HISTORY OF JET PROPULSION Jet engines can be dated back to the invention of the aeolipile before the first

century AD. This device used steam power directed through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis. So far as is known, it was not used for supplying mechanical power, and the potential practical applications of this invention were not recognized. It was simply considered a curiosity Hero engine" redirects here. An aeolipile (or aeolipyle, or eolipile), also known as a Hero engine, is a rocket style jet engine which spins when heated. In the 1st century AD, Hero of Alexandria described the device, and many sources give him the credit for its invention. The aeolipile Hero described is considered to be the first recorded steam engine or reaction steam turbine.

TYPES OF JET PROPULSION Newton's reaction principle has been applied to several propulsive devices used in aviation. All produce thrust in the same manner, they accelerate a mass of gases within the engine. Airbreathing Gas turbine Turbojet Turbofan Turboprop and turboshaft Ramjet Scramjet Page 1

Rocket

AIRBREATHING An airbreathing jet engine (or ducted jet engine) is a jet engine propelled by a jet of hot exhaust gases formed from air that is drawn into the engine via an inlet duct. All practical airbreathing jet engines are internal combustion engines that directly heat the air by combusting fuel, with the resultant hot gases used for propulsion via a propulsive nozzle, although other techniques for heating the air have been experimented with. Most jet engines are turbofans and some are turbojets which use gas turbines to give high pressure ratios and are able to get high efficiency, but a few use simple ram effect or pulse combustion to give compression.

GAS TURBINE ENGINE The gas turbine engine is by far the most practical form of jet engine in use today Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, or even tanks.

The four most common types of gas turbine engines are the Turbojet Turbo-propeller Turboshaft Turbofan

Examples of gas turbine configurations:

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(1) turbojet (2) turboprop (3) turboshaft (electric generator) (4) high-bypass turbofan (5) low-bypass afterburning turbofan

TURBOJET The turbojet is the oldest kind of general-purpose jet engine. Two engineers, Frank Whittle in the United Kingdom and Hans von Ohain in Germany, developed the concept independently into practical engines during the late 1930s. The basic operating principles of a turbojet engine are relatively straight forward; air enters through an inlet duct and proceeds to the compressor where it is compressed. Once compressed, the air flows to the combuster section where fuel is added and ignited. The heat generated by the burning fuel causes the compressed air to expand and flow toward the rear of the engine. As the air moves rearward, it passes through a set of turbine wheels that are attached to the same shaft as the compressor blades. The expanding air spins the turbines which, in turn, drives the compressor. Once past the turbines, the air proceeds to exit the engine at a much higher velocity than the incoming air. It is this difference in velocity between the entering and exiting air that produces thrust. . Turbojets are quite inefficient if flown below about Mach 2, and very noisy due to their supersonic exhaust. Most modern aircraft use turbofans instead, both to ensure compliance with Aircraft noise regulations & economic reasons. Turbojets are still very common in medium range cruise missiles,due to their high exhaust speed, low frontal area and relative simplicity. TURBOSHAFT A turboshaft engine is a form of gas turbine which is optimized to produce shaft power rather than jet thrust. The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a turboshaft type of gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary power units and in industrial applications to drive electrical generators and surface transportation systems. Output of a turboprop or turboshaft engine is measured by shaft horsepower rather than thrust. Turboshaft engines are commonly used in applications that require a sustained high power output, high reliability, small size, and light weight.

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TURBOPROP ENGINE A turboprop engine is a type of turbine engine which drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear. A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a propeller is referred to as a turboprop engine. Turboprop engines are similar in design to turbojet engines except that the power produced by a turboprop engine is delivered to a reduction gear system that spins a propeller. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine's operating rpm. Turboprops are very efficient at flight speeds below 725 km/h (450 mph; 390 knots) because the jet velocity of the propeller (and exhaust) is relatively low. Due to the high price of turboprop engines, they are mostly used where high-performance short-takeoff and landing (STOL) capability and efficiency at modest flight speeds are required. The most common application of turboprop engines in civilian aviation is in small commuter aircraft, where their greater reliability than reciprocating engines offsets their higher initial cost. Turboprop airliners now operate at near the same speed as small turbofan-powered aircraft but burn two-thirds of the fuel per passenger. However, compared to a turbojet (which can fly at high altitude for enhanced speed and fuel efficiency) a propeller aircraft has a much lower ceiling. Turboprop-powered aircraft have become popular for bush airplanes such as the Cessna Caravan and Quest Kodiak as jet fuel is easier to obtain in remote areas than is aviation-grade gasoline (avgas).

