Recycled Materilals in European Highway Environments

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RECYCLED MATERIALS IN
EUROPEAN HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENTS
RECYCLED MATERIALS IN
EUROPEAN HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENTS
Uses, Technologies, and Policies
61+-
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts
and accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official
policy of the Department of Transportation.
The metric units reported are those used in common practice by the persons interviewed.
They have not been converted to pure SI units because in some cases, the level of precision
implied would have been changed.
The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or
manufacturers names appear herein only because they are considered essential to the
document.
The publication of this document was sponsored by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration
under contract number DTFH61-99-C00005. awarded to American Trade Initiatives, Inc. Any
opinions, options, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein are those of
the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Government, the authors parent
institutions, or American Trade Initiatives, Inc.
This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.

Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No.
FHWA-PL-00-025

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipients Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle
Recycled Materials in European Highway Environments: Uses,
Technologies, and Policies
5. Report Date
October 2000
6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) Vincent E. Schimmoller, Katherine Holtz, Dr. T. Taylor Eighmy,
Carlton Wiles, Michael Smith, Gerald Malasheskie, Gerald J. Rohrbach,
Shari Schaftlein, Greg Helms, Robert D. Campbell, Charles H. Van
Deusen, Bob Ford, John A. Almborg
8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address
American Trade Initiatives
P.O. Box 8228
Alexandria, VA 22306-8228
10. Work Unit No.(TRAIS)
11. Contract or Grant No.
DTFH61-99-C-0005
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Office of International Programs
Office of Policy
Federal Highway Administration
U.S. Department of Transportation
13. Type of Report and Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code
15. Supplementary Notes
FHWA COTR: Donald W. Symmes, Office of International Programs

16. Abstract
The objective of this scanning tour was to review and document innovative policies, programs, and techniques
that promote the use of recycled materials in the highway environment. The U.S. delegation met with more than
100 representatives from transportation and environmental ministries, research organizations, and industries in
Sweden, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, and France.

The European countries visited all had recycling policies promoting sustainability as well as a pervasive public
culture about recycling. Many of the countries use an effective stakeholder process to develop engineering and
environmental specifications. Generally, recycling occurs when it is economical to do so. Factors in the
marketplace are dominant, but are supported by government policies and regulations such as bans on landfilling,
landfill taxes, natural aggregate taxes, and, in some cases, subsidies to assist recycling efforts.

The U.S. delegation made a number of recommendations to encourage increased awareness of the benefits of
using recycled materials in road construction, and the report includes specific actions for transferring findings
from the scanning tour to various stakeholders. The delegation believes it is particularly important to adopt
aspects of the Dutch sustainability model.

17. Key Words
Leaching test, waste-to-energy, municipal solid
waste, coal fly ash, slag, valorization, construction
and demolition, recycled asphalt pavement, subbase
18. Distribution Statement
No restrictions. This document is available to the public
from the
Office of International Programs
FHWA-HPIP, Room 3325
US Dept. of Transportation
Washington, DC 20590

international@fhwa.dot.gov
www.international.fhwa.dot.gov
19. Security Classif. (of this report)
Unclassified
20. Security Classif. (of this page)
Unclassified
21. No. of Pages
132
22. Price
Free
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
i
Recycl ed Mat er i al s
i n Eur opean Hi ghway
Envi r onment s:
Uses, Technol ogi es, and Pol i ci es
America n Tra d e Initia tives, Inc.
&
Ava lon Integ ra ted Services, Inc.
for the
Fed era l Hig hw a y Ad m inistra tion
U.S. Dep a rtm ent of Tra nsp orta tion
Wa shing ton, D.C. 20590
October 2000
Vincent E. Schimmoller
FHWA
(Co-chair)
Katherine Holtz
Texas DOT
(Co-chair)
Dr. T. Taylor Eighmy
University of New Hampshire
(Report Facilitator)
Carlton Wiles
University of New Hampshire
(Technical Writer)
M ichael Smith
FHWA
Gerald M alasheskie
Pennsylvania DOT
Gerald J. Rohrbach
M innesota DOT
Shari Schaftlein
Washington DOT
Greg Helms
U.S. EPA
Robert D. Campbell
American Public Works Association
Charles H. Van Deusen
National Asphalt Pavement Association
Bob Ford
FHWA
John A. Almborg
(Delegation Coordinator)
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The tri p descri bed i n thi s report woul d not have been successful wi thout the
contri buti ons of many i ndi vi dual s. Most of al l , the team members thank the
offi ci al s, engi neers, sci enti sts, and other peopl e i n the countri es that we vi si ted.
These i ndi vi dual s and thei r organi zati ons contri buted si gni fi cant ti me and
resources to prepare and make presentati ons, provi de the team wi th the l atest
i nformati on, and make us comfortabl e. There are too many to l i st here; pl ease see
Appendi x A for thei r names and affi l i ati ons. The del egati on al so wi shes to
recogni ze al l those who worked behi nd the scenes to make us comfortabl e duri ng
our stay i n thei r country.
Contri buti ons from the staff of the Ameri can Trade I ni ti ati ves, I nc. (ATI ) were
essenti al to the organi zati on, start, and compl eti on of the tri p. Thi s organi zati on,
worki ng as a contractor to the Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati on (FHWA), managed
the pre-tri p l ogi sti cs, escorted the team throughout the tri p, and provi ded support
to prepare and publ i sh the report. Team members woul d l i ke to recogni ze the
fol l owi ng ATI staff:
Joe Conn for hi s gui dance and assi stance i n organi zi ng the tri p.
Jake Al mborg for organi zi ng pre-tri p meeti ngs and tel econference cal l s. Hi s
gui dance, counsel , and l eadershi p as our escort enabl ed us to mai ntai n a
hecti c schedul e i n as comfortabl e a manner as possi bl e.
Al exandra Doumani for her assi stance i n maki ng tri p arrangements and i n
other aspects of the tri p.
I n addi ti on to coordi nati ng arrangements i n Pari s, Ms. Mari e-Domi ni que Gorri gan
acted as an i nterpreter i n France and transl ated several papers for use i n the fi nal
r epor t. We gr ateful l y acknowl edge her contr i buti ons.
The scanni ng tri p was sponsored by the FHWA Offi ce of I nternati onal Programs,
the Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO)
through the Nati onal Cooperati ve Hi ghway Research Program (NCHRP)
admi ni stered by the Nati onal Academy of Sci ences, and the Recycl ed Materi al s
Resource Center (RMRC) of the Uni versi ty of New Hampshi re.
iii
FHWA I NTERNATI ONAL TECHNOLOGY
EXCHANGE PROGRAMS
The FHWAs i nternati onal programs focus on meeti ng the growi ng demands of i ts
partners at the Federal , state, and l ocal l evel s for access to i nformati on on state-of-the-
art technol ogy and the best practi ces used worl dwi de. Whi l e the FHWA i s consi dered a
worl d l eader i n hi ghway transportati on, the domesti c hi ghway communi ty i s very
i nterested i n the advanced technol ogi es bei ng devel oped by other countri es, as wel l as
i nnovati ve organi zati onal and fi nanci ng techni ques used by the FHWAs i nternati onal
counterparts.
INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY SCANNING PROGRAM
The I nternati onal Technol ogy Scanni ng Program accesses and eval uates forei gn
technol ogi es and i nnovati ons that coul d si gni fi cantl y benefi t U.S. hi ghway
transportati on systems. Access to forei gn i nnovati ons i s strengthened by U.S.
parti ci pati on i n the techni cal commi ttees of i nternati onal hi ghway organi zati ons
and through bi l ateral techni cal exchange agreements wi th sel ected nati ons. The
program has undertaken cooperati ves wi th the Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway
Transportati on Offi ci al s and i ts Sel ect Commi ttee on I nternati onal Acti vi ti es, and the
Transportati on Research Boards Nati onal Hi ghway Research Cooperati ve Program
(Panel 20-36), the pri vate sector, and academi a.
Pri ori ty topi c areas are joi ntl y determi ned by the FHWA and i ts partners. Teams of
speci al i sts i n the speci fi c areas of experti se bei ng i nvesti gated are formed and sent
to countri es where si gni fi cant advances and i nnovati ons have been made i n
technol ogy, management practi ces, organi zati onal structure, program del i very, and
fi nanci ng. Teams usual l y i ncl ude Federal and state hi ghway offi ci al s, pri vate sector and
i ndustry associ ati on representati ves, as wel l as members of the academi c communi ty.
The FHWA has organi zed more than 35 of these revi ews and di ssemi nated resul ts
nati onwi de. Topi cs have encompassed pavements, bri dge constructi on and
mai ntenance, contracti ng, i ntermodal transport, organi zati onal management,
wi nter road mai ntenance, safety, i ntel l i gent transportati on systems, pl anni ng, and
pol i cy. Fi ndi ngs are recommended for fol l ow-up wi th further research and pi l ot or
demonstrati on projects to veri fy adaptabi l i ty to the Uni ted States. I nformati on
about the scan fi ndi ngs and resul ts of pi l ot programs are then di ssemi nated
nati onal l y to state and l ocal hi ghway transportati on offi ci al s and the pri vate sector for
i mpl ementati on.
Thi s program has resul ted i n si gni fi cant i mprovements and savi ngs i n road program
technol ogi es and practi ces throughout the Uni ted States, parti cul arl y i n the areas of
structures, pavements, safety, and wi nter road mai ntenance. Joi nt research and
technol ogy-shari ng projects have al so been l aunched wi th i nternati onal counterparts,
further conservi ng resources and advanci ng the state of the art.
For a compl ete l i st of I nternati onal Technol ogy Scanni ng topi cs, and to order free copi es
of the reports, pl ease see the l ast page of thi s publ i cati on.
Websi te: www.i nternati onal .fhwa.dot.gov
Emai l : i nternati onal @fhwa.dot.gov
iv
ACRONYMS
AASHTO Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s
ACEC Ameri can Consul ti ng Engi neers Counci l
ACPA Ameri can Concrete Pavi ng Associ ati on
ALT-MAT Al ternati ve Materi al s Program
APC ai r pol l uti on control
APWA Ameri can Publ i c Works Associ ati on
ARRA Asphal t Recycl i ng and Recl amati on Associ ati on
ASTM Ameri can Soci ety for Testi ng and Materi al s
ASTSWMO Associ ati on of State and Terri tori al Sol i d Waste Management Offi ci al s
ATI Ameri can Trade I ni ti ati ves, I nc.
BUD benefi ci al use determi nati on
C&D constructi on and demol i ti on
CERCLA Comprehensi ve Response, Compensati on and Li abi l i ty Act of 1980
(Superfund)
CMRA Constructi on Materi al s Recycl i ng Associ ati on
DOT department of transportati on
ECOS Envi ronmental Counci l s of States
EPA Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency
EU European Uni on
FHWA Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati on
GI S geographi c i nformati on system
HSWA Hazardous and Sol i d Waste Amendments
LCCA l i fe-cycl e cost anal yses
LTAP Local Techni cal Assi stance Program
MACT maxi mum achi evabl e control technol ogy
MSW muni ci pal sol i d waste
NAA Nati onal Aggregates Associ ati on
NAPA Nati onal Asphal t Pavement Associ ati on
NCHRP Nati onal Cooperati ve Hi ghway Research Program
NGO non-governmental organi zati on
v
NSA Nati onal Stone Associ ati on
OECD Organi zati on for Economi c Cooperati on and Devel opment
PAH pol ycycl i c aromati c hydrocarbons
PCA Portl and Cement Associ ati on
PVC pol yvi nyl chl ori de
QA/QC qual i ty assurance/qual i ty control
RAP recycl ed asphal t pavement
RCRA Resource Recovery and Conservati on Act of 1976
RMRC Recycl ed Materi al s Resource Center
SMA stone masti c asphal t
TAA tar amended asphal t
TEA-21 Transportati on Equi ty Act for the 21st Century
TRB Transportati on Research Board
UNH Uni versi ty of New Hampshi re
WTE waste-to-energy
vi
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. i i
FHWA I NTERNATI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE PROGRAMS ...................... i i i
LI ST OF ACRONYMS...................................................................................................... i v
LI ST OF FI GURES .......................................................................................................... i x
LI ST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. x
EXECUTI VE SUMMARY................................................................................................ xi
Background ................................................................................................................ xi
Objecti ves and Panel Composi ti on ............................................................................. xi
General Concl usi ons ................................................................................................. xi i
Recycl i ng for Sustai nabl e Road Constructi on .................................................... xi i
Economi cs ............................................................................................................ xi i
Engi neeri ng ........................................................................................................ xi i i
Envi ronment....................................................................................................... xi v
Fi ndi ngs and Recommendati ons ............................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE OVERVI EW........................................................................................ 1
Reason for Scanni ng Tri p ............................................................................................ 1
U.S. Perspecti ve ........................................................................................................... 1
Country Si ze and Popul ati on Densi ty .................................................................. 1
Cul tural Aspects .................................................................................................... 1
Pol i ti cal Process ..................................................................................................... 2
Envi ronment.......................................................................................................... 2
Engi neeri ng ........................................................................................................... 2
General Ampl i fyi ng Questi ons ................................................................................... 3
Scanni ng Team Composi ti on ....................................................................................... 3
Pl anni ng and Meeti ngs ............................................................................................... 3
General I ti nerary ........................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER TWO OVERVI EW OF RECYCLI NG WI THI N THE HI GHWAY
ENVI RONMENT I N THE HOST COUNTRI ES AND I N THE UNI TED STATES ........ 5
Sweden ......................................................................................................................... 5
Sol i d Waste Management ...................................................................................... 5
Recycl i ng i n the Hi ghway Envi ronment .............................................................. 6
Denmark ...................................................................................................................... 6
Sol i d Waste Management ...................................................................................... 6
Recycl i ng i n the Hi ghway Envi ronment .............................................................. 9
Germany .................................................................................................................... 10
Sol i d Waste Management .................................................................................... 10
Recycl i ng i n the Hi ghway Envi ronment ............................................................ 11
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 12
France ....................................................................................................................... 16
vii
Uni ted States ............................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER THREE RECYCLI NG FOR SUSTAI NABLE ROAD CONSTRUCTI ON .... 21
I ntroducti on of Perti nent Topi cs ............................................................................... 21
Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 21
Denmark .................................................................................................................... 25
Germany .................................................................................................................... 26
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 28
France ........................................................................................................................ 35
Summary of Observati ons. ........................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER FOUR ECONOMI CS ................................................................................. 40
Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 40
Denmark .................................................................................................................... 41
Germany .................................................................................................................... 42
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 44
France ........................................................................................................................ 45
Summary of Observati ons ......................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER FI VE ENGI NEERI NG .............................................................................. 47
Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 47
Denmark .................................................................................................................... 51
Germany .................................................................................................................... 54
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 59
France ........................................................................................................................ 65
CHAPTER SI X ENVI RONMENT ............................................................................... 70
Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 70
Denmark .................................................................................................................... 72
Germany .................................................................................................................... 75
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 77
France ........................................................................................................................ 81
CHAPTER SEVEN RECOMMENDATI ONS .............................................................. 84
Concl usi ons and Pri mary Recommendati ons ........................................................... 84
Addi ti onal Recommendati ons ................................................................................... 85
I denti fi ed Research Needs ........................................................................................ 88
CHAPTER EI GHT I MPLEMENTATI ON ................................................................... 89
CHAPTER NI NE LI ST OF REFERENCES BY COUNTRY ...................................... 90
Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 90
Denmark .................................................................................................................... 90
Germany .................................................................................................................... 91
viii
The Netherl ands ........................................................................................................ 92
France ........................................................................................................................ 93
Uni ted States ............................................................................................................. 94
APPENDI X A RECYCLE SCANNI NG TEAM MEMBERS ........................................ 95
APPENDI X B DETAI LED AMPLI FYI NG QUESTI ONS ........................................... 98
APPENDI X C CONTACT ADDRESSES BY COUNTRY ......................................... 103
ix
LI ST OF FI GURES
Fi gure 1. Market el ements for a sustai nabl e recycl i ng strategy cycl e
i n the Netherl ands ....................................................................................... 30
Fi gure 2. The cycl i cal nature of a sustai nabl e recyl i ng market ................................ 31
Fi gure 3. Degree of success for use of recycl ed materi al s i n the Netherl ands ........... 33
Fi gure 4. Di fferent phases of devel opment of recycl ed materi al s .............................. 34
Fi gure 5. The (a) Heavy Vehi cl e Si mul ator and (b) a ful l y i nstrumented
pavement test secti on i n the pavement bay at VTI .................................... 48
Fi gure 6. Tri axi al testi ng machi ne at VTI .................................................................. 49
Fi gure 7. Tri axi al testi ng data .................................................................................... 49
Fi gure 8. Lysi meters used at SGI for fi el d l eachi ng of candi date
recycl ed materi al s ........................................................................................ 51
Fi gure 9. A hi ghway bri dge embankment constructed wi th coal fl y
ash i n Denmark ........................................................................................... 52
Fi gure 10. The C&D crushi ng process at the RGS 90 A/S materi al s
processi ng pl ant i n Denmark ...................................................................... 53
Fi gure 11. Concrete jaw crusher at the RGS 90 A/S materi al s processi ng pl ant
i n Denmark .................................................................................................. 54
Fi gure 12. Assembl ed recl ai mers ready for shi ppi ng at the Wi rtgen
fabri cati on faci l i ti es ..................................................................................... 56
Fi gure 13. RAP bi ns for use at the DEUTAG hot mi x asphal t pl ant i n Germany ...... 57
Fi gure 14. RAP contai ni ng tar at the DEUTAG asphal t pl ant i n Germany.
