Cha.

p1ier

VII

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It is necessary to examine some of the basic theories in order to understand the various problems associated with water treatment. Total Hardness Temporary hardness Calcium Bicarbonate Magnesium Bicarbonate Permanent hardness Calcium Sulphate Magnesium Chloride

Temporary Hardness (Alkaline Hardness) is due to bicarbonates of Calcium and Magnesium, which are Alkaline in nature. They are temporary, because when heated they rapidly break down, to form Carbon Dioxide and the corresponding carbonated deposit as scale. Permanent Hardness (Non-Alkaline Hardness) is due mainly to sulphates and chlorides of Calcium and Magnesium which are acid in nature. They are "permanent" and do not break down, but under certain conditions deposit to form scale of varying hardnesses. Water Treatment Fundamentals Water can adversely affect metal components under the operational conditions normally found in steam boilers and other heat exchange devices. The extent of deterioration depends on the specific characteristics of the water and the system in which it is being used. In order to counteract the detrimeirtalproperties normally attributed to its contaminants (dissolved, suspended solids and dissolved gases), special chemical treatment programs have been devised. Accepted water treatment processes are constantly being upgraded, and new methods are being developedto complement and/or replace older ones. Although water from marine evaporators and boiler condensate returns is essentially 'pure', minute quantities of potentially harmful salts and minerals can be carried by feedwater into the boiler,wherethey will accrue, ultimately resulting in serious problems in the steam generatingunit. In addition',the water can also contain dissolved gases, i.e. Carbon dioxide and Oxygen, which can result in corrosion of the system. Using unprocessed fresh water (e.g. shore water) as a makeup source can present some problems. Certain contaminants, which are naturally present in fresh water, can be extremely destructive in boiler systems, if not dealt with promptly and effectively.Soluble salts such as chlorides, sulphates and carbonates are present as electrolytes, in the untreated water, leadingto galvanic and other types of corrosion, depending on the conditions in the system. In addition, sulphates and carbonates have the potential to form insoluble, adherent, insulating "hard water" scale deposits on heat exchanger surfaces. .

~Iements which affect Boiler Treatment Mostdissolved mineralimpuritiesin waterarepresentintheformof ions.Theseionscontainan electrical chargewhichis eitherpositive(cation)or negative(anion).Theseionscanjoin togetherto formchemical
compounds. To know which ions will cOmbine, we need to know their electrical charge. Ions of concern to us include the following. Positive ions Sodium Na+ Calcium Ca++ Magnesium Mg++ Hydrogen H+

Negative ions Chloride CIBicarbonate HCO3 Carbonate C03Hydroxide OH113

Cations will combine only with anions. An example of this combining of ions is the action between Calcium and carbonate. The chemical compound which forms is Calcium Carbonate. Other impurities, which will affect the boiler water treatment control, include Copper, Iron oxides, oil and dissolved gases. Copper Copper is introduced into a system by corrosion of Copper piping and Copper alloys. In boilers, the source of this corrosion could be dissolved gases in the boiler water or the excessive use of Hydrazine which will corrode Copper and Copper alloys, allowing Copper to be carried back to the boiler. Copper in the boile~ displaces metal, from the tube surfaces and plates, out on to the tubes. This condition often occurs under existing scale and sludge deposits, which is known as 'under deposit Copper corrosion'. Copper deposits are a serious problem in high pressure boilers. Waterside deposits must be properly analysed to determine the correct procedures to follow for cleaning.

Oil

To prevent oil from entering condensate and feedwater systems, certain safety equipment is generally incorporated to detect, 'remove, and arrest such contamination. Oil contamination may occur through mechanical failure, for example, faulty oil deflectors at turbine glands passing lubrication oil to glands seal condensers and main condensers, or undetected leaks at tank heating coils. Any oil film on internal heating surfaces is dangerous, drastically impairing heat transfer oil films therefore cause overheating of tube metal, resulting in possible tube blistering and failure. If oil contamination is suspected, immediate action must be undertaken for its removal. The first corrective measure in cleaning up oil leakage is to find and stop the point of oil ingress into the system. Then, by using a Degreaser, a cleaning solutioncan be circulated throughout the boiler system to removethe existing oil contamination. Boiler coagulant can assist in removingtrace amounts of oil contamination. Iron Oxides Iron may enter the boiler as a result of corrosion in the pre-boiler section or may be re-deposited as a result of corrosion in the boiler or condensate system. Often, Iron oxide will be deposited and retard heat transfer within a boiler tube, at times resulting in tube failure. This usually occurs in highheat transfer areas, i.e. screening tubes nearest to the flame. When iron is not present in the raw feedwater, its presence in the boiler indicatesactive corrosion withinthe boiler system itself Rust inthe reddish from is fully oxidized. More often, in a boiler with limited oxygen, it is in the reduced or black form as Magnetite (Fe3O4)'which is magnetic and can be readily detected with a magnet. It is a passive form of corrosion and its presence shows that proper control of the system is being maintained.

'. . , I

Magnesium Carbonate (MgCOJ

Magnesium hardness in fresh water usually accounts for about one third of the total hardness. The remainingtwo thirds can normally be attributed to calcium. Since Magnesium carbonate is appreciably more soluble in water than Calcium carbonate, it is seldom a major component in scale deposits. This is due to the preferential precipitation of the carbonate ion by Calcium, as opposed to Magnesium which remains in solution until all soluble Calcium is exhausted. Oncethis point is reached,any free carbonate remainingin solution will combinewith the Magnesium and beginprecipitating out as Magnesium carbonate, when the solubility ot this salt is exceeded. Because of this letter phenomenon, when "soft" water is used for boilers, any magnesium present must be removed along with the Calcium. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO .J Magnesium Sulphate is an extremely soluble salt, having a solubility of 20% in cold water and 42% in boiling water. It exists as a sulphate only in water with a low pH. Because of its high solubility, it will not normally precipitate. The sulphate ion, however, will be precipitated by the Calcium hardness present ifno tree carbonates exist. Magnesium Chloride (MgClz> Magnesium Chloride, like Magnesium Sulphate, is soluble in fresh water in the high temperature and alkaline conditions normally maintained in a boiler, any soluble Magnesium ions in the boiler water become extremely reactive with Hydroxyl ions, which may be present in high concentrations in this type of environment. This can result in the formation of Magnesium Hydroxide precipitates which from insulating scale on the boiler tube surfaces. It chloride ions are also available they react with the Hydrogen ions previously 114

