting the RPR for a lower activation point usueither a shunt trip or an undervoltage release ally causes nuisance trips when paralleling. Also, device. Caterpillar recommends the undervoltmany Reverse Power Relays are really Reverse age release on electrically operated circuit breakCurrent Relays, and, as such, their effective kW ers. A shunt trip will open the circuit breaker as activation point is reduced by any circulating curlong as AC power is still available. If only one rent between generating units. In fact, with high engine is running and it stops due to a noneleccirculating current (caused by generator misadtrical fault, the circuit breaker will not open. justment), it is possible to have a reverse current (Reverse power has not occurred.) Damage to trip while generating power. electrical equipment can occur if another generkW overload protection on SCR rigs: Engines on ator is put on the line without first opening this AC rectified drill rigs must have some type of kW circuit breaker. overload protection. This protection should not Battery voltage alarm: Where electric governors open the generator circuit breaker, but rather are used, the control battery should be protected operate circuitry that reduces DC electrical load; with a low battery voltage alarm. Battery voltage otherwise, loss of one generating unit can result lower than 22 volts on a 24 volt system can cause in power outages due to underfrequency of the governor instability or loss of power. (Do not use remaining generating units tripping their circuit a battery which will have other high electrical breakers. loads such as engine starting as an elecDevices that sense kW loads above the engine- tric governor power supply.) generator rating will not provide complete protection. Although these devices would actuate Paralleling check relay: Such relay prevents during a gradual overload, they cannot protect untrained people from paralleling generators out against a large sudden overload resulting from a of phase. Extensive electrical and/or mechanical paralleled generator set shutting down due to a damage can occur due to paralleling out of phase. fault. Remaining generating units would be Emergency Generator Considerations slowed down in rpm so fast that a kW overload Automatic start-stop arrangements and cranking would not be detected. panels are available for all Caterpillar Engines. If other means of overload protection are not proThe Caterpillar automatic start-stop group convided, Caterpillar recommends that an underfretains the electric starting motor(s), engine shutoff quency sensor be connected to the switchgear device, high water temperature and low oil presbus. It should be set for 5 Hz below rated fresure shutoff contactors (overspeed is available), quency and include a two-second time delay so
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and wiring of the above controls to a junction box (all mounted on the engine). Caterpillar cranking panels are required with nonelectronic engines and provide an electrical signal to crank the engine, disconnect starter when engine starts, and stops engine if a fault occurs or if the power outage is over (to be mounted by customer). Electronic engines contain this circuitry. A cranking panel does not contain the AC power failure relay which determines when to start or stop the engine automatically. This relay is usually a part of the customers automatic transfer switch. Jacket water heaters are also available from Caterpillar. They provide fast and reliable starting in ambient temperatures below 70F (21C).

a given SCR system. Caterpillar SR 4B Generators for SCR service provide generous oversizing. Approximate sizing for good performance requires kVA equivalent to 0.6 PF. See the following chart. Generator kVA sizing (at 0.6 PF) for various engine hps are shown below:
(D379) (3508) (D398, 3508B) (3512) (D399, 3512) (D399, 3512, 3516) (3512) (3512B) (3516) (3516B) (3516B HD) 610 hp 860 hp 912 hp 1100 hp 1215 hp 1325 hp 1435 hp 1476 hp 1650 hp 1855 hp 2150 hp 720 kVA 1016 kVA 1075 kVA 1240 kVA 1435 kVA 1565 kVA 1695 kVA 1743 kVA 1948 kVA 2190 kVA 2550 kVA

Electrical equipment required to support operation of the emergency generator set should be powered off the emergency bus. This includes such things as fuel transfer pumps, ventilating An undersized generator does not harm the fans, battery chargers and cooling pumps. engine but the rig operation will require the If an emergency stop control is on the drillers running of more engines than would otherwise console, the stop signal from this emergency stop be required when low PF conditions are encouncontrol must prevent the emergency generator tered. This increases fuel consumption and puts from starting as well as stop the main power plant. unnecessary hours on the engines. While drilling The best method to assure the reliability of an the larger diameter portions of the well, generaemergency system is to periodically test the tor limitations are usually not encountered. entire system. A simulated power failure should (During this time, the PF is near 0.8 PF because be conducted monthly, with actual transfer switch the mud pumps are operated quite fast high operation to connect the full emergency power pump strokes.) demand to the generator set. The emergency sys- Generator limitations are normally encountered tem should function for one hour in the presence during the deeper sections of the well. This is of an authorized mechanic. where the mud pumps are run at lower speeds After completion of the run, the system should be (lower pump strokes) with a resultant low PF readied for automatic operation and rechecks of on the generator. If the generator is not oversized, fuel level and battery condition should be made. it will be necessary to run an extra engine in order to provide sufficient generator capacity. Generator Sizing Drillers have also commented that oversize generators improve the drawworks response. Many SCR Drill Rigs times, hoisting from the deep hole can be just as AC generators on SCR drill rigs frequently oper- fast with one less engine running as compared ate at power factors less than 0.8. This can occur to engines with smaller generators. (The overwhen DC motors operate at high DC amps and size generators allow the drawworks motors to low DC volts. This may occur when beginning to develop more torque, when the DC motors are hoist (especially when the mud pumps are left at low speeds.) on), reaming the hole, low pump strokes, etc. (Many offshore rigs have propulsion machinery To allow engine capability to be more efficiently that raises the total load to levels far greater than utilized, generators should be specified with a the drilling machinery alone requires. This propulhigh kVA rating. The SCR system supplier can sion machinery typically operates at higher power provide information on oversizing required with factors. Combining these loads improves the
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system PF. Generators on these larger rigs therefore may not be as oversize as shown above.) AC Variable Frequency Drill Rigs If the variable frequency drive is of the Diode front end style, oversizing of the AC generator is not required. High kVA on the AC generator will not occur. The special requirements for generator construction to withstand voltage spikes and current stresses do still apply. Generator Space Heaters Generators must be kept clean and dry to provide acceptable service life. Generators can have winding failures when shutdown in humid areas. Space heaters are available for generators. They are installed within the generator and are to be energized when the generator is not on-line to repel moisture. They must be connected to a power source. Caterpillar SCR generators have space heaters as standard equipment. They are also available for auxiliary or lite plant generators. Serious consideration should be given to installing and using generator space heaters. Generator Location It is recommended that the rig layout place generator sets as far as practical from mud tanks because some dust acts as a desiccant (attracts moisture). Moisture and chemicals can cause premature generator failure. Drillers should consider wind direction when making a setup also. Generator space heaters should be considered as an aid where moisture and dust cannot otherwise be controlled. NOTE: Heaters can only aid moisture control for a stand-by or at rest generator. Generators should be protected from direct rain.

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OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS
Instrumentation and control systems are an integral part of the oilfield installation. Attention to design, installation, and testing ensures a reliable installation that reduces maintenance costs. Suitable instrumentation enables the operator to monitor oilfield engine systems and make corrections before failures occur. Premium Oilfield Instrument Panel This engine-mounted oilfield instrument panel, available on 3508, 3512, and 3516 engines, monitors five critical engine systems for non-electronic engines, Figure 15.1. All instruments were selected for reliability, durability and accuracy under engine room environmental conditions. The panel offers calibrated mechanical gauges plus a pyrometer and a self-contained electrical tachometer. It allows the operator to: (1) Monitor essential systems for normal operating conditions.
3508, 3512, 3516
Figure 15.1
OPERATING LIMIT PLATE START CONTROL & SHUTOFF OVERRIDE

Premium Oilfield Instrument Panels for 3500B Engines 3500B engines incorporate both analog gauges and digital readout of selected values.

The two modules included with every instrument panel are the main display module and gauge (2) Determine trends of changing conditions cluster module. The main display module conwhich could be due to deterioration of one or trols all the instruments and gauge cluster module displays: more engine systems. (3) Troubleshoot essential engine systems. Periodic monitoring and recording of data, beginning with initial service, provides an engine history. As normal engine operating conditions change, preventive maintenance can eliminate potential failures and downtime. The operator can determine operating limits by referring to the operating limit plate attached to the instrument panel. These limits are based on the engine running at oilfield continuous rated speed and load after warm-up and using SAE 30, API-CH-4, oil. At initial startup, gauge readings should be well within stated limits. If gauges register at or outside operating limits, any malfunction or installation problem should be corrected. Information required to diagnose and correct any malfunction or installation problem is contained in the Service Manual for each engine model. Routine operating instructions are contained in the Operation Guide for each engine model. Engine oil pressure Engine coolant temperature System voltage Engine fuel pressure Right hand and left hand air inlet restriction Right hand and left hand exhaust temperature Fuel filter differential pressure Oil filter differential pressure

The second gauge cluster module displays:

There is an option to add a third gauge cluster module. The third gauge cluster module displays: Inlet air pressure (boost) Separate circuit aftercooler coolant temperature Engine oil temperature Inlet air temperature

The optional individual cylinder exhaust pyrometer group comes with the third gauge cluster.

