AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

SENSOR DYNAMICS
The dynamics of different autopilot sensors have been neglected in all previous examples. This is correct assumption in most cases when the sensor dynamics are really negligible in comparison to the missile dynamics (the dominant time constants of the sensors are much less than the period of missile weathercock oscillations. However, the sensor dynamics must be known in order to check whether they do satisfy these conditions.

Free gyroscope
The construction of free gyroscope consists of the spinning rotor mounted inside the two gimbals. The basic rotation about spin axis is produced by some energy source (electric motor, pneumatic motor, etc.) The rotor rotates in friction-free bearings of the inner gimbal. The inner gimbal itself, can rotate in the same type of bearings relative to the outer gimbal. The last one , in the same manner can rotate relative to the body of missile. The spin rotation is the result of the only one kinetic moment in the system. The friction-free character of the gimbal bearings allows almost complete decoupling of the missile motion from the gyro assembly. igure !." shows the free gyro principle.
y

5 4
H x

2 3 6

Figure 7.1

Free gyro - phy i!"# $e !rip%io&

"

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

The spin axis is in this example along the missile longitudinal axis. #issile$s yaw rotation can be measured directly by the appropriate angle transducer (e.g. potentiometer). %n the case of pitch rotation, both the missile and the outer gimbal rotate relative to the inner gimbal, therefore, the e&uivalent potentiometer with the glider fixed to the inner gimbal and with the body fixed to the outer one, is able to measure the pitch angle. Therefore, the free gyro is capable to measure two angles characteri'ing the missile body space orientation. %t is obvious that any type of friction will be the cause of coupling, or, will produce the parasitic effects. (ne can note that besides the bearing friction, for example, the friction between the glider and the body of potentiometer will produce the parasitic moments too. )ll moments of these or some other types produce so called gyro pre!e io&. The gyro precession represents the fundamental gyro characteristic. )s it is known, it represents the rotation about the axis which is perpendicular both to the spin axis and the axis the external moment is applied about. *hile the ideal free gyro as the dynamic element can be represented only by the gain factor (position transducer constant of proportionality) due to the friction free character of bearings. +eal existing friction will produce the parasitic moments and they will produce the precession as a parasitic phenomenon. The magnitude of this rotation is proportional to the applied moment and inversely proportional to the kinetic moment of rotating body. ,imulation of free gyro effects consists in its representation via the appropriate gain factor with added effect of precession (figure !.-)
x

+ +

fg

1 s

Figure 7.'

Free gyro - (#o!) $i"gr"*

%n the case of guided missiles, the nutation effects can be neglected as a result of the high value of nutation fre&uency (compared with the weathercock fre&uency .)

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

Rate gyroscope
This type of inertial sensor is used for measurement of angular rates. %t is based on the same principle as the free gyro is. or the difference to the later one, the rate gyro is characteri'ed only by two degrees of freedom. There is no outer gimbal shown on figure !." (see figure !./)
y

1 4
K

3 2
F

Figure 1+.,

R"%e gyro !ope pri&!ip#e

%f the external moment acts about - axis (e.g. the platform where the rate gyro is mounted on, rotates in the 0' direction), the response dictated by gyro effect is the precession of gimbal in 0x direction. )s it is shown, this motion is now !o& %r"i&e$ by the elastic spring and the viscous damper. 1yro moment2
T g 3 H z

tends to rotate the gimbal about . axis for the angle x . The moments opposing this motion are2

d -x J dt induced by the inertia of gimbal,

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

d x dt

induced by the viscous damping,

K x
induced by the elasticity of spring. The appropriate differential e&uation directing the gyro precession is2

Tg ( t ) = J

d -x ( t ) d ( t ) + F x + K x ( t ) dt dt

or in complex domain (after the 4aplace transform is applied)2

Tg ( s ) = Hz ( s ) = Js- x ( s ) + Fs x ( s ) + K x ( s )
where2 5 is the moment of inertia of the gimbal is viscous damping coefficient 6 is the spring elasticity coefficient

The appropriate transfer function of a rate gyro, where the input is the angular rate about - axis and the output is the angle of precession, is defined as2

Grg ( s ) =

K rg x ( s) H = = - z ( s ) Js + Fs + K s 7 n + - n s 7 n + "

where the coefficients are2

K rg =
n =

H K
K J

- constant of proportionality

- fre&uency of self oscillations

n =

F - JK

- damping coefficient

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

The steady state value of the output angle is e&ual to the input angular rate multiplied by the ratio of kinetic moment 5s and the spring elasticity coefficient, 6. The better sensitivity for given kinetic moment, H, could be achieved on account of less value of 6. However, this leads to the decreasing of the fre&uency of self oscillations, or, to decreasing of the rate gyro bandwidth. or typical parameters ( 3 -8999 rev7min, n 3 :99 rad7s, 5s 3 5) it follows that2

K rg =

H -8999 - = = 9.9"[ rad 7 rad 7 s] K n;9 :99-

%t is important for the accurate function of the rate gyro to have small resultant precession angles. (n the contrary, if the spin axis has been precessed for some not negligible angle, the rate gyro would not measure the input angular rate only. This fact defines the re&uirement for the very precise angular sensors of x. )s it can be seen from this numerical example, the rate gyro natural fre&uency is really for the order of magnitude higher than the weathercock fre&uency. Therefore, it can be represented only by the gain factor, 6 rg . %f it were not the case, the complete transfer function 1rg (s) must be used. igure !./ illustrates <ust the physical principle of a rate gyro. #odern day reali'ations of this type of sensor are made on the same principle but using different components. )s an example, figure !.8 illustrates typical reali'ation of rate gyro.