associatedwith the precipitated Hydroxyl ions, to fonn Hydrochloric acid, thereby loweringthe alkalinity of the water. If this situation is allowed to continue, the pH of the boiler water will decrease until acid conditions result in corrosion of the metal surfaces. Unlike Carbonate and Sulphate ions, the Chloride ion does not precipitate in the presence of soluble Calcium. Silica(SiOz) Silica scale is not normally found in boiler systems except in minute quantities. It can be admitted to the systemwhen severe carryover occurs in evaporators processing water with high Silica content. Other sources of such feedwater may be high Silica river or raw fresh water as well as distilled/deionizedor unprocessed fresh water which has been stored and taken cement-washed from silicate coated tanks. Once fonned, pure Silica scale is extremely difficult to remove. It forms a tight adherent glass-like film on metal surfaces, thereby preventing proper heat transfer. In addition, in steam-generating devices it can carry over with the steam coating the after-boiler sections, particularly the superheater. If a turbine fonns part of the system, the Silica can deposit on the blades as well as cause erosion of the finned surfaces of the blading, resulting in imbalance of the turbine, which in tum may result in turbine failure. Besides the pure fonn of Silica (i.e. SiliconDioxide),possible Silicate deposits can fonn in combination with Calcium and Magnesium which are extremely insoluble in water and very difficult to dissolve and remove. Besides being an extremely difficult process, the chemical removal of Silica and Silicate deposits can-also be very hazardous, since it involvesthe use of Hydrofluoric Acid or AmmoniumBi-fluoride, both of which are severely destructive to human issue by inhalation, ingestion and physical contact in some instances, alternate acid and alkaline washings have been used to successfully combat this problem. The only alternative to chemical cleaning is mechanical removal. Calcium Carbonate (CaCOz) Calcium Bicarbonate alkalinity exists in almost all unprocessed fresh water under nonnal conditions. Its solubility is about 300-400 ppm at 25C. Ifheat is applied or a sharp increase in pH occurs, the Calcium bicarbonate breaks down to fonn Carbon dioxide and Calcium carbonate. While the bicarbonate salt has been shownto be moderately soluble in water, the solubility of Calcium carbonate at 25C is only about 14 ppm. This value continues to decrease as the temperature increases, becoming the least where the temperature is greatest. In a boiler, this would be on the surface of the furnace tubes where contact is made with the water. The resulting insoluble Calcium carbonate precipitate fonns 'building block like' crystals which adhere not only to one another, but also to the hot metal surfaces, resulting in a continuous, insulating scale deposit over the entire heat exchange area. This deposit will continue to grow, building upon itself to fonn a thick coating until all the calcium Carbonate produced is exhausted. It suspended matter is also present in the water, it can become entrained within the crystal structure, creating a larger volume of deposit than that fonned by the Carbonate precipitation alone. If this condition is allowed to continue, heat exchange efficiency at the waterltube interface falls rapidly, resulting in an increase in fuel consumption necessary to compensate for the decline in thennal transfer and

to regaindesigntemperatureas well as steamproductionrequirements.This increasein the furnaceside temperatureneeded' to run the system at optimumconditionsexposesthe metal surfacesto overheating
which,in turn, can cause blistering fatigue, fracture and failure of boiler tubes. In addition, it pockets of water becometrapped beneath the scale deposits and are in contact with the hot metal surfaces, concentration of acid or alkaline materials may occur and lead to the fonnation of local electrolytic cells (under-deposit

corrosion)

Calcium Sulphate (CaSO J Although Calcium Sulphate is more soluble in water than Calcium Carbonate, it can be just as troublesomewhenpresent in boiler and coolingwater system.. Calcium Sulphate, like Calcium Carbonate, but unlike most salts has an inversetemperature /solubility relationship in water. As gypsum, the hydrated fonn in which Calcium Sulphate is normally present in fresh water, its solubility increases until a temperature of about 40C is achieved. At 40C, its solubility is 1,551 ppm; at 100C which is the nonnal boiling point of water, its solubilitydecreasesto 1.246 ppm, and at 220C it falls to 40ppm. Calcium Sulphate reacts at high-temperature surfaces essentially in the same manner as Calcium Carbonate and with the same effects and consequences. However,whereas Calcium Carbonate deposits are relatively easy to remove using a comprehensive acid cleaning procedure, Calcium Sulphate is essentially impervious to the effects of nonnal acid descaling methods and usually must be removed by mechanical means. 115

Dissolved Gases Gases such as Oxygen and Carbon pioxide that are. dissolved m distilled or fresh water, will further contribute to the deterioration of the boiler system. Dependent upon conditions in the system (e.g. temperature pressure and materials of construction), dissolved Oxygen can cause pitting corrosion of steel surfaces, while carbon Dioxide lowers the pH, leadmg to acid and galvanic corrosion. Carbon Dioxide has the added disadvantage of fonning msoluble Carbonate scale deposits m an alkalme environment when Calcium and Magnesium are present. Acidity, Neutrality and Alkalinity All water can be classified into one of these categories. Acidity, Neutrality and Alkalinity are only very general terms. We require more accurate methods of testing to know the degree of each condition. When testmg boiler water it is important to understand what you are testmg for. The presence of Alkalmity ma water may be due to many different substances. For the sake of simplicity, the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate "andhydroxide contributes to the alkalinity of water. Phenolphthalein(P) Alkalinity (pH values greater than 8.3) measures all the hydroxide and one half of the carbonate alkalmity which is sufficient for our purpose of control. !licarbonates do not show m this test as they have a pH less than 8.4. M- Alkalinity.Total Alkalmity or M - Alkalmity (pH values greater than 4.3) measures the sum ofbicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide alkalinity. Problems of Boiler Water Feedwater produced by distillation for use in a boiler is not 'pure', even with a good distillation method. Worse still is ordinary water taken from ashore to be used as feedwater. Problems will then arise when the water is used in the boiler.The types of problem will depend on the type of impurities and in which quantities they are present. The most common problems are: -corrOSIon -Scaling -Carryover The corrosion processes can affect boilers in .thefollowingways. 'General wastage' is the overall reduction of metal thickness and is common in heatb1gsurface areas, such as boiler tube walls. This 'thinnmg' of boiler tubes is often found in boilers having open feed systems (mostly auxiliary boilers) without any protective treatment. ~

Pitting Corrosion. Pittingisthemostseriousformofwatersidecorrosionandistheresultofthe formation of irregularpits in the metal.Evidenceof pitting is usuallyfoundin the boilershellaroundthe water leveland is most likely caused by poor storageprocedureswhenthe boiler is shut downfor lengthyperiods,and by inadequate Oxygenscavenging. Stress Corrosion
"Stress corrosion" cracking is the process caused by the combined action of heavy stress and a corrosive environment. The stages of failure. of the metal due to stress corrosion are 1) Corrosion is initiated by breakdown of the surface film, 2) followed by the formation of a corrosion pit which becomes the site for 3) stress corrosion cracking, eventually leading to mechanical failure due to overloading of the mechanical strength of the metal. This form of attack is often found around the ogee ring in vertical auxiliary boilers, when undue stressing is set up by poor steam-raising procedures. Related problems

"Corrosion fatigue" occurs when a sufficiently high alternative stress level causes failure of the subjected material. It is the joint action of a corrosive environment and cyclic stressing and results in a series of fIDe cracks in the metal. This is found in water tube boilers where irregular circulation through tubes in high temperature zones induce these cycling stresses. "Caustic cracking" results from the contact of water of concentrated caustic alkalinity and steel which has not been stress relieved, e.g. in riveted seams. This form 116

of cracking follows the grain boundaries. This is rarely observed nowadays, as both high and low pressure boilers are usually of all welded construction and are stress relieved. Caustic corrosion takes place only in high pressure boilers (above 60 bar) when excessively high concentrations of Sodiumhydroxide (Caustic soda) cause breakdown of the magnetite layer and localised corrosion.