The pl ant i s experi menti ng wi th processi ng and use of di fferent
recycl ed materi al s. The RAP contai ni ng tar wi l l be tested i n a
foamed bi tumen appl i cati on ........................................................................ 57
Fi gure 15. C&D wastes to be processed at the Remex C&D processi ng pl ant i n
Germany ....................................................................................................... 58
Fi gure 16. The sorti ng conveyor at the Remex C&D processi ng pl ant.
Hand sorti ng i s used to recover gl ass, metal , cardboard, and
pl asti c that i s co-mi ngl ed wi th the C&D waste .......................................... 58
Fi gure 17. Aggregate crushi ng and sorti ng faci l i ti es at the Remex C&D
processi ng pl ant. The pi l e i n the foreground i s aggregate made
from crushed C&D waste. I t wi l l be used i n hi ghway base course ............. 59
Fi gure 18. The noi se control embankment at Ypenburg i n the Netherl ands. The
barri er i s made wi th l i ghtl y contami nated soi l s ......................................... 60
Fi gure 19. WTE bottom ash use i n a road embankment i n the Netherl ands .............. 61
Fi gure 20. WTE bottom ash use i n a road embankment i n the Netherl ands.
The embankment wi l l be about 3 meters hi gh ........................................... 62
Fi gure 21. The Swi ss-desi gned Ammonn doubl e drum hot recycl i ng asphal t
pl ant i n the Netherl ands. The pl ant i s co-owned by Vermeer. The
pl ant uses hi gh quanti ti es of RAP that i s added to the l ower
drum. Off-gases are used as fuel i n the upper drum to dry natural
aggregate ...................................................................................................... 63
Fi gure 22. RAP i s used at hi gh substi tuti on l evel s at the Swi ss-desi gned
Ammonn doubl e drum hot recycl i ng asphal t pl ant i n the
Netherl ands .................................................................................................. 63
Fi gure 23. RAP i s sorted before i ntroducti on i nto the l ower drum at the
Swi ss-desi gned Ammonn doubl e drum hot recycl i ng asphal t
pl ant i n the Netherl ands ............................................................................. 64
x
Fi gure 24. The doubl e drums al l ow for hi gh i ntroducti on of RAP at the
Swi ss-desi gned doubl e drum hot recycl i ng asphal t pl ant i n the
Netherl ands. RAP i s heated i n the l ower drum and natural
aggregates are heated i n the upper drum ................................................... 64
Fi gure 25. The concrete crushi ng Jean LeFebvre C&D waste recycl i ng pl ant
i n France ...................................................................................................... 67
Fi gure 26. The WTE bottom ash crushi ng and si evi ng process at the
Jean LeFebvre MSW bottom ash recycl i ng pl ant i n France ...................... 67
LI ST OF TABLES
Tabl e 1. U.S. del egati on meeti ngs ................................................................................. 4
Tabl e 2. Countri es and ci ti es vi si ted ............................................................................. 4
Tabl e 3. Use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads i n Sweden (mi l l i on metri c tons) ............. 7
Tabl e 4. Sol i d waste generati on i n Denmark i n 1997 .................................................. 8
Tabl e 5. Producti on and uti l i zati on of waste i n Dani sh roads
(mi l l i on metri c tons)........................................................................................ 9
Tabl e 6. Appl i cati ons for non-road materi al s i n Dani sh roads .................................. 10
Tabl e 7. Quanti ti es and uti l i zati on of i ndustri al by-products and
recycl ed constructi on materi al s i n Germany (mi l l i on metri c tons)............. 11
Tabl e 8. Materi al s used i n German roads and thei r appl i cati ons .............................. 12
Tabl e 9. Profi l e of waste management i n the Netherl ands (mi l l i on metri c tons) ..... 14
Tabl e 10. Recovered materi al s used i n Dutch roads (mi l l i on metri c tons).................. 15
Tabl e 11. Waste generati on and management i n France i n 1995
(mi l l i on metri c tons)...................................................................................... 16
Tabl e 12. Use of recycl ed materi al s i n French roads (mi l l i on metri c tons)................. 17
Tabl e 13. Generati on and di sposal of muni ci pal sol i d waste i n the
Uni ted States, 1960 to1997 (i n mi l l i on metri c tons and
percent of total generati on)........................................................................... 19
Tabl e 14. Use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads i n the Uni ted States
(mi l l i on metri c tons)...................................................................................... 20
Tabl e 15. Dani sh model for cl assi fyi ng waste .............................................................. 73
Tabl e 16. Envi ronmental testi ng resul ts for WTE bottom ash i n Denmark ............... 74
Tabl e 17. German l i mi ts for l andfi l l i ng waste and for usi ng bottom ash .................... 76
Tabl e 18. Revi ew of the regul ati ons i n the German Bui l di ng Materi al s Decree ........ 80
Tabl e 19. Categori es of WTE bottom ash and l each test requi rements i n France ...... 81
Tabl e 20. Summary of fi ndi ngs and recommendati ons ................................................ 85
Tabl e 21. I mmedi ate communi cati on strategy ............................................................. 89
xi
EXECUTI VE SUMMARY
BACKGROUND
Use of recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway envi ronment has been occurri ng wi th varyi ng
degrees of success i n the Uni ted States for the past 20 years, notabl y wi th recycl ed
asphal t pavement (RAP), recl ai med concrete pavement, coal fl y ash, and bl ast furnace
sl ag. I n the 1998 Transportati on Equi ty Act for the 21
st
Century (TEA-21), the U.S.
Congress establ i shed the Recycl ed Materi al s Resource Center (RMRC) at the
Uni versi ty of New Hampshi re (UNH) to use research and outreach to reduce barri ers to
recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment. Congress al so sti pul ated research i nto recycl ed
materi al s to i mprove the durabi l i ty of the surface transportati on i nfrastructure. A
number of states (e.g., Pennsyl vani a) and l ocal governments have passed l egi sl ati on to
promote recycl i ng i n road constructi on. The pri vate sector i s devel opi ng i nnovati ons i n
materi al s processi ng and i n new appl i cati ons, parti cul arl y i n appurtenances. Some
states have benefi ci al use determi nati on (BUD) processes to eval uate uses; however,
there i s no uni formi ty among states. State departments of transportati on (DOTs) and
state envi ronmental protecti on agenci es (State EPAs) are tryi ng to bal ance the desi re
for i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s wi th concerns about potenti al envi ronmental
i mpacts. I nterest i s i ncreasi ng wi thi n al l l evel s of the hi ghway communi ty to l earn
about advances i n the use of recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway envi ronment and how
they rel ate to sustai nabi l i ty i ni ti ati ves wi thi n the transportati on sector.
OBJECTIVES AND PANEL COMPOSITION
The objecti ve of thi s scanni ng tour was to revi ew and document i nnovati ve pol i ci es,
programs, and techni ques i n Europe. Recommendati ons woul d be made that woul d l ead
to reduced barri ers to recycl ed materi al use i n the Uni ted States. Sweden, Denmark,
Germany, the Netherl ands, and France were i denti fi ed as nati ons that have acti ve
research, pol i ci es, and programs promoti ng the use of recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway
envi ronment. The U.S. del egati on met wi th more than 100 representati ves from
transportati on and envi ronmental mi ni stri es,
research organi zati ons, contractors, and
producers i nvol ved wi th recycl ed materi al s i n
the fi ve countri es.
The U.S. del egati on was assembl ed under the
Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati ons (FHWA)
I nternati onal Technol ogy Scanni ng Program.
The panel was sponsored by FHWA, the
Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and
Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO) through
the Nati onal Cooperati ve Hi ghway Research
Program (NCHRP), and the Recycl ed Materi al s
Resource Center (RMRC) at the UNH. The
panel i ncl uded members wi th experti se i n materi al s, pavement engi neeri ng, pavement
constructi on and recycl i ng, benefi ci al use determi nati ons, and envi ronmental
eval uati on. Panel members represented FHWA, U.S. EPA, State DOTs, the Ameri can
Publ i c Works Associ ati on (APWA), the Nati onal Asphal t Pavement Associ ati on (NAPA),
and academi a.
Interest is increasing within all levels of
the highway community to learn about
advances in the use of recycled materials
in the highway environment and how
they relate to sustainability initiatives
within the transportation sector.
xii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
Recycling for Sustainable Road Construction
Al l the countri es vi si ted had recycl i ng pol i ci es speci fi cal l y or general l y promoti ng
sustai nabi l i ty as wel l as a pervasi ve publ i c cul ture about recycl i ng and soci al
democracy that promotes nati onal behavi or change. Many of the countri es use an
effecti ve stakehol der consensus pr ocess to devel op engi neer i ng and envi r onmental
speci fi cati ons. A wi de vari ety of factors i nfl uence recycl i ng success from nati onal
val ues to practi cal consi derati ons at the regi onal l evel . Some of these dri vers are a
l ack of vi rgi n materi al , publ i c opposi ti on to aggregate mi ni ng, hi gh transportati on
costs, opposi ti on to l andfi l l i ng, and hi gh popul ati on densi ti es. I n areas of the
Uni ted States where si mi l ar dri vers are present, European experi ences may be
rel evant and sol uti ons transferred. I n the Netherl ands, for exampl e, the Dutch
have a formal pol i cy for sustai nabl e devel opment i n hi ghway constructi on that
embraces the use of recycl ed materi al s. There i s publ i c opposi ti on to l andfi l l s and
the excavati on of natural materi al s. The government has a pol i cy that mi ni mi zes
the use of natural materi al s and promotes the use of recycl ed materi al s wi thi n a
market system. The government cooperates wi th i ndustry by shari ng ri sk and profi t
and provi di ng unambi guous techni cal and envi ronmental standards. Hi gh degrees of
recycl i ng are seen, especi al l y for constructi on and demol i ti on (C&D) aggregates, bl ast
furnace sl ags, recycl ed asphal t pavements (RAP), coal fl y ashes, steel sl ags, and
muni ci pal sol i d waste waste-to-energy bottom ash. The government has hel ped to start
compani es speci al i zed i n the marketi ng of l i ghtl y contami nated soi l s for use i n sound
barri ers adjacent to hi ghways, fi l l s, and
embankments. The success seen i n the
Netherl ands i s rel ated to advances i n al l
aspects of the sustai nabi l i ty model : a robust
market, cl ear pol i cy, economi cs, appropri ate
techni cal and envi ronmental standards, and
i nnovati ve techni cal processes that i nvol ve the
pri vate sector. The Dutch sustai nabi l i ty model
has el ements that shoul d be consi dered i n the
U.S. transportati on communi tys overal l goal s
for transportati on sustai nabi l i ty.
Economics
Engi neeri ng and envi ronmental l i fe cycl e costs and benefi ts are the basi s for many of
the recycl i ng i ni ti ati ves i n Europe. The free market general l y pl ays a central rol e i n al l
aspects of the hi ghway recycl i ng i ndustry. Where thi s i s not the case, government acts
as a catal yst to establ i sh a market. Tax structures (both i ncenti ves and di si ncenti ves)
have pl ayed a l arge rol e i n promoti ng recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment i n Sweden,
Denmark, the Netherl ands, and Sweden. There are taxes on the use of natural
materi al s i n Sweden and Denmark, and such taxes al so are bei ng consi dered i n the
Netherl ands. Restri cti ve l andfi l l taxes and pol i ci es i n the Netherl ands, Denmark,
France, and Sweden al so are promoti ng recycl i ng; i n these countri es, the l andfi l l s are
frequentl y government owned. A pendi ng European Uni on (EU) l andfi l l di recti ve for
2002, desi gned to l i mi t the l andfi l l i ng of i nert materi al s, al so i s i nfl uenci ng recycl ed
The Dutch sustainability model has
elements that should be
considered in the U.S. transportation
communitys overall goals for
transportation sustainability.
xiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
materi al fl ow; many contractors i n the fi ve countri es are posi ti oni ng themsel ves to use
more recycl ed materi al s. A number of materi al s l i ke RAP, bl ast furnace sl ag, crushed
concrete, and hi gh qual i ty C&D aggregates are of hi gh engi neeri ng and envi ronmental
qual i ty and compete favorabl y wi th natural materi al s. Demand for some of these
materi al s i n the Netherl ands i s so hi gh that shortages are anti ci pated. Engi neeri ng
and, i n some cases, envi ronmental warranti es
that reduce government or owner l i abi l i ty are
wi del y used and provi de fl exi bi l i ty for the
greater use of recycl ed materi al s. These
warranti es al so dri ve i nnovati ve publ i c sector
research. Wi despread senti ments were
expressed i n many of the countri es that
recycl ed materi al s shoul d be eval uated on thei r
techni cal meri ts for thei r hi ghest possi bl e use
and not because of di rect governmental
mandates.
Engineering
Recycl i ng i s general l y encouraged at the nati onal l evel by transportati on mi ni stri es
that provi de standardi zati on, speci al i zed testi ng, and performance eval uati on. A
number of countri es requi re that recycl ed materi al s meet the same speci fi cati ons as
natural materi al s and provi de equal performance. An approved product l i st i s general l y
not used i n the host countri es, but rather ul ti mate performance i s more of a dri ver to
promote recycl ed materi al s use. There i s a general sense that recycl ed materi al s shoul d
be used i n an appl i cati on to return the hi ghest possi bl e val ue. As i n the Uni ted States,
there i s sti l l concern that many engi neeri ng test methods used for tradi ti onal materi al s
do not predi ct true fi el d performance of recycl ed materi al s. Research i n Germany,
Sweden, and the Netherl ands i s addressi ng thi s i ssue usi ng equi pment that si mul ates
the l oaded wheel test on si te. I n Europe, pri ori ty i s gi ven to performance-rel ated tests
such as cycl i c l oad tri axi al and gyratory compacti on. I n Germany, the team vi si ted an
accel erated testi ng faci l i ty usi ng an i mpul se l oader. Road test secti ons can be pl aced
and subjected to vari abl e water tabl e l evel s and freeze-thaw cycl i ng. The i mpul se l oader
permi ts 25 years of vehi cl e l oadi ng over short ti me frames. The Netherl ands uses
performance-rel ated test methods, both i n the l aboratory and i n accel erated l oadi ng
tests. Researchers then exami ne the pri ce-performance rati o of the i nvesti gated
materi al s to determi ne a market-ori ented appl i cati on. I n the Netherl ands, an
i nnovati ve, Swi ss-desi gned doubl e drum hot-mi x pl ant capabl e of recycl i ng up to 70
percent RAP was observed. Thi s Ammonn Pl ant operates wi th two drums, one i nstal l ed
above the other. The bottom drum i s a paral l el fl ow drum that operates as a dryer and
heats the RAP. Exhaust ai r from thi s drum i s used as burner ai r for the counter fl ow top
drum, whi ch dri es and heats the vi rgi n aggregate. Output from both drums i s mi xed
wi th asphal t cement i n a mi xi ng chamber. The mi xed product i s conveyed to si l os. The
stack from thi s pl ant had very l i ttl e vi sual emi ssi ons. I n Denmark, Tarco Constructi on
operates a travel i ng combi nati on drum mi xer and paver. A cross secti on of exi sti ng
asphal t i s pl aced i n wi ndrows after col d mi l l i ng. Thi s materi al i s pi cked up by the
travel pl ant and transferred to a drum mi xer where asphal t cement i s added. The new
asphal t mi x i s then transferred to the screed secti on of the pl ant. The newl y pl aced mi x
i s compacted usi ng conventi onal rol l ers. Traffi c can use the pavement when i t i s cool .