gyro effect

+
L@

gymbal

AC !C converter angle trans. torque motor

V DU

VRG ( COARSE )

LM

UI conv. ampl. VRG ( FINE )

RATE GYRO

Figure. 7./

Fu&!%io&"# (#o!) $i"gr"* o0 *o$er& r"%e gyro

)ngle transducers are contact-less, usually of inductive or capacitative types. The tor&ue balancing the precession moment is produced by tor&ue motor characteri'ed by the fact that the tor&ue about output axis is proportional to input current, rather than by

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

the mechanical spring. The role of damper shown on igure !./ is reali'ed by the viscous fluid filling the case. #ore precise model must be used in the case of using rate gyros as the sensors applied in a strap = down %>,. rom dynamical point of view the described model is suitable representation, but there are a number of parasitic effects introduced by the fact that the rate gyro is a mechanical system affected by the simultaneous rotational motion about other two axes that are perpendicular to the input axis. )lso, there are a number of parasitic effects as a result of construction inaccuracies (scaling factor, gimbal mass disbalance, imperfect alignment of input axis and appropriate body axis, ?@ bias at the output signal that is dependent on temperature, etc.) )ll parasitic effects of this type could be treated either as a constant as a constant or slow varying drift or as high fre&uency output noise (including also the effects of body vibrations, air turbulence, etc.) However, as it was said in the analysis of coupling effects produced by gyro measurements inside one autopilot structure, all these effects are usually of secondary importance in the case of flight stabili'ation because the rate gyros are used in order to improve the dynamic stability of the guided missile. %n the case where the rate gyro signals are primary information (strap = down %>,), these effects must by carefully modeled and analy'ed. The proper identification of parameters characteri'ing parasitic effects must be done as well as the estimation of overall drift and filtration of high fre&uency noise.

Rate integrating gyroscope

This is the special case of the rate gyro and the only one difference in comparison to the general case is the absence of the elastic spring. The gyro moment is compensated only by the viscous damping moment. The resultant effect is the transfer function2

Grig ( s ) =

x ( s) H = z ( s ) Js + Fs

%t is obvious that in steady state, the output signal is proportional to the integral of the input angular velocity. The ratio, H7F, represents the gain factor, Krig %f the moment of inertia, J, is not negligible, the complete transfer function is to be used. The rate integrating gyros are sometimes used as the autopilot angle sensors (particularly in roll angle stabili'ation). The accuracy of their measurements is of more importance than the accuracy of rate gyros used <ust for damping improvement. %n the case of %>,, rate integrating gyros are usually used as the sensors allowing the space stabili'ation of the platform carrying the set of accelerometers. Aeing primary sources of information this way, their models must be derived in much more detailed way (as in the case of application of rate gyros in strap = down %>,).

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

Accelerometer
The accelerometer is the component used for linear acceleration measurements. *e have mentioned two different applications2 as an autopilot sensor, applied in the system of normal acceleration controlB as an inertial guidance system element where it measures the acceleration in given direction. Ay double integration, the linear position can be calculated in inertial coordinate system coordinates.

,peaking about the accelerometer dynamics, one can see a lot of similarities between this type of inertial sensor of linear motion in comparison with the rate gyro as the inertial sensor of the angular motion. igure !.8 illustrates physical principle of an accelerometer.

reference pos"t"on
x

ra"ls

mass #amper

spr"ng

pos"t"on trans#ucer

spr"ng

Figure 1+./

A!!e#ero*e%er - phy i!"# pri&!ip#e

.1 .* .

- absolute displacement of interior body of weight, 1. - absolute displacement of the missile

- .1 - .*

AUTOPILOT DESIGN

Intensive course Lecture 7.

)s a result of the external force action, the interior body is moving along the rails for x. Clastic spring force is proportional to this displacement, FE 2 3 .. Discous damping force is proportional to the displacement rate, FD 2 F $ .4$%. Eosition transducer output is proportional to the displacement, u"!! 2 Cp .. %f the mass of the moving body is e&ual to m, and by neglecting the friction between the body and rails, the appropriate differential e&uation describing the accelerometer dynamics is2
+ Fx + Kx = 9 ! x F K + x + x = ! = a ! x x ! !

The transfer function of an accelerometer is defined as2

Ga"" ( s ) = K a"" =

x K ( s ) = - - a"" a! T s + -Ts + "

! , K ! T= , K F = - !K
Fnder the similar assumptions as in the case of rate gyro, the accelerometer can be represented by the gain factor, 6acc , only. ,peaking about the technical reali'ation, it can be said that the position transducers are usually of capacitive or inductive type, the damping is reali'ed by the interior fluid, and the outer view of modern days accelerometer is very similar to the rate gyro outer view. %t is to be repeated that if the accelerometer were not mounted at @1 exactly, the part of its output would be proportional to the body angular acceleration. Cverything said about the differences between the application of rate gyros in autopilot and %>,, can be repeated for the accelerometers. %n spite of the fact that the role of accelerometers in a 1G@ systems of the guided missiles is of greater importance than the role of rate gyros, (they are the main sensors in the normal acceleration control structures), the existence of a guidance system is the fact usually relaxing the high &uality re&uirements and modeling complexity.