This formof attack is often controlledby the coordinatedPO4 TreatmentProgram."Hydrogenattack" is

another form of corrosion damage that can take place in ultra high pressure boilers. Whichever form of corrosive attack occurs, the risk of tube failure or serious structural damage is very apparent, both often
leading to considerable expense in the shape of repair costs.

Factors Affecting ColTosion 1) pH -Metal oxides are more soluble as pH decreases and corrosion increases. 2) Dissolved solids - Chloride and Sulphate can penetrate passive metal oxide film which protects the base metal from corrosion. 3) Dissolved gases - carbon dioxide and ~S reduces pH and thus promotes acid attack. Oxygen promotes pittingcorrosion. 4) Suspendedsolids - Mud, sand, clay, and so on, settle to form deposits, promoting different corrosion cells. 5) Micro organism. 6) Temperature - High temperature increases corrosion. 7) Velocity- High velocity promotes erosion/cavitation. 8) Copper - Copper ions plate out on steel surfaces and promote pitting corrosion. Scaling If the inside of a boiler is scaled, there is a great risk that the boiJermaterial will overheat, leadingto tube failure. The efficiency of operation will also be adversely affected. Hardness in the feedwater will usually present problems in relation to the operation of boilers. Hardness in the feedwater will, as the temperature rises, cause an increase in the formation of sludge in the feedwater tank. If scale preventing chemicals are put intothe feedwatertank this problem will aggravated, as nearly all precipitation of sludgewill take place in the feedwatertank. The suction pipe stub of the feed water line will usually be placed 5 10 em above the bottom. If the feed water is not very clean, sludge will be sucked into the piping and choking may occur. In a modem centrifugal pump, the very narrow vanes may be blocked, which will cause the pump to stop, and there is a risk of the valves sticking and becoming blocked. In spite of the fact that a boiler plant may be equipped with a water treatment system of some sort, there will always be a risk of hardness or other type of pollution in the feedwater, because:

1. The capacity of the water treatment system is insufficient 2. There are defects in the water treatment system. 3. The condensate is polluted due to a.) heat exchanger leaks or b) lubricating oil Daily analysis of the quality of the feedwater will ensure that action can be taken in time to prevent irregularities. Hardness in the boiler water will inevitably lead to the formation of scale and the rate of this formation will depend on the composition and quantity of the hardness, on the temperature conditions in the boiler and on the circulation in the boiler. Increased surface heating effect means increased production of steam bubbles, which again will make more boiler water "pass" the spot on the heating surface (where the steam bubbles are formed) and this spot will thus also be "passed" by the hardness producing and corroding salts in the boiler water. In addition the most common hardness salts are less soluble at increasing temperatures. This explains why the largest amount of encrustation will always be found where the temperature of the heating surface is the highest. Scale formed just at this point means that the critical temperature of the boiler material will be reached quickly and that damage to the boiler will be inevitable. Carryover Carryover is any contaminant that leaves the boiler with the steam. 117

Carryover can be Solid, Liquid or Vapour Effectsof carryover Deposits in non-return valves, deposits in superlteaters, deposits in control valves

and deposits on turbines. Carryover in superlteaters can promote failure due to overlteating. Turbines are prone to damage by carryover, as solid particles in steam can erode turbine parts. When large slugs of water carry over with steam, the thermal and mechanical shock can cause severe damage. Causes of carryover Mechanical . Priming . Sudden load changes . Boiler design . Soot blowing . High water level Chemical: Foaming due to . High Chlorides . High TDS (Total dissolved solids) . Highalkalinity . Suspended solids

Oil

Silica

The most common form of encrustation in a steam system stems from carryover. The boiler manufacturers stipulate a maximum allowed salinity of the boiler water. [fthis value is exceeded,there is a risk ofnormal bubble size being prevented; larger bubbles will be produced and the turbulence in the water surface will increase and cause foaming. The foam may be carried over with the steam, particularly when the generation of steam is at maximum, which causes boiler water (containing Sodium hydroxide and sak) to pass out into the steam pipes. The content of Silicic Acid is important for boilers with high pressures. Silicic Acid in its volatile form may be carried away with the steam and be deposited on turbine blades, for instance, on which it will form a very hard, porcelain-like scale. Chemicalcomposition may not be the sole cause of carryover. Circumstances such as periodic overloads, periods of too high a water level (or more correctly, too small a steam volume) are two of the most common causes. Finally, impurities from the condensate, such as oil from the preheater's coils, if they are leaking, are very common causes of priming. Treatments: The main Purpose of Boiler Water Treatment is A. To reduce the total hardness of the boiler water B. To maintain the correct pH and alkalinity values in feedwater and boiler water. C. To prevent corrosion, especially corrosion caused by Oxygen D. To prevent the formation of scale, by conditioningthe sludge. E. To avoid foaming. Single Function Treatment 1.AlkalinityControl 2. Hardness Control 3. Oxygen Control 4. Catalysed Sodium Sulphite 5. Cat. Sulphite L 6. Boiler Coagulant

.,

118

7. Condensate Control Treatment for Low Pressure Boiler Water Combined chemical treatment suitable for use in small low pressure boilers, precipitates hardness, provides the boiler water with the necessary alkalinity~. and scavenges dissolved Oxygen. It should be added when necessary, as shown by water analysis results. It is the boiler is open and not being fired, it can be poured through a manhole, but when the boiler is in operation, the treatment must be appliedthrough a special dosing line. When a dosing arrangement is utilized, the chemical must be flushed to removeany residual left in the dosage lines and equipment. If dosing lines are not fitted,'tPe chemical can be added directlyto the feed tank as required. Ensure proper circ1dationthrough the feed tank to allow the chemical to enter the boiler beingtreated. It is necessary to mow the details of the flow pattern in the boiler for proper testing and dosing of the chemical treatment to take place. When several boilers have a coromon feed tank, dosing should be carried out through independent dosing lines to~ensurethe proper treatment of each boiler. Re-test within 2 hours of dosing the boiler water chemical:. Tests for Boiler Water, Low Pressure Dosage level of chemical is based on the P-Alkalinity value of the boiler water. However, Chlorides and condensatepH must also be controlled and maintained as recommended.Knowledge of all relevant parameters is desirable to enable better interpretation and correct application of treatment.