As in the United States, there is still
concern that many engineering test
methods used for traditional materials do
not predict true field performance of
recycled materials.
xiv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Compani es that suppl y natural materi al s al so suppl y recycl ed materi al s. Many
countri es uti l i ze techni cal and envi ronmental qual i ty assurance/qual i ty control (QA/
QC) programs so that recycl ed materi al s have the same l evel of qual i ty as natural
materi al s. Frequentl y, the materi al processor or suppl i er i s the certi fyi ng organi zati on.
Environment
Recycl i ng at the nati onal l evel i s accompl i shed by envi ronmental mi ni stri es that
devel op l aws and compl i ance structure. Nati onal envi ronmental research l aboratori es
are devel opi ng test methods and approaches to eval uate envi ronmental performance
and assi st i n setti ng standards. I mpl ementati on and regul ati on are occurri ng at the
regi onal and l ocal l evel . There i s consi stent agreement to move from l aboratory work to
performance model i ng based on fi el d val i dati on. An EU 4
th
Framework Program project
cal l ed Al ternati ve Materi al s (ALT-MAT) i l l ustrates thi s approach and i s a model for
U.S. consi derati on. The Dutch use mechani sti c l eachi ng tests for speci fi c uti l i zati on
appl i cati ons (e.g., road base, embankments, etc.) i n the envi ronmental approval process.
They use thi s approach to determi ne adverse envi ronmental i mpacts to background
soi l s and ground waters, and wi l l permi t a smal l i ncremental i mpact over a 100-year
peri od. A l arge l eachi ng database i s al so mai ntai ned at the Energi eonderzoek Centrum
Nederl and (Netherl ands Energy Research Foundati on - ECN). Wi thi n the EU, efforts
are under way to standardi ze an approach for eval uati ng the envi ronmental
performance of products, i ncl udi ng hi ghway materi al s. Lessons al so have been l earned
from i sol ated exampl es of envi ronmental probl ems created from storage, processi ng,
transport, or use of some materi al s. I n some cases, publ i c awareness and educati on
efforts have been needed to overcome percei ved envi ronmental ri sks.
The countri es that were vi si ted publ i sh annual reports that are ei ther devoted enti rel y
to envi ronmental i ssues or contai n i nformati on concerni ng envi ronmental i ssues. These
reports i ncl ude i nformati on on the countrys envi ronmental goal s, strategi es, and
programs to meet thei r goal s. Progress toward meeti ng the goal s i s presented. An
exampl e i s the Annual Envi ronmental Report publ i shed by the Swedi sh Nati onal Road
Admi ni strati on (Vgverket - SRA). Thi s report
detai l s the goal s for ai r emi ssi ons, i mpacts on
heal th from ai r emi ssi ons, noi se, materi al
recycl i ng, consumpti on of natural aggregate
and other materi al s, and si mi l ar topi cs
associ ated wi th the envi ronment as i t rel ates
to the road transportati on sector. The
Mi ni steri e van Vol kshui svesti ng, Rui mtel i jke
Ordeni ng en Mi l i eubeheer (Dutch Mi ni stry of
Housi ng, Spati al Pl anni ng and the
Envi ronment - VROM) publ i shed a report,
Environmental Policy of the Netherlands (April 1999), that provi des an excel l ent
summary of the mai n el ements of the Dutch envi ronmental pol i cy. Thi s report
summari zes i mprovements made i n the envi ronment (e.g., cl i mate change, waste
di sposal , etc.) from 1980 to 1997 and l i sts the objecti ves for year 2000.
Within the EU, efforts are under way to
standardize an approach for evaluating
the environmental performance of
products, including highway materials.
xv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I n the European countri es vi si ted, recycl i ng occurs when i t i s economi cal to do so.
Factors i n the marketpl ace are domi nant, but are general l y supported by government
pol i ci es and regul ati ons such as bans on l andfi l l i ng, l andfi l l taxes, natural aggregate
taxes and, i n some cases, subsi di es to assi st recycl i ng efforts. General l y, cl ear and
unambi guous engi neeri ng and envi ronmental test methods and performance standards
hel p to reduce uncertai nty and al l ow recycl ed materi al s to compete wi th natural
materi al s. Where tests and standards do not exi st, governments often support recycl i ng
by shari ng ri sk. I nformi ng and educati ng the publ i c about government pol i ci es and
programs to promote recycl i ng i s a key el ement i n each countrys efforts to i mpl ement
successful recycl i ng and sustai nabl e devel opment programs. Publ i c i nformati on
transfer campai gns are used by the governments and i ndustry to i nform the publ i c
about thei r respecti ve programs and products.
The European si tuati on i s i n some contrast to the U.S. si tuati on. Some recycl ed
materi al s such as RAP, coal fl y ash, and bl ast furnace sl ag are wi del y used i n a true
free market si tuati on because of thei r excel l ent performance and competi ti ve costs.
Other materi al s (e.g., foundry sands, steel sl ags) are used more l ocal l y i n response
to speci fi c l ocal market forces. There i s l i ttl e Federal government i nvol vement, except
for constructi on procurement gui del i nes that requi re use of materi al s such as coal fl y
ash when federal funds support road constructi on. Rather, the si tuati on i s dri ven at the
state l evel . For exampl e, the State of Pennsyl vani a has adopted l egi sl ati on to promote
recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment. However, there i s a wi de range of engi neeri ng
and envi ronmental approaches to BUDs, the process used by the states to eval uate and
permi t materi al s uti l i zati on. Cal i forni a, I l l i noi s, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and
Pennsyl vani a are worki ng to standardi ze the BUD process and create reci proci ty. There
are wi despread needs for cl ear engi neeri ng and envi ronmental test methods and
performance standards. The owner or contractor general l y assumes ri sk. The states,
academi a, and the pri vate sector are conducti ng si gni fi cant research.
The U.S. del egati on made a number of recommendati ons to encourage i ncreased
awareness of the benefi ts of usi ng recycl i ng i n the constructi on of roads i n the
Uni ted States. These recommendati ons i ncl ude establ i shi ng a recycl i ng strategy i n
the FWHAs sustai nabi l i ty strategi c pl ans, creati ng a framework for state DOTs to
consi der usi ng recycl ed materi al s, taki ng acti ons to i nvol ve pri vate contractors i n
promoti ng the use of recycl ed materi al s, conducti ng demonstrati ons of vari ous
recycl i ng technol ogi es, and engagi ng i n fol l ow-up acti vi ti es wi th the countri es that
were vi si ted. The del egati on bel i eves i t i s parti cul arl y i mportant to adopt aspects
of the Dutch sustai nabi l i ty model as a means to promote recycl i ng i n the hi ghway
envi ronment. Recommendati ons al so i ncl uded acti ons for transferri ng fi ndi ngs
from the scanni ng tour to vari ous stakehol ders i n the Uni ted States. Speci fi c
fi ndi ngs and recommendati ons are detai l ed i n Chapter 7.
xvi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
Chapt er One
OVERVI EW
REASON FOR SCANNING TRIP
The mai n objecti ves for the scanni ng tour were to revi ew and document i nnovati ve
pol i ci es, programs, and techni ques used i n several European countri es to promote
recycl i ng i n sustai nabl e road constructi on. The team al so wanted to i denti fy barri ers to,
and the rol es that non-governmental organi zati ons and pri vate enti ti es pl ayed i n,
i mpl ementi ng the pol i ci es and programs, and the degree of government support and
cooperati on i n assi sti ng i ndustry. Usi ng thi s and other i nformati on gathered, the U.S.
del egati on woul d make recommendati ons that, i f i mpl emented, woul d reduce barri ers to
i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway envi ronment i n the Uni ted States.
Sweden, Denmark, Germany, the Netherl ands, and France were i denti fi ed as nati ons
that have acti ve research and devel opment programs, pol i ci es, and other acti vi ti es that
promote recycl i ng i n general , and the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road envi ronments.
I n the fi ve countri es vi si ted, the U.S. del egati on met wi th more than 100
representati ves from transportati on and envi ronmental mi ni stri es, research
organi zati ons, pri vate contractors, and producers i nvol ved wi th recycl ed materi al s.
U.S. PERSPECTIVE
The del egati on noted several di fferences between the Uni ted States and the countri es
vi si ted. Di fferences noted i ncl ude country si ze and popul ati on densi ty, cul tural atti tudes
and behavi or of the publ i c, the pol i ti cal process, envi ronmental practi ces, and
engi neeri ng and techni cal factors such as the i ndustri al base, the types and quanti ti es
of waste generated, and others. These di fferences have i nfl uenced the degree of
recycl i ng for sustai nabl e road constructi on observed i n these countri es.
Country Size and Population Density
The countri es vi si ted are much smal l er than the Uni ted States and popul ati on densi ti es
are general l y hi gh. Thus, conservati on of l and space and other resources are cri ti cal and
hel p dri ve devel opment of pol i ces to conserve, reuse, and recycl e energy and materi al s
and other resources. As an exampl e, there i s pl enty of l and i n the Uni ted States for
l andfi l l s (except i n areas such as New York Ci ty), but l andfi l l space i n these countri es i s
very scarce, wi th Sweden perhaps bei ng an excepti on. Hence, they have restri cti ons and
taxes on l andfi l l i ng of waste. I n some cases, there are taxes on mi ni ng of natural
aggregates.
Cultural Aspects
From a cul tural and human behavi or perspecti ve, the European publ i c general l y has a
l ong hi story of recycl i ng. They strongl y support waste preventi on, reuse, and recycl i ng
of energy and materi al resources, far more so than i n the Uni ted States. What mi ght
seem i nconveni ent to many Ameri cans i s accepted by the publ i c i n these countri es as
necessary to mai ntai n a hi gh l evel of recycl i ng. Contrast the recycl i ng rate of more
than 70 percent i n the Netherl ands wi th one that i s l ess than 30 percent i n the Uni ted
States. Such cul tural atti tudes and behavi or make i t much easi er for the nati onal
governments to i mpl ement regul atory and economi c pol i ci es to promote recycl i ng for
sustai nabl e road constructi on.
2
CHAPTER 1
Political Process
The pervasi ve publ i c cul ture about recycl i ng i s al so di rectl y rel ated to a form of soci al
democracy that promotes nati onal behavi or change. I n many of the countri es, an
effecti ve stakehol der consensus process i s used by regi onal and nati onal governments
for devel opi ng engi neeri ng and envi ronmental speci fi cati ons. I n the Netherl ands, the
Dutch pol i ti cal process has resul ted i n a formal pol i cy for sustai nabl e devel opment i n
hi ghway constructi on that embraces the use of recycl ed materi al s. The government has
a pol i cy that mi ni mi zes the use of natural materi al s and promotes the use of recycl ed
materi al s wi thi n a market system. The government al so cooperates wi th i ndustry by
shari ng ri sk and profi t and provi di ng unambi guous techni cal and envi ronmental
standards. The government al so hel ps to start compani es speci al i zed i n the col l ecti on,
processi ng, marketi ng, and sal es of recycl ed materi al s.
Environment
Al l the countri es vi si ted have strong envi ronmental protecti on rul es and regul ati ons, as
does the Uni ted States. There are di fferences, however, i n the approaches used to
determi ne what materi al s can be recycl ed and how they are used. A notabl e exampl e i s
that for some materi al s, several countri es are not concerned about the concentrati ons of
consti tuents i n a materi al , but rather the total amount that wi l l be emi tted over the l i fe
of i ts use. An exampl e i s muni ci pal sol i d waste waste-to-energy bottom ash, whi ch i s
used extensi vel y i n Denmark, Germany, the Netherl ands, and France. One speci fi c
di fference was the Dutch approach to permi t a smal l i ncrease i n the envi ronmental
burden to soi l and water over a 100-year ti me frame. There are al so di fferences i n the
approaches to eval uate the envi ronmental
behavi or of materi al s. The Uni ted States
general l y rel i es on a si ngl e regul atory l eachi ng
test; the countri es vi si ted usual l y use several
l eachi ng tests and other factors to eval uate
potenti al uti l i zati on opti ons and best
management requi rements for resi dual s and
other materi al s.
Engineering
The team members were very i mpressed wi th
the l evel of techni cal tal ent, experi ence, and
professi onal i sm of each of the host countrys
representati ves. A l arge amount of qual i ty
research i s bei ng conducted on the mechani cal properti es, functi onal requi rements, and
envi ronmental characteri sti cs of recycl ed materi al s. Some of the research i s i n
conjuncti on wi th the European Uni ons 4th Framework Al ternati ve Materi al s Program
(ALT-MAT), but a l arge amount i s conducted wi thi n each country. The degree of
cooperati on between government organi zati ons and i ndustry to conduct research on
recycl ed materi al s and devel op consensus speci fi cati ons for thei r use i s probabl y
uni que.
The degree of cooperation between
government organizations and industry
to conduct research on recycled
materials and develop consensus
specifications for their use
is probably unique.
3
CHAPTER 1
Waste-to-energy (WTE) i s used as a major technol ogy to recover energy from muni ci pal
sol i d waste (MSW), as l andfi l l i ng i s bei ng phased out. The use of thi s technol ogy i s
i ncreasi ng i n these European countri es. I n the Uni ted States, the use of thi s technol ogy
has decreased and the majori ty (60 percent) of our waste i s l andfi l l ed. A l arge amount of
l andfi l l ed materi al i n the Uni ted States i s ei ther bi odegradabl e or can be i nci nerated
for energy recovery. Most of the countri es woul d use the resi dues generated from thi s
process.
GENERAL AMPLIFYING QUESTIONS
To assi st our European hosts i n understandi ng the topi cs of i nterest to the U.S. team
and to hel p them prepare for di scussi ons, the team prepared a seri es of ampl i fyi ng
questi ons, whi ch focused on ei ght major topi cs:
Engi neeri ng practi ces for recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway envi ronment.
Envi ronmental practi ces for recycl ed materi al s use i n the hi ghway
envi ronment.
Emergi ng technol ogi es.
Pol i ci es, market forces, and i nterest groups that dri ve recycl ed materi al s use.
Barri ers to recycl ed materi al s use and means to overcome them.
Long-term moni tori ng and performance measures.
Perspecti ves of materi al s suppl i ers and contractors.
Other topi cs.
Each topi c i ncl uded speci fi c questi ons i ntended to provi de the U.S. del egati on wi th a
better understandi ng of each countrys acti vi ti es concerned wi th recycl i ng for
sustai nabl e road constructi on. The ampl i fyi ng questi ons are l i sted i n Appendi x B.
SCANNING TEAM COMPOSITION
U.S. del egati on members had experti se i n materi al s engi neeri ng; pavement desi gn,
constructi on, and recycl i ng; BUDs; and envi ronmental eval uati ons. They represented
FHWA, U.S. EPA, state DOTs, the APWA, and academi a.
PLANNING AND MEETINGS
Team members met several ti mes duri ng the course of tri p pl anni ng and actual travel .
These meeti ngs are l i sted i n Tabl e 1. I n addi ti on to these meeti ngs, several group
meeti ngs were hel d duri ng trai n and bus ri des to di scuss vari ous aspects of the
summary report.
GENERAL ITINERARY
The scanni ng tour took pl ace from September 10 through September 26, 1999, i ncl udi ng
travel dates. Tabl e 2 l i sts the countri es and ci ti es vi si ted duri ng the tri p. Appendi x C
l i sts the offi ci al s vi si ted, thei r affi l i ati ons, and contact i nformati on.
4
CHAPTER 1
Table 1. U.S. delegation meetings.
Location Date Purpose
National Academy of Sciences/ May 6, 1999 Scanning trip organization.
Transportation Research Board;
Washington, D.C.
Team member local sites September 6, 1999 Teleconference; final trip itinerary, review
report outline, amplifying questions, etc.
Stockholm, Sw eden September 12, 1999 Review any travel changes; finalize trip
(Beginning of tour) actions and areas for emphasis.
The Hague, The Netherlands September 22, 1999 Comments for organization and content of
(Mid- tour) summary report and review findings to date.
