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2.

4 Damping
Damping is the decrease in amplitude with time due to the resistance of the medium to the vibration. For small amplitudes, the resistive force is proportional to the velocity. Damping occurs progressively as energy is taken out of the system by another force such as friction. If the damping is enough that the system just fails to oscillate, then it is said to be critically damped. Damping more than this is referred to as over damping and less is similarly under damped.

Fig. 2.3: Damping

Damping is very important with earthquakes since it dissipates the destructive energy of an earthquake which will help reduce the damage to the building.

2.5 Wave Energy and Interference:


There are two types of wave: Longitudinal Waves (P-Waves): The particles vibrate parallel to the wave's velocity. Primary Waves (P-Waves) are identical in character to sound waves. They are high frequency, short-wavelength, longitudinal waves which can pass through both solids and liquids. The ground is forced to move forwards and backwards as it is compressed and decompressed. This produces relatively small displacements of the ground. P Waves can be reflected and refracted, and under certain circumstances can change into SWaves.

Transverse Waves (S waves): The particles vibrate perpendicular to the wave's velocity. Secondary Waves (S-Waves) travel

Fig 2.4: P-Waves

more slowly than P-Waves and

arrive at any given point after the PWaves. Waves Like they Pare high shortwaves, but
Fig 2.5: S-Waves

frequency, wavelength

instead of being longitudinal they are transverse. They move in all directions away from their source, at speeds which depend upon the density of the rocks through which they are moving. They cannot move through liquids. On the surface of the Earth, S-Waves are responsible for the sideways displacement of walls and fences, leaving them 'S' shaped Energy: The energy carried by a wave is proportional to the wave's amplitude so the greater the amplitude, the more energy it is carrying. In an earthquake, this will result in a larger vibration which will cause more damage. (The Richter scale is based on the energy of the shake)

Interference: When two waves of the same wavelength and frequency occur in the same place, they will have an effect on each other. The end result can be calculated by adding the two waves together so if their crests and troughs occur in the same place, the resulting wave will have an increased amplitude. If the crests of one wave occur at the troughs of another and waves have the same amplitude, they will cancel each other and the resulting wave will be zero. When the first situation occurs, the waves are said to be in phase, the out

and constructive interference has taken place. The second situation is destructive interference. There will also of course be times when the waves are not quite in phase but do not exactly cancel each other out. This will cause the waves to be subjected to both constructive and destructive interference. ( www.indianengineers.com)15

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