Controlling Alkalinity

The alkalinity is a more accurate indicator of the boiler water conditionthan is the pH. The Phenolphthalein (P) alkalinity is measured to determine whether the correct conditions of alkalinity exist in the boiler to: A. Provide a suitable environment for the precipitation of hardness salts as desirable sludge materials. B. To help the formation of Magnetite (Fe3OJ in the presence of Oxygen scavengers (i.e. Hydrazine/ Sulphite). C. Maintain Silica in solutionto prevent Silica scale formation.

Controlling Chlorides The Chloridevalue will reveal any presenceof dissolvedsalts in the boiler.An increase,gradual or sudden,inthe levelof Chlorides is an indication of contamination by seawater,and Chlorides are oftenused ~
. . .

as a reference point when controlling rate of blow down. Too high a Chloride level indicates that undesirable amounts of salts are present, leading to possible foaming and! or scale and deposit formation.

pH

ThepH of the boilerwater shouldbe maintainedwithinthe rangeof9.5-11.0 to preventany corrosion. CondensatepH. Hardness control Hardnesscontrolis achievedby using a Phosphatepowderproduct to precipitatedissolvedcalcium hardnesssalts and to convertthese salts to non-adherentCalciumphosphatesludge,whichcan be easily
removedby blowdown.. Hardness control is highly effective in achievingthis function; minimumdosages are required. Reduced dosage of chemicals minimises dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water. Hardness control provides neutral reaction products in the boiler. A high level of dissolved and suspended solids are the principal causes of carryover and priming. As the temperature of the boiler increases, less phosphate can be held in solution in the boiler water. Therefore, testing and dosage of phosphate, to control hardness salts deposits, shouldbe done when the boiler is under full load conditions. If the phosphate residual increases under low load conditions,this is an indication of a dirty boiler, and increased bottom blows should be carried out to removethe sludge. The sludge holds excess phosphate and re-dissolves when the boiler water temperature is reduced. Alkalinity Control Alkalinity control is used to obtain the correct pH level necessary for the phosphate treatment to react with Calcium salts. In addition, Alkalinitycontrol is used to maintainthe required alkalinity inthe boiler water to prevent acid corrosion. By adopting simpletesting procedud~sto determinethe Phenolphthaleinalkalinity (p-Alkalinity)and the total alkalinity (M-Alkalinity).We can determinethe amount of tree caustic present in the boiler water. If a positive number is obtained, tree caustic (OH-Alkalinity) is present in the boiler water. 119

The term "excess chemicals" or reserve of chemicals" ensures that chemicals are always readily available to perform their necessary functions. Oxygen Control (Hydrazine, N:tHJ
-

Hydrazineis a colourlessliquidat ambienttemperatures, beingcomp)etely misciblewithwater.Its solu-

tion has an odour-resembling Ammonia, but is less pungent. It is used to efficiently scavenge and remove Oxygen from condensate, feedwater and boiler water. Hydrazine reacts with Oxygen, acting as a scavenger. The r~ction results in Nitrogen and water, no solids being addedto the boiler system. Some of the Hydrazine will carry over with the steam helping to maintain the condensate pH in an alkaline range, which will act as protective layer against further corrosion. Hydrazine should be added to the system using a separate dosing tank. The tank should be filled daily with hydrazine diluted with Condensateor-distilledwater. This solution should be dosed continuously to the storage section of the de-aerator. Alternatively Hydrazine can be fed C9ntinuouslyto the feed pump suction or atmospheric drain tank over a 24-hour period. It is important that _Hydrazineshould not be overdosed. At re.nperatures above 270C, Hydrazine starts to break down, creating free Ammonia. Excessive free Ammonia and Oxygen, when combined, form a corrosive condition on nonferrous metals. This corrosive action can cause Copper to deposit in the watersides of boilers, causing additional boiler problems, as discussed earlier. The reaction of Hydrazine in boilers is threefold: I. It scavenges any free or dissolved Oxygen 2. It reduces red iron oxide to a metal-protective black oxide coating (Magnetite). 3. It raises the pH of the condensate~reducing acid corrosion of the condensate. Catalysed sodium sulphate Catalysed sulphite products are used as scavengers, in place of Hydrazine, where economy is of importance, or used in low pressure boilers with open feed system where feed inlet temperatures are low. Sulphite. combined with oxygen forms sulphate, which adds solids to the boiler water. It should thus not be used in boilers whose pressures are above 30 bars; where the TDS level is critical. Sulphite is also used as a substitute for Hydrazine when rust and scale deposits are present in boiler system on ships being returned to service. Hydrazine tends to remove iron oxide deposits present throughout the boiler system. An amine should be used in conjunction with oxygen scavengers to maintain the condensate pH within the desirable ranges throughout the entire condensate and feedwater system. Boiler Coagulant Boiler Coagulant is a polymeric compound used in boilers contaminatedwith small quantities of oil, or as a sludge conditioner when high levels of solids are experienced, Boiler Coagulant should be dosed at 250cc per day. No testing is necessary if used regularly. Daily flash blowdownis recommendedto removeprecipi-

tatedsolidsor coagulated oil.

i) remove dissolved gases from the condensate. ii) pre-heating of the feedwater. ill) can act as a suction head for the feed pumps.

Efficient operation of the de-aerator is important. The function of the de-aerator is to :

In many cases, improper operation of the de-aerator will affect the results of the chemical treatment. Proper operating temperature and pressure must be always maintained in the de":aerator.Temperature variations betweenthe upper and lower parts of the de-aerator indicate faulty operation. If Ammonia levels should be excessive, the de-aerator should be vented to atmosphere. A set of periodic blow-downs is recommended.Even if test results indicate a normal range, it is better to blow-downat least once a day, since sludge is forming in the boiler at all times. Plan a schedule that will fit into the vessels normal operating pattern, to include a bottom blow-down, as well as a blow-down of each header regularly, so as to prevent sludge build-up. Controllingthe pH and Phosphate is also very critical, as this maintains the boiler internal surfaces free of caustic embrittlement corrosion and deposition.

120

Chemical injection points for low pressure Boiler System The following diagram depicts a typical low Pressure Boiler System. Note injection point for chemicals, when dosing chemicals, the recommendationto achieve the best possible results is to always dose all chemicals in the diluted form on a continuous basis. 1. Dosage to hot well or feed tank. All chemj.calscan be dosed at these points. However,the recommended dosage of Alkalinity Control and Hardness Control is either no.2 feed line or no. 3 chemical f~ injection directlyto the boiler. Oxygen Control and Sulphite should preferably be dose4 to the feed tank on a continuous basis. All combinedproducts can be dosed into the hot well. 2. Doseto injectionno. 2 is required to the feed lin~by means of a pressure injector or dosage pump. Dosage should be continuous, however water . can be . shock treateCi. 3. Dosage direct to boiler no. 3. All chemicals can be dosed to this point by means of pressure pot injector or dosage pump. Alkalinity Control or Hardness Control is best controlled at this location and the use of Hydrazine. Sulphite of Condensate Control is recommendedon a continuous basis in the condensate system.

