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Short history
Photography is extremely popular and it is used for people all around the world, people of all ages, the most enthusiastic being the photo amateurs. Today the photography is perhaps the best friend of scientists because it reveals the micro and macro universe. About 30 years ago this industry has developed a photosensitive material which regained object in color and detail. The arrival of the color photography in !3" didn#t force the disappearance of the blac$ and white photograph because between them there could have been a technical and esthetical connection. Technical, there is a big difference between the two photographs% at the blac$ and white photography the screen accepts a standard light exposure regardless of its &ualities. The technical difference between these two isn#t the photographic camera' it is just the photosensitive material. (rom an esthetical point of view the blac$ and white photography reveals an artificial picture, while the color one shows a more natural perspective. (rom the appearance of the color photography ) !3"* until our days the industry has accomplished many progresses% the appearance of the color paper, the &uality improvement and color restoration and the rise of sensitive materials. The cost of a color film developed in special laboratories, an amateur gives approximately 3"+3, slides which cost the same as 30 white and blac$ pictures. The expensive thing in color photography is the special paper, because the process is complicated it re&uires material and especially time. Anyway with some experience an amateur can reach a medium cost in material and time.
tree or a tower, for example, placed in a field landscape is overlapped of the symmetry axles or is in the center of the image it will reduce more the effect, especially if the shape is a s&uare, because the symmetry divides the attention and also the view, which is led toward a half or the other half of the image, tending to avoid just the main element of the subject. :n the contrary, placing it on one of the forte axles of the image, the effect increases because the view is sliding to the subject and remains on it, so we avoid the symmetry using the lines and the forte points of the screen. This way of doing it is also a natural and a logic way, not only an esthetic one. ;et us suppose you have to ta$e a photo of the balcony scene in 05omeo and 7uliet1. <ou#ll overlap the balcony scene in right superior forte point and 5omeo on the left and the character down to the right, using the diagonally of the screen. The two choices of framing proposed before are not of e&ual values% the first one )left down+right up* over the ascendant diagonally was a stronger effect than the other one )left up+right down*' the descendent diagonally of a frame is called the wea$ diagonally, unli$e the second forte diagonally of the screen. =o, a simple method has an enhancing or an diminishing role for a compositional element of the subject. >ow do we do this in photography? @ery simple8 6e overlap the directional element of the screen )forte line or point* on the compositional element we want to turn to good account when we set up the subject. :n photo devices with an accessible frosted window we can draw with a pencil the reel of the fort lines.
Sun position
(or reali2ing some successful photos, sun position is very important besides ta$ing photos position. There are three situations% +when the sun is behind the camera, practically lights and shadow games will completely miss. All subject elements will be lightened uniformly and they#ll appear simple in photos, the lightening doesn#t encourage the emphasi2e of landscape and space. As a result, photos ta$en in frontal solar light, in the most of cases are monotones and uninteresting. +if the sun position is a lateral one compared to the photographing direction, different lightened areas and the brilliances encourage the appearance of some light games with special plastic effect for the subject. This $ind of illumination is successfully used in photographing insects, caterpillars for underlining their beautiful pictures and their hairiness and especially the flower portraits made in the morning dew. +the most interesting natural lightening form is the one against the visual direction of the camera. -n this situation the objects are lightened by the sun from their bac$. The image is full of own shadows and worn shadows, the lightened parts representing only small areas. -f this $ind of illumination is used precautiously it creates the most beautiful and interesting photos, especially from the flower world. Hontrary the heavy shadows of the subjects destroy their structure and shape, creating dar$ and non valuable shadows. The analy2e of the three forms of natural lightening met at the same time of a day reveals that the picture of image depends on the photographing direction related by the incident direction of the solar rays.
