Ancient DNA

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

The evolutionary relationship between the woolly mammoth and other elephant species.

LECTURE 3
Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology

Genetics: genome organization and p reproduction

Key concepts 1. Reproduction of eukaryotic somatic cells via the cell cycle 2. Comparison of asexual & sexual reproduction 3. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles 4. Meiosis & independent assortment of chromosomes 5. Crossing over during meiosis & random fertilization

1. Reproduction of eukaryotic somatic cells

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Reproduction is when an entity undergoes division that results in the production of two entities of the same kind kind. In biology this process is based on the reproduction of cells and the cells genetic material. Cell division plays several important roles in the life of an organism e e.g. g in unicellular organisms it produces an entire individual, in multicellular organisms allows growth and repair. Mitotic cell division results in the production two genetically identical daughter cells.

The cell cycle

Cell cycle = an ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell. Mitotic (M) phase - division & interphase - non dividing

Phases of the cell cycle

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

a) Interphase ~ 90% of cycle intense biochemical activity 3 phases G1 - 1st gap phase S - DNA synthesis G2 - 2nd gap phase b) M phase mitosis = division of nucleus cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm

c) DNA in cells during cell division

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Mitosis - division of an animal cell

Overview of mitosis

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

2. Comparison of asexual & sexual reproduction

Asexual One parent Single parent contributes all the genes Clones (copies) Sexual Two parents Each parent contributes half their genes Vary genetically

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology

The asexual reproduction of the hydra chip off the old block or a clone

3. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in the sexual life cycles

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Life cycle = sequence of stages in an organisms reproductive history conception to production of a ne offspring. new offspring Fertilization = the fusion of two haploid gamete nuclei to form diploid zygote nucleus. Haploid = a single set of chromosomes (1n). Diploid = the condition in which each autosome is represented twice (2n). Meiosis = the two successive nuclear divisions in which a single diploid (2n) cell forms four haploid (1n) nuclei.

The human life cycle

The only cells that are are not produced by mitosis are the gametes.

Overview of meiosis
Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

4. Meiosis & independent assortment

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

A cell in G2 of interphase, following chromosome replication

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Independent assortment
Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Independent assortment of chromosomes generates variation among offspring

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology

At metaphase I, homologous pair, each consisting of one maternal t l and d one paternal t l chromosome, h align li i in a random orientation. Therefore each homologue assorts independently of other chromosomes. The number of possible combinations for n = 2 is 4 (2n), however when n = 23 as in humans, 8 million combinations of chromosomes inherited from your mother and father (223) are possible.

5. Crossing over during meiosis & random fertilisation

Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential Biology

Crossing over occurs during prophase I. Crossing over produces recombinant chromosomes chromosomes, individual chromosomes carrying genes derived from two different parents. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids. In humans 1-3 crossover events occur per chromosome pair. Shuffles the genes within the chromosomes.

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Random fertilization
Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology Lecture 3 BIOSCI 101 Essential B Biology

The random nature of fertilization adds to the genetic variation arising from meiosis meiosis. Even without crossing over in humans each male and female gamete represents 8 million possible chromosome combinations. The fusion of a single male gamete with a single female gamete will produce a zygote with any of about 64 trillion (8 million x 8 million) diploid combinations.

Origin of genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms

Mechanism
Mutation

Description of mechanism
Mutation is the original source of all variation and is very rare Shuffles genes within a chromosome, individuals carrying genes derived from two different parents. Each pair of alleles or chromosome pair assort independently during gamete formation. At fertilization any male gamete can fuse with any other female gamete and produce a zygote with any of a possible ~ 64 trillion diploid combinations of parental chromosomes.

Crossing over

Independent assortment Random fertilization

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