Paris, France September 25, 1999 Review and modify summary report; discuss
(End of tour) implementation issues and further team
a ctions.
Table 2. Countries and cities visited.
Dates Country Cities
September 12- 13, 1999 Sw ed en Stockholm, Linkping, and vicinity
September 14- 16, 1999 Denm a rk Copenhagen, Hrsholm, and vicinity
September 16- 17, 1999 Germany Cologne, Gladbach Bergisch, Marl, and vicinity
September 18- 22, 1999 The Netherlands The Hague, Hoofddorp, and Amsterdam vicinity
September 23- 26, 1999 France Paris and suburbs
5
Chapt er Two
OVERVI EW OF RECYCLI NG WI THI N THE
HI GHWAY ENVI RONMENT I N THE HOST
COUNTRI ES AND I N THE UNI TED STATES
SWEDEN
Solid Waste Management
I n Sweden, waste i s general l y cl assi fi ed i nto three categori es: domesti c or househol d
waste, i ndustri al waste, and hazardous waste. Some categori es of waste fal l under
speci al regul ati ons or requi re speci al pl anni ng. Muni ci pal i ti es are responsi bl e for
devel opi ng comprehensi ve waste management pl ans, i ncl udi ng waste that i s treated
el sewhere. Under Swedi sh l aw, waste from i ndustri es, shops, and publ i c servi ces that i s
comparabl e to househol d waste i s i ncl uded i n that category. Thi s al so i ncl udes bul ky
waste and yard waste generated by these sources.
The Swedi sh Publ i c Cl eansi ng Law and the Publ i c Cl eansi ng Regul ati ons make
muni ci pal i ti es responsi bl e for col l ecti on and ul ti mate di sposal of thei r waste. Al though
more than two thi rds of Swedens muni ci pal i ti es use pri vate contractors, 50 percent of
Swedens domesti c waste i s col l ected by the muni ci pal i ti es. Domesti c waste
management i s supervi sed at the l ocal l evel by the Envi ronmental and Heal th Board,
regi onal l y by the County Counci l and, nati onal l y, by the Swedi sh Nati onal
Envi ronmental Protecti on Board (Naturvrdsverket - NV).
Sweden refers to i ndustri al waste as branch speci fi c-waste, e.g., forestry waste. Each
company i s responsi bl e for treati ng i ts own waste. Envi ronmental requi rements are
regul ated by the Envi ronmental Protecti on Act and appl i cabl e regul ati ons. Permi ts are
i ssued by the Nati onal Franchi se Board for Envi ronmental Protecti on. I ndustri al
wastes that have general characteri sti cs (e.g., di fferent types of packagi ng waste) can
occur i n any i ndustry. These are referred to as non-branch speci fi c i ndustri al waste.
Bui l di ng and demol i ti on waste i s al so cl assi fi ed as non-branch speci fi c i ndustri al waste.
Hazardous waste i s the responsi bi l i ty of the i ndustri al generator, whi ch must be
permi tted accordi ng to provi si ons of the Envi ronmental Protecti on Act. Handl i ng of
hazardous waste i s regul ated under the authori ty of the Ordi nance on Hazardous
Waste.
Sweden requi res that producers be responsi bl e for managi ng thei r waste. Producers
responsi bi l i ty for packagi ng materi al s came i nto force i n October 1994 under the
Swedi sh Code of Statutes (SFS 1994:1235). The objecti ve was to have al l packagi ng i n
Sweden recycl ed or reused by January 1997. The producers responsi bi l i ty i s to ensure
that thi s objecti ve i s i mpl emented for waste they generate. For newspapers, magazi nes,
and si mi l ar materi al s, the goal i s to reuse 75 percent by wei ght of thi s materi al by the
year 2000 (SFS 1994:1236). For waste ti res, the goal was di sposal by envi ronmental l y
responsi bl e methods after September 1996. By December 31, 1998, the goal was to have
60 percent of waste ti res managed by methods other than l andfi l l i ng. After December
31, 1998, the goal was 80 percent (SFS 1994:1236). Most waste ti res i n Sweden are
i nci nerated; none are used i n asphal t pavements.
6
CHAPTER 2
For di scarded ni ckel -cadmi um batteri es, there i s a vol untary agreement among the
i mporters and manufacturers (the Foundati on for the Col l ecti on of Hazardous
Batteri es) and the government. Under thi s agreement, 90 percent of di scarded batteri es
were to be col l ected duri ng the second year of the agreement.
Sweden generates about 3.2 mi l l i on metri c tons of domesti c waste each year. Of thi s
amount, approxi matel y 1.3 mi l l i on metri c tons are l andfi l l ed, i ncl udi ng ash and sl ag
from WTE pl ants. The remai ni ng waste has been separated out and consi sts of whi te
goods, paper and gl ass, compost and fuel from composti ng pl ants, and waste that i s
converted to energy at WTE pl ants.
WTE and l andfi l l i ng are Swedens two predomi nant methods for waste di sposal .
Twenty-one WTE pl ants process approxi matel y 1.7 mi l l i on metri c tons of waste. Fi ve of
these pl ants process 70 percent of thi s amount. The pl ants generate energy equi val ent
to 500,000 metri c tons of oi l each year. Landfi l l s i n Sweden recei ve about 5.5 mi l l i on
metri c tons of waste each year. Of thi s, domesti c waste amounts to about 1.3 mi l l i on
metri c tons. Landfi l l gas i s someti mes recovered and used as an energy source.
Swedens l andfi l l regul ati ons wi l l be modi fi ed where needed to meet pendi ng EU
requi rements.
Composti ng pl ants process onl y about 0.13 metri c tons of domesti c waste annual l y.
About 0.06 mi l l i on metri c tons of compost are produced. About 0.02 mi l l i on metri c tons
of thi s compost are sol d and the remai ni ng i s used as l andfi l l cover.
Recycling in the Highway Environment
I nformati on on the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on i n Sweden was
provi ded by two sources. Data i n Tabl e 3 are from the Swedi sh Nati onal Road and
Transport Research I nsti tute (Statens vg-och transportforskni ngsi nsti tut - VTI );
addi ti onal i nformati on was provi ded by research personnel from the Swedi sh
Geotechni cal I nsti tute (Statens Geotekni ska I nsti tut - SGI ). SGI reported that about
0.15 mi l l i on metri c tons of ferrochrome sl ag i s produced and sol d annual l y (after
crushi ng) i n fracti ons between 0 and 100 mm. Al most al l of the 250,000 m
3
of copper
sl ag produced each year i s used i n road constructi on. Under a general permi t, coal
bottom ash has been used i n the Norkpi ng area si nce 1982. About 525,000 m
3
have
been used si nce that ti me.
DENMARK
Waste management i n Denmark i s regul ated by the Envi ronmental Protecti on Act. The
Act emphasi zes protecti on of the envi ronment i n ways that wi l l permi t sustai nabl e
devel opment. The Act establ i shes the l egal framework, but Dani sh waste l egi sl ati on
and pol i cy are contai ned i n vari ous statutory orders. EU waste management di recti ves
wi l l be i mpl emented as they are adopted by the Counci l of Mi ni sters and the European
Parl i ament.
7
CHAPTER 2
Table 3. Use of recycled materials in roads in Sw eden (million metric tons).
Annual
Material Production Amount Used Applications
Old asphalt pavement 0.8 0.76 In new asphalt (cold or hot recycling)
(1999)
Blast furnace slag 1.0 0.7 As aggregate in unbound layers
(1999) (crushed, air- cooled)
Mining w aste (rock w ithout 27.0 0.1- 0.3 Crushed aggregate in unbound layers
usable metals) (1994)
Unsorted building and road 1.5- 2.0 Small quantities As fill material; some test sections/
d emolition w a ste sub b a se
Steel slag 0.2 0.2 Some in demonstrations/ research
WTE bottom ash 0.34 0.34 Subbase and base in roads w ithin facility
boundary; some in demonstrations
The Government Acti on Pl an on Waste and Recycl i ng (1993-1997) establ i shed a
preferred hi erarchy of waste management al ternati ves. These are i n order of preference:
The mi ni mi zati on of waste producti on and energy consumpti on through
substi tuti on and cl eaner technol ogi es.
The recycl i ng or uti l i zati on of materi al s.
The use of WTE technol ogy to produce el ectri ci ty and energy for di stri ct heati ng.
The control l ed l andfi l l i ng of waste.
By the year 2000, the goal i s to recycl e 54 percent, i nci nerate 25 percent, and l andfi l l 21
percent of the waste.
Admi ni strati ve and economi c tool s are used i n Denmark to i mpl ement waste
management objecti ves. These i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Local authori ti es must conduct waste surveys and desi gn and i mpl ement
appropri ate pl ans to manage thei r waste.
Regi onal authori ti es are responsi bl e for l ocati ng l andfi l l si tes, cl eani ng
contami nated soi l s, and si mi l ar acti vi ti es. They al so must ensure that necessary
capaci ty i s i n pl ace and that the waste actual l y reaches these faci l i ti es.
The Mi l j-og Energi mi ni steri et (The Dani sh Mi ni stry of the Envi ronment and
Energy) i n the Mi l jstyrel sen (The Dani sh Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency -
MS) enters i nto vol untary agreements wi th i ndustry for speci fi c waste
management acti ons [e.g., reduci ng use of PVC (pol yvi nyl chl ori de), taki ng back
ni ckel /cadmi um batteri es]. The Mi ni ster al so may order producers to take back
thei r products and assume responsi bi l i ty for thei r di sposal .
The Danes al so use fi nanci al i ncenti ves to i mpl ement waste management
strategi es and goal s. These i ncl ude taxes, fees, and subsi di es. As an exampl e, a
waste tax i s l evi ed i n di fferent amounts to support the chosen waste
8
CHAPTER 2
management method. The waste taxes are di scussed i n Chapter 4. Grants,
provi ded i n the Fi nance Act, are used to promote the use of cl eaner technol ogi es
or the recycl i ng of products, materi al s, or waste resi dues.
Muni ci pal i ti es are responsi bl e for col l ecti on and di sposal of househol d and commerci al
wastes. Some col l ect thei r waste and others use pri vate contractors for thi s servi ce.
Most commerci al waste i s col l ected by pri vate contractors. Muni ci pal i ti es al so are
responsi bl e for col l ecti ng paper and cardboard from whol esal ers and retai l ers, and
i ndustri al food waste, and oi l and chemi cal wastes. Al though some exi sti ng l andfi l l s are
pri vatel y operated, future l andfi l l s i n Denmark wi l l be owned and operated by l ocal
authori ti es. Al l muni ci pal sol i d waste i nci nerators are publ i cl y owned and operated.
However, Dani sh soci etys preference for recycl i ng rather than di sposal has resul ted i n
the establ i shment, wi th government ai d, of pri vate sector faci l i ti es to process waste
materi al s i nto usabl e products.
Waste generated i n Denmark i n 1997 i s shown i n Tabl e 4. About 0.4 mi l l i on metri c tons
of bottom ash and 0.06 mi l l i on metri c tons of ai r pol l uti on control resi dues are produced
from the combusti on of MSW and si mi l ar waste. The bottom ash i s processed to remove
metal s and prepare i t for use. About 80 percent i s used i n ci vi l engi neeri ng appl i cati ons,
whi l e metal s recovered for recycl i ng account for 10 percent, and 10 percent i s l andfi l l ed.
Table 4. Solid w aste generation in Denmark in 1997.
Type of Waste Amount Produced
(million metric tons)
Household w aste 2.8
Waste from manufacturing industries, trade, and offices 2.6
Construction w aste (building rubble) 3.4
Sew age sludge 1.2
Residues from energy production (primarily from coal- fired pow er plants) 1.8
Tota l a mount 11.8
Approxi matel y 23 to 26 percent (2.8 mi l l i on metri c tons) of the waste i s l andfi l l ed.
Denmarks goal i s to reduce thi s to 21 percent by the year 2000. Denmark has three
types of l andfi l l s: i nert l andfi l l s, control l ed l andfi l l s, and mono-l andfi l l s. I nert l andfi l l s
recei ve unpol l uted waste (e.g., pl asti cs, ti mber, etc.) and unpol l uted soi l . They are not
l i ned and l eachate i s permi tted to seep i nto the ground water bel ow the si te. Control l ed
l andfi l l s recei ve muni ci pal sol i d waste, sewage sl udge, and non-hazardous waste. These
l andfi l l s are l i ned wi th syntheti c, cl ay, or composi te l i ners and have l eachate col l ecti on
systems. Mono-l andfi l l s recei ve i nci nerator ash and si mi l ar types of waste. New
gui del i nes i n Denmark requi re that l andfi l l s be desi gned and operated to reach a
steady state (i .e., when bi ol ogi cal acti vi ty and l eachate generati on have ceased or are
no l onger a threat to the envi ronment) i n 30 to 50 years. These gui del i nes wi l l resul t i n
new types of l andfi l l s.
9
CHAPTER 2
Tabl es 5 and 6 provi de an overvi ew of the producti on of non-road wastes i n Denmark
and thei r appl i cati on i n Dani sh roads.
Table 5. Production and utilization of w aste in Danish roads (million metric tons).
Unbound Material Material to Paving
Material Total Production Recycled Industry (Asphalt and Landfilled
Portland Cement)
Steel sla g 0.058 0 0.058 0
Rolling mill 0.013 0 0 0.013
Ca sting sa nd 0.045 0 0.005 0.040
Bla sting ma teria ls 0.035 0 0.009 0.026
Crushed concrete 1.060 0.763 0.096 0.157
Wa ste- to- energ y 0.420 0.380 0 0.040
bottom ash
Rockw ool sla g 0.010 0 0.007 0.003
Coa l b ottom a sh 0.184 0.184 0 0
Coa l fly a sh 1.060 0.556 0.504 0
Crushed a sp ha lt 0.824 0.509 0.315 0
Crushed b ricks 0.484 0.322 0.005 0.157
Roa d clea ning w a ste 0.113 0 0 0.113
Tota l 4.262 3.772 0.941 0.549
10
CHAPTER 2
GERMANY
The Law on the Preventi on and Di sposal of Waste (AbfG) i s the basi s for German
regul ati ons on waste management. Waste preventi on and recycl i ng are gi ven
preference i n the l aw. I t al so grants authori ty to the Federal government to i ssue
di recti ves that encourage preventi on and recycl i ng of speci al waste types, such as waste
oi l , batteri es, and si mi l ar wastes. The Techni cal Di recti ve of Waste (TA Abfal l ) defi nes
waste that requi res speci al handl i ng and supervi si on. The second di recti ve i s the
Techni cal Di recti ve Resi denti al Waste (TA Si edl ungsabfal l ), whi ch regul ates muni ci pal
and si mi l ar wastes.
Table 6. Applications for non- road materials in Danish roads.
Applications
Materials
PCC HMA CM/ST GB EMB FILL STR APP LS
Steel slag 2 4 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
Coal fly ash 2 3 2 0 4 2 3 3 0
Coal bottom ash 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
Casting sand 2 2 2 0 1 1 2 2 1
Cement kiln dust 2 2 2 0 2 1 0 0 2
Blasting product 2 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 2
MSWI ash 0 2 2 4 3 3 1 1 1
Concrete 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 2 0
Tile/ bricks 0 1 1 0 0 4 1 1 0
Tile/ concrete 0 0 0 2 3 4 0 0 3
Harbor dredged
material 0 1 1 0 2 2 0 0 2
PCC = portland cement concrete pavement (w earing surface), HMA = hot mix asphalt pavement, CM/ ST = cold mix
or surface treatment, GB = granular unbound base, EMB = embankment, FILL = fill (e.g., backfill, subgrade, flow able
fill), STR = structures (e.g., bridges, culverts, drain inlets, pipes), APP = safety- related items (e.g., guardrails, light
post), APP = appurtenances (e.g., curbs, gutters, sidew alks), LS = landscaping (e.g., mulch, picnic benches, etc).
MSWI = municipal solid w aste incinerator. 4 = occurs generally, 3 = limited use, 2 = does not occur, but is
considered possible, 1 = does not occur, but might be possible, and 0 = considered impossible to use. MSW WTE
bottom ash can only be used as a subbase in roads.