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vary by engine rating. Jacket water aftercooled engines operate at a significantly higher inlet Following is a description of the various standard manifold air temperature than do separate cirand optional gauges. cuit cooled engines.

Instruments

Tachometer The tachometer indicates engine rpm. Jacket Water Temperature Gauge This gauge indicates the temperature of the jacket water as it leaves the engine. Jacket water temperature must be maintained between minimum and maximum limits. Temperature gauge capillary tubes must be routed to avoid hot spots, such as manifolds or turbochargers, which will cause false readings. Aftercooler Water Temperature Gauge

Exhaust Temperature Gauge (Pyrometer) The pyrometer measures exhaust gas temperatures, normally after the turbocharger. On Vee engines with two turbochargers, a single instrument is supplied with dual temperature readout for both banks. On engines with single turbochargers, one instrument with a single readout is provided. DO NOT USE EXHAUST TEMPERATURE AS A LOAD SETTING INDICATOR WITH TURBOCHARGED AND TURBOCHARGED/AFTERCOOLED ENGINES. The pyrometer should be used only to monitor changes in the combustion system and to warn of required maintenance.

This gauge indicates the temperatures of the water entering the aftercooler circuit. Emissions The optional exhaust temperature gauge system, where available, adds the readings at each cylincompliant engines may monitor this. der exhaust outlet. Intake Manifold Air Temperature Gauge This gauge indicates air temperature between the aftercooler and the cylinder. The limits will
3500B ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT PANEL

Figure 15.2
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Engine Oil Temperature Gauge This gauge indicates oil temperature after the lube oil cooler. On most engines, the oil is cooled by engine jacket water. A high jacket water temperature or a clogged oil cooler will prevent the engine lube oil from being properly cooled. Engine Oil Pressure Gauge This gauge indicates the pressure of the filtered oil. Oil pressure will be greatest after starting a cold engine and will decrease slightly as the oil warms up. Oil pressure is greater at operating speeds than at low idle rpm. The specified minimum oil pressure is for an engine running at continuous rated speed. Plugged oil filter elements will decrease engine oil pressure. The oil filter service indicator (where provided) should be checked regularly for premature filter plugging. STOP THE ENGINE IMMEDIATELY IF OIL PRESSURE DROPS RAPIDLY. Fuel Pressure Gauge The fuel pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the filtered fuel. A power reduction will occur if the fuel pressure drops too low. Plugged fuel filters decrease fuel pressure. High fuel pressure can burst fuel filter housings, damage gaskets, and cause erratic speed control because of increased friction drag in injection pumps. Air Restriction Gauge The air restriction gauge measures the vacuum caused by the air filter restriction. Clogged air cleaners will result in reduced air flow causing high exhaust temperature and sometimes excessive smoke. The air restriction gauge should be checked regularly, and air filters should be changed when restriction limits are reached. Oil Filter Differential Gauge This gauge measures the difference in pressure between the filtered and unfiltered sides of the oil filter; a high reading will indicate plugged oil filters. Where supplied, this gauge should be checked regularly. Ammeter Where supplied, an ammeter measures electrical current to or from the battery.

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SHUTOFFS AND ALARM SYSTEMS

Shutoffs 3508, 3512, and 3516 oilfield engines that are non-electronic controlled are equipped with a hydramechanical low oil pressure, high water temperature and overspeed shutoff. Shutdown is accomplished by moving the fuel rack to shutoff position. The high water temperature shutoff will not provide protection when the water level is below the sensing element. These engines include an air inlet shutoff. During an overspeed or when the remote shutoff is actuated, this device shuts off the air inlet at the same 3508, 3512, 3516 time the fuel rack is moved to the off position. Figure 16.1 This provides protection when operating in a gaseous fuel atmosphere, Figure 16.1. Electronic Engine Shutoffs A monitoring gauge is included that will indicate Shutoff systems for electronic engines are incorshutoff is operable. porated within the Engine Control Module (ECM). Remote shutoff provisions are also available. A Shutoff of fuel is accomplished internally, and air routine shutoff option shuts only the fuel off. The inlet shutoff utilizes air inlet shutoff valves. engine can then be restarted remotely after a several minute delay. An emergency shutoff option Compound Drives shuts off both fuel and air. The air inlet shutoff must be manually reset before the engine can be For compound drives, an engine oil pressure actuated 3-way valve may be added to disconrestarted. nect the air clutch from the compound. This prevents motoring of the engine by other engine(s) Other Non-Electronic Engines on the compound, Figure 16.2. A mechanical shutoff is available for most other engine configurations. It will automatically shut If air clutches are not used, this dump valve may down the engine is case of low oil pressure or be used to actuate the torque converter or fluid high water temperature. This system is hydrauli- coupling dump valve. An air cylinder will also be cally operated and contains a shutoff control required, Figure 16.2. group which forces the engine fuel control to The 3-way valve should be an Amot model shutoff if an extreme limit is reached. 4057-CE or equivalent. It will actuate on 20 psi It may be necessary to manually override the (137.9 kPa) oil pressure and includes an emergency manual override in case engine is to be shutoff when starting engine. started through the compound. This will not be CAUTION: Sensing devices must not trigger activated by overspeed or the emergency shutengine shutdown in applications where engine off button. provides equipment mobility.
EMERGENCY SHUTOFF LOCAL REMOTE MONITOR GAUGE

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Practically any additional engine function involving speed, temperature, and pressure control can Low oil pressure and high water temperature be sensed at extreme limits by special alarm or alarms are most commonly used and are recshutoff systems. Extent of usage should depend ommended for every engine. These are preset entirely on the type and extent of monitoring and temperature and pressure switches to be conautomation desired. nected to the rigs electrical system. They will activate a customer-supplied audio or visual Switches normally available from Caterpillar will alarm when extreme temperature and pressure operate on AC or DC voltage from 6 volts to limits are reached. Engines equipped with expan- 240 volts, Figure 16.3. See also section on DC sion tanks for heat exchanger cooling contain a Power Systems for alarm contactors required when driving DC generators. These contactors (SPDT low water level alarm switch. switches) disconnect the generators excitation. Alarm Contactors

Figure 16.2

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Contactor Switch Ratings Temperature Sensing Rating with alarm or switch: 115-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A 230-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A 600-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A 120-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5A 240-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 A 48-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25A 32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9A 24-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A 12-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A Pressure Sensing Rating with alarm or switch: 125, 250, or 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . 250-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speed Sensing* Rating with alarm or switch: Mechanical Switch 28-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 240, 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . 125-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *Terminals are not under a cover. Electronic Switch 12-32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 16.3

4. If more than one engine is connected to an alarm panel, a fault in a second engine should activate the alarm, even though the alarm horn may have been silenced after a fault on another engine. 5. Circuit Test provides for periodic checking of alarm panel functions. Recommended Minimum Alarms Radiator cooled engines: (Jacket water aftercooled) A. Low oil pressure Figure 16.5 B. High water temperature Figure 16.4 C. Overspeed Figure 16.6 Heat exchanger or grid-cooler cooled engines: (Jacket water aftercooled) A. Low oil pressure B. High water temperature C. Overspeed D. Low water level Engines equipped with electric governors should have a low control battery voltage alarm. A reverse power alarm or circuit breaker tripped alarm should be considered on AC generating units. A low sea water pressure alarm for the engine cooling systems should be included. If any other engine room function is monitored, the fault indicator should be built into this control panel or located next to it. World Class Contactors Pressure and temperature contactors are available. They meet the requirements of the marine classification societies. They are adjustable, Figure 16.7.

20A 25A

5A 1A 10A .5A

3A

Alarm Panels The most common type of user supplied alarm panel contains alarm indicating lights for all engines. Caterpillar recommends the following features in alarm panels: 1. Fault light lock-in circuitry keeps fault light on when intermittent faults occur.