A coloured filter absorbs all the colors except his own, which lets it pass. =o, it is transparent for its own color and mat for all the others that will be absorbed. All the mixtures of the painter are pigmentation colors, by absorption, their mixture submits to the substraction laws. -f we mix complementary colours or colour mixtures that contain a certain proportion of the primary colors )red, yellow and blue* we obtain the colour dar$ grey )almost blac$* as a substractive mixture )substractive synthesis*. The prismatic colors, non+physical )luminous radiation*, mixed up, give the white color as an additive mixture )additive synthesis*. The colour, as an absorption phenomenon, respects the following fundamental principles formulated by Eewton% a* a transparent body appears coloured in the complementary colour of the one absorbed and for which it is mat' if the absorption does not ta$e place, the body is colourless' b* a mat body appears colored in the color that is reflected by it and that is complementary with the one that is absorbed' c* a body that reflects entirely all the radiations appears mat, of white color' d* a body that absorbs entirely all the radiations appears mat, of blac$ color. -n the cases of c and d, because a total )white*, partial )gray* and null )blac$* homogeneous reflection ta$es place, the colors are named non+chromatic colours )uncoloured*, unli$e the other colours that are chromatics )colored*. Aetween the two extremes% blac$ and white, an entire variety of grey tones exist, that result from the partial and homogeneous reflection of all radiations.
The photographer has the possibility of maintaining this environment, to amplify it or to destroy it. Aecause of this it is better if he does alone all the procedures, from ta$ing pictures to the finished image, because he is the only one that $nows if his artistic intentions obtain the form that he wished for. 6hat is very important to observe at the intensity of the light is the fact that it is produced in certain conditions and intense shadows. Aut there, where reflecting blinds surround the subject, the reflected light is much produced and very intense because of the big intensity light. This reflecting light falls in the shadows and illuminates them, contributing to the reducing of the contrasts. Honse&uently, the effect of the intensity of the light must always be calculated by ta$ing into consideration the environment where the subject is placed. -n fact, at the majority of the static subject or those in slow motion the luminous intensity is not very important, because a lower illumination can be compensated by a longer time of exposure. Aecause of this it is not necessary such a waste of light for any picture. 6hat is really important it is the care for the &uality of the light, for the illumines environment that creates itself through the choosing of light, for the level of contrast that appears in the image, for the right distribution of the luminous sections and of the dar$ ones on the surface of the shot.
shadow of the subject to the A plan. -n the ;4 position .33 of the subject are dar$ and 33 luminous' again a harmonious section is resulted, a sharp relief, pointed out through the subject#s shadow that advances in the shot. Homparing the position ;. with ;4 we can see that the first produces an impression much more optimistic than the second, which is much somber. -n the position ;" the luminous sections disappear' here we have the silhouette effect. :n some cases the subject appears surrounded by a luminous hem that underlines the outline and produces a very beautiful graphic effect. -n the open air, at the sunlight, the photographer must shift around the subject so that he can obtain the right environment of angles between the ;= and A= axels. -f the vertical position between A, ; and = is also modified, a great variety of luminance directions can be created and they correspond with all $inds of re&uirements% technical and esthetical. The photographer will choose from all of them, the luminous environment that will suggest in the most proper way the idea of the image.
important factor in the process of image forming is the &uality of light which impress the photo+sensitive film depending on the its sensitivity. Thus, the energy of the light is &uantitatively dosed at the moment of the releasing of the camera, but the &uality of light is acting different on the emulsions with different sensiti2ation, even if they have the same sensibility. -f in the blac$ and white photography the &uantity and the &uality of the light are relatively elastic elements, namely the films have rather large tolerance of exposure, and their sensitivity can be improved by filters' in case of the color photography these factors are more rigid.