Al l the regul ati ons have the objecti ve to generate cl osed cycl es of materi al s to establ i sh
a soci ety where the envi ronment and a sustai nabl e economy are compati bl e. I n 1997, a
new l aw was enacted that makes producers responsi bl e for the di sposal of thei r
products. The Law on Preventi on, Uti l i zati on and Di sposal of Waste i s al so referred to
as the Cl osed Cycl e Economy Law (KrW-/AbfG). Under thi s l aw, the management of
waste materi al s must fol l ow a stri ct hi erarchy:
Fi rst, to prevent wastes, especi al l y by reduci ng the amounts and thei r toxi ci ty.
11
CHAPTER 2
Second, to recover the materi al or energy val ue i n the waste generated.
Thi s hi erarchy essenti al l y pl aces materi al s recovery and energy recovery on an equal
basi s and wi l l permi t energy recovery where i t makes techni cal and economi c sense.
MSW i n Germany i ncl udes resi denti al waste, bul ky waste, commerci al waste, l i ght
i ndustri al waste, and yard and garden waste. I n 1993, approxi matel y 44 mi l l i on metri c
tons of MSW were generated. Approxi matel y 11 mi l l i on metri c tons were col l ected and
separated for sorti ng and recycl i ng. Onl y about 3 mi l l i on metri c tons were composted.
I n 1995, Germany had 52 i nci nerators and one pyrol ysi s pl ant. These pl ants processed
about 11 mi l l i on metri c tons of waste for energy recovery. About 60 percent (1.8 mi l l i on
metri c tons) of the bottom ash produced from WTE faci l i ti es i s used after agi ng for 3
months. The ai r pol l uti on control resi dues are di sposed i nto mi ned cavi ti es to hel p
prevent subsi dence. Al l materi al s desi gnated for l andfi l l i ng must be made i nert and
cannot contai n substanti al amounts of sal t. By the year 2006, at the l atest, Germany
wi l l have onl y two cl asses of l andfi l l s. Concentrati ons of heavy metal s i n the waste, as
determi ned by the German DEV S4 l eachi ng test, wi l l be l i mi ted, as wel l as other
characteri sti cs. Thi s i nformati on i s presented i n Chapter 6. These l i mi ts were
establ i shed by the Techni cal Di recti ve Resi denti al Waste. The requi rements to make
waste i nert pri or to l andfi l l i ng wi l l probabl y resul t i n an i ncrease i n WTE faci l i ti es
because bi ol ogi cal processes (e.g., composti ng) cannot meet these requi rements.
Tabl es 7 and 8 summari ze the producti on of resi dues and thei r appl i cati on i n
Germanys roads. The tabl es are adopted from Roads in Germany by the
Bundesmi ni steri um fr Verker (German Federal Mi ni stry of Transport - BMV).
Table 7. Quantities and utilization of industrial by- products and recycled
construction materials in Germany (million metric tons).
Type of Residue Production Use in Roads Percent Used
Slag
- Bla st furna ce sla g 8.3 8.3 100.0
- Steel sla g 4.8 4.4 92.0
Coa l mining sp oils 64.8 13.6 21.0
Pow er plant residues
- Boiler slag 2.8 2.7 98.0
- Coarse ash 0.4 0.3 74.0
- Coa l fly a sh 3.1 2.7 86.0
- Brow n coal fly ash 6.1 0.0 0.0
- Gyp sum (coa l furna ce) 1.8 1.8 100.0
Refuse w aste- to- energy ash 2.6 1.8 68.0
Construction materials (estimated
recycling rate)
- Recovered a sp ha lt 12.0 6.0 50.0
- Crushed roa d ma teria ls 20.0 11.0 55.0
- Rub b le 23.0 4.0 17.0
- Mixed construction w aste 10.0 0.0 0.0
Total (rounded) 160.0 57.0 35.0
12
CHAPTER 2
Table 8. Materials used in German roads and their applications.
Applications
Materials
A B C1 C2 D1 D3 E F G1 G2 H
Asphalt 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
Concrete, concrete blocks 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
Other hydraulically bound materials 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
(e.g., blast- furnace slag)
Natural stone, crushed and 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
uncrushed materials, ballast
Gravel, sand 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
Other mineral materials 1 2 1 2 2 2
Bricks, masonr y, stonew are 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
A = acoustical barriers, B = unbound traffic areas and roads, C1 = embankments, C2 = backfilling and covering,
D1 = backfilling and trenches, D2 = soil stabilization and subsoil improvement, E = bases w ithout binders, F = bases
w ith hydraulic binders, G1 = bases w ith bitumen binders, G2 = bituminous w earing and binder courses, and H =
concrete bases. 1 = feasible, 2 = feasible under certain conditions.
THE NETHERLANDS
I n 1989, the Netherl ands i mpl emented a comprehensi ve Nati onal Envi ronmental Pl an.
Waste management i s covered i n the Ordi nance of Waste Preventi on and Recycl i ng. The
ordi nance establ i shed stri ct goal s that must be met for a vari ety of waste streams,
whi ch resul ted i n si gni fi cant parti ci pati on by the publ i c and i ndustry to recover and
reuse materi al s, and the source separati on of gl ass, paper, putresci bl es, and househol d
and si mi l ar smal l quanti ti es of chemi cal s.
The Dutch stri ctl y regul ate ai r emi ssi ons from WTE pl ants. The Ai r Emi ssi ons from
I nci nerators Regul ati on i ncl udes provi si ons on waste that may be accepted, as wel l as
gui del i nes for emi ssi ons of metal s, di oxi ns, and aci d gases (NO
x
). For l andfi l l i ng, the
Di sposal Regul ati on appl i es and regul ates the condi ti ons for di sposi ng waste i nto three
di fferent categori es of l andfi l l s. These are: l andfi l l s for non-hazardous waste wi th and
wi thout l eachate recovery, and l andfi l l s for hazardous waste. A col umn l eachi ng test i s
used to determi ne i n whi ch l andfi l l a waste may be di sposed. As of 1997, no organi c
waste may be l andfi l l ed; the i ntent i s to restri ct l andfi l l s to onl y i norgani c waste and to
force i ncreased composti ng. The ban encompasses any waste that can be recycl ed,
i ncl udi ng WTE resi dues. Demol i ti on and constructi on waste al so i s i ncl uded i n the ban
to encourage benefi ci al use of thi s materi al .
The Dutch governments objecti ve i s to decrease waste generati on and i ncrease
recycl i ng and uti l i zati on. The envi ronmental aspects of thi s pol i cy are covered i n the
Regul ati on for Constructi on Materi al s. Thi s regul ati on permi ts a margi nal i mpact to
soi l qual i ty over a 100-year peri od. There are cri teri a that must be met under thi s
13
CHAPTER 2
scheme. WTE bottom ash does not meet al l of these cri teri a, but the Dutch desi re to
promote use of thi s materi al has resul ted i n the ash bei ng pl aced i n a speci al category.
I t may be used i n embankments and i n road base provi ded measures are i mpl emented
to mi ni mi ze rai n water i nfi l trati on.
The Mi ni stry of Housi ng, Spati al Pl anni ng and the Envi ronment (Mi ni steri e van
Vol kshui svesti ng, Rui mtel i jke Ordeni ng en Mi l i eubeheer - VROM) i ssued an acti on
pl an for the reuse, treatment, and di sposal of the di fferent resi due streams generated by
WTE pl ants. The pl an provi des management gui del i nes for bottom ash, fl y ash, and fl ue
gas cl eani ng resi dues. The cri teri a for the control l ed use of bottom ash come under the
Regul ati on for Constructi on Materi al s. As of January 1998, fl y ash cannot be l andfi l l ed
wi thout pri or treatment. I nvesti gati ons are ongoi ng to devel op methods for val ori zi ng
ai r pol l uti on control (APC) resi dues. They are currentl y bei ng temporari l y stored.
Hazardous wastes i n the Netherl ands are covered under the Hazardous Waste
Desi gnati on Decree, whi ch contai ns provi si ons for cl assi fyi ng waste as hazardous or
non-hazardous. Provi nces have the pri mary
responsi bi l i ty for the permi tti ng of both
hazardous and non-hazardous waste faci l i ti es.
The central government, however, mai ntai ns a
coordi nati ng rol e for these acti vi ti es.
Contami nated soi l i s regul ated under the Soi l
Protecti on Act and i ts Ordi nance for Soi l
Cl ean-up. Soi l i s cl assi fi ed i nto three categori es
dependi ng on the l evel of contami nati on. I n the
case where soi l s are used as constructi on
materi al s, they come under the Regul ati on for
Constructi on Materi al s.
The Dutch Mi ni stery of Transports, Publ i c
Works and Water Management (Mi ni steri e van
Verkeer en Waterstaat - V&W) i s responsi bl e for the pol i cy on mi neral aggregates. One
of the pol i cy l i nes i s to promote the use of secondary materi al s to di mi ni sh the use of
natural aggregates. The Publ i c Works Department (Ri jkswaterstaat, RWS) wi thi n the
Mi ni stry i s al so the bi ggest cl i ent for i nfrastructure work. Thi s means that
i mpl ementati on of pol i cy can be done wi thi n the same mi ni stry. Thi s approach and the
fact that recycl i ng i s a mai n topi c wi thi n the two mi ni stri es (VROM, V&W) account for
the success of recycl i ng i n the Netherl ands.
I n 1995, the Dutch recycl ed or reused 73 percent of thei r generated waste; about 8
percent was i nci nerated, about 16 percent was l andfi l l ed, and about 3 percent was
di scharged to the ocean by i ndustry. I n 1999, the recycl i ng rate was sti l l 73 percent.
As shown i n Tabl e 9, i n 1996, 0.895 metri c tons of bottom ash were produced by WTE
pl ants. I n 1999, thi s reached about 1.0 mi l l i on metri c tons. Al most 100 percent of the
ash was used.
In 1995, the Dutch recycled or reused
73 percent of their generated waste;
about 8 percent was incinerated, about
16 percent was landfilled, and about 3
percent was discharged to the ocean by
industry. In 1999, the recycling rate was
still 73 percent.
14
CHAPTER 2
Table 9. Profile of w aste management in the Netherlands (million metric tons).
Recycled Prevention
Year Generation* Landfill WTE (percent) (percent)
1996 N/ A
* *
7
+
5 73
+ +
N/ A
2000 51 4
* * *
6 76 15
2010 56 2
* * *
9 N/ A N/ A
*
Does not include dredge spoils, contaminated soils, manure, and radioactive w aste.
**
N/ A: not available.
+
An additional 0.48 million metric tons w ent to private disposal.
+ +
The target w as 67 percent.
***
Amounts stipulated by the Environmental Policy Plan.
Fl y ash producti on was 0.054 mi l l i on metri c tons; 40 percent was recycl ed as an asphal t
fi l l er. Before thi s materi al can be l andfi l l ed, i t must be treated. Resi dues from fl ue gas
cl eani ng amounted to 0.032 mi l l i on metri c tons; none i s recycl ed. Recycl i ng opti ons are
bei ng i nvesti gated. Projected fi gures for 2000 and 2010 al so are shown.
Tabl e 10 summari zes the producti on and appl i cati ons of recovered materi al s used i n
road constructi on i n the Netherl ands. The Dutch al so noted that about 0.4 mi l l i on
metri c tons of sand are produced from processi ng pl ants. They were uncertai n as to the
fate of thi s materi al , but bel i eve that some i s bei ng used wi thout meeti ng
envi ronmental requi rements. The market for phosphorous sl ag i s decreasi ng; i ts
radi oacti vi ty prevents i ts use i n bui l di ngs and surroundi ng envi ronments. Al so, the
Dutch noted that i nvesti gati ons are ongoi ng to fi nd more uses of steel sl ag i n concrete
and asphal t appl i cati ons. Some tar amended asphal t (TAA) has been recycl ed i n the
past under stri ct envi ronmental and occupati onal heal th condi ti ons onl y i n col d bound
asphal t pavement appl i cati ons. After January 1, 2001, thi s wi l l not be al l owed. New
thermal techni ques are bei ng i nvesti gated to combust recycl ed asphal t that contai ns tar.
15
CHAPTER 2
Table 10. Recovered materials used in Dutch roads (million metric tons).
Material Produced Used Applications
Asphalt concrete 7.7 7.7 Hot mix asphalt
Asphalt rubble 3.0 3.0 1.8 in hot mix asphalt; 1,200 mostly in cement
bound
Municipal w aste bottom ash 0.8 0.8 Unbound base course and embankments
Municipal w aste incinerator 0.08 0.02- 0.03 Concrete filler
fly ash
Blast furnace slag 1.2 1.2 All used in cement production; about 1 million
tons imported for road base
Steel slag 0.5 0.5 Used in hydraulic w orks and base course;
some as sand
Electric coal fly ash 0.85 0.85 Used in cement, concrete and asphalt filler,
and as aggregate
Electric coal bottom ash 0.08 0.08 Lightw eight aggregate; some exported to
Belgium for use in concrete blocks
Soil and contaminated soil Est. 0.016 0.157 7.0 of clean soil; 7.0 slightly contaminated
soils; 1.7 of heavily contaminated soil after
cleaning; 1 million tons dumped at sea.
Dredge spoils 0.023 Small Highly contaminated spoils stored;
amounts by 2000, 20 percent cleaned and used.
Phosphorous slag 0.6 0.6 Base courses and asphalt
Building and demolition w aste 9.2 9.2 9.0 concrete and masonry granulates used
in base course; 2.0 in concrete
Concrete crusher sand 0.3 0.3 Used as sand in subbase layers
16
CHAPTER 2
FRANCE
I n 1992, an ol der l aw about waste di sposal was amended to i ncl ude materi al s recovery.
The mai n objecti ve of the modi fi cati on was to promote val ori zati on (i ncrease i ts val ue)
of waste through reuse, recycl i ng, or treatment by methods that woul d permi t thei r use
as materi al s or as an energy source. The amended l aw speci fi es that waste di sposal al so
means (i n addi ti on to col l ecti on, transport, and storage) the necessary operati ons
requi red for recovery of usabl e el ements and materi al s. The l aw del egated the
responsi bi l i ty for domesti c waste di sposal to l ocal authori ti es. After Jul y 1, 2002, waste
di sposal faci l i ti es wi l l onl y be abl e to recei ve waste that cannot be techni cal l y and
economi cal l y treated for recycl i ng. The l aw created i ncreasi ng taxes on the l andfi l l i ng
and WTE of muni ci pal sol i d waste, unti l the 2002 l andfi l l ban takes affect. The types
and amounts of waste generated and the methods used to manage them i n 1995 are
l i sted i n Tabl e 11.
Table 11. Waste generation and management in France in 1995 (million metric tons).
Waste Category Produced Recycled (%) Incinerated (%) Composted (%) Landfilled (%)
(million metric tons)
M unicip a l w a ste 46 6.2 47.7 6.5 39.6
Industrial w aste 148
- Ordinary 30 10 15 10 65
- Hazardous 16 0 40 0 60
- Inert w aste 100* 30 5 5 60
Agricultural w aste 388 20 5 40 35
* Good estimates not available; could range from 100 to 600 million metric tons.
17
CHAPTER 2
Tabl e 12 l i sts the materi al s used i n hi ghway constructi on i n France. Chapter 6 provi des
addi ti onal i nformati on about the use of some of these materi al s.
Table 12. Use of recycled materials in French roads (million metric tons).
Material Production Amounts Used Use Application
Blast furnace slag 5.0 1.1 Aggregates; remaining used as hydraulic
binders
- crystalized form 0.5
- granulated form 0.6
Steel slag 1.3 0.2 Bituminous mixes, surface dressings
Coal fly ash 1.0 0.25 Hydraulic binders, concrete filler,
(silico- aluminius) em b a nkm ents
Coal mining w astes 50
*
3.0 Black shale in embankments; red shale in
p a vem ents
Demolition materials 5.0 Not provided Aggregates; used primarily near cities
Old pavements Not provided 1- 2 Wearing courses and base, depending on
source
MSWI bottom ash 1.5 1.0 Aggregates
Foundry sands Not provided Small amount Aggregates
Tires Not provided Not provided Earthw orks (e.g., embankments)
Plastics Not provided Not provided Asphalt binders, lightw eight fill, etc.
* Estimated 50 million metric tons available in pits around France.
18
CHAPTER 2
UNITED STATES
U.S. waste l aws and regul ati ons cl assi fy waste i nto two broad categori es: hazardous and
non-hazardous. There al so are a number of smal l er categori es of speci al wastes. The
pri nci pal l aw that regul ates these wastes i s the Resource Recovery and Conservati on
Act of 1976 (RCRA). RCRA was amended by the Sol i d Waste Di sposal Act of 1980 and
the Hazardous and Sol i d Waste Amendments (HSWA) i n 1984.