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RAMJET A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe, or an athodyd which is an abbreviation of Aero thermodynamic duct, is a form of airbreathing jet engine using the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air, without a rotary compressor. Ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, thus they cannot move an aircraft from a standstill. Ramjets therefore require assisted take off like JATO ( jet assisted take off) to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust. Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3. This type of engine can operate up to speeds of Mach 6.

SCRAMJET A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to forcefully compress and decelerate the incoming air before combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates Page 5

the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, airflow in a scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at extremely high speeds: theoretical projections place the top speed of a scramjet between Mach 12 (9,100 mph; 15,000 km/h) and Mach 24 (18,000 mph; 29,000 km/h)

NASA X-43 with scramjet attached to the underside

ROCKET A rocket is a nonairbreathing engine that carries its own fuel as well as the oxygen needed for the fuel to burn. There are two types of rockets in use: solid-propellant rockets liquid-propellant rockets. Solid-propellant rockets Page 6

Use a solid fuel that is mixed with an oxidizer and formed into a specific shape that promotes an optimum burning rate. Once ignited, the fuel produces an extremely high velocity discharge of gas through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket body. The reaction to the rapid discharge is forward motion of the rocket body. Solid fuel rockets are used primarily to propel some military weapons and, at times, provide additional thrust for takeoff of heavily loaded aircraft. These booster rockets attach to an aircraft structure and provide the additional thrust needed for special-condition takeoffs. Liquid-fuel rocket Uses fuel and an oxidizing agent such as liquid oxygen. The two liquids are carried in tanks aboard the rocket. When the liquids are mixed, the reaction is so violent that a tremendous amount of heat is generated. The resulting high velocity gas jet behind the rocket provides enough thrust to propel an object.

ENGINE COMPONENTS

There are seven basic sections within every gas turbine engine. They are the air inlet. compressor section. combustion section. turbine section. exhaust section. accessory section.

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systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel supply, and auxiliary purposes, such as anti-icing, cooling, and pressurization.

Additional terms you often hear include hot section and cold section. A turbine engine's hot section includes the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections. The cold section, on the other hand, includes the air inlet duct and the compressor section. AIR INLET DUCTS The air inlet duct on a turbojet engine is normally considered to be a part of the airframe rather than the engine. The compressor section of the turbine engine has many functions. Its primary function is to supply enough air to satisfy the requirements of the combustion burners. The compressor must increase the pressure of the mass of air received from the air inlet duct and then discharge it to the burners in the required quantity and pressure. A secondary function of the compressor is to supply bleed air for various purposes in the engine and aircraft. The bleed air is taken from any of the various pressure stages of the compressor. The exact location of the bleed port depends on the pressure or temperature required for a particular job. The ports are small openings in the compressor case adjacent to the particular stage from which the air is to be bled. Varying degrees of pressure and heat are available simply by tapping into the appropriate stage. Air is often bled from the final or highest pressure stage because at this point pressure and air temperature are at a maximum. At times it may be necessary to cool this high-pressure air. If it is used for cabin pressurization or other purposes where excess heat would be uncomfortable or detrimental the air is sent through a refrigeration unit. Bleed air has various uses including driving the remote-driven accessories. Some current applications of bleed air are In cabin pressurization heating and cooling. In deicing and anti-icing equipment. For pneumatic starting of engines. In auxiliary drive units (ADUs). In control booster servo systems. As power for running instruments.

Compressor section location depends on the type of compressor. In the centrifugalflow engine the compressor is between the accessory section and the combustion section; in the axial-flow engine the compressor is between the air inlet duct and the combustion section. COMPRESSOR ROTOR BLADES The rotor blades used in an axial flow compressor have an airfoil cross-section with a varying angle of incidence, or twist. This twist compensates for the blade velocity variation caused by its radius. In other words, the further from the axis of rotation a blade section is, the faster it travels. Axial flow compressors typically have 10 to 18 Page 8

compression stages, and in the turbofan engine, the fan is considered to be the first stage rotor. . Rotor blade roots are designed with a number of different shapes such as a bulb, fir tree, or dovetail. To prevent a blade from backing out of its slot, most methods of blade attachment use a pin and a lock tab or locker to secure the coupling.