2. Lockout of additional alarm lights prevents subsequent alarm lights from going on after TEMPERATURE CONTACTOR the activated engine shutoff stops the engine. This aids in troubleshooting. Figure 16.4 3. Alarm silence allows engineman to acknowledge the alarm without having to continually listen to the alarm horn. Alarm light is left on.
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PRESSURE CONTACTOR
Figure 16.5

OVERSPEED CONTACTOR
Figure 16.6

OIL PRESSURE WATER TEMPERATURE

SOCIETY APPROVED CONTACTOR

Figure 16.7

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STARTING SYSTEMS
An engine starting system must be able to crank Damage can result if water enters and is retained the engine at sufficient speed for fuel combustion in the starting motor solenoid. To prevent this, to begin normal firing and keep engine running. engines stored outside should be provided with a flywheel housing cover. If possible, the starting These are two common types of engine starting motor should be mounted with the solenoid in an systems: up position which would provide drainage and A. Electric prevent water from collecting in the solenoid. B. Air Engines which are subject to heavy driven load Hydraulic starting is usable with Cat engines, during cold start-up should be provided with a but is not available from Caterpillar. heavy-duty starting motor. The choice of systems depends upon availabilBatteries ity of the energy source, availability of space for storage of energy, and ease of recharging the Batteries provide sufficient power to crank engines long and fast enough to start. Lead-acid types energy banks. are common, have high output capabilities, and Startability of a diesel engine is affected primarlowest first cost. Nickel-cadmium batteries are ily by ambient temperature, lubricating oil viscostly, but have long shelf life and require minicosity, and size of the cranking system. The diesel mum maintenance. Nickel-cadmium types are relies on the heat of compression to ignite fuel. designed for long life and may incorporate thick This heat is a result of both the cranking speed plates which decrease high discharge capability. and length of time for cranking. When the engine Consult the battery supplier for specific recomis cold, a longer period of cranking is required to mendations. develop this ignition temperature. Ambient temperatures drastically affect battery Heavy oil imposes the greatest load on the crankperformance and charging efficiencies. Maintain ing motor. Both the type of oil and temperature 90F (32C) maximum temperature to assure can drastically alter its viscosity. An SAE 30 oil rated output. Impact of colder temperatures is will, for example, approach the consistency of described, Figures 17.3 and 17.4. grease at temperatures below 32F (0C). Proper engine oil viscosity should be provided accord- Locate cranking batteries for easy visual inspecing to recommendations in the engine operation tion and maintenance, away from flame or spark sources and isolated from vibration. Mount level manual. on nonconducting material and protect from splash and dirt. Use short slack cable lengths and Electric Starting minimize voltage drops by positioning batteries Electric starting is the most convenient to use. near the starting motor. Storage of energy is compact, however, charging the system is slow and difficult in case of emer- Charging Systems gency. Electric starting becomes less effective as temperature drops due to loss of battery charge Normally, engine-driven alternators are used for capacity and an increase in an engines resistance battery charging. When selecting an alternator, to cranking under those conditions. It is the least give consideration to current draw of electrical expensive system and is most adaptable to remote accessories to be used and to the conditions in which the alternator will be operating. An altercontrol and automation, Figs. 17.1 and 17.2. nator must be chosen which has adequate capaDo NOT crank the engine more than 30 seconds, bility to power accessories and charge the battery. or the starter will overheat. If the alternator will be operating in a dusty, dirty environment, a heavy-duty alternator should be selected.

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OIL PRESS SWITCH

START SWITCH

MAG SWITCH

STARTING MOTORS

+
BATTERY

DC DUAL STARTING SYSTEM

Figure 17.1

Engine-driven alternators have the disadvantage of charging batteries only while the engine is running. Trickle chargers are available but require an AC power source. Battery chargers using AC power sources must be capable of limiting peak currents during the cranking cycle or must have a relay to disconnect the battery charger during the cranking cycle. In applications where an engine-driven alternator and a battery trickle charger are both used, the disconnect relay must be controlled to disconnect the trickle charger during cranking and running periods of the engine.

DIRECT INJECTION COMBUSTION SYSTEM

ALTERNATOR LIGHTS, ETC. AMMETER

KEY SWITCH

GAUGES, ETC.

MAGNETIC SWITCH 12V STARTING MOTOR

BATTERY

TYPICAL WIRING DIAGRAM (Mobile Equipment)

Figure 17.2
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Sp. Gravity
1.260 1.230 1.200 1.170 1.110

Battery Performance Specific Gravity vs. Voltage % Charge V per Cell

100 75 50 25 Discharged 2.10 2.07 2.04 2.01 1.95

Freezes F (C)
70 (94) 39 (56) 16 (27) 2 (19) +17 (8)

Figure 17.3 Temperature vs. Output % 80F Ampere Hours Output Rating
100 65 40

F (C)
80 (27) 32 (0) 0 (18)

Figure 17.4 Maximum Recommended Total Battery Cable Length Direct Electric Starting MM2 12 Volt Feet Meters Feet
50 70 95 120 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.5 1.22 1.52 1.83 2.29 15.0 18.0 21.0 27.0

Cable Size AWG

0 00 000 0000

24-32 Volt Meters

4.57 5.49 6.40 8.24

Figure 17.5 Suggested Minimum Battery Cold Cranking Amps 12 20 30 60 20

1450 1450 1225 1225 1225 1300 1300 1300

Battery Voltage Minimum F

3304 3306 3406 3408 3412 3508

24-32 1-motor 0
925 925 925 1225 1225 1225

60
725 725 925 925 925

Figure 17.6 NOTE: Use aids below 0F (18C)

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Starting System Wiring

Air Starting

Power carrying capability and serviceability are Air starting, Figure 17.7, offers higher cranking primary concerns of the wiring system. speeds than electric starting and is the most comSelect starter and battery cable size, Figure 17.5. mon system used on drill rigs. It usually results For correct size and correct circuit for starting in faster starts with less cranking time. Remote system components, see typical wiring diagrams. controls and automation are more complex and Wiring should be protected by fuses or a manual cumbersome. Storage of energy is bulky, but reset circuit breaker (not shown on the wiring recharging the system is relatively fast. Air for diagrams). Fuses and circuit breakers should recharging is always available. A small emergency have sufficient capacity and be readily accessi- receiver (not supplied by Caterpillar) can be hand pumped to starting pressure under emergency ble for service. conditions or an auxiliary diesel engine-driven Other preferred wiring practices are: air compressor package can be used. System Minimum number of connections, especially repairs can often be done on site with minimum tool requirement. Moisture condensation may with battery cables. take place within the air system, causing inter Positive mechanical connections. nal corrosion and freezing. Figures 17.8 and 17.9 Permanently labeled or color-coded wires. contain information required to size air starting systems. Short cables to minimize voltage drop. Recommended air pressure range is 90-150 psi Ground cable from battery to starter is pre- (620-1034 kPa). ferred. If frame connections are used, tin the contact surface. Current path should not include high resistance points such as painted, bolted, or riveted joints. Protect battery cables from rubbing against sharp or abrasive surfaces.

AIR STARTING SYSTEM WITH PRELUBE

Figure 17.7
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Engine Model
3304 3306 3406 3408 3412 3508 3512 3516

Free Air Consumption f3/s (m3/s) For a Bare Engine at 50F (10C) 100 psig 125 psig 150 psig (690 kPa) (862 kPa) (1034 kPa) To Starter To Starter To Starter
5.8 (0.1641) 5.9 (0.1670) 6.2 (0.1755) 6.4 (0.1811) 9.0 (0.2601) 9.3 (0.26) 9.8 (0.28) 10.5 (0.30) 6.8 (0.1924) 6.9 (0.1953) 7.3 (0.2066) 7.5 (0.2122) 10.3 (0.2914) 10.8 (0.30) 11.4 (0.32) 12.1 (0.34) 7.7 (0.2179) 7.8 (0.2207) 8.3 (0.2349) 8.6 (0.2434) 11.8 (0.3339) 12.6 (0.36) 13.3 (0.38) 14.1 (0.40)

P min psig* (kPa)

35 (242) 36 (248) 40 (276) 39 (269) 30 (207) 45 (310) 50 (344) 65 (448)

NOTE: Add to the 3516 1 cu. ft./sec. (0.0283 m3/s) of air consumption for the air operated oil prelubrication pump. This pump will normally operate 2 to 10 seconds before the engine begins to crank. *Minimum air storage tank pressure required to sustain cranking at 100 rpm. Higher pressure required to initiate cranking. Figure 17.8 Air Receiver Volume Required For One Second of Cranking Time With Pressure Drop From 250 to 125 psi (1724 to 862 kPa) cu. ft./sec. (m3/s) Engine Model cu. ft./sec. (m3/s)
0.535/0.0151 0.506/0.0143 0.518/0.0147 1.90/0.054 1.82/0.051 3508 3512 3516 1.42/0.0402 1.33/0.0376 1.30/0.0368

Engine Model
3304 3306 3406 3408 3412

Figure 17.9

The air supply line between storage tank and air motor should be short and direct, and of a size equal to the discharge opening of the air receiver. Black iron pipe is preferable and must be properly supported to avoid vibration damage to the compressor. Flexible connections between compressor outlet and piping are required.