Subti tl e D of RCRA deal s wi th non-hazardous waste and requi re states to devel op
comprehensi ve sol i d waste management pl ans. Once approved, the U.S. EPA del egates
the i mpl ementati on and enforcement of the pl ans to the states. The Federal regul ati ons
provi de mi ni mum standards for the treatment and di sposal of non-hazardous waste.
Many states, however, have enacted more stri ngent standards and regul ati ons.
I n 1989, the U.S. EPA publ i shed The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action. Thi s
document promoted a preferred hi erarchy for muni ci pal sol i d waste management:
source reducti on, recycl i ng (i ncl udi ng composti ng), waste combusti on (wi th energy
recovery), and l andfi l l i ng.
Hazardous wastes are regul ated under RCRA Subti tl e C, whi ch contai ns provi si ons for
characteri zi ng, testi ng, treati ng, stori ng, and di sposi ng of these waste materi al s. RCRA
al so requi res that these wastes be supervi sed (mani fested) from cradl e to grave (i .e.,
from generati on unti l ul ti mate di sposal ). The Comprehensi ve Response, Compensati on
and Li abi l i ty Act of 1980 (CERCLA) or Superfund and i ts amendments deal wi th the
remedi ati on of abandoned contami nated si tes that pose hazards to the publ i c and the
envi ronment. The Act provi des for the assi gnment of l i abi l i ty for the contami nati on at
the si te and the costs to cl ean i t up.
I n 1990, the U.S. Congress enacted the Pol l uti on Preventi on Act to encourage waste
mi ni mi zati on through i nput substi tuti on, product reformul ati on, i ndustri al process
redesi gn, and si mi l ar acti ons to reduce the quanti ty and toxi ci ty of waste.
Emi ssi ons from WTE pl ants are regul ated under the Cl ean Ai r Act. I n 1995, the U.S.
EPA i ssued new rul es coveri ng these pl ants. These rul es are referred to as the
Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources and Emission Guidelines for
Existing Sources: Municipal Waste Combustors. Al so known as the maxi mum achi evabl e
control technol ogy (MACT), they i mpose stri ct new l i mi ts on emi ssi ons of metal s and
di oxi n.
The desi gn, constructi on, operati on, mai ntenance, and post-cl osure care of l andfi l l s are
regul ated under RCRA. The requi rements for l i ner and cover desi gns usi ng cl ay,
geotexti l es, fl exi bl e membranes (pl asti c), combi nati ons of cl ay and pl asti c, and si mi l ar
materi al s vary dependi ng on l ocati on and the waste (hazardous or non-hazardous).
There are al so requi rements for l eachate col l ecti on and treatment and ground water
moni tori ng. The Federal requi rements are more stri ngent for hazardous waste l andfi l l s
than for non-hazardous l andfi l l s. As noted earl i er, some states have i mpl emented more
stri ct requi rements than the mi ni mum technol ogy standards requi red at the Federal
l evel .
19
CHAPTER 2
MSW i ncl udes wastes such as durabl e goods, non-durabl e goods, contai ners and
packagi ng, food scraps, yard tri mmi ngs, and mi scel l aneous i norgani c waste from
resi denti al , commerci al , i nsti tuti onal , and i ndustri al sources. Exampl es i ncl ude
appl i ances, automobi l e ti res, newspapers, cl othi ng, boxes, offi ce and cl assroom paper,
cafeteri a waste, wood pal l ets and si mi l ar waste. MSW does not i ncl ude waste from
constructi on and demol i ti on acti vi ti es, combusti on ash, automobi l e bodi es, muni ci pal
sl udges, and some i ndustri al process waste that mi ght al so be l andfi l l ed or combusted
i n muni ci pal sol i d waste l andfi l l s and i nci nerators. I n 1997, 197 mi l l i on metri c tons of
MSW were generated i n the Uni ted States. Thi s was an i ncrease of 7.3 mi l l i on metri c
tons over 1996. Recycl i ng (i ncl udi ng composti ng) recovered 28 percent (55 mi l l i on
metri c tons) of the waste, 17 percent (34 mi l l i on metri c tons) were combusted mostl y for
energy recovery, and 55 percent (109 mi l l i on metri c tons) were l andfi l l ed. Tabl e 13
summari zes the MSW generati on, recovery, composti ng, combusti on, and di scards to
l andfi l l s i n the Uni ted States for years 1960 through 1997.
Table 13. Generation and disposal of municipal solid w aste in the United States, 1960 to 1997 (in
million metric tons and percent of total generation).
1960 1970 1980 1990 1995 1996 1997
Genera tion 79.9 109.8 137.5 186.1 191.7 189.7 196.8
Recovery for recycling 5.1 7.3 13.2 26.3 41.1 42.1 44.1
6.4% 6.6% 9.6% 14.2% 21.5% 22.2% 22.4%
Recovery for comp osting neg . neg . neg . 3.8 8.7 9.6 10.9
2.0% 4.5% 5.2% 5.6%
Tota l ma teria ls recover y 5.1 7.3 13.2 30.1 49.8 52.0 55.1
6.4% 6.6% 9.6% 16.2% 26.0% 27.4% 28.0%
Disca rd s a fter recovery 74.8 102.5 124.3 156.0 141.9 137.8 141.8
93.6% 93.4% 90.4% 83.8% 74.% 72.6% 72.0%
Comb ustion 24.5 22.8 12.4 28.9 32.2 32.7 33.3
30.6% 20.7% 9.0% 15.5% 16.8% 17.3% 16.9%
Disca rd s to la nd fills a nd 50.3 79.7 111.9 127.1 109.7 105.0 141.8
other disposal 63.0% 72.6% 81.4% 58.3% 57.3% 55.4% 55.1%
The FHWA publ i shed a document i n Apri l 1998 enti tl ed User Guidelines for Waste and
By-product Materials in Pavement Construction (Publ i cati on No. FHWA-RD-97-148).
Tabl e 14 presents some of the data extracted from that report; unfortunatel y, compl ete
data on the quanti ti es produced and used each year are not avai l abl e. The document
l i sted 19 materi al s and 6 major appl i cati on categori es for a total of 55 potenti al
appl i cati ons for usi ng the recycl ed materi al s. Tabl e 14 di scusses some of these
materi al s.
20
CHAPTER 2
Table 14. Use of recycled materials in roads in the United States (million metric tons).
Material Production Used (million
(million metric tons) metric tons) Applications
Blast furnace slag 14 12.6 Aggregate in concrete
Coal bottom ash 14.5 4.4 Asphalt aggregate, granular base, etc.
Boiler slag 2.3 2.1
Coal fly ash 53.5 14.6 Cement production, structural fills, etc.
Foundry sands 9 to 13.6 - Most reclaimed and used in process
Cement kiln dust 12.9 8.3 Most used on site; some use as
Lime kiln dust 1.8 to 13.6 stabilizer; estimated 90 million metric
tons stockpiled
Mineral w aste 1.6 billion N/ A 34 states reported use in roads
WTE ash 8.0 Small amounts Some in asphalt, most on landfill roads
and landfill cover
Non- ferrous slags 8.1 Not available Granular base, hot mix asphalt, etc.
Steel slag Not available 7.0 to 7.5 Aggregate, granular base
RAP 41.0 33.0 Aggregate in hot and cold mix asphalt,
asphalt cement binder, etc.
Reclaimed concrete Not available Not available Aggregate for cement- treated or lean
concrete; aggregate for flow able fill, etc.
21
Chapt er Thr ee
RECYCLI NG FOR SUSTAI NABLE
ROAD CONSTRUCTI ON
INTRODUCTION OF PERTINENT TOPICS
Protecti ng the envi ronment, l i mi ti ng waste generati on, and recycl i ng and reusi ng
materi al s are al l key el ements needed for sustai nabl e devel opment. As i s the case i n the
countri es vi si ted, these el ements must be properl y i ntegrated wi th government pol i ci es,
regul ati ons, economi cs, and cul tural aspects for sustai nabl e devel opment to be
successful . Thi s i s al so true for sustai nabl e road constructi on. The U.S. del egati on
observed that recycl i ng of materi al s and the reuse of by-products, waste, and other non-
vi rgi n materi al s are cri ti cal el ements i n successful sustai nabl e road constructi on i n
several of the countri es vi si ted, parti cul arl y i n the Netherl ands and Denmark. I n these
countri es, governmental pol i ci es and speci fi c sustai nabi l i ty i ni ti ati ves support recycl i ng
i n road constructi on. The consensus of stakehol ders and each countrys cul tural
atti tudes toward recycl i ng al so are extremel y i mportant.
SWEDEN
Sweden i s progressi ng toward usi ng recycl ed materi al s for sustai nabl e road
constructi on, but the country has not advanced as far as some of the other countri es i n
actual i mpl ementati on. Swedi sh road contractors want to use more recycl ed materi al s;
however, use of many potenti al l y candi date materi al s i s not wi despread. As exampl es,
general use of WTE bottom ash and steel sl ag i s l i mi ted to appl i cati ons wi thi n the
boundari es of the producti on faci l i ti es. These materi al s have onl y been used i n
Swedens roads i n demonstrati on projects. On the other hand, ai r-cool ed bl ast furnace
sl ag has been used i n several road constructi ons and even as subbase i n hi ghway
constructi on.
Swedens Road 94 contai ns speci fi cati ons for constructi ng roads. Road 94 permi ts the
use of recycl ed materi al s. The Executi ve Summary states that:
Resi dual products such as sl ag may be used i f they are accepted by the cl i ent
and:
Are acceptabl e from an envi ronmental poi nt of vi ew.
Do not cause probl ems duri ng reuse, l andfi l l or destructi on.
Can be shown to possess at l east as good beari ng capaci ty, stabi l i ty, and
durabi l i ty properti es as the materi al s they repl ace.
Resi dual products shal l be anal yzed as regards chemi cal composi ti on and the
ri sk of l eachi ng. Requi rements on di sposi ti on and any safety measures shal l be
i nvesti gated. Consul tati ons shal l be hel d wi th the nature conservancy uni t of
the county admi ni strati ve board.
These provi si ons have not been a dri ver for i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s i n road
constructi on. Barri ers ci ted for thi s ci rcumstance i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
22
CHAPTER 3
The fact that Sweden has pl enti ful suppl i es of gravel and sand, as wel l as
bedrock that can be crushed and used.
Sweden has suffi ci ent l and for di sposal of waste materi al s i n compari son wi th
several of the other countri es vi si ted.
Lack of cl ear gui del i nes at the nati onal l evel for usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Swedi sh l egi sl ati on that di rects that each candi date project must abi de by si te-
speci fi c permi tti ng requi rements.
Length of ti me for obtai ni ng permi t approval .
Lack of knowl edge about recycl ed materi al s engi neeri ng and envi ronmental
characteri sti cs.
Lack of knowl edge by the general publ i c about the use of recycl ed materi al s i n
road constructi on.
Swedi sh codes requi re that contractors document why they are not usi ng recycl ed
materi al s. At thi s ti me, however, thi s requi rement does not appear to be a strong
dri vi ng force for usi ng recycl ed materi al s. Unti l very recentl y, the contractor was
requi red to have a recycl ed materi al tested to show that i t was at l east as good as the
tradi ti onal materi al . Si nce no such preapproval process exi sts for natural aggregates, i t
i s easi er for the contractors to use them. The Vgverket (Swedi sh Road Admi ni strati on -
SNRA) does not requi re that aggregate producers be I SO 9000 certi fi ed. Most, however,
are certi fi ed. I SO 9000 concerns data qual i ty i ssues; therefore, certi fi cati on does not
guarantee that the aggregate produced by certi fi ed producers wi l l be qual i ty materi al
on the basi s of mechani cal properti es and performance.
NV does not i ssue permi ts; thi s i s the responsi bi l i ty of the l ocal government authori ti es.
NV does, however, requi re that si te-speci fi c factors be consi dered i n the permi tti ng
process. I nformati on on the exact l ocati on of the project, materi al engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental properti es, envi ronmental protecti on methods to be used, and si mi l ar
factors are requi red. There i s a general l ack of
knowl edge about the engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental properti es of recycl ed materi al s
and how to i mpl ement the l egi sl ati on.
Consequentl y, regi onal and l ocal governments
want nati onal gui del i nes to support
i mpl ementati on. The l ocal authori ti es often do
not have the techni cal and other resources
needed to eval uate the permi t appl i cati on.
Producers of recycl ed materi al s al so want
gui del i nes. These factors resul t i n l ong del ays
i n getti ng permi ts. Compl i cati ng the process i s the ri ght of non-governmental
organi zati ons (NGOs) to provi de si gni fi cant i nput i nto the permi tti ng process. They can
appeal deci si ons by l ocal authori ti es to award a permi t. The appeal to an envi ronmental
court can l ead to reversal of the l ocal authori ti es approval . The possi bi l i ty that a
permi t approval wi l l be reversed by the envi ronmental court i s an added deterrent to
contractors attempti ng to use recycl ed materi al s.
The possibility that a permit approval will
be reversed by the environmental court
is an added deterrent to contractors
attempting to use recycled materials.
23
CHAPTER 3
NV has i ssued gui del i nes i n other areas, but i s not doi ng so for the use of recycl ed
materi al s i n road constructi on. Al though i t woul d l i ke to shorten the ti me for permi t
approval s, i t mai ntai ns that the users of recycl ed materi al s have the responsi bi l i ty and
need to take the l ead i n doi ng so.
Si nce 1995, Sweden has empl oyed a tax on vi rgi n materi al s of 5 Swedi sh kroner (Sk)
(~US$0.57) for each metri c ton used. Starti ng January 2000 there i s a tax on waste of
Sk 250 (~US$28.53) for each metri c ton di sposed i nto l andfi l l s. Thi s may hel p to
i ncrease the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on, though many bel i eve the
l ack of nati onal gui del i nes and other factors wi l l need to be addressed fi rst. A project
bei ng supported by the Swedi sh Nati onal Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone Associ ati on
i s the devel opment of gui del i nes for usi ng crushed concrete from constructi on
demol i ti on and debri s i n road constructi on. The gui del i nes wi l l cover aggregate
producers, contractors, and commi ssi oners. I n devel opi ng these gui del i nes, the
aggregate producers bel i eve they are posi ti oni ng themsel ves to process recycl ed
materi al s. These gui del i nes wi l l probabl y be approved by the SNRA.
Research bei ng conducted by VTI and SGI i n conjuncti on wi th the EU 4th Framework
Al ternati ve Materi al s (ALT-MAT) program shoul d hel p i ncrease the use of recycl ed
materi al s i n road constructi on. The ALT-MAT program i s a very l arge, comprehensi ve
research program i nvol vi ng Great Bri tai n, Denmark, Sweden, France, Fi nl and, Austri a,
and Swi tzerl and. Thi s research i s addressi ng i ssues that wi l l remove and reduce
uncertai nti es associ ated wi th usi ng recycl ed materi al s. The ul ti mate objecti ve i s to
defi ne methods by whi ch the sui tabi l i ty of al ternati ve materi al s for use i n road
constructi on can be eval uated under appropri ate cl i mati c condi ti ons. Methods bei ng
i nvesti gated cover mechani cal properti es, functi onal requi rements, l eachi ng
characteri sti cs, and l ong-term stabi l i ty. Secondary objecti ves i ncl ude determi ni ng the
mechani sms and rates of rel ease of contami nants from sel ected al ternati ve materi al s,
i ncl udi ng use of cl i mate control chambers and l ysi meter tests. Al so i ncl uded are
i nspecti ons of exi sti ng roads, preparati on of speci fi cati ons for conducti ng ful l -scal e
tri al s on embankments, and compari son of the pol l uti on potenti al wi th that from
sources such as road traffi c. The program al so wi l l devel op recommendati ons for
mi ti gati on measures that can be used to enabl e the use of al ternati ve materi al s. Better
correl ati on of l aboratory test resul ts to performance i n the fi el d i s an i mportant goal .
Swedens rol e i n ALT-MAT i ncl udes i nvesti gati on of l eachi ng behavi or of the recycl ed
materi al s and al so eval uati ng a 15-year-ol d motorway and a 5-year-ol d hi ghway
constructed wi th ai r-cool ed bl ast furnace sl ag. Two test secti ons wi th crushed concrete
i n the subbase have been i nvesti gated too. I nformati on about ALT-MAT can be obtai ned
at http://www.trl .co.uk/al tmat/i ndex.htm.