The blac$ and white film is usually made of a support, a sensitive photographic stratum and an antihalo stratum, placed either on the bac$ of the film, either between the support and the emulsion. The basic of the emulsion is the silver halogenure' by developing you get the silver particles that ma$e the drawing of the clichL. The construction of the colour film is different from two points of view% first, because a triple image is needed, the film will have three emulsion stratums, and second, the clichL#s drawing won#t be made of blac$ silver particles, but of colour pigments. The three stratums are arranged on a support li$e in the blac$ and white film situation. The antihalo stratum is again situated either on the bac$ of the film, either between the support and the emulsion. -n the ma$ing of colour films with three stratums there are two principles referring to producing the colour on the three stratums. The first one refers to the fact that the film with three emulsion stratums will ma$e the colour in that stratum. This is the Agfa+ color, :56:+color, (erania+color, Deva+color, I$tachrome+color and others procedure. The second principle refers to the three emulsion stratums films that don#t contain the producing of the colour substance, but have according to the developing process every stratum#s needed colorant' this is the Modachrom procedure. The laboratory processing of the two $inds of films is completely different. Processing Agfa+ color film is &uite simple, and the developing can be made by amateurs as well, without any special installations or tools re&uired. Processing Modachrom film is different because it needs special installations for fastidious wor$ conditions. That $ind of films can#t be processed by amateur, but only in special laboratories. The :56: film with three stratums it#s a film that has the capacity of registrating the photographical objects colours with the help of the three different stratums. They are applied on a transparent and flexible support. Iach stratum is made of a gelatin emulsion containing a silver halogenure. Among this, in every stratum exists a substance that by developing will give birth to a coloured pigment in one of the three fundamental colours. The colour photography allows the amateur photographer to ma$e two $inds of photos% lantern slides for projection, and colour photographies on the paper. (or this, the industry ma$es several types of sensitive photographic material, such as% reversible colour films, used for the direct obtaining of lantern slides without the needing of a copying process' negative colour films that through developing creates negative clichLs in complementary colours considering the photographical object' colour positive films that are used for the obtaining of the lantern slides through copying the negative colour films' colour paper K on this are obtained by copying or enlarging using colour clichLs, colour photographies.
very important operation at colour photographing, so that this will correspond to the technical exactingness. The daylight films will be used for the photographies ta$en at sunlight or at the light of the illuminating bodies of new type% electronic lightening, fluorescents lamps, lamps with mercury vapors. The artificial light films will be used exclusively at photographies ta$en at artificial light produced by lamps with incandescence. The most important &uality of colour photography is obviously the delivering of the colours as correctly as possible. At a very carefully loo$ at the colour photographies, especially when there are re&uired extremely prLcised results, you can see that the colour photography compared with the photographical object has two mista$es% the colours don#t have enough brightness and they are not always perfectly naturals.
to be correctly ta$en. This correct execution technically spea$ing can be made in extremely different light conditions, creating real colours values, but still unusual for the eye, maybe because of his big capacity of accepting. Honsidering the intensity of light and the nature of light, you can obtain normal colours, bright colours, pasteled colours, contrasts of colours, wiped colours, and colours of all shades. All is the creation of light, and the amateur photographer must $now how to use the situations that are offered to him. Aut for this, he must see, he must discover through the colour and illuminating conditions prism the future image of the colour photography. The most used film by the photo+amateur is the one reversible for daylight )"C00 M*. (or a long time it has been said that colour photography wor$s better only in the classical illuminating conditions% strong sun and light from the bac$, at the most lateral. The modern emulsions have proved yet that in very variate illuminating conditions there are obtained very good results.
substractive and the additive filtering to be used original filters. At the positive film must be bended the recommendations made regarding the colour corrections of the colour paper, with the recommendations made for processing the negative films. As well the positive and the negative films are restored only in the do2e. Plus, the positive colour films are restored only one in a do2e, because the anti+halo stratum is applied behind the support.