Many applications require sizing air receivers to provide a specified number of starts. This can be accomplished using the following equation: English System Vs T 14.7 psi Vt = __________________ Pt Pm

The shipyard or rigup yard must thoroughly clean SI System the air piping prior to first engine start. Rust or Vs T 101 kPa debris can destroy the air starter. Vt = __________________ Pt Pm Air storage tank should meet American Society 3 3 of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or other rec- Vs = Starter air consumption (ft /sec or m /sec), Figure 17.8. ognized source of specifications pressure vessel specifications and should be equipped with a Vt = Air storage tank capacity (cubic feet or safety valve and pressure gauge. Safety valves cubic meters) should be regularly checked to guard against possible malfunction. A drain cock must be pro- Pt = Air storage tank pressure (psig or kPa) vided in the lowest part of the air receiver tank T = Cranking time for draining condensation. Pm = 90 psig (620 kPa) when sequential crank cycles are used. Use P minimum, Figure 17.8, when a single crank cycle is used.
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The quantity of free air required per start (Vs) one or more commonly used starting aids such as jacket water heaters and/or ether. depends on three factors: Adequate starts can usually be obtained with properly maintained systems above 60F (15C) Cranking time per start depends on engine ambient temperatures without aids. model, engine condition, ambient air temperature, oil viscosity, fuel type, and design crank- Jacket water heaters maintain water at a teming speed. Five to seven seconds is typical perature high enough to start engine. kW rating for an engine at 80F (26C). Restarts of hot of the jacket water heater depends on Cooling engines usually take less than two seconds. Systems Jacket Water Heaters for additional details. B. Rate of free air consumption Ether is a volatile and highly combustible agent. Rate of free air consumption depends on Small quantities of ether fumes added to the these same variables, and also on pressure engines intake air during cranking reduce comregulator setting. Correct pressure regulator pression temperature required for engine startsetting is 90 to 150 psi (620 to 1033 kPa), ing. This method can be used for starting of an with the higher pressure used to improve engine at practically any ambient temperature. 3 starting under adverse conditions. 5 to 15 ft /s Ether starting aids are available on the smaller (0.14 to 0.42 m3/s) is typical for engines Caterpillar engines. from 50 to 1200 hp (37 to 895 kW). CAUTION: When other than fully sealed ether C. Operation systems are used, ensure adequate ventilation The air supply must be shut off as soon as for venting fumes to the atmosphere to prevent engine starts or the sensing system must accidental explosion and danger to operating close the solenoid air valve to prevent wast- personnel. ing starting air pressure. The high pressure metallic capsule-type is recWater vapor in the compressed air supply may ommended for mobile applications. When placed freeze as air is expanded below 32F (0C). A in an injection device and pierced, ether passes dryer at the compressor outlet or a small quan- into the intake manifold. This has proven to be tity of alcohol in the starter tank is suggested. the best system since few special precautions are This formula may be used to estimate the time required for handling, shipping, or storage. A. Cranking time required per start required for an air compressor to raise the pressure in an air receiver to a specified limit: Pt R T = ________ Pa N T= Time in minutes Pt = Final pressure of tank (psia or kPa) Pa = Atmospheric pressure (psia or kPa) R= Volume of air receiver (ft3 or m3)
3

Ether must be used only as directed by the manufacturer of the starting aid device. The ether system must be such that a maximum of 3.0 cc of ether will be released each time the button is pushed. Caterpillar ether systems are designed to release 2.25 cc of ether each time the system is activated. Excessive injection of ether can damage an engine. Ether should not be released into a running engine. Lighter fuels, such as kerosene, can ease the unaided cranking requirements slightly by lowering the compression temperature required for starting. These lighter fuels also slightly reduce horsepower delivered at any given fuel rack setting.

N = Net free air delivery of compressor (ft /min or m3/min)

Excessive parasitic loads should be disconnected The diesel engine depends on heat of compres- during engine cranking. sion of air in the cylinder to ignite fuel. Below some minimum temperature, even a reasonably Prelubrication Systems sized cranking system will not turn the engine fast enough or long enough to ignite fuel without If the 3516 engine is started or operated at low idle until oil pressure is attained, prelubrication is NOT required.
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Starting Aids

The 3516 oilfield engine includes a prelubrication system to provide lubricating oil to critical components before cranking and starting the engine. Caterpillar furnishes an air cranking/air prelubricating system, Figure 17.7 and 17.10. This consists of an air-driven prelubrication pump that draws oil from the engine sump and forces it into the engine. This pump is driven by an air motor which, through sequence valving, runs until a predetermined engine oil pressure shuts it off and turns on the air cranking motor.

Driven Load Reduction Devices

Effect of driven equipment loads during cold weather engine starting must be considered. Hydraulic pumps, air compressors, and other mechanically driven devices typically demand more horsepower when they are extremely cold at start-up. The effect of this horsepower demand may be overcome by providing a means of declutching driven loads until the engine has been started and warmed up for a few minutes. This is not always easy or practical, so other Oilfield engine applications that use the 2301A means of relieving the load at cold start-up may Electric Governor do not require prelubrication be required if the engine-load combination canpumps because a properly wired 2301A Governor not be started with sufficient ease using engine maintains engine speed at low idle speed until starting aids described earlier. adequate oil pressure is in the lube system. When Some air compressors provide for shutoff of the engine starts and accelerates to low idle, it the air compressor air inlet during cold starting. will stay at that speed until an electric switch is This greatly decreases drag on the engine and closed by engine oil pressure. The engine will improves cold startability. This approach can only then accelerate to rated speed. be used when the air compressor manufacturer Any solenoids used in the starting system must provides this system and fully approves of its use. be DC to ensure starting during an AC power Otherwise, air compressor damage could result. outage.

AIR START

AIR PRELUBE

Figure 17.10

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ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION

The two-wire circuit has an insulated return wire from the load to source as well as the lead wire Electrolytic and galvanic activity can cause serious from the source to load, Figure 18.1. Frames of damage to an engine. Troubleshooting requires various electrical devices should be connected highly skilled personnel. The best procedure is to the hull if mounting of the device to the hull to attempt to provide adequate safeguards for does not provide a sufficient ground. engines during rig construction. Troubleshooting is further complicated by the fact that damage Be aware that the ground between the hull and a done by electrolytic or galvanic activity is usu- metallic item resting on the hull can be weakally identical, but required solutions for either ened or destroyed by moisture, corrosion or poor area of contact. cause usually aggravates the other.

Introduction

Electrical systems should be so designed that no continuous electrical potential is imposed upon any cooling system components. Presence of any electrical potential may cause cooling system materials to be damaged by electrolytic processes. Galvanic activity in salt water circuits produces a corrosive action with metal, resulting in deterioration of system components. Proper material selection and cathodic protection should be employed by installing sacrificial zinc rods in sea water flow passages at numerous locations. In order to maintain this protection, zinc rods must be inspected regularly and replaced when deteriorated.

+
S

LOAD

+ S
G

LOAD

A. SINGLE-WIRE GROUNDED (NOT RECOMMENDED)

B. TWO-WIRE GROUNDED (NOT RECOMMENDED) S = SOURCE

+ S

LOAD

C. TWO-WIRE FLOATING (RECOMMENDED)

Large amounts of electrical current are present on offshore electric drilling rigs. Minute stray cur- Figure 18.1 rents should be minimized to protect engines. DC and AC circuits should have insulated (floating) grounds. The recommended floating circuit has no connection to ground and it can be described as insulated from ground.

PLANNED ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

191

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Metallic items in contact with the hull must be made of metal similar to that of the hull metal. For example, a steel pump housing should be in direct contact with the hull in order to be grounded to the hull*. However, a dissimilar metal, such as brass, should be isolated from the hull because moisture between the brass and hull will cause galvanic corrosion. The brass should be connected to the hull via a wire. *Unless the types of steels have a significant voltage potential difference (e.g. mild steel will corrode if it is coupled to stainless steel).

Because engines are in direct contact with the hull, the following procedure can be followed to assure that stray currents return to the power source with minimal travel through metallic components, Figure 18.2. The ground wire has a high resistance path back to the battery because of the insulating material between the metallic plate and battery. This helps minimize the amount of current flow. Insulating material between the metallic place and hull prevents stray currents from returning through the hull to the battery. These currents must return through the ground wire.