Dr. Jan Hartl n of Lund Uni versi ty reported on the project Uti l i zati on of Secondary
Materi al s i n I nfrastructure Projects A Regi onal Approach. The project report, due
soon, contai ns i nformati on on:
Methodol ogy for i nvesti gati ng and characteri zi ng materi al s.
Crushi ng and sampl i ng materi al s on si te.
Crushed concrete as granul ar base and subbase.
Crushed concrete, bri cks, and WTE ash as subbase materi al .
24
CHAPTER 3
Envi ronmental i mpacts from concrete, bri cks, and MSWI ash compared wi th
natural aggregates.
Reuse of col d asphal t, gypsum, and excavated soi l s after stabi l i zati on.
The report wi l l , among other topi cs, di scuss ri sk assessments and markets for these
materi al s. A major poi nt that Dr. Hartl n made was that under new rul es, natural rock
may exceed l eachi ng requi rements. He al so made the poi nt that, when proposi ng the
use of recycl ed materi al s, one must educate offi ci al s and provi de them data. He stated
that i t i s very i mportant to show offi ci al s that some processi ng (treatment), even i f onl y
a smal l amount, has taken pl ace.
Whi l e at VTI , the U.S. team al so heard a presentati on from Dr. Andrew Dawson, from
the Uni versi ty of Notti ngham, Notti ngham, Engl and, about some experi ences i n the
Uni ted Ki ngdom (U.K.). He reported on an EU project (under the 4th Framework
Transport RTD Programme) cal l ed Constructi on wi th Unbound Road Aggregates i n
Europe (COURAGE). The program i s bei ng managed i n the U.K.
COURAGE i nvol ves parti ci pants from the U.K., Portugal , Fi nl and, France, I cel and,
Germany, and Greece. The project i s i nvesti gati ng the mechani cal characteri zati on of a
range of crushed rock materi al s, measuri ng and moni tori ng the vari abi l i ty of i n-si tu
moi sture condi ti ons i n granul ar materi al s i n road pavements, and model i ng of the
el asti c and pl asti c behavi or of unbound materi al s.
Dr. Dawson reported that the U.K. formerl y wi del y used al ternati ve materi al s for
pavement constructi on. The use, however, has been si gni fi cantl y reduced pri nci pal l y
because of engi neeri ng qual i ty assurance di ffi cul ti es and requi rements for
accountabi l i ty and warranti es. Contractors now bi d the road project and own i t for 30
years for a fee. The government wi l l pay the contractor to bui l d, operate, and mai ntai n
the road over i ts desi gn l i fe, but requi res adherence to performance measures. Most
road constructi on projects i n the U.K. are for wi deni ng and upgradi ng purposes.
Speci fi cati ons are bei ng dri ven by performance requi rements rather than the
characteri sti cs of the materi al s. Contractors wi l l bi d the road project usi ng natural
materi al s and then substi tute recycl ed materi al s i f they bel i eve the materi al s wi l l
perform sati sfactori l y. There are si te-speci fi c envi ronmental requi rements; the
contractor i s responsi bl e for these. The project cannot affect the ground water.
Research by the U.K. and others has shown that recycl ed materi al s can be made to
work. Economi cs, however, may be affected by the processi ng and management
requi red. The U.K. now has a l andfi l l tax (equi val ent to US$3 to $4 per ton for cl ean
i ndustri al waste and $10 per ton for hazardous waste) that wi l l hel p thi s si tuati on. Dr.
Dawson al so reported studi es at the Uni versi ty of Notti ngham that i ndi cate that
contami nates i n most recycl ed materi al s are not an i ssue, al though pH may be
i mportant for some. I n thi s regard, natural l i mestone i s someti mes worse than the
recycl ed materi al . Uni versi ty of Notti ngham researchers as wel l as Swedi sh
researchers are movi ng toward usi ng tri axi al testi ng to devel op methods for compari ng
strength wi th sti ffness. Crushed concrete i s bei ng i nvesti gated i n both the ALT-MAT
program and the COURAGE studi es. I nformati on about the studi es at The Uni versi ty
of Notti ngham and COURAGE can be obtai ned at www.notti ngham.ac.uk/p&g.
25
CHAPTER 3
DENMARK
Waste management i n Denmark i s governed by rul es and regul ati ons ensuri ng that
waste i s col l ected and managed i n ways that are protecti ve of the envi ronment and
natural resources. One of the most i mportant measures for faci l i tati ng good
management i s the tax on waste that i s l andfi l l ed and i nci nerated. Local authori ti es
have overal l admi ni strati ve authori ty for waste management and are responsi bl e for
ensuri ng that suffi ci ent waste treatment capaci ty exi sts. Therefore, except i n a few
speci al cases, the l ocal authori ti es determi ne how wastes wi l l be di sposed. Tradi ti onal l y,
the publ i c sector assumed the responsi bi l i ty for
treati ng the waste. Thi s was done by one or
more l ocal authori ti es establ i shi ng
corporati ons to treat the waste. The l ocal
authori ti es mai ntai ned control over waste
management pl anni ng and ensured the
adequate fl ow of waste to the treatment
faci l i ti es. However, Dani sh soci etys strong
preference for recycl i ng has resul ted i n the
establ i shment of pri vate sector faci l i ti es for
processi ng waste. Most of these have been
establ i shed si nce 1990.
The Dani sh government pl ays a key rol e i n dri vi ng recycl i ng i n Denmark. Thi s was
al so a concl usi on of the Organi zati on for Economi c Co-Operati on and Devel opment
(OECD) 1997 report ti tl ed Recycling Strategies for Road Works (OECD study), whi ch
gave Denmark very hi gh marks for i ts i nfl uence i n promoti ng the use of recycl abl es i n
road constructi on. The Dani sh government has created an atmosphere where road
contractors, producers of waste materi al s, and suppl i ers are moti vated to work together
to assi st the use of recycl ed materi al s. Thi s effort i s achi eved by supporti ng research
i nvesti gati ons and demonstrati ons, tax pol i ci es on waste di sposal , and i ssui ng
recommendati ons, gui dance, and requi rements for recycl i ng. The governments general
pol i cy i s that recycl i ng shoul d be done at the hi ghest l evel that i s techni cal l y and
economi cal l y feasi bl e. An exampl e of thi s i s the reuse of ol d asphal t concrete i n new
asphal ti c pavements. I f thi s i s not techni cal l y feasi bl e or economi c, then use as fi l l or
road base i s acceptabl e. The government has provi ded grants to assi st i n the startup of
pri vate sector compani es to process recycl abl e materi al s. I ts efforts to educate the
publ i c about usi ng recycl ed materi al s and the general publ i cs very posi ti ve atti tude
about recycl i ng are strong dri vers for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on. I n
1999, the tax for usi ng a cubi c meter (M
3
) of vi rgi n materi al s was 5 Dani sh kroner
(Dkr) (~US$0.65). The tax for l andfi l l i ng was Dkr 375 (~US$49). I nci nerati ng waste to
recover energy for heat and power was Dkr 280 (~US$36); for energy recovery for heat
onl y, i t was Dkr 330 (~US$43). These taxes are per metri c ton of materi al and are i n
addi ti on to the operati ng and other costs associ ated wi th the faci l i ti es.
The Dani sh government al so supports research for the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road
constructi on. The Vejtekni sk I nsti tut (Dani sh Road I nsti tute - DRI ) i nvol ves al l the
partners concerned wi th constructi on to devel op speci fi cati ons, standards, and
gui del i nes for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on. Speci fi cati ons are
devel oped usi ng the consensus approach si mi l ar to that used by the Ameri can Soci ety
The Danish government has created an
atmosphere where road contractors,
producers of waste materials, and
suppliers are motivated to work together
to assist the use of recycled materials.
26
CHAPTER 3
for Testi ng and Materi al s (ASTM). Parti ci pants i ncl ude the materi al suppl i ers,
envi ronmental authori ti es, the Vejdi rektorafet (the Dani sh Road Di rectorate - VD) (for
engi neeri ng aspects), the owner agency, and the contractors. An overal l commi ttee
determi nes the need for new standards and then establ i shes worki ng groups to begi n
the process. Al l i nterested parti es are i nvi ted to parti ci pate. Al l parti ci pants must agree
before a standard can be adopted. The process i s admi ni stered by the Secretari at under
the VD. Thi s consensus approach essenti al l y guarantees that the standards wi l l be
i mpl emented. Whi l e the ASTM consensus approach can take many years for a standard
to pass, the process i n Denmark i s usual l y compl eted i n 3 to 4 years. The U.S. del egati on
consi dered thi s consensus approach a uni que method for devel opi ng standards for usi ng
recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on.
The Dani sh Agency for the Devel opment of Trade and I ndustry establ i shed i n 1999 the
Center for Restproduckter (C-RES). The C-RESs overal l objecti ve i s to devel op
envi ronmental l y acceptabl e and economi cal l y sustai nabl e methods, concepts, and
technol ogi es for characteri zi ng and treati ng i ndustri al resi dues, waste materi al s, and
other by-products for better recycl i ng and uti l i zati on. For materi al s that cannot be
recycl ed, C-RES al so eval uates methods to
ensure that waste i s l andfi l l ed properl y.
Cooperati ng and supporti ng partners i n the
Center i ncl ude i ndustry, research
organi zati ons, academi a, and others concerned
wi th the processi ng and uti l i zati on of waste
materi al s. The Center i s al so i nvol ved i n
devel opi ng methods and techni ques for the safe
l andfi l l i ng of resi dues. Research fi ndi ngs from
the Center wi l l be used to assi st i n the
devel opment of standards as wel l as to better
understand the envi ronmental and engi neeri ng behavi or of recycl ed materi al s.
Denmark parti ci pates i n the ALT-MAT program and i s i nvesti gati ng an exi sti ng road
subbase contai ni ng WTE bottom ash, as di scussed i n Chapter 5. The ALT-MAT program
pri mary objecti ve for Denmark i s to defi ne methods by whi ch the sui tabi l i ty of usi ng
al ternati ve materi al s can be eval uated under appropri ate cl i mati c condi ti ons. Methods
wi l l cover the mechani cal properti es of the materi al s, thei r functi onal requi rements,
thei r l eachi ng potenti al and thei r l ong-term stabi l i ty. The program i s al so determi ni ng
the mechani sms and rates of rel ease of consti tuents from the materi al s. Thi s i ncl udes
l ysi meter studi es, eval uati ons of exi sti ng road constructi on, devel opment of
speci fi cati ons for ful l -scal e demonstrati ons, and devel opment of methods to control
contami nate rel ease that coul d be used to enabl e the use of recycl ed materi al s.
GERMANY
Si nce 1972, Germany has passed several l aws deal i ng wi th waste management. As i s
the case i n some other countri es, the Federal government enacts the l egi sl ati on, but
del egates i mpl ementati on and enforcement to the i ndi vi dual states. The Waste
Management Act of 1972 establ i shed standards for the col l ecti on, treatment, and
di sposal of waste. The act di d not address waste preventi on or recycl i ng. As i mproved
technol ogi es emerged, the act was amended. I n 1975, the Waste Management Program
While the ASTM consensus approach
can take many years for a standard to
pass, the process in Denmark is usually
completed in 3 to 4 years.
27
CHAPTER 3
was i ni ti ated and eval uated speci fi c waste types to determi ne the amounts of waste
materi al s that coul d be recycl ed and what methods were avai l abl e for recycl i ng them.
Then i n 1986, Germany defi ned a preferred order of pri ori ti es for managi ng waste:
avoi dance, recycl i ng, and di sposal . The l aw
establ i shed a 90 percent recycl i ng rate as a
target for road constructi on. Thi s Law on Waste
Di sposal al so stated that recycl ed materi al s
must meet al l the requi rements pl aced on
tradi ti onal aggregates and mi xes.
The Cl osed Substance Cycl e and Waste
Management Act (1996) establ i shed the
fundamental phi l osophy that producers have
responsi bi l i ty for the enti re l i fe cycl e of the
products they manufacture. Thi s onl y ends wi th
the recycl i ng or di sposal of the product. As far
as possi bl e al l resi dues generated duri ng thi s
l i fe cycl e must be fed back i nto the cl osed substance cycl e. Onl y waste that cannot be
recovered and recycl ed may be di sposed of usi ng methods protecti ve of human heal th
and the envi ronment. I n 1999, compani es l arger than a certai n si ze must submi t waste
l i fe-cycl e pl ans. The objecti ve of these requi rements i s to hel p i ncrease recycl i ng wi thi n
and among compani es.
Today, Germanys waste management pol i ces are al so bei ng affected by acti ons of the
EU. Some of these may act as a deterrent to i ncreased recycl i ng i n road constructi on i n
Germany and other countri es. As an exampl e, the EU cl assi fi es 8 to 10 materi al s from
constructi on demol i ti on as waste. Germany consi ders these secondary materi al s. The
EU cl assi fi es scrap ti res as waste for energy recovery, whi l e Germany refers to them as
raw materi al s to be used i n producti on. As i n the Uni ted States and other countri es, the
terms raw materi al s and secondary materi al s are percei ved more favorabl y than
waste. The EU termi nol ogy i s consi dered probl emati c.
The I ndustry Associ ati on for Recycl i ng (Bundeaverband der Deutschen Recycl i ng-
Bastoff-I ndustri e e.V.) was establ i shed i n 1983 to encourage i ncreased use of recycl ed
materi al s. The associ ati on works wi th end users to i mprove the qual i ty of recycl ed
materi al s and to el i mi nate al l envi ronmental effects from thei r use. I t now has more
than 200 company members. More than 55,000 jobs and an esti mated 35 bi l l i on Euros
(~US$35 bi l l i on) have been created by i ts acti vi ti es.
Al though Germany strongl y encourages i ndustry to recycl e i n-house, the 1996
l egi sl ati on has not resul ted i n l arge i ncreases i n the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road
constructi on. Onl y sel ected materi al s such as asphal t and concrete are enjoyi ng
economi c success. The government does not pl ay a strong rol e i n the marketi ng of
recycl ed materi al s and l eaves thi s pri mari l y to i ndustry.
Factors for i ncreased recycl i ng i n roads and other sectors i ncl ude the l ack of l andfi l l
space and the concern for dri nki ng water protecti on. Germany has pl aced stri ct
requi rements on what waste can be l andfi l l ed on the basi s of concentrati ons of sel ected
consti tuents and organi c content. Al so, before generators of constructi on demol i ti on
Germanys Closed Substance Cycle
and Waste Management Act (1996)
established the fundamental philosophy
that producers have responsibility for
the entire life cycle of the products they
manufacture.
28
CHAPTER 3
waste can di spose of i t i nto a l andfi l l , they must fi rst get a wri tten speci fi cati on from a
recycl i ng processi ng faci l i ty that the waste cannot be recycl ed.
Economi cs i s another major factor i n the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on.
No provi si ons i n the contract bi ddi ng process gi ve prospecti ve contractors credi t for
usi ng recycl ed materi al s. Consequentl y,
recycl ed materi al s wi l l onl y be used i f they are
cheaper and wi l l perform equal l y as wel l as
natural materi al s. Some Germans noted that
because vi rgi n materi al s i n Germany are
cheap, i t i s di ffi cul t for secondary materi al s to
compete wi th vi rgi n materi al s i n the free
market system. Other Germans expressed the
opi ni on that the Federal government wi l l need
to parti ci pate i n marketi ng and educati on
(whi ch i t does not currentl y do) to hel p spur
i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s. I n addi ti on,
even though l andfi l l space i s l i mi ted and there are stri ct requi rements, l and di sposal
costs of 20 deutschemarks (DM)/metri c ton (~US$9) are sti l l l ow compared wi th some of
the other countri es. Thi s fact woul d tend to di scourage expendi tures that mi ght be
requi red to process materi al s that currentl y are not judged to be recycl abl e.
Standards govern the general requi rement for materi al s (e.g., cement, sand, bi tumen)
used i n Germanys roads. There are requi rements for speci al appl i cati ons and these
expl i ci tl y permi t the use of recycl ed materi al s and i ndustri al by-products. Recycl ed
materi al s must, however, ful fi l l the same requi rements as natural materi al s. Speci al
condi ti ons for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i ncl ude provi ng that they are envi ronmental l y
acceptabl e. The l ack of speci fi cati ons and gui del i nes for usi ng recycl ed materi al s was
seen as a barri er.