3
CHEMFEEDPOlNI
BLOWDOWN

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+-2
. CHEM.FEED

AUX. FEED LINE

fEED TANI<

Interpreting Test Results Hydrazinetesting and control For reasons of economytry to minimisethe quantity of Hydrazine employedto scavenge Oxygen as well as reducing the amount of Ammonia that will be formed by the breakdown of Hydrazine. Ammonia in the presence of Oxygen is corrosive to Copper and Copper alloys (non-ferrous alloys). It will be necessary to test the Hydrazine residuals in the boiler daily in order to obtain completeprotection with minimumdoses of Hydrazine. If the Hydrazine residual in the boiler is over 0.1 ppm, reduce the dosage ofHydrazine until the boiler Hydrazine residual falls below the recommendedmaximum of 0.1 ppm. If the Hydrazine residual does not immediatelydrop belowthe 0.1 ppm level,the boiler shouldbe blown downto reducethe Hydrazine level. New boilers, or those recently opened for inspection and repair, may take several weeks to achieve a normal boiler Hydrazine residual dueto oxides. This is normal, and until a Hydrazine residual is obtained inthe boiler 121

water. test the feedwater for the Hydrazine content. Maintain the Hydrazine reading in the feedwater between 0.02 and 0.03 ppm. No oxygen is entering the boiler with the feedwater when Hydrazine is present in the water. However. be certain not to exceed the max. level of 0.1 ppm in boiler water. Hydrazine may be dosed in to the feed pump suction. or preferably. to the storage section of the de-aerator. which will maximize the residence and reaction time of Oxygen control. A separate dosing tank.and pump set should be used for dosing Hydrazine to the system. The estimated daily dose should be mixed with condensate and the pump should be set to deliver the daily dosage over an entire 24 hour period. If a pump and tank.set is not available. Hydra'zinecan be added to the system through a tank.and flowmeter into the atmospheric drain with injection point well below the water level of the tank. Most boiler treatments use Sodium Hydroxide to produce the required alkalinity in the boiler water. High concentrations of Sodium Hydroxide can cause inter-crystalline cracking and, in high pressure boilers operating with a high heat flux. caustic gouging can occur. Caustic gouging is a reaction between Sodium Hydroxide and iron to fonn Sodium Ferrate. Nascent Hydrogen is liberated by this reaction and can cause Hydrogen embrittlement of the steel; often the embrittlement occurs simultaneously with the loss of boiler metal due to gouging. To prevent this from ocurring. a coordinated phosphate to pH ratio method is used to produce the alkalinity required to protect the boiler steel from corrosion. The method of control. in practice is to determine the pH of the boiler water and the phosphate ppm level. These figures are then checked against the graph. If the intersection of Phosphate /pH values falls within the parallelogram zone or below the curve. no tree Sodium Hydroxide will be present, which is the desired situation. If the pH is high accorctingto Phosphate/pH chart. blow-downto reduce it to the appropriate range. which also reducesthe Phosphate level. If the pH is low and the Phosphate reading is in the proper range add Alkalinity Control. If the phosphate reading is below the recommended limits. add Hardness Contf~l,only. This procedure will also reduce the pH. If the Phosphate reading is high, blow down to the correct level. The correct balance of Phosphate to pH, to eliminate free Caustic. is easily achieved with the use of quality distilled feedwater. Note: Balance of Phosphate/pH to eliminate free caustic is easily achieved with the use of distilled (evaporated) feedwater. If raw or contaminated water is employed. it may be difficult or impossible to achieve a proper balance.
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I

. . . .. . . .PHOSPHATE

Boiler Wet L~yup Boilers are likely to suffer from corrosion during periods when not in use or laid up. They must be protected. Proper layup procedures are essential. Corrosion will occur if : i) low pH conditions occur. ii)'Oxygen is present in the boiler water. The procedure starts 2-3 days before the layup date: 1. Test the boiler treatment levels and blow down the boiler at regular intervals to reduce potential sludge. The boiler should not be laid up dirty. 2. Raise the treatment levels for alkalinity to the Inaximum allowable level for that boilet:pressure. 3. The boiler should then be treated with a high level of Oxygen Control after it has been isolated from the main steam line. Gentle firing of the boiler should be used to fully circulate the treatment with the boiler vented 150-200ppm Hydrazine is dosed into the boiler. (This works out at 1.25 litresltonne of water.) Note: Full water capacity must be used to calculate this not working capacity. 4. The vent cock on top of the .boiler should be opened and the boiler filled with feedwater that is as hot as possible (90C) 5. The boiler should be given a "head" of water to ensure that the boiler is kept full of water. This is achieved by connecting a hose of a drum of treated water to the boiler vent cock to make up for any losses due to leaks. 6. Where super heaters are in place, the manufa~urer's instructions must be followed. 7. This principle of wet layup c.anbe used for exhaust gas economisers also. S "Wet" layup of boilers is for the short term. A different procedure should be used for a long term layup.
Returning to Service:

Drain the boiler, refill with fresh feed water and warm through in the normal way, taking care to vent the air
.

beforeraisingsteam,andheatingup verygradually.
Boiler Blowdown Blowdown is the mechanical process employed to remove and lower excessive concentrations of dissolved and suspended solids in boiler water. This procedure must be exercised on regular basis to prevent solidsfrom buildingup which inturn can result in steam carryover leadingto contamination ofthe after-boiler system. In addition, the consequential concentration and accumulation of sludge and scale in the boiler can cause heavy deposits to collect on heat exchange surfaces. Once formed, these deposits reduce heat transfer and restrict water circulation, causing the boiler to operate at .lessthan its optimum designefficiency. In order to compensate for the loss in thermal transfer, the fuel consumption must be increased to raise the

temperature on the furnaceside of the boiler.This in turn can causeoverheating and tube failure.