Figure 18.2

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FUEL CONSERVATION ON PETROLEUM ENGINES

Rapidly increasing fuel prices coupled with decreasing fuel availability is receiving increased attention by contractors and oil companies. Methods to reduce fuel consumption are under three sections: 1. General Conservation Practices 2. Minimizing Prime Mover Fuel Consumption 3. Modifying Drilling Practices/Machinery to Reduce Prime Mover Fuel Consumption

General Information
The amount of flywheel kilowatts (horsepower) produced by burning a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel depends on engine type, condition, and loading. If an engine is operated at more than half load, a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel can produce approximately 3.34 kWh/l (1720 hp-h/gal). In contrast, the same engine lightly loaded will only produce approximately 2.73.6 kWh/L (1418 hp-h/gal) or much less if operating at no load. Engine fuel consumption data is stated as:

Figure 19.1

General Conservation Practices Fuel will be saved by converting small diesel engine-driven auxiliaries, such as mud mix pumps, superchargers, etc., to electric motor-driven units. As an engine-driven device, these auxiliaries are the only load on that particular engine. Thus, when at light load, fuel consumption per flywheel kilowatt (horsepower) delivered is high.

On rigs that require winterizing, engine exhaust and jacket water heat can be recovered and reduce Fuel quantity consumption per hour at vari- boiler fuel consumption. ous loads. This is expressed in L/h or gal/h. Take measures to prevent theft of fuel. The engine burns fuel at no load due to the inter- Eliminate spillage and leakage losses. nal demands of water and oil pumps, friction Turn off auxiliary loads when not needed. Operlosses, other mechanical devices, etc. ation of unneeded auxiliary loads may represent This accounts for a major part of the slope up to 5-10% of total rig load. in B curve, Figure 19.1. These internal losses become a smaller portion of the total as the engine Minimizing Prime Mover is loaded. Thus, the engine is more efficient. Curve A, Figure 19.1, adds the power required to operate the radiator fan. It is not normally included The following items should be considered in regard in the engines fuel curve due to the wide selec- to prime movers. The secret is to get all the energy out of each drop of fuel and avoid fuel tion of radiators used in the oil field. waste due to poor maintenance and adjustment. Note that a radiator fan that takes 5% of the engine fuel consumption to drive at full load may take Engine should be maintained to assure optimum 16% of the engine fuel consumption at 20% load. fuel consumption. Exhaust smoke under steadyThe percentage would be much higher at no load. state conditions indicates incomplete combustion of fuel, hence, increased fuel consumption. It could be caused by such things as dirty air cleaner elements, dirty aftercooler cores, turbocharger malfunctioning, incorrect fuel injection timing, faulty fuel injection nozzle, etc. A qualified serviceman should be called upon to provide a specific diagnosis.
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Fuel Consumption

Turbochargers may also not be properly matched to the engine. This can happen with engines that are operating at a speed other than that shown on the manufacturers nameplate. In such cases an improper turbocharger match increases fuel consumption by 15%, in addition to creating other possible adverse operating conditions, i.e., excessive exhaust temperature, slower engine acceleration, etc.

particularly at light load. This temperature reduction causes the radiator core to contract. Repeated temperature fluctuations could result in premature core failure unless the radiator can accommodate these fluctuations.

When operating on cool or cold days, the radiator ambient capacity, in the low speed operation, will increase. A low temperature is always reached where the engine can be cooled at full load with the fan in low speed operation. Thus, during winReduce radiator fan power requirements. Radiater operations (and most summer operations) the tors of the same ambient capability can have fan may never operate in the high speed position. great differences in fan power due to fan rpm and Figure 19.3 shows these approximate values. fan diameter differences. A large diameter fan at a lower rpm can deliver the same cfm, but at Radiator Ambient Capability greatly reduced power demand. Approximately Radiators are available with fans which draw 1.5 to 6% of the engine rating. The effect of radiator fan power is quantified, Figure 19.2. Considering that drilling engines spend much of their time at reduced load levels, a further reduction in fan power can be achieved by using a twospeed drive (electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic) to operate fan. This savings is illustrated in Figure 19.2 under the column labeled Controlled Speed Fans. This column also reflects the fact that the engine does not operate all year round at design ambient conditions.
Engine Load
100% 100% 50%

Fan Speed
100% 50% 50%

Ambient Capability
125F (52C) 80F (27C) 125F (52C)

Figure 19.3

For additional assurance of reliability, the twospeed drive can be arranged such that fan belts can be reattached to the engine crankshaft pulley if necessary.

Radiator louvers are a desirable feature in cold climates, but they do not reduce the fan power Controlled speed fan would run continuously at demand. low speed until hot weather/high load conditions Use of a heavy distillate or crude fuel can reduce cause engine water temperature to rise, signalling fuel costs. Fuel consumption will reduce in an the fan drive to run at high speed. CAUTION: approximate inverse proportion to the ratio of the Controlled speed fans may be prohibited by some heat content of this fuel to regular fuel. However, emission regulations. such a fuel cost reduction frequently results in A single-speed fan drive that is turned on or off increased engine operating costs. Depending upon may not be desirable. The radiator supplier would contaminants or operational difficulties encounhave to be consulted to determine if the radiator tered, engine life could be severely reduced. core can tolerate the repeated temperature cycling A fuel analysis is certainly recommended. This that occurs. When the fan is off, the radiator out- should be compared to permissible and recomlet water is at engine water temperature and will mended fuel specifications which can be provided be cooled toward ambient as the fan turns on by the engine supplier. Fuel treatment equipment

Engine Load
2040% 3050% 4060% 60100%

Increase in Rig Fuel Consumption Due to Radiator Fan Controlled Speed Fan (2:1) 5% Fan 2.5% Fan 5% 2.5%
1216% 1014% 810% 58% 68% 57% 36% 2.55% 1% 1% 1.5% 1.53% 0.5% 0.5% 0.75% 0.751.5%

Figure 19.2
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may be commercially available that conditions fuel to meet permissible or recommended fuel specifications. It may be necessary to start and stop the engine on diesel fuel. Used lube oil can be blended into the fuel supply when proper precautions are taken. However, the reduction of fuel consumption would be in the range of 0.5% and, fuel filters would have to be changed more frequently. It also discolors the fuel so that it cannot be returned to the supplier.

different sizes hence, their fuel rates now are dramatically different at specific load points. This understanding of fuel curves leads to the following conclusion. When using fuel consumption as one of the criterions in selecting engine sizes, types, and quantities, fuel consumption at normal operating loads, not at the rated full load point, is of greatest importance. An approximation of engine load versus time at various well depths is also required.

Modifying Drilling Practices/ Machinery to Reduce Prime Mover Fuel Consumption

The first drilling practice to be discussed is the number and size of engines used to power a rig. An SCR rig will be assumed. The importance of engine sizing is shown by engine fuel curves, Figure 19.1. The curve is not flat. More importantly, this is a curve for a given prime mover. Such curves are not the same for all manufacturers and/or models. In a given engine family, a V8, V12, and V16 will not have identical fuel curves. Between engine manufacturers, a V8, V12, and V16 will differ. Fuel curves give testimony to engine configuration differences such as: naturally aspirated, roots blower, turbocharging, natural gas engines, diesel engines, gas turbine engines, engine size, etc. Figure 19.4 represents such variations. All these engines, for purposes of dramatizing the comparison, have the same full load fuel consumption.