According to this concept K old enough, if you as$ K the trajectory, and especially the body in motion, supposed to loo$ clear, without moving, any obscurity was considered a mista$e, a flaw of the photographical image made. The result was a stiff image, 0turned to stone1, re&uired a special mental effort for her reintegration in the reality. Those $ind of images were obtained with very short times of exposure, of 3300+ 3 000 s even 3."00+ 33000 s order in some situations, that were not accessible except for the devices endowed with special shutter with curtain that made the pride of their owners. The only bodies in motion with a vertical climbing trajectory, li$e for example the bodies thrown up, which are photographed in the highest point of the trajectory )apogee* where the speed becomes null were accessible to the usual devices easier. (or example% a ball thrown up, the jump above an obstacle etc., in which the trajectory is suggested clearly, and the speed less, or even at all. The thing that suggests the movement in these situations is the gravity effect, which tells us that a heavy body situated in the air must fall down in the next moment, in this way obliging us to prolong in our mind his trajectory until he reaches the earth. 5egarding the speed, the tension of the jumper can give us a clue by herself. There are, of course, other situations in which the absolute clarity is wanted, and even necessary, li$e for example, in the scientific photography.
6hen we ta$e close range pictures, the photo object lens with short distance focali2ation )weitwin$elGwide angle object lens* are very useful, such as fG3." cm, for a .4O3C mm format. The format of the image is selected according to the manner of movement% on height for the vertical movement and on breadth for the hori2ontal movement )the movement must occur according to the long lines of the frame of the image*. As the edge of the frame towards which the object lens moves is an obstacle to its movement we must release when the body of motion is in the frame of the image, so that we may have enough space in front of it for following the trajectory, namely when it reaches the closest point of the frame. This can be also corrected by cutting up by magnifying or copying .6e shall use, as far as we can the most inferior spot for ascendant trajectories or for the ones parallel with the long line of the frame, and the superior spot for descendent trajectories or obli&ue ones, such as a road heading obli&uely towards us, from the upper left to the lower right of the frame. This way we can also direct the trajectory following the strong lines of the frame.
Setting up
6hen the body in motion draws farther in slow speed, on a linear trajectory, we can achieve precision. -t is more complicated when the speed rises and when its trajectory is perpendicular on our visual axis, especially with the unpredictable trajectories. To solve our problem, we can use the maximum field depth of the object lens, by close, infinite focali2ation. Almost all modern object lenses have a field+depth ring that spares us the trouble of calculating if we do the following% stops are graduated on the field+depth ring, symmetrically to the reference point of the focali2ation. The ring rotates together with the object +lens in front of the graduation plate which is placed circularly and concentrically with the stops. =etting one of the stops on 0infinite1 in the plate its symmetry will show us the minimal distance to get a clear image. 3
6e will also see the distance of focali2ation, near the plate. -f the minimal distance of focali2ation doesn#t suit us, we repeat the operation by choosing a new value, inferior to the former. :f course, we must also set the speed of the shutter according to the chosen stop. This way, we used the normal depth+field of the object lens. -f it is not enough, we set the close, infinite focali2ation.
stroboscopic slides' in ,F4 astronomer 7anssen photographed on the , th 9ecembers the passing of @enus in front of the =un, with a stroboscopic device, obtaining images ta$en at an interval of F0 seconds' in !30 Demershausen and Idgerton improve the multi+flash stroboscopic synthesis.
fre&uency of the images which reaches a fre&uency of ,000 images on a Cmm film. Another type of optic compensator is the one reflection which can reach a fre&uency of "00+.0000 images3s. The third device is the one with a rotating mirror, which reaches up to 3"0000 images3s at 3000 rotations3s of the mirror. -n the Biller device, the real image which forms on the surface of the rotating mirror is sent to the film with a uses of a series of object lenses. The cameras based on this principle have reached fre&uencies of millions of images per second. The device of the -nstitute of Aiomechanics of the (aculty of Physical culture in Aerlin )5.9.D* consists of a metal dis$ with a window which rotates in front of the object lens of the camera with the help of an electric motor, being used in the study of the movement bodies, in sport or Aiomechanics. The =T5:A:M-E camera )9r. (rungel* reaches great performances such as the decrease of the speed of flash, the enhancing of the fre&uency etc. Apart from stroboscopes, the techni&ue of the in belt photographing is also used. This belt, 0rebuilt1 thus in successive stripes reveals all the modifications of the subject during a period of time.