In general, most feedwater and makeup water is processed and monitored prior to entering the boiler to

ensurethat the concentrationsof naturally occuring. solids are at minimum.If doneproperly,only smaU
amounts of these contaminants are allowed to get through. These, however, will concentrate in the system and therefore must be dealt with by the addition of water treatment chemicals. ' Solids concentrations in boiler water are usually determined by a conductivity meter which displays a visual read-out of the ability of the boiler water to transmit an electrical current. This characteristic, calledthe specific conductance, is directly related to the solids content of the solution being measured. The greater the solids concentration, the higher the reading. The scale on the meter usually measures the results in units of electrical conductance as either siemens or microohms per centimeter at 250C. This value can be multiplied by a specific factor to determine the dissolved solids concentration. Some meters have scales that read directlyin parts per millionof total dissolved solids. Thus, these devicesare calledboth conductivityand TDS meters. In some systems, there meters are permanently installed to continuously monitor boiler, condensate and feedwater. Understand and know the conductivity meter you are using. 123

An upper limit for the maximum allowable concentration of dissolved solids is usually specified for a system based on the characteristics of that system. Operational temperature and pressure are normally given pri... mary consideration. The higher the value of these parameters, the lower the tolerance of the system' for dissolved and suspended solids and therefore the lower the specification limit. Once this value has been reached or exceeded, the system must be blown sacrificing other aspects of the system operation. 11).e chloride residue is used as a reference value for the TDS level, and is used to determine blowdown requirement~. An upper Chloride concentration limit is prescribed for the system being monitored. A bottom blowdownmay be done to rapidly removehigh solids content in the boiler water. Continuous or intermittent surface blowdown may be used to achieve controlled reduction of TDS. The method used is usually dictated by the severity of the contamination and the conditions of the specific system involved. Observe 'all manufacturers recommendations for blowdown procedures as improper procedures can be detrimental to the boiler. Dumping the Boiler Occasionally it may be necessary to remove the entire contents of the waterside of the boiler system, or to prepare the unit for dry layup when it is to be decommisionedfor an extendedperiod of time. The boiler must never be emptied while the system is still hot, as this can cause solids to bake onto the hot surfaces, forming deposits which are extremely difficult to remove. Since the boiler internals retain heat for a considerable period of time after the system is taken off line, a wait of at least twenty-four hours is recommended from when the unit shut down before commencingthe dumping process. Chemical Cleaning of Boilers Many different types of contaminants can be found in the waterside of a boiler system. These can originate from impurities naturally found in or added to the water or trom extraneous materials which have gained entrance due to faulty, worn or defective equipment associated with the system. This contaminations can be inthe form of hardness scale, oil, metallic oxides, sludge and various combinations of these as well as other miscellaneous materials. The procedure(s) required to clean the system will therefore depend on the nature and condition of the substances to be removed. The best initial approach to chemical cleaning is to inspect the fouled system as thoroughly as possible to determine the nature and extent of contamination. If possible, samples of the offending materials should be taken for examination and if necessary sent in for laboratory analysis. Once the results of this preliminary investigation and / or lab analysis are known, the appropriate cleaning procedure of procedures can be determined and implemented as follows. Boiling Out Procedure Parameters A. Pre-commission cleaning of new systems to remove preservatives, mill scale and other contaminants of construction. B. Subsequent to major system repairs, prior to returning to service. C. Removal of trace amounts of oil contamination. Procedure A. Mechanically remove as much oily matter, and as many other loose contaminants as possible. B. Fill the boiler to about one half its capacity with hot fresh water. C. Add chemical as per instructions. D. Secure manhole openings arid fill boiler to normal steaming level. E. Open drum vents and drains on superheater outlets. F. Carefully and slowly commence firing while maintaining below operating conditions. G. When steam begins to appear at vents, close vents and superheater inlet drain. Leave outlet drain or outlet vent slightly open. H. Allow pressure in the system to increase at a rate no greater than 7kg/cm2 per hour until one half of normal operating pressure or maximum21 kg/cm2m whichever value is lower, is reached. I. Maintainthis condition for at leasttwenty-four hours, ifnecessary by intermittentfiring of the boiler. Do not exceed originally determined cleaning pressure. 124

J. Duringthis period, make short blowdowns from drums and headers, adding water as necessary to maintain the initial level. K. After twenty-four hours, shut down the boiler and allow to cool until the pressure drops to zero. L. Open all vents and drains and allow boiler to drain. M. While draining or as soon as possible after draining, flush the boiler with high-pressure, hot, fresh water. N. Inspect the system, removing any sludge or scum which may have accumulated during the cleaning process. O. If results of the cleaning are unsatisfactory, repeat the procedure P. Secure boiler and return to service. Q. If system is to be laid up, do so in accordance with recommendedwet or dry procedure. Degreasing Procedure For removal of light to heavy contamination resulting.from ingress of oil due to defective machinery, equipment seals, or bunker or cargo tank coils. A. Determine the source of oil contamination and take appropriate steps eliminate the problem prior to initiatingthe cleaning operation. B. Inspectboiler interior as thoroughly as possible to determinethe approximate degreeof contamination(i.e. light,moderate,heavy). While boiler is open, muck out as much oil and oily sludge found in boiler as possible before closingthe boiler up. You are also recommendedto plug down comers, if present, to allow circulation through maintubes of boiler. Install external circulation pump to circulate cleaning solution from water drum back to steam drum. Make all necessary connections. C. Secure inspection access .openingsand introduce the appropriate amount of chemical and fresh water based on the estimated degree of contamination. If contaminationis particularly heavy, chemical can be substituted by Carbon Remover at the rate of about 10% by volume. D. If circulationpump is being used, start circulating solution. Fire the boiler for about 5 minutes, then secure for 15-20 minutes. Continue this process until the water temperature reaches 50-60C. Do not allow the temperature to go above 60C. Continue this operation for about 12hours. E. Drain the boiler F. Rinse thoroughly with high-pressure water (with heat if available) G. Drain and inspect as thoroughly as possible. H- Jf ~~ ,r~ ~ 3-tb~gh
.

'1.

I. Secure all access openings and fill with feedwater. Remove plugs from down comer if this method was

employed.

J. Startup initial dosage of treatment chemicals and initiate boiler operation. K. Monitor treatment residuals and adjust as necessary to bring boiler water treatment programme employed into proper specification. L. Add Boiler Coagulant every 12 hours and increase blowdown to remove any excess oil that remains for at least one week after the unit is returned to service.

Descaling And Derusting Procedure

A. Inspectboiler interior as thoroughly as possible to determinedegree of contamination(i.e. light, moderate, heavy) B. If deposits are covered with an oily or greasy film, degrease as outlined in steps 1through 8 of degreasing procedure. C. Subsequentto degreasing or, if not required, construct a circuit for recirculatingthe acid cleaning solution through the boiler, being certain to by-pass all sections of the system containing non-ferrous metals. Ensure this circuit is vented as its highest point to allow the release of gases produced during the cleaning process. D. Introducea solutioncontainingthe appropriate amount of Descaling Liquid mixed with fresh water, based 125

on the estimated degree of contamination. E. The descaling process can be accelerated by controlled heating of the cleaning solution. This must be done with great care, never allowing the solution temperature to exceed 600C F. Circulate for 4-12 hours depending upon the degree of contamination. G. Continually check temperature and pH of the solution at regular intervals. Maintain temperature as previously indicated. IfpH goes above 4, add additional Descaling liquid. H. Whenthe circulation period is complete, drain the system and rinse thorough.1y with fresh water to remove any excess debris. I Neutralise any remaining traces of acid by circulating a 0.5% solution of Alkalinity Control through the circuit for 2-4 hours. J. Drain the neutralizing solution, checking the effluent to ensure it has a pH of 7 or greater. If not, repeat steps 9 and 10. K. Re-inspect system interior and if necessary repeat steps 2 or 3 through 11 as indicated. L Remove by-pass connections, secure all access openings and all fill with feedwater. M Add start up dosage of treatment chemicals and initiate boilet operation N Check for proper treatment residual levels, adding additional chemicals if necessary to bring within proper specificationlimits.

Diesel Engine Cooling Water Treatment ProblemAreas There are four key areas whichmust be considered whentreatingdieselenginecoolingwater systems. Scale
Scale results when a compound precipitates from the water phase because its solubility has been exceeded. Scale is a dense, adherent deposit of minerals and is tightly bonded to itself and to metal surfaces Scale fonning on metal surfaces requires four simultaneous'factors. A. Exceedingthe solubility of the compound in water. B. Formation of small nuclear particles. C. Adequate contact time for crystal growth. D. Scale re-deposition exceeds the rate of dissolution. One primary factor influencing scale adherence is surface roughness. The rougher the surface, the greater the probability of adherent scale fonning. Also, scale forms more readily on corroding surfaces than on noncorroding surfaces. Easily corroded metals (mild steel)result in significantly more scale than metals that do not corrode (stainless steel). In addition to the four primary factors influencing scale deposition, there are other factors that offset the formation of scale. Wildly fluctuating pH is a significant cause of scale deposition in closed loop systems. Unitor uses Borates to buffer and controlthis fluctuating pH. As the pH of the system increases, so does the scaling potential for almost all common-scale.This would include Calcium carbonate, Calcium sulphate, and Iron oxide. Low pH extrusions can accelerate corrosion, provide nucleating sites and increase the potential for some forms of Silica scale. Scale formation in diesel engine cooling water systems can be controlled by various methods. Removing scale forming Ions fomthe water before that water enters the cooling system is the most effective method. Almost all engine manufacturers recommend the use of distilled water. Distilled water is free of minerals. However, is is aggressive water and, if untreated, can lead to corrosion. Corrosion Corrosion is the phenomenonthat returns metals to their native states as chemical compounds or minerals. In diesel enginescontaining dissimilar metals, our concern is galvanic corrosion. When exposedto water, on metal becomes anodic and the other cathodic, setting up a galvanic cell, for example when copper and Mild Steel are connected in water, the Mild Steel becomes the Anode, because it will give up electrons more 126 ~

readily than the Copper. The metal loss occurs at the anode, so the Mild Steel corrodes. Use of a corrosion inhibitorcontaining Nitrite, Borate and Azole is effective. Nitrite protects Mild Steel and Iron, while Azole protect Copper from corrosion. Nitrite acts by forming a protective metal oxide (passivating film) on the
metal to be protected.

Fouling
Fouling is different from scaling in that fouling deposits are formed from material suspended in the water, while scale deposits are formed from minerals in solution. Materials that cause fouling in cooling water syste'msare suspended solids and oil leaking into the system. We must control fouling in a diesel engine coolingwater system, as it interferes with the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors. Microbiological activity Nitrites act as a food source for some types of bacteria. While the presence of bacteria is not as widespread in diesel engine coolingwater systems as in Othercoolingwater systems, it is a potential problem. The problem becomes apparent when conducting chemical tests of the cooling water. If the personnel on the
vessel are dosing Nitrites and so not get a reading and the pH begins to fall, there is a possibility of micrological activity. This can be verified by simple test methods ("dip slides") or by sending a sample of the water

ashore for testing. . Tests for Diesel Engine Cooling water The followingtests are recommendedto maintain cooling water within the prescribed limits 1.Nitrate 1000-2400ppm 2. pH 8.3-10.0 3. Chlorides50 ppm maximum Nitrite

-RecommendedLimits 1000-2400 ppm as NO

The Nitrite concentration should be maintained within the above recommended limits to effectively inhibit

any corrosive or scaling action within a closed cooling system. Over-concentration should be avoided to minimisethe cost of maintaining the system. Dosage can set up a condition where accelerated corrosion can occur in areas which according to the recommendednitrite level. pH - RecommendedLimits 8.3-10 The effectiveness of a corrosion inhibitor is restricted to within a certain pH range. Treatment ensures that this pH range is observed when the Nitrite level is sufficiently maintainedto prevent corrosion. Chlorides -Recommended limit 50 ppm max.
The Chlorides value of the cooling water should be kept as low as possible. Any increase in value whether sudden or gradual, will be an indication of sea water contamination. Check with the engine manufacturer for other specified limits. If the chIori4e level exceeds 50 ppm, the possibility of corrosion in the system increases because chlorides have a negative effect Onthe passivation film created by nitrites. Therefore, until corrective effect on the passivation fi~ created by nitrites. Therefore, until corrective ,action has succeeded in bringing the Chloride level back down below 50 ppm,the nitrite level should be kept close to the upper limit

(240Oppm). Sampling and testing of cooling water Samples should be drawn, tested and results logged for each system at least of once per week and if possible six times per month. Accessible sampling cocks should exist on all coolin~ systems for each diesel engine.This includingbut not limitedto, mainjacket water, piston cooling, auxiliary engines,lowtemperature systems. A representative sample must betaken from each cooling water system, a sample cock located in a position to draw a sample/having access to draw the sample quickly and easily will make the task of drawing samples a simple one. In each case of drawing a sample, the container should be filled with the water to be tested, then sealed and labelled. It is advisable to conduct the appropriate tests within 30 minutes of drawing the sample, although this time limit can be extended when sample container is completely filled and sealed.
.