Figure 19.5

Calculating or estimating fuel consumption requires the following: 1. Engine fuel curves tabulated in the same format (and down to no load operation). 2. An actual or typical well profile that plots power required versus days of operation.
Figure 19.4

An additional point is illustrated in Figure 19.5. The left side shows that two engines have the Fuel curves for Caterpillar Petroleum Engines are same fuel curve expressed as % load. The right in the TMI or Engine Performance Book. side illustrates that these same two engines are
195

3. A format to calculate and display the required information.

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Well profile data is required to establish the basis As a general rule, tripping hp (tripping out, tripfor estimating engine fuel consumption. Well ping in, and running casing) for the entire well depth and fuel cost are values you provide. averages 1020% of the drawworks rated hp. Any The well profile itself can be based on your expe- operating auxiliary load has to be added. rience, on-site evaluation, documented by data Wait, Misc., is time spent, throughout the entire recording systems, or a combination of all of these. well, waiting on cement, logging, etc. It is suggested that separate drilling activities The profile also assumes no generator limitations should be tabulated for each diameter hole being were encountered which would have required drilled, hoisting time, and a grouping for nondrilling more engines running than indicated. times such as logging, waiting on cement, etc. Finally, it is a known fact well profiles vary widely. Engine operating techniques reflect the fuel con- Specific well profiles should be utilized if more sumption consequences of the number of engines accurate results are required. It may be necesyou operate. Granted that we recommend (and sary to record kW and kVA values on some drill hopefully the industry concurs with) operating rigs to gain reliable representative data. engines efficiently but what are the consequences of operating more engines than required? Engine Sizing Versus Generator Sizing Engine operating techniques are tabulated under As you reflect on what has been just presented, two objections, or qualifications, may come to three headings: mind. They will be discussed separately. The first A. Run all engines regardless of need. one is expressed in the following statement: B. Run one engine more than required this But my SCR rig already operates efficiently prevents a power interruption or reduction if because it operates in power limit. a generating unit should go off the line. This statement requires a word of caution the C. Run minimum number of engines realiz- SCR systems power limiter or overload control ing that a temporary power reduction or out- activates for either kW or kVA overloads. A rig age will occur if a generating unit should go operating with the power limiter light on does not off the line. mean the engines are being efficiently operated. Larger kVA generators (or other remedial action) DRILL RIG LOAD PROFILES may be needed because generators may be at kVA limit and engines at only 3050% load! A difficulty in efficiently sizing and operating an SCR (or DC) rig is the assumption made by most people that x amperes represent y power. This is not true. This fact is represented by system power factor. If power factor is 1.0, then x amperes represent y power. At power factors below 1.0, power is less than the amperes indicate. Considering that power factor on a SCR rig can, under steady-state conditions, be from 0.3 to 0.9, generator sizing is important. During hoisting, power factor varies from 0.0 to 0.95. Top Hole days hp Nontechnically, the engine suppliers concern Drilling days hp regarding power factor is that engine power capability cannot be utilized due to generator limitaDrilling days hp tions during low power factor operation. This Tripping days hp necessitates running additional engines. Running of additional engines increases rig fuel consumpWait, Misc. days hp tion and unnecessarily increases annual hourly Figure 19.6 usage of engines and total operating costs.
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There may be cases where the minimum num- This leads to the realization that a DC motor can ber of engines cannot be operated because of a work hard at low rpm (draw high amperage and produce high torque) and not load the engine high generator kVA requirement. (but load the generator) when operating at low Before examining these variables, it is first necesDC voltage/low rpm. sary to review some characteristics of DC motors. DC Motor Characteristics DC Motor Effects Upon Generator Selection DC motors do not have power factor identified The rpm of DC motors is primarily controlled by with them. However, their DC amperes come the voltage to the motor (recognizing that motor from an AC generator with an SCR system type series, shunt and control system providing rectification. This AC current does have field weakening, etc. are related factors). power factor (pf) associated with it. Ampere draw of the motor controls torque outThe speed/voltage characteristic of the DC motor put of the motor. In other words, torque comes is thus the major determinant of the systems from the interaction of magnetic fields, and the power factor. (System power factor is a weighted strength of these fields is proportional to amperes, average of the DC motor systems effect on the not to DC voltage. generators power factor and that of the AC auxThus, kilowatt (horsepower) load on a DC motor iliary load. The AC auxiliary load generally is only is the product of volts and amperes: about 20% of the DC load, so its effect on power factor is minimal). kW VA = ______ Figure 19.7 shows a method to calculate AC gen(DC Output) 1000 erator power factor due to current draw of a DC hp VA ______________ motor powered through an SCR system. = (DC Output) 0.746 1000

Input power would be higher in inverse proportion to motor efficiency.

METHOD TO CALCULATE AC GENERATOR pf DUE TO DC MOTORS 1. Determine DC kW from meter or formula kW VA = ______ 1000 DC

2. Determine AC Amp of DC motor use formula AC = DC 0.816 amp amp 3. Determine kVA AC Volts AC amp 1.73 use formula kVA = ________________________ 1000 4. Determine pf use formula
Figure 19.7

kW (from Step 1) pf = _______________ kVA (from Step 3)

197

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DC MOTOR SPEED VERSUS AC GENERATOR POWER FACTOR 1.0

Figure 19.8 graphs the effect of motor rpm (or DC voltage) on the power factor of the driving AC generators. For a constant rpm (DC voltage), power factor is the same from no load to full load. Methods to Improve System Power Factor The best way to improve system power factor is to ensure that DC motors are run at as high an rpm as possible. Every DC ampere presents a 0.85 kVA load on the generator, regardless of DC power. Operating a DC motor at high rpm reduces ampere load, hence kVA. On the rotary table, this means keeping the drawworks transmission in as low a gear as possible.

.8

.6 Power Factor .4

.2

180 (200)

450 (600)

750 (1000)

DC Voltage (= Loaded rpm)

Figure 19.8

ROTARY TABLE OPERATION

114 hp (85 kW) at DC Motor _______ rpm at _______ DC Amp = _______ pf at _______ kVA
960 860 750 640 530 425 325 210 150 118 131 151 177 214 267 349 540 756 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .14 92 104 120 140 168 208 300 420 640

Figure 19.9

1600 hp (1194 kW) TRIPLEX MUD PUMP 140 Strokes Maximum 120 Strokes Rated
Customer Needs 300 gpm @ 2500 PSI = 515 hhp (18.9 L/s @ 17237 kPa = 384 HkW) DC Motors Geared for 140 spm Motor AC AC rpm pf kVA
690 579 486 414 385 357 336 314 .66 .56 .45 .4 .37 .34 .32 .30 577 690 822 966 1035 1118 1189 1274

Liner Size
5 5 1/2 6 6 1/2 6 3/4 7 7 1/4 7 1/2 (127) (140) (152) (165) (171) (178) (184) (191)

Required Pump Strokes

97 81 68 58 54 50 47 44

DC Motors Geared for 100 spm Motor AC rpm pf

970 810 680 580 540 500 470 440 .92 .76 .64 .55 .51 .47 .44 .35

AC kVA
419 502 598 701 753 813 864 1079

Figure 19.10
LEBW1414-00 198

To illustrate the effect of rpm, let us assume a rotary table operating under the following conditions: rpm = 30 Torque = 20,000 lb-ft (27 138 Nm) Power = 114 hp (85 kW)
Rt MP1

Load While Drilling kVA hp/kW Minimum Average

114/85 515/384 629 hp (469 kW) Aux. load 92 577 669 209 966 1174

Maximum
640 1274 1914

Regardless of the rpm of the driving DC motor, + engine load will stay at 114 hp (neglecting losses). Rt = Rotary Table MP1 = #1 Mud Pumps But, motor rpm will change the kVA (pf) and, hence, the size of generator required. This is illus- Figure 19.11 trated in Figure 19.9. In the extreme case of 150 rpm, it does not take Accordingly, ironclad rules for sizing generators a large engine to produce 114 hp (85 kW), but it cannot be given. Estimates of generator sizing does take a large generator to produce 640 kVA. are shown, Figure 19.16. This phenomena of increasing AC generator kVA as the DC motor slows down may seem to reek of magic, but it is just another way of saying that DC motor amperes are increasing as the DC motor is required to provide the same power at lower rpms (lower DC voltage). If DC motors are operated at half DC voltage or less, an alternative method of raising AC generator power factor is to operate both drawworks motors in series (assuming this option is available from the SCR system supplier). This doubles the voltage out of the SCR system and proportionally raises the power factor. System speed, however, is limited to half motor speed.
Generator Sizing Engine Size Generator Size
600 hp (450 bkW) 900 hp (670 bkW) 1200 hp (900 bkW) 1500 hp (1120 bkW) 2000 hp (1490 bkW) 750 1000 kVA 11001300 kVA 15001800 kVA 16002000 kVA 20002500 kVA

Figure 19.12

This discussion illustrates that operating a rig in power limit does not ensure efficient engine utilization. The goal is to operate the minimum number of engines without encountering generator limitations.