the body of motion is unlighted, it must be lighted with powerful sources of light, of very short length. (or that there can be used electrical spar$les produced by the discharge of a ;eyda container or an electric capacitor of great capacity with an extremely short duration+less than a millionth of a second+allowing thus very short expose. This techni&ue is called 0photographing with the use of spar$s1. The shutters Presently, there are $nown two $inds of shutters% electronic and electric shutters. Ilectric shutters are based on light polarisation obtained by natural passing through a polari2er. Aetween two polari2er with crossed axes, two phenomena are produced when the light passes% electro+optic
)Merr* and magneto+optic )(araday*. The first shutter has a few micro+seconds lighting length and the second are only few macro+seconds. Ilectronic shutter are based on photon K emission produced by some metals constrained on an electric field in vacuum. )allistic photography Aallistic photography means the photographing of a mobile in a very fast movement. The notion 0ballistic1 applied to photography especially reefers to the recording of small missile image )bullets for example* in their moving on the trajectory. Ilectronic stroboscopes for scientific purposes are used by the researchers laboratories, they are very
complicated and also expensive, have a maximum precision and they are used for the movement analyse. They can emit flashes at large intervals and also at a very fast succession. Their light power is decreased, that#s why they are used at a few decimetres, respective centimetres distance from the subject, with an ultra K fast film.
(or photographic and cinematographic purpose a .0 , flashes3sec fre&uencies scale is sufficient for human movie recording and so far objects of common use. The 4+, flashes 3 sec fre&uencies ma$e the best results. The length of flashes such a lamp is 3"000+ 3C000 sec so they are not good for amateurs. The paper 0=tudio stroboscope1 points out the new appearance of a studio stroboscope, due to the director Panerdo from Photo+Ilectronica company in @erona. =tarting from the arco+xenon flash with permanent light of this company, it was added in series a power supply which ma$es it to action with .,3,4+ . flashes3sec, for a non limited number as seconds, being used in photographic studios. Stroboscopic techni!ue (irst stage in the recording of a subject movement is the lightening of the subject. -n many flash stroboscopic syntheses, the mobile parts of the subject will be lightened by many times, but each time in other place, while the fixed part of the subject will be lightened in the same place. After several experiences, the power varies between 0+F0 7oules, corresponding of a 30 guide number of the flash, for a colour film of ! 9-E degrees )C4 A=A degrees*. The bac$ground of the image must be a blac$ one, a very difficult thing to be achieved, ten flash+lamps could transform in light grey, the most blac$ wall or paper, if its distance wasn#t ta$en into consideration. A< ED number it is calculated the critic diagram, necessary for a correct way to record the bac$ground, ta$ing into consideration the number of lamps used for having a non K corresponding exposure. (or doing this, the flash must be placed on a 30+4" degrees angle with the plan where the subject will move. The images fre&uencies are based on some factors, as subject movement, flash+numbers of the lamps, and the flash length. The distance that shares a presence from other one is not related by the image field si2es, but it depends on the subject speed or lighting fre&uencies or on both ones. (or realising true stroboscopic images, the movement at the subject must be rhythmic, periodic or repeated. (rom the movement rhythm point of view, it is possible that only a part of the subject to be in movement, setting al a clear point and better lighting, the mobile parts and having the immobile parts more diffuse and obscure.
Also, only a part of the subject could have a rhythmic movement and the others un untidy one. -n this case, the part in a rhythmic movement will be harmonious, the other point being vain. ;ast but not least, the subject movement period could not be the same as the stroboscope functioning period. (ractical applications of dynamic photography Ixcepting scientific purposes, dynamic photography )including the stroboscopic one* has also practical applications, for example the creating of suggestive images for presenting and recommending industrial products )advertising photography*. =uch of photographies must show first the truth, for being convicted. The movement must be shown in all its faces and must be $ept the best moment especially for what we want to suggest, contrary, the image gives the impression of a false one, and the felt insatisfaction reverses on the product. That#s why the launching must be done at the best moment' doing it earlier, the image will give the impression of a false.