Sampling Procedure:
Source of water sample: ,system

- piston cooling, auxiliary system 127

Sampling point / location: allow effluent to flush through sampling line a minimum of three to five minutes. Cool effluent to less than 25C before commencing to draw sample. Rinse bottle at least three times with sample water. Secure cap on bottle air tight. Be sure sample is representative of total coolant in system. Draw sample :fromsame point in the system each time. Sample should be analysed as soon as possible after securing. Take a sample of the solution for later colour comparison. The solution should be heated to 60C using the engine's cooling water pre-heater. Circulate the system for 1/2 hour, then close shut-off valves on . all cylinders except one, and circulate for 15 minutes. Continue to circulate one cylinder at a time for 15, minutes each, over a period of 4 to 6 hours, checking the solution colour and,temperature regularly. If the solution colour changes from red to orange or yellow, it indicates acid neutralisation. Fill up the engine with clean :freshwater and circulate each cylinder for ten minutes. Then drain each cylinder separately in order to get the highest possible dumping speed. Open all inspection covers and check that all debris has formed during descaling is flushed out. Close covers. FilLup the engine again and add 0.5% Alkalinity control. Circulate the solution to remove any remaining acidity and passivate steel surfaces. Circulation must be maintained until sufficient level of pH value is obtained. This should be tested through the whole engine. Drain the engine. Add the inhibitor. Refill the engine with :freshwater produced by the evaporator to the lowest level in the expansion tank ,sight glass. Add sufficient cooling water treatment for the initial dosage through the cleaning module. Disconnectthe cleaning module. Put all valves in normal operating position and circulate the system with the main coolingwater pump for 15minutes. Ventthe system thoroughly during this time. Check the treatment concentration and adjust to 1500 ppm nitrite content. Fill the expansiontank to the normal operating level using water :fromthe evaporator production. Virtually the same procedure as above can be followed when descaling 4 or 2 stroke trunk engines. However, this kind of engine seldom has shutoff valves on the individual cylinders and therefore all cylindersmust be circulated simultaneously.The bores should be inspected when the engine is running. If leaks are indicated, No descaling should be performed unless the engine can be dismantled and the cylinder liners pulled out immediately after the descaling operation. Otherwise, you cannot be sure that all acid is flushed out! neutralised, and corrosion of the sealing surface may occur. Degreasing Marine Diesel Engines Cooling Water Systems When diesel engine cooling water systems become contaminated with oil and grease, the system shoulq be cleaned to remove oily deposits, as they can interface with the cooling water corrosion treatment. In Service Cleaning may be undertaken with engine at normal running speed. 1) Take a 0.25 litre cooling water sample for future comparison and let it stand in a clear glass container. 2) Calculate the amount of chemicals required for solution of 0.5 % i.e. 5 litres per 1000 litres coolingwater. Drain off similar amount of coolingwater from engine if necessary. Slowly and intermittentlyadd the cleaner to the cooling system via either the'expansion or return tank. 3) After 5 hours, take a 0.25 litre cooling water sample. This should be allowed to stand in a clear glass container until any oil has risen to the top. The progress of the cleaning operation can be gauged by comparing thickness of this oil levelwith that ofthe first sample. A sample should be taken after 5-6 hours to monitor progress. 4) The cleaner can be left in the engine for a few days until a convenient port is reached where the engine can be drained. 5) Drain off the complete engine cooling system and flush thoroghly with clean water prior to re-filling with water of the required quality, to which an appropriate anti-corrosion treatment should be added. Out of service Cleaning This method may be used when engine is stopped. 1) Take a 0.25 litre sample of cooling water for future comparison and allow it to stand in a clear glass container. 2) Drain the cooling system and flush out with water -then refill the system. ~ > ~

128

REVERSEOSMOSIS Introduction
"Reverse Osmosis", is the reverse of the natural process called "Osmosis".
The principal- When two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, the less concentrated solution will flow towards the more concentrated solution side of the membrane. In a sea-water application the natural, osmosis, would be towards the saltier solution. Osmotic Pressure: Osmotis pressure is the pressure involved in natural osmosis flow. For plants and trees, it provides the supply of water through a semi-permeable root system to the uppermost leaves of plants and

trees.
OSMOTIC PR~
1

FRESH

WATER

OSMOSIS
f!JMf PRESSURE

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.. CONCENTRATED'::': SOLUTION" :.

----

FRESHWATER

REVERSE OSMOSIS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION The fresh water storage capacity of the ships is by design kept at a bare minimum for safe operation and there are no specific guidelines governing the installed capacity of the fresh water stock on board the ships.

In case of the commercially operated Merchant Ships the owner exercises his option to have a generally acceptable norm for the fresh water stored quantity on board by keeping it bare minimum and utilising the conventionalevaporators with the waste heat recovery system of the propulsion plant. In case of the War ships the use of evaporators ensured long sailings without fresh water replenishment and saving vital valuable space for the more important equipment. The conventional evaporators though having to be time tested, efficient and operate reasonably trouble free have one major draw back of not being able to produce the fresh water when the main propulsion unit is not in use. The drawback of limited time usage of the conventional evaporators and the need to boost the existing capacity gave rise to the development of the Reverse Osmosis Desalinator, which can be used during the sea steaming and also during waiting periods with ease of operation and virtually without supervision. The other major advantage beingthe low space requirementwith flexibility of varying output resulting in optimum space utilisation. 129

Principle of Operation To understand the Reverse Osmosis Principle it is necessary to mow what Osmosis is. Osmosis is the diflbsion of two mixable solutions through a semi-penneable membrane is such a manner as to equalize their concentration. One of the two solutions is of higher concentration than the other. The less concentrated solution (ftesh water) flows through the semi-penneable membrane into the solution of higher concentration (sea water). At atmospheric pressure sea water cannot naturally diflbse through a semipenneable membrane to,provide fresh water. This natural phenomenon can be reversed by applying high pressure to the sea water (Reverse Osmosis). The pressurized sea water is then forced through a semi-penneable membrane to the ftesh water recovery side. The membrane rejects the salt ions present in the sea water, yet allows the pure water to pass through the thin membrane material. Only about 30% of the sea water actually passe$ through the membrane. The remaining 70% sea water flushes the salt ions and other impurities off the membrane surface, and is discharged back into the sea. Pressure of up to 65 bar is applied to the sea water to force the pure water molecules through the semi-penneable membrane. The Majority of the dissolved salts, organic material, bacteria and suspended solids are retained by the membrane and are discharged from the system with the brine. The pure water is directed into the fresh water tank. Pulsulsation damper is installed in the discharge pipe line of the high pressure pump. The pulsation damper damps the pulsation of the high pressure pump and stabilizes the pressure. The pulsation damper consists of the pressure vessel with a gas valve, the membrane with a valve plate and a nitrogen filling. The gas filling in the accumulator is completely separated from the fluid by means of the flexible membrane. The valve plate is wlcanised into diaphragm bottom. It closes the fluid outlet in case of sudden drop of system pressure or complete discharge and thus prevents extrusion of the diaphragm through the fluid port. The pulsation dampers are pre-pressurized at the gas side to a pressure of about 25-30 bar. The fresh water production will increase with rising temperature. But this can be utilized conditionally because for this the flow rate of the pump has to be increased. The operation of the unit is affected by the sea water temperature, operation pressure, salt concentration of the sea water, scaling of the membrane and the recovery rate of the working unit. The mem.,. brane materials used are flimsy polyamide or polysulphonate sheets. In order to be re-inforced adequately this is made into spirally wound cartridges. Cartridges are housed in stainless steel tubes. The cartridge design is such that the seawater feed passes through the spiral windings and over the membrane sheets with a washing action assisting to keep the surfaces clear of deposits.

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SEA WATER

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CARllUOOE. PUMP ED..IER BACKWASH

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WATER OIrrLET

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REVERSEOSMOSIS CARTRIDGE

130