THE NETHERLANDS
The Netherl ands i s far advanced as far as devel opi ng and i ntegrati ng pol i ci es, economi c
tool s, regul ati ons, and other factors needed for i ncreased recycl i ng and the use of
recycl abl es for sustai nabl e road constructi on. Al ong wi th Denmark, the OECD study
gave the Netherl ands very hi gh marks for i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s. To put
thi s i nto proper perspecti ve, i t i s necessary to revi ew Dutch pol i cy concerned wi th
economi c growth and the envi ronment. Thi s pol i cy was formal i zed i n a 1997 document
i ssued by the Dutch government. Based on the concept that economi c pol i cy, spati al
pl anni ng pol i cy, and envi ronmental pol i cy must be devel oped together, the underl yi ng
pri nci pl e i s that economi c growth shoul d occur onl y i f pol l uti on decl i nes at the same
ti me. Thi s pri nci pl e, referred to as absol ute del i nki ng, requi res that si gni fi cant
changes be made i n producti on, pri ces, taxes, and government pol i cy. I t i nvol ves a l ong-
term process that must i nvol ve al l segments of soci ety, and cal l ed for new, sustai nabl e
forms of economi c acti vi ti es such as:
Manufacturi ng of envi ronmental l y fri endl y products and servi ces that meet the
needs of consumers, who pl ace great i mportance on envi ronmental qual i ty.
Because virgin materials
in Germany are cheap, it is
difficult for secondary materials
to compete with virgin materials
in the free market system.
29
CHAPTER 3
Attai nment of sustai nabi l i ty i n al l busi ness sectors.
Use of envi ronmental l y effi ci ent technol ogi es.
Effi ci ent use of space, spati al qual i ty, and i nvestments i n the i nfrastructure to
ai d sustai nabl e economi c devel opment.
I ncorporati on of envi ronmental factors i n pri ces of goods and servi ces.
From an envi ronmental perspecti ve, sustai nabl e devel opment i nvol ves three mai n
pol i ci es: the Waste Materi al s Pol i cy, the Soi l Protecti on Pol i cy, and the Surface Mi neral
Pol i cy. The Waste Materi al s Pol i cy i s based on the Lansi nk Ladder for waste
management: preventi on, recycl i ng, burni ng, and dumpi ng. Among the provi si ons of the
Soi l Protecti on Pol i cy i s the concept of permi tti ng a margi nal envi ronmental burdeni ng
of soi l when usi ng secondary materi al s. Thi s pol i cy permi ts an i ncrease (up to 1 percent)
of contami nati on above background l evel s i n the top l ayer of soi l over a 100-year peri od.
Objecti ves of the Surface Mi neral Pol i cy are to encourage the conservati on of raw
materi al s, sti mul ate the use of secondary materi al s as much as possi bl e, support the use
of renewabl e raw materi al s, and ensure that adequate suppl i es of raw materi al s are
avai l abl e for constructi on.
Consi stent wi th the Lansi nk Ladder, the Netherl ands has a hi erarchy of preferred
opti ons for managi ng waste. I n the Envi ronmental Management Act, i n the chapter on
waste (Jan. 1994), the order of preferences i s: preventi on, reuse and recycl i ng, waste-to-
energy, and l andfi l l i ng. The Act al so establ i shed rul es and regul ati ons for preventi ng
waste; di scardi ng and col l ecti ng waste; and treati ng, processi ng, destroyi ng, and
l andfi l l i ng waste. Several i nstruments have been effecti ve i n maki ng the Netherl ands a
l eader i n recycl i ng and reuse of materi al s. I n addi ti on to the Envi ronmental
Management Act, and the subsequent chapter on waste, the taxes on waste di sposal ,
vol untary agreements wi th i ndustry, publ i c campai gns, and support of research,
demonstrati ons, and i mpl ementati on by the government have al l pl ayed major rol es.
The Dutch embraced a market phi l osophy for promoti ng the concept of usi ng recycl ed
materi al s i n sustai nabl e hi ghway constructi on. As shown i n Fi gure 1, the market
phi l osophy i nvol ves numerous i nteracti ve components:
The government provi des cl ear and unequi vocal standards for al l recycl ed
materi al s. The standards are usual l y devel oped through governmental research
and publ i c or i ndustry worki ng groups.
Recycl ed materi al s producers treat thei r materi al s l i ke a product, usi ng
certi fi ed QA/QC programs so i t can compete agai nst natural materi al s.
There i s cl ear pol i cy pl anni ng and i mpl ementati on, whi ch al l ows producers and
contractors to prepare for thi s new market.
There are i ncenti ves from the government (e.g., substanti al l andfi l l di sposal
taxes on materi al s that can be recycl ed and modest taxes on the use of natural
aggregates) that act as sti mul ants.
When these i ni ti ati ves, as wel l as others shown i n Fi gure 1, are combi ned, a
mature recycl i ng market can devel op over ti me.
30
CHAPTER 3
Figure 1. Market elements for a sustainable recycling strategy cycle in the Netherlands.
The Dutch sustai nabi l i ty model emphasi zes that products shoul d be manufactured for
future recycl i ng. Thi s and other concepts are depi cted i n Fi gure 2. The suppl y of
pri mary and recycl ed materi al s and thei r engi neeri ng and envi ronmental behavi or i n
products are cri ti cal factors. Constructi on shoul d consi der future mai ntenance and
demol i ti on requi rements. Furthermore, demol i ti on shoul d be done usi ng methods that
enhance recovery and uti l i zati on of the materi al s (e.g., di smantl i ng a bui l di ng rather
than usi ng a wrecki ng bal l ). As depi cted i n the fi gure, some materi al s enter the cl osed
cycl ed of use and mai ntenance; others do not. However, some materi al s that do not enter
thi s cl osed cycl e may sti l l be uti l i zed. Waste and emi ssi ons l eave the chai n and must be
properl y managed. An objecti ve of fol l owi ng thi s phi l osophy i s to avoi d desi gni ng a
recycl i ng scheme for a by-product materi al wi thout eval uati ng al l the potenti al opti ons
and future consequences, i ncl udi ng i ts engi neeri ng and envi ronmental behavi or. One
must consi der the future reuse of the same product, or how i t can be recycl ed i nto a
di fferent product or use. An exampl e i s that the use of tar i n Dutch roads appeared to be
a good recycl i ng strategy at one ti me. I t now causes consi derabl e probl ems for recycl i ng
ol d asphal t pavements.
policy
client
profit/risk
economy
market
private industry
profit/risk
technical process
technical/environmental
parameters and standards
(quality assurance)
Courtesy of Jan van der Zwan
31
CHAPTER 3
Figure 2. The cyclical nature of a sustainable recycling market.
The Dutch government determi ned that more space woul d be needed for resi denti al
housi ng, agri cul ture, i ndustri al devel opment, and si mi l ar uses; therefore, space for
l andfi l l s i s bei ng stri ctl y control l ed and mi ni ng for natural aggregates i s bei ng
curtai l ed. Protecti ng the envi ronment i s a hi gh nati onal pri ori ty. I mposi ng hi gh taxes
on l andfi l l i ng and the hi gh cost for waste-to-energy because of fl ue gas cl eani ng
requi rements are exampl es of acti ons bei ng used to i mpl ement envi ronmental pol i ci es
and hel p i ncrease recycl i ng. Landfi l l fees range from 80 to 800 Dutch gui l ders (f.)
(~US$35 to $352) per metri c ton dependi ng on the type of waste bei ng l andfi l l ed. These
fees wi l l i ncrease i n 2000. I n 1995, the Dutch began a phased ban on l andfi l l i ng of 32
wastes; constructi on and demol i ti on wastes were i ncl uded i n 1997. Thi s ban has hel ped
to i ncrease recycl i ng of these materi al s.
I n 1972, the Standard Speci fi cati on System for Works of Ci vi l Engi neeri ng Constructi on
(RAW Systemati ek) was establ i shed by the Dutch Mi ni stry of Transport and Water
Management (Nederl andse Mi ni steri e van Verkeer en Waterstaat - V&W) and the
Dutch Road Bui l di ng Associ ati on (Nederl andse Vereni gi ng van Wegenbouwers -
NVWB) wi th the objecti ve of devel opi ng standard ci vi l engi neeri ng speci fi cati ons. The
I nformati on and Technol ogy Center for Transport and I nfrastructure (Sti chti ng
Centrum voor Regel gevi ng en Onderzoek i n de Grond-, Water- en Wegenbouw en de
Verkeerstechni ek - CROW) was formed i n 1987 to consol i date overl appi ng research and
standardi zati on acti vi ti es. The RAW Systemati ek was al so i ncorporated i nto CROW.
CROW acts as a knowl edge broker. I ts mai n objecti ves are to devel op gui del i nes,
speci fi cati ons, and research on ci vi l engi neeri ng, traffi c and transport, and technol ogy
transfer. I t i s a non-profi t organi zati on through whi ch the nati onal government,
provi nces, muni ci pal i ti es, contractors, consul ti ng organi zati ons, publ i c transport, and
educati onal i nsti tuti ons cooperate i n the desi gn, constructi on, and management of road
and traffi c transport faci l i ti es. Research i s funded by al l parti es and knowl edge i s
provi ded by al l parti es i nvol ved i n the speci fi cati on devel opment process. CROW has a
Board of Di rectors wi th members from these groups. CROW does not conduct research
Primary raw materials
Recycling waste
materials
Supply of raw
materials
Re-use
materials
Demolition
Use and
maintenance
Production
Construction
Useful
application
waste/
emission
energy
use and
maintenance
materials
information
32
CHAPTER 3
di rectl y but does formul ate and supervi se needed research. I n thi s rol e, i t i s responsi bl e
for research and standards devel opment i nvol ved i n al l phases of the constructi on
process, i ncl udi ng mai ntenance and demol i ti on.
CROW publ i shes the ci vi l engi neeri ng speci fi cati ons referred to as the RAW
Systemati ek. The RAW Systemati ek i s determi ned by the partners i nvol ved i n the
constructi on process. CROW serves i n a pl anni ng and supervi sory rol e and ensures
coherence among the vari ous parts of the standard speci fi cati ons. Parti es parti ci pati ng
i n the CROW standardi zati on work i ncl ude:
V&W.
NVWB.
Provi nci al Transport and Envi ronmental Servi ces (Provi nci al e Waterstaat).
Dutch Associ ati on of Muni ci pal i ti es (Vereni gi ng van Nederl andse gemeenten -
VNG).
Government Servi ce for Land and Water Management (Di enst Landel i jk Gebi ed
- DLG).
Ci vi l Engi neeri ng Contractors Associ ati on (Vereni gi ng Aannemers Grond-,
Water- en Wegenbouw - VAGWW).
Dutch Central Dredges Associ ati on (Vereni gi ng Centraal Baggerbedri jf - CB).
Dutch Associ ati on of Nati onal Bui l di ng Contractors (Vereni gi ng Grootbedri jf
Bouw - VGBouw).
Dutch Associ ati on of Consul ti ng Engi neers (Orde van Nederl andse Raadgevende
I ngeni eurs - ONRI ).
The Associ ati on for the Promoti on of Asphal t Works (de Vereni gi ng tot
Bevorderi ng van Werken i n Asfal t - VBW Asfal t).
Work i s carri ed out i n worki ng groups and commi ttees wi th al l parti es equal l y
represented. The resul ts of the work are i ncl uded i n the ci vi l engi neeri ng standard
speci fi cati ons and are made avai l abl e to the users of the RAW Systemati ek. Because of
the sel ecti on procedures and requi rements of the process used to devel op the
speci fi cati ons, there i s a hi gh l evel of qual i ty and acceptance of the speci fi cati ons.
Because of the Dutch economi c and envi ronmental pol i ci es, and the strong desi re of the
partners i nvol ved i n the RAW Systemati ek, the use of recycl ed materi al s i s i ncl uded.
Thi s hel ps sti mul ate thei r use i n constructi on. There are standard envi ronmental
speci fi cati ons that do not di sti ngui sh secondary materi al s from natural materi al s. As
l ong as they meet the speci fi cati ons, they can be used.
The Dutch Pol dermodel i s a model for cooperati on between the government and
i ndustry and has been i nstrumental i n i mpl ementati on of the Dutch Bui l di ng Materi al s
Decree (DBMD), whi ch i n turn has promoted the use of waste materi al s i n road
constructi on. Thi s model resul ted from 15 years of many changes, devel opments, and
rul e maki ng. I ndustry found i t di ffi cul t to move qui ckl y enough to adjust to the new
devel opments and rul es. The DBMD was ci ted as an exampl e of a compl ex rul e that was
di ffi cul t to i mpl ement (see Chapter 6). A worki ng group was formed to address thi s
i ssue. A resul t was the Dutch Pol dermodel , whi ch i s basi cal l y a model for democrati c
33
CHAPTER 3
consensus bui l di ng to fi nd sol uti ons to compl ex probl ems of regul ati ons devel opment,
i mpl ementati on, and associ ated factors. I n thi s case, the goal was to fi nd ways to
i mpl ement the DBMD so that i t woul d meet the needs of the secondary materi al s
i ndustry, and at the same ti me meet the needs for envi ronmental protecti on. The
objecti ve was to not destroy the i ndustry i n order to protect the envi ronment. There was
a need for functi onal regul ati ons wi th detai l ed standards, open communi cati on and
transfer of i nformati on, envi ronmental qual i ty, and operati onal recycl i ng systems. The
government agreed that i t woul d not change the rul es or formul ate new rul es to repl ace
ones al ready i n force duri ng the Pol dermodel devel opment. I ndustry agreed that, i n
order to meet the condi ti ons for envi ronmental protecti on and i ncreased recycl i ng, i t
was necessary to i mprove the qual i ty of secondary materi al s. These acti ons l ed to the
devel opment of a process used to approve materi al s, certi fy compani es, and ensure
qual i ty control . A stati sti cal approach i s used for qual i ty control to reduce costs
associ ated wi th anal ysi s of sampl es. Al so i mportant to the i ndustry i s that approved
materi al s are no l onger consi dered waste, whi ch hel ps to establ i sh markets for the
recycl ed products. There are provi si ons for taki ng acti ons agai nst compani es that do not
compl y wi th the agreement. An i nteresti ng note was that for several years, producers of
natural materi al s were agai nst thi s move to assi st the establ i shment of a secondary
materi al s i ndustry, but they now are produci ng them i n addi ti on to thei r core busi ness.
At present, di scussi ons are bei ng hel d to determi ne necessary acti ons to mai ntai n the
vi abi l i ty of smal l compani es that wi l l have fi nanci al di ffi cul ti es i mpl ementi ng
certi fi cati on steps rel ated to the DBMD.
The market concept menti oned earl i er, as appl i ed to sustai nabl e recycl i ng i ni ti ati ves,
has matured to the poi nt that there are now concrete exampl es of products that can
compete i n the marketpl ace whi l e promoti ng sustai nabi l i ty. The Dutch Water Works
Department (Ri jkswaterstaat - RWS) has used two product l i fe-cycl e model s to
i l l ustrate the degree of market success and the devel opment phases for usi ng recycl ed
materi al s, whi ch are shown i n Fi gures 3 and 4.
Figure 3. Degree of success for use of recycled materials in the Netherlands.
dredge
spoil
cleaned
ground
waste
incineration
bottom ash
concrete
and
brickwork
blast
furnace
slag
no acceptation
no application
market
acceptation
market
appreciation
DEGREE OF SUCCESS
34
CHAPTER 3
Figure 4. Different phases of development of recycled materials.
The Dutch ci ted several reasons for the hi gh l evel of recycl i ng i n the Netherl ands:
Space requi rements i n a smal l country wi th a hi gh popul ati on densi ty.
Need for l ong-term care of l andfi l l s and the desi re to mi ni mi ze thi s burden.
Avoi dance of WTE where feasi bl e.
Use of fi nanci al i ncenti ves (e.g., hi gh l andfi l l costs, subsi di es, etc.) to promote
recycl i ng. One exampl e i s that certi fi ed compani es recei ve a fee for di smantl i ng
cars for recycl i ng.
A ban on l andfi l l i ng of recycl abl e waste (e.g., C&D).
Dutch i ndustry i denti fi ed fi ve factors for the success i n recycl i ng:
Devel opment of recycl i ng technol ogy.
A wel l -defi ned techni cal program.
A cl