obtained unless the depth is damaged and vice versa, a better depth cannot be obtained without damaging the perspective. After a good perspective is obtained, the necessary depth is ac&uired and an object lens with an appropriate focal distance has been chosen, we will proceed to the framing itself, respecting the composition rules and our own taste of course. Eext we control the light distribution on the whole picture and setting it up on the mat glass of the camera. Hontrary to a wrong opinion, image control on the visor lens isn#t the most efficient way to set up the picture, because no matter how fine it is, because of it#s granulation it always determines diffusion phenomena that prevents a good delimitation of the images most refined details. -n conse&uence it is preferable to replace the ordinary visor lens with a special one. Among the best it is recommended to use the (ressnel micro points and rings lenses or the ones who have a clear area in the center. -f none of the above is accessible, you can use an ordinary visor glass on which in the center area the caul$ing effect is eliminated by applying a drop of Hanada balsam. The image from the visor lens, in the case of big scales, must be regarded thru a magnifying glass which must enhance the central area and allow a better set up. =etting up at big scales isn#t reali2ed only thru the objective, but also by moving the camera or the subject closer3farther from each other. -n these situations the camera is installed on a device that prevents trepidations and maintains the camera in a fixed position from the subject. The ring objective must be set to infinite, a position in which the lenses are close and they confer the objective the maximum &ualities concerning the applying of corrections. The setting up must be made on distinct and well lighted contours, using especially the accents of light and the demarcation lines between the surfaces with different tonalities. As closer as the subject is to the camera, as big the concern to cover him with the clarity 2one of the depth must be. -n macro photography, depth is a difficult problem when the subject is at a random field depth. -n these situations the setting up plan is appropriate at the beginning of the second third of the subject. The definitive set up, if it is possible due to the poor illumination of the image, must be made with the same diaphragm which will be used when the photo is shot. -t is good to $now that at the variation of the opening of the diaphragm ta$es place a slight modification of the focal distance between the limits, which in most cases isn#t favorable to big scales.
*epth
The main problem which arises in short range photography and macro photography is depth' because it#s very low values resulted from increasing circulation are hard obstacles to beat in the case of maximum enhancement rapports. Practically, field depth is evaluated thru direct observations regarding the image and concerning the distance interval in which all the objects in the picture are reproduced clearly, for a certain setting of the objective. -n other words, the bigger the interval in which the objects are reproduced clearly, the bigger the depth. 6hat is interesting and worth remembering about depth is the fact that regarding the setting up plan it is manifested une&ually, being smaller in the front and bigger in the rear. This une&ual manifestation of depth has as a principal action in the case of photographing subjects with field depth the fixing of clarity in a plan situated at the beginning of the second third of the subject. Thru a proper diaphragmation, the extension of the clarity for the first plan is made concomitant with its extension for the posterior plans. 9epth isn#t conditioned only by the diaphragm used, but also by these factors%
+the focal distance of the objective' the smaller it is, the bigger the depth and vice versa depth is smaller when we use objectives with big focal distances' +setting the objective for a certain distance% setting the objective for big distances of photographing favors obtaining photos for a bigger interval of clarity' the smaller the distance from the camera to the subject, the smaller the depth.
+. Calculating
(or depth calculation it must be ta$en into consideration that the diffusion circle diameter varies depending on the increasing the negative will support. This diameter is 0. mm for the negatives used in contact copying and decreases to 0.0. mm for the negatives used for extreme increasings. The depth could be calculated by the following formulas% p G a3) Qnd)a+f*3fR* and p.G a3) +nd)a+f*3fR where% a K frontal distance' d K diffusion circle diameter' n + luminosity of the objective lens' f K focal distance of the optic system' p K distance between optic plan and anterior limit of the clean field' p. K distance between optic plan and posterior limit of the clean field' The dept decreases very much when the enlarging of raports increases. (or this, macrophotographies which decrease the enlarging raports 3% must have a very small thic$ness, less than mm, because how the diaphragm would be larger, the depth won#t increase. -t must be ta$en into consideration that in normal objective lens the largest resolution power it will obtain by closing the maximum diaphragm opening with .+3 values. =pecial objective lens, the microphotographic and apochromatic ones present the largest power for separation in very closed to maximum opening diaphragms. 9ecreasing the diaphragm opening over these values which give the maximum decreasing efficiency, the clearness of image decreases, due to the diffraction phenomenon. (rom this point of view it is not possible to establish some general rules over the imposed limits by the diffraction phenomenon. Aut we can avoid this thing, if we $eep notice of the fact that these limits are influenced by several factors% the increasing of the negatives, the details and si2es of the subjects, the separation power of the used emulsion, the focal distance, the type of the objective lens. (or this reason, the chec$ing of the phenomenon must be done separately for each case.
.0
-f in this situation the depth is not sufficient, the objective lens will be diaphragmed for the obtaining of the desired clearness. Honcluding, the increasing of the depth necessary for the large increasing scales, mustn#t be pushed over the limit where the diffraction phenomenon starts. Although, if the depth is too small, there is necessary to use special studio cameras with the possibility for bending the optic plan and the setting up one. 7oining the advantages of these devices, with the ones of the microphotographic objectives assures the revealing at the best conditions of the subjects at the large scales of reproducing.
The film
Although many time this $ind of subjects could be approached with a medium sensitivity film ). +..0 9-E*, the experience of those who wor$ in the existent light proved that it is smarter to load the device from the beginning with the most sensitive film. :n the one hand, it wins a plus of diaphragm or exposure, by the other hand these films, having a less contrasting gradation could get through the great contrasts met in the most of cases. >aving the camera with a highly sensitive film, the photographer can wor$ freely, not being disturbed by a micronic setting of the clearness or not being limited at only some compulsory light angles or at some speed movement in the bac$ground. This freedom in moving always reverses in a favourable way over the artistic &uality of the image. Eot all the films possess in the same way a reserve of sensitivity, for permitting the calculation of the exposures on a larger number of 9-E. That#s why the must be they must be also chec$ed from this point of view. There will be done tests with different $inds of films, chec$ing precisely the reserve of sensibility at different types of light% day light, incandescent bulb light, neon light, very popular today.
*e#eloping
Ay ta$ing photographs in difficult conditions, often filled with surprises, the photographer needs to be prepared for anything upon developing. Timed developing is often excluded. Preferably use the controlled developing method at the dar$ green filter. Aesides the regular developer, the photographer will also $eep handy a paper developer and, if pessimistic, a powerful al$aline developer containing caustic soda )although the latter will only be needed in cases of serious exposure errors*. -f it is already $nown that the film has been underexposed, it is recommended to start developing with the developer at a higher temperature% ..+.3SH, thus substantially reducing the developing time. 9ue to the often too long developing times, the film will be developed only in the tan$, so as not to expose it to oxidation by contact with the air or fogging. Throughout the developing process, one will alternate the agitation of the film with the pause, the rhythm being of approx. " seconds of agitation for each minute. =tart developing with the 9.3 developer. The first chec$ will be made after ,+ 0 min. -f the developer has started to act, continue developing in the same developer, by carrying out regular chec$s until the film is fully developed.
The latent image on film becomes visible through a process $nown as developing K the application of certain chemical solutions whereby the film is transformed into a negative. The process by which the negative is turned into a positive image is called printing' the image is called a print. The film is developed by treating with a reducing al$aline chemical solution, $nown as developing solution o developer. This solution reactivates the process commenced by the action of the light when the film is exposed. The effect is
to continue the reducing of haloids silver crystals wherein the metallic silver has already formed, so that the large silver particles might form around the minuscule particles that carry out the latent image. As the large silver particles start forming, a visible image becomes apparent on film. The silver thic$ness and density stored in each portion depend on the &uantity of light received by such portion during exposure. -n order to stop the developer#s action, the film is immersed into a light acid solution that neutrali2es the al$aline developer. After rinsing, the negative image is fixed, the haloids silver crystals residues are removed and the metallic silver particles are stabili2ed. The chemical solution employed for fixing is usually sodium trisulphate, but ammonium or potassium trisulphate can also be used. This anti+ fixing solution is then used to remove any fixing trace on film. The film must be thoroughly rinsed when the fixing residues tend to destroy the negatives in time. -n the end, the immersing of the processes film in a rinsing solution contributes to a uniform drying and prevents the forming of water stains and stripes. Printing is achieved by any of these two methods% contact or projection. The contact method is employed when we want prints to be exactly the same si2es as the negative. They are made by putting the emulsion part of the negative in contact with the printed material and exposing the two together to a light source. -n the projection printing, the negative is first of all placed in a type of magnifying projector. The light passes from the negative through a lens projecting a magnified or reduced image of the negative on the printed material. The process allows the photographer either to reduce or increase the &uantity of light falling on certain portions of the printed material. Mnown as a 0tric$1 or as a 0burnout1, these techni&ues render the final print either brighter or dar$er on selected portions. The printed material employed in the process is a type of photographic paper whose composition is
similar to that for film developing, but much less sensitive to light. After exposure, the print is developed and fixed through a process &uite similar to that employed for film developing. :n the finished print, the portions exposed to most light are reproduced as dar$ tones' the portions reproduced as bloc$ed by negative lighting are reproduced as light tones, while portions exposed to moderate &uantities of light are reproduced as intermediary tones. Holor prints and color negatives are made either by the projection method or by the contact method. The color transparency prints may be carried out directly by projection, using the Hibachrome or Type 5 process, such as 5+3 from Moda$ or Type 34 from (uji. Alternatively, color transparencies can be printed by carrying out an intermediary negative, or inter+negative, which can then be printed by contact or projection. A third color printing process, called color transfer, is considered more complex and is generally used for professional wor$. Positive color transparencies and color negatives are printed on multi+layer emulsion paper containing color forming agents. Ixamples could be the (ujichrome Type 34 process and Moda$ I$tachrome, which are used for printing from color transparencies' and I$tacolour, (ujicolour and Agfacolour HE Type A, which are used for printing from negatives. These papers are developed in color forming solutions without a reversible process. 6hen carrying out such color prints, exposure errors are minimi2ed by varying the print exposure time. The color balance is controlled by adjustable filters at the end of the magnifying device, in between the light source and the negative. -n the color transfer process for carrying out color prints, a dividing negative is prepared for one of the three colors% red, green and blue. These color dividing negatives are either produced directly from the subject in a single+use device, nowadays a relatively out+fashioned techni&ue, or else indirectly from the color ..
transparency. Eegatives are then used to produce embossed positive images on a gelatin sheet $nown as a matrix. Three positive matrices are produced% one is immersed into yellow paint, another one in fuchsine and the third one in cyan. After absorption, each matrix is printed through a special easel ensuring perfect alignment or framing so as to form a complete color image.
Color strobo4photography
The process follows the decomposition of the subject movement into several distinct phases and their .3
recording in various taints of color, on the same photogram of the negative. Holor strobo+photography allows the carrying out of very interesting effects. /nfortunately, &uite a number of photographers, preoccupied by the solving of the complex technical issues raised by this procedure, ma$e the mista$e of treating the decomposition of movement from a strictly technical point of view, captivated by the technical performances of being able to 0stop1 the fastest movement. -t is often forgotten that the very $eeping of the dynamism sensation and movement continuity brings an extra expressiveness. =troboscopic photography generally re&uires the solving of certain very complex technical issues, such as exposure fre&uency, subject obstruction and elimination systems. Holor strobo+photography as a tric$ procedure renders things even more complicated, because it aims at highlighting each moment of movement in another color.
.n#ersing colors
Ay employing a counter+pattern procedure with color separations of the color images, the original colors can be modified as one wishes, even without introducing any color dominant in the gray tonalities of the image. Three color selections are extracted from the original color image, with the help of three strict color filters, namely indigo, green and red on a special blac$ and white panchromatic material.
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