COMPRESSOR STATOR BLADES The stator vanes act as diffusers for the air coming off the rotor, decreasing its velocity and raising its pressure. In addition, the stators help prevent swirling and direct the flow of air coming off each stage to the next stage at the appropriate angle. INLET GUIDE VANES Fixed or variable vanes, also known as stators, located in front of the first stage of the compressor of a gas turbine engine. These guide vanes direct the air onto the compressor at the correct angle. Also called intake guide vanes.

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MULTIPLE-SPOOL COMPRESSORS In a basic axial flow compressor, the compressor and turbine are connected by a single shaft and rotate as a single unit. Since there is only one compressor unit, the compressor is commonly referred to as a single-spool compressor. In a dual-spool axial flow engine, the low pressure compressor is driven by the low pressure turbine while the high pressure turbine drives the high pressure compressor. Splitting the compressor creates two rotating groups, each with considerably less mass than a single-spool compressor. The smaller mass allows the compressors to respond more quickly to power lever inputs and perform better at high altitudes.

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The triple-spool compressors used on many turbofan engines allow each compressor section to reach its optimum speed for varying power requirements and flight conditions. COMBUSTION SECTION The combustion section contains the combustion chambers, igniter plugs, and fuel nozzle or fuel injectors. It is designed to burn a fuel-air mixture and to deliver combusted gases to the turbine at a temperature not exceeding the allowable limit at the turbine inlet. Theoretically, the compressor delivers 100 percent of its air by volume to the combustion chamber. The air used for burning is known as primary air; that used for cording is secondary air. Secondary air is controlled and directed by holes and louvers in the combustion chamber liner. Igniter plugs function during starting only; they are shut off manually or automatically. Combustion is continuous and self-supporting. After engine shutdown or failure to start, a pressure-actuated valve automatically drains any remaining unburned fuel from the combustion chamber. The most common type used in Army gas turbine engines is the external annular reverse-flow type. The primary function of the combustion section is, to bum the fuel-air mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the air. To do this efficiently, the combustion chamber must : Provide the means for mixing the fuel and air to ensure good combustion. Bum this mixture efficiently. Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature which the turbine blades can withstand under operating conditions. Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.

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All combustion chambers contain the same basic elements: A casing A perforated inner liner. A fuel injection system. Some means for initial ignition. A fuel drainage system to drain off unburned fuel after engine shutdown. There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers, varying in detail only: The multiple-chamber or can type. The annular or basket type. The can-annular type

MULTIPLE-CAN TYPE The multiple-can type combustion chamber consists of a series of individual combustor cans which act as individual burner units. Each combustion can has a large degree of curvature which provides a high resistance to warpage. However, the shape is inefficient in terms of the amount of space required and the added weight.

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ANNULAR TYPE annular combustors are commonly used in both small and large engines. The reason for this is that, from a standpoint of thermal efficiency, weight, and physical size, the annular combustor is the most efficient. In a conventional annular combustor, airflow enters at the front and is discharged at the rear with primary and secondary airflow much the same as in the multiple-can design. However, unlike the can type combustors, an annular combuster must be removed as a single unit for repair or replacement. This usually involves complete separation of the engine at a major flange.

CAN-ANNULAR TYPE Can-annular combustion sections represent a combination of the multiple-can combustor and the annular type combustor. The can-annular combustor was invented by Pratt & Whitney and consists of a removable steel shroud that encircles the entire combustion section. Inside the shroud, or casing, are multiple burner cans assembled radially around the engine axis with bullet-shaped perforated liners. A canannular combustor contains individual burner cans in an annular liner. The short burner cans combine the compact efficiency of the annular type combustor with the ease of the multiple-can combustor maintenance.

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QUIZ NO. 1 NAME: YR&SEC. COVERAGE: DIRECTION: DATE:

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TURBINE SECTION

The turbine section of a turbojet engine is located downstream of the combustion section and consists of four basic elements; a case, a stator, a shroud, and a rotor. CASE The turbine casing encloses the turbine rotor and stator assembly, giving either direct or indirect support to the stator elements. A typical case has flanges on both ends that provide a means of attaching the turbine section to the combustion section and the exhaust assembly. STATOR A stator element is most commonly referred to as the turbine nozzle. The purpose of the turbine nozzle is to collect the high energy airflow from the combustors and direct the flow to strike the turbine rotor at the appropriate angle. SHROUD The turbine nozzle assembly consists of an inner and outer shroud that retains and surrounds the nozzle vanes. The number of vanes employed varies with different types and sizes of engines. The vanes of a turbine nozzle are assembled between the outer and inner shrouds, or rings, in a variety of ways. TURBINE ROTOR The rotating elements of a turbine section consist of a shaft and a turbine rotor, or wheel. The turbine wheel is a dynamically balanced unit consisting of blades attached to a rotating disk. The turbine disk is the anchoring component for the turbine blades and is bolted or welded to the main shaft. The shaft rotates in bearings that are lubricated by oil between the outer race and the bearing housing. This reduces vibration and allows for a slight misalignment in the shaft. As the high velocity gases pass through the turbine nozzle and impact the turbine blades, the turbine wheel rotates. Page 17

TURBINE BLADES Turbine blades are airfoil shaped components designed to extract the maximum amount of energy from the flow of hot gases. Today most turbine blades consist of cast nickel-based alloys.

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 1 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Demonstrate the different type of combustion chamber and identify the basic turbine assembly. COVERAGE: Combustion Chamber DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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EXHAUST SECTION The design of a turbojet engine exhaust section exerts tremendous influence on the performance of an engine. the shape and size of an exhaust section and its components affect the temperature of the air entering the turbine, or turbine inlet temperature, the mass airflow through the engine, and the velocity and pressure of the exhaust jet. Therefore, an exhaust section determines to some extent the amount of thrust developed.

A typical exhaust section has an exhaust cone, tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone is considered the rearmost component of a typical gas turbine engine. The tailpipe and exhaust nozzle are usually classified as airframe components.

EXHAUST CONE

The exhaust cone attached to the rear of the turbine assembly, is a tapered, cylinder-shaped outlet for the gases. The cone eliminates turbulence in the emerging jet, thereby giving maximum velocity. The inner cone is usually attached to the outer cone by streamlined vanes called brace assemblies. The exhaust cone itself is usually made of stainless steel sheets, reinforced at each end with stainless steel flanges. As much heat energy as possible is kept within the exhaust cone. A covering of layers of aluminum foil or other material acts as insulation for the cone. A typical exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer duct, or shell, an inner cone, or tail cone, three or more radial hollow struts, and a group of tie rods that assist the struts in centering the inner cone within the outer duct. The outer duct is usually made of stainless steel and attaches to the rear flange of the turbine case.

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TAILPIPE

A tailpipe is an extension of the exhaust section that directs exhaust gases safely from the exhaust cone to the exhaust, or jet nozzle. The use of a tailpipe imposes a penalty on an engine's operating efficiency due to heat and duct friction losses. These losses cause a drop in the exhaust gas velocity and, hence, the thrust. Tailpipes are used almost exclusively with engines that are installed within an aircraft's fuselage to protect the surrounding airframe. EXHAUST NOZZLE

The primary objective of a nozzle is to use the heat and pressure of the exhaust gas to accelerate the jet to high speed so as to efficiently propel the vehicle. For airbreathing engines, if the fully expanded jet has a higher speed than the aircraft's airspeed, then there is a net rearward momentum gain to the air and there will be a forward thrust on the airframe. AFTERBURNERS Afterburners are used to accelerate the exhaust gases, which in turn, increases thrust. An afterburner is typically installed immediately aft of the last stage turbine and forward of the exhaust nozzle. The components that make up an afterburner include the fuel manifold, an ignition source, and a flame holder.

An afterburner is used to increase thrust and consists of a fuel manifold, an ignition source, and a flame holder.

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ACCESSORY SECTION The accessory section, or accessory drive, of a gas turbine engine is used to power both engine and aircraft accessories such as electric generators, hydraulic pumps, fuel pumps, and oil pumps. Secondary functions include acting as an oil reservoir, or sump, and housing the accessory drive gears and reduction gears.

ENGINE STATION NUMBERING Engine manufacturers usually assign station numbers to several points along a turbine engine's gas path. These numbered locations are similar to fuselage stations, and provide a technician with a means of rapidly locating certain engine areas during maintenance. Station numbers also establish locations for taking pressure and temperature readings.