The same considerations apply to mud pumps. Drawworks Capability Operating speed should be as high as possible. Let us now turn to the second objection or qualifiIf pumps must be operated at less than half speed cation. It is expressed by the following statement: (rather than putting in smaller liners) the SCR My rig cannot operate on one engine dursystem supplier may be able to supply equiping deep drilling as one engine underpowers ment to allow the motors to operate in series. the drawworks. When mud pumps are purposely oversized to reduce cost of fluid end maintenance, the mud Many times rig operating personnel are reluctant pump will run much lower than rated strokes. In to operate a minimum number of engines under that case specify a motor drive system ratio such deep hole conditions. They express the concern that motors run at or near their rated rpm. Both that, should they need to operate the drawworks mud pump drive types are shown in Figure 19.10. in a hurry, one engine would not be able to come off bottom, and time would be lost while startIn summary, Figure 19.11 shows that required ing additional engines. engine power can be determined by knowing only load demand (based on Figures 19.9 and 19.10). With proper equipment selection, this objection However, generator sizing also requires knowing can be, at least partially, overcome. The key to equipment speed. The kVA values in Figure 19.12 understanding this possibility is to draw a disare for constant power levels but with various tinction between drawworks power and drawworks torque. Static hook load capacity is equipment rpms. determined by generator kVA, not engine power.

199

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STARTING TORQUE COMPARISON Drive Type Torque When Coming Off Slips Engine Load When Coming Off Slips

Low

High*

Direct Drive

Rated

Rated

Torque Converter

Rated

NIL**

Steam

Rated

NIL**

DC/SCR
**Engine load is at the rated value for the engine at low idle but the load value is low compared to rated rpm. **Engine load would be zero except for line losses, etc.

Figure 19.13

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200

This was discussed earlier under DC motor characteristics where it was pointed out that motor torque comes from the strength of motor magnetic fields. To dramatize the stall torque characteristics, it is useful to compare torque characteristics of several drives when coming off the slips mechanical, torque converter, steam, and DC (SCR). See Figure 19.13. The startling thing shown in Figure 19.13 is that developing rated torque on a DC motor at the moment when coming off the slips does not load the engine. The engine is loaded in proportion to the speed to which the motor is accelerating. Thus, the electric drive is comparable to a steam rig. Ideally an electric rig will initially accelerate the traveling block, when coming off the slips, at a constant rate regardless of power capability of the engine. This constant rate is determined by generator kVA capacity. Motors will accelerate at this constant rate to the rpm at which developed power equals engine capability. The SCR system kW limit will then begin to reduce motor ampere draw. The motor will now accelerate at a slower rate or maintain a constant rpm, depending on load.

These factors are illustrated by using a hypothetical hoisting scheme. This drawworks has the following characteristics: 1492 kW (2000 hp) Capacity Two 746 kW (1000 hp) Motors Each Motor At Rated At Stall rpm Conditions DC amp 995 1200 AC amp 812 979 kVA 845 1020 kW (hp) 746 (1000) 0 Figure 19.14 plots drawworks current, power, and hoisting time for a heavy load. Total time to pull a stand of pipe is 45 seconds. (This is not based on calculation but is sufficient to illustrate the desired phenomena.) In Part A of Figure 19.14, note that drawworks DC amperes are indicated as doing three things: 1. Hold weight of pipe against gravity under static or constant rpm conditions. 2. Overcome hole friction. 3. Accelerate pipe. (Note that on a direct drive or torque converter rig, it would also be necessary to accelerate the engines.)

Drawworks Amperes

2000 3 1000 1000 0 1 1400 2 A

Drawworks Power

1492 kW (2000 hp) 3 1 0 2 B

DC Motor Total Revolutions

800 Motor Acceleration 400 Constant Motor rpm C

10

20

30

40 Time 201

50

60

70

80

90

Figure 19.14

LEBW1414-00

Drawworks Amperes

2000 1000 0

3 1800 600 1

Drawworks Power

1492 kW (2000 hp) 3 0 1 2 B

DC Motor Total Revolutions

800

C 400

10

20

30

40 Time

50

60

70

80

90

Figure 19.15

In this example 1000 amps are required to hold the weight of the pipe. The remaining 1400 amps are initially available to accelerate pipe. In Part B, drawworks power is indicated as being proportioned among the same three functions. Note that drawworks power starts at zero and reaches rated power after 15 seconds. Once the drawworks motor reaches rated rpm, the kilowatts (horsepower) drop (and motor amps) to that required for a constant speed condition.

previous example, and due to the lighter load to accelerate. Hoisting time has been reduced only 3 seconds, from 45 seconds to 42 seconds. Part C indicates this by counting motor revolutions. Figure 19.16 shows an underpowered drawworks with the same heavy load as in Figure 19.14. The drawworks is now powered by one 3512 and a 1250 kVA generator. 1250 kVA translates into 1470 DC amps. Comparing Figure 19.14, Part A, to Figure 19.16, Part A, we see that this undertorqued drawworks has only 470 amps available for acceleration while the fully powered drawworks has 1400 amps available for acceleration. Hence, this undertorqued drawworks will accelerate much slower than before.

If we accept 45 seconds as a reasonable estimate of heavy load hoisting time, we can count the DC motor revolutions as shown in Part C. For this transmission gear and lines strung, it takes 632 turns of the motor to pull pipe the required 90 ft. (27.4 m). Note that during acceleration, pipe is being lifted, although at a slower rate. After an estimated 25 seconds, the horsepower To perform according to Figure 19.14, the draw- will build to the rating of the engine. Acceleration works has to be fully powered both with horse- will now continue at a slower rate as the SCR syspower (kilowatts) and kVA (amps), which would tem power limiter or overload control phases back the SCR system. This reduces generator be two 3512s with 1250 kVA generators. amps sufficiently to hold generator and engine Figure 19.15 shows the drawworks under a lighter at full load. Note the engine is not loaded for load condition but in the same drawworks gear. approximately 25 seconds. Note that acceleration time has been reduced from 15 seconds to 7 seconds due to the combination of having 1800 amps available for acceleration as compared to the 1400 amps in the
LEBW1414-00 202

Drawworks Amperes

2000 3 1000 1 0 2 A

Drawworks Power

1492 kW (2000 hp)

3 1

DC Motor Total Revolutions

800

Motor Accel. to Power Limit

Slower Accel.

Constant Motor rpm C

400

10

20

30

40 Time

50

60

70

80

90

Figure 19.16

Thus, total trip time could be about 60 seconds. is equal to one and one-half engines, they prefer to run three engines. It is felt that if only two This time is broken down as follows: engines were operated, loss of either of two genO X seconds Acceleration to engine erator sets would overload and stall out the power limit remaining generator set. XY Acceleration at slower rate This does not happen with modern SCR systems YZ Constant rpm due to the power limiter or overload control built Figure 19.17 overlays Figures 19.14, 19.15 and into the SCR system. This controller will phase18.16. Part A shows the important variable is the back one or more of the SCR-controlled loads sufpercentage of available DC amperes available ficiently to prevent engine (or generator) overload. for acceleration. Oversize generators provide increased acceleration torque. Thus, the faster Miscellaneous Considerations the drawworks accelerates, the sooner the engine can be loaded. Oversize generators come close With optimum usage, engines accumulate fewer to providing identical drawworks performance as hours per year but at a somewhat heavier load. that obtained with additional engines operating. This heavier load may result in a somewhat lower For these figures to be totally representative, avail- time between overhauls as expressed in engine able engine power and generator kVA should be service meter hours. However, time between reduced by the on-line auxiliary loads left running. overhauls as expressed in calendar years will be greater. In summary, oversized generators not only provided for operation of mud pumps at reduced Additionally, there will be conditions where engines power factors, but they also reduce the need to are presently so lightly loaded that the increase in fully horsepower the drawworks, as long as the load may still leave the engine moderately loaded and service life will be only slightly affected. drawworks is close to being fully torqued. A final benefit of increasing engine load is that Concern Over Power Outages the resulting warmer jacket water temperatures An additional concern expressed by some drilling greatly aid in combating harmful effects of some personnel is the domino effect. That is, if the load fuel contaminants.
203 LEBW1414-00

Drawworks Amperes

2000 1000 1000 0

2 3512 w/1250 kVA 1 3512 w/1250 kVA 1 3512 w/1500 kVA 1 3512 w/1800 kVA A

Drawworks Power

1492 kW (2000 hp) B

DC Motor Total Revolutions

800 Z Z Z Z C 400 X 0 10 Y Y X 20 Y X 30 40 Time 50 Y O-X Max. Motor Accel. X-Z Accel. Power Limited Y-Z Constant Motor rpm 60 70 80 90

Figure 19.17

During deep drilling, where the investment in the well is accumulating to a considerable amount and uncertainty regarding the exact nature of down hole conditions is also increasing, it is a general practice to operate with 80% or less engine load. Summary The main means available to improve fuel conservation are: Use electric motor-driven auxiliaries. Use engine heat on winterized rigs. Prevent theft of fuel. Eliminate spillage and leakage losses.

Turn off unneeded auxiliaries. Keep engines properly maintained. Use proper turbocharger matches. Reduce radiator fan power requirements. Operate the minimum number of engines. Size system for operating kVA. Operate DC motors in series. Increase motor rpm. Utilize oversize generators for improved hoisting and mud pump performance.

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DAILY ENGINE REPORT

RIG NO. ENGINE NO. ENGINE IDENTIFICATION Hours Run Oil Added gal Fuel Used gal rpm Air Temperature left Air Temperature right Exhaust Temperature left Exhaust Temperature right Oil Temperature Jacket Water Temperature Aftercooler Water Temperature Oil Pressure Fuel Pressure Engineman Signature: Hours Run Oil Added gal Fuel Used gal rpm Air Temperature left Air Temperature right Exhaust Temperature left Exhaust Temperature right Oil Temperature Jacket Water Temperature Aftercooler Water Temperature Oil Pressure Fuel Pressure Engineman Signature: Hours Run Oil Added gal Fuel Used gal rpm Air Temperature left Air Temperature right Exhaust Temperature left Exhaust Temperature right Oil Temperature Jacket Water Temperature Aftercooler Water Temperature Oil Pressure Fuel Pressure Engineman Signature: Remarks: Work done, parts used, cause of failure, periodic inspection, etc., identify each engine worked on.
Figure 20.1
205 LEBW1414-00

LOCATION 1 2 3 4 5

DATE 6 7 8 9 10

ENGINE SUPPORT SYSTEMS LAYOUTS

Figure 21.1
LEBW1414-00 206

A. Ducting widens as it descends to engine serv- Diesel Fuel Day Tank mounted on outside wall of module. ice walkway. B. Exhaust is only overhead engine connection all others under engine. C. Raised platform completely around engines. Solid plate, with 1 in. (25 mm) clearance around base. D. Engines raised 1 ft. (0.3 m) to allow passage underneath to be used for routing piping fuel, air, water. 1. Pedestals and spring isolators at 3 point locations. 2. Walkway
Figure 21.2

Engine bases supported at 3 point mount location.

207

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CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW

Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide

LAND MECHANICAL RIG

GENERAL INFORMATION A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. H. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRIVE SYSTEM DATA 201. Torque converter model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202. Fluid coupling model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203. Air clutch model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204. Transmission model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOUNTING 208. Are substructure pin joints tight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209. Can engine twist or bend? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GOVERNOR 301. Hydra-mechanical with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302. UG8L with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAIN ENGINE AUXILIARY DRIVES 401. Auxiliary equip driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COOLING 501. Radiator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502. Type: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504. Additional heat load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505. Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LUBRICATION 601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUEL 701. 702. 703. 704. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Drive Type. All engines in one compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Independent mud pump drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Independent rotary drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chassis mounted drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................

205. Engine rpm on mud pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206. Engine rpm on drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207. Clutch air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

210. Does engine overhang substructure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211. Is substructure laterally braced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303. 3161 with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402. PTO location on engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507. 508. 509. 510. 511. 512. 513. 514. Rad. fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . net engine hp . . . . . . . . . . . . Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shutterstats used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radiators offset from engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rad. adequately supported by engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

603. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

EXHAUST 801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802. Muffler used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . . VENTILATION 901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIR INTAKE SYSTEM 902. Can mud enter air cleaner? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903. Are remote mounted air cleaners used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRANKCASE BREATHER 1001. Required with blower fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS 1301. Are premium panels used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS 1401. Is air inlet shutoff used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402. Is alarm panel used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403. Are alarms used? LOP . . . . HWT . . . . OSS . . . .

804. Exhaust system supported separate from engine . . . . . . . . . 805. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

905. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1003. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004. Powered disposal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1302. How is engine load monitored? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1404. Can engine disengage from compound when failure occurs, Figure 16.2? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW

Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide

OFFSHORE ELECTRIC RIG

GENERAL INFORMATION A. Rig name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Type rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Shipyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. First location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. K. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BASE AND SUPPORT 101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC or SCR system manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . .kW . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Installation drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Connection drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

L. M.

N. O. P.

104. Adequate substructure beams under all 3 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions. 0200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm Installation in switchgear per Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COOLING HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING 501. Cooling Circuit Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JWAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502. Full-load heat rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503. Sea water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504. Sea water flow per engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505. Sea water pump capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506. Cat heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507. Cat H.E. piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508. Pressure at engine inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509. Pressure at engine outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510. Pipe size to engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511. Sea water strainers used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512. Pressure regulating valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513. Pressure gauges at engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514. Watermaker used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(answer 515-524) 515. Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516. Number of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518. Circuit type: Figure 7.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LUBRICATION 601. Drain manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602. Fill manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603. Type of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUEL 701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702. Fuel tanks elevation above engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703. Day tank used to relieve pressure head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Are units paralleled for AC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .

519. Auxiliary JW pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520. Auxiliary expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521. Used per Figure 7.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522. Piping free of air traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523. Piping below expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524. Who is modifying engine water lines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Radiator or Keel Cooler 525. Cooing circuit type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keel cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527. System external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528. Allowable external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529. Pressure at JW pump inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531. Is piping free of air traps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532. Expansion provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533. De-aeration provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

604. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605. Duplex filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707. Return line goes back to tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708. Shutoff/check valves used on each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709. Crankcase oil mixed with fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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EXHAUST 801. Individual exhaust runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802. Backpressure (Figure 10.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803. Insulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804. Thermal exp. allowed: Vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VENTILATION 901. Type ventilation Figure 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRANKCASE BREATHER 1001. Separate line/engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002. Line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC POWER SYSTEMS 1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC panel . . . . . . . . . . . AC POWER SYSTEMS 1201. RPR Trip in 2 sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS 1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403. Alarms used: HWT . . . . . . . . , LOP . . . . . . . . , LWL . . . . . . , OSS . . . . . . . . . . . . , HOT . . . . . . . . . . . . , HIAT . . . . . . . . . . . . ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION 1601. Batteries grounded per Fig. 17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EMERGENCY GENERATOR CONSIDERATIONS 2001. Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002. Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2003. Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2004. Cooling: Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005. Jacket water heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2006. Fuel day tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007. Radiator ducts oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (in and out) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008. External obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2009. Will exhaust gas recirculate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

805. Rain-spray protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806. No exhaust recirculation to air inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807. Will muffler water spray enter engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

903. Temperature rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904. Air required/engine (formula) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905. Air supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003. Line sloped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004. Drip collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102. Does drillers console idle engine when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204. Generator controls set for engine capacity or generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1404. Additional alarms: Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . , Low S.W. pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , RPR. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2010. Air inlet extension used if engine can be started with watertight doors closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2012. Emergency generator support equipment on emergency circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013. Starting: Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014. Cranking panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2015. Auto transfer switch used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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210

CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW

Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide

LAND ELECTRIC RIG

GENERAL INFORMATION A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. H. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BASE AND SUPPORT 101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102. Coupling manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103. Roof over engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104. Service platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. DC or SCR system mfr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Generator mfr . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . Type . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . Quantity . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . kW . . . . . . , Hz . . . . . . . , pf . . . . . . . . . . K. Installation Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L. Connection Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106. Base will be supported on: Planks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hard pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107. Subbase used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108. Substructure used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Are units paralleled for AC power? . . . . . . . HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .

GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions. 0200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air supply pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302. 3161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Installation in switchgear per Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COOLING 501. Radiator Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502. Types: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LUBRICATION 601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUEL 701. 702. 703. 704. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505. 506. 507. 508. 509. 510.

Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radiator fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . NET engine hp . . . . . . . . . . . Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

603. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

EXHAUST 801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . . VENTILATION 901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIR INTAKE SYSTEM 902. Remote-mounted air cleaners used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRANKCASE BREATHER 1001. Required with blower fan or front-mounted generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC POWER SYSTEM 1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC Panel . . . . . . . . . . . AC POWER SYSTEM 1201. RPR trip in two seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS 1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403. Alarms used: LOP . . . . , HWT . . . . , OSS . . . .
211

803. Is exhaust system supported separate from engine? . . . . . . 804. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

904. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102. Does drillers console idle when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204. Generator controls set for NET engine hp or generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1404. Additional alarms: Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . , RPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LEBW1414-00

Available electronically in the Technical Information section of https://oilandgas.cat.com

Materials and specifications are subject to change without notice.

LEBW1414-00
Supersedes LEBW5119
CATERPILLAR and CAT are trademarks of Caterpillar Inc.

PRINTED IN U.S.A.