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NOISE SUPPRESSION Some of the energy released from the burning fuel in a jet engine is unintentionally converted to noise. With increasing air traffic around densely populated areas, noise control has become a big issue that impacts both engine designers and operators. Much of the noise produced by a turbine engine results when hot, high-velocity gases mix with cold, low-velocity air surrounding the engine. This high-intensity noise includes both lowand high-frequency vibrations, with low frequencies being predominant. Turbofan engines seldom require noise suppressors because their exhaust sections are designed to mix the hot and cold gas streams prior to their release into the atmosphere, which greatly reduces exhaust noise. Turbojet engines, especially older designs, frequently require additional noise suppression equipment. The additional equipment typically includes a device that breaks up airflow behind the tail cone, and some new forms of sound insulating material. In addition, some airframe components are being redesigned and installed as noise reduction kits to meet new Federal standards.

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 2 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Demonstrate the different type of combustion chamber and identify the basic turbine assembly. COVERAGE: Function of the after burners and engine station numbering DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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QUIZ NO. 2 NAME: YR&SEC. COVERAGE: DIRECTION: DATE:

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TURBOPROP To move an airplane through the air, thrust is generated with some kind of propulsion system. Many low speed transport aircraft and small commuter aircraft use turboprop propulsion. The turbine of a turboprop engine extracts up to 85 percent of the engine's total power output to drive the propeller. To do this, most turboprop engines utilize multiple stage turbines. In addition, the turbine blades in a turboprop engine are designed to extract more energy from the exhaust gases than the blades found in a turbojet engine. The turbine used to drive the compressor and accessories, most turboprop engines use a free turbine to drive a propeller. The free turbine is an independent turbine that is not mechanically connected to the main turbine. This free turbine, or power turbine, is placed in the exhaust stream downstream from the main turbine and is dedicated to driving only the propeller.

Propellers driven by a free turbine rotate independently of the compressor turbine.

TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
A turboshaft engine may be made up of two major parts assemblies: the 'gas generator' and the 'power section'. The gas generator consists of the compressor, combustion chambers with ignitors and fuel nozzles, and one or more stages of turbine. The power section consists of additional stages of turbines, a gear reduction system, and the shaft output. The gas generator creates the hot expanding gases to drive the power section. Depending on the design, the engine accessories may be driven either by the gas generator or by the power section. The general layout of a turboshaft is similar to that of a turboprop. The main difference is a turboprop is structurally designed to support the loads created by a rotating propeller, as the propeller is not attached to anything but the Page 26

engine itself. In contrast, turboshaft engines usually drive a transmission which is not structurally attached to the engine. The transmission is attached to the vehicle structure and supports the loads created instead of the engine. In practice, though, many of the same engines are built in both turboprop and turboshaft versions, with only minor differences. AUXILIARY POWER UNITS

APUs are small gas turbines designed to supply auxiliary power to larger, mobile, machines such as an aircraft. They supply: compressed air for air conditioning and ventilation, compressed air start-up power for larger jet engines, mechanical (shaft) power to a gearbox to drive shafted accessories or to start large jet engines, and electrical, hydraulic and other power-transmission sources to consuming devices remote from the APU

A typical APU consists of a small turbine power-plant driving an electric generator identical to those mounted on the aircraft's engines. In addition, an APU's compressor supplies bleed air to a load compressor for heating, cooling, anti-ice, and engine starting. As with any other gas turbine engine, bleed air loads generally place the greatest demand on an APU. An APU is typically started using its own electric starter motor and aircraft battery power. With fuel supplied from one of the aircraft's main fuel tanks, an APU can start, provide electric power, heat or cool the cabin, and start the main engines without the aid of any ground or portable power source.

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 3 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Discuss the GTE operation and its component COVERAGE:GTE operation DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 4 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the types of exhaust ducts/thrust reversers/afterburners. COVERAGE: Types of exhaust ducts/thrust reversers/afterburners. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 5 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the basic function of GTE accessory section COVERAGE: The basic function of GTE accessory section. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 6 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the turbojet engine operation and major components. COVERAGE: . Turbojet engine operation and major components. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 7 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the turboprop engine operation and major components. COVERAGE: . Turboprop engine operation and major components. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 8 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the turbo-shaft engine operation and major components. COVERAGE: . Turbo-shaft engine operation and major components. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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LABORORY ACTIVITY NO. 9 NAME: YR&SEC. DATE:

OBJECTIVES: EXPECTED OUTCOMES: Show the turbofan engine operation and major components. COVERAGE: . Turbofan engine operation and major components. DIRECTION: MATERIAL TO BE USE:

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QUIZ NO. 3 NAME: YR&SEC. COVERAGE: DIRECTION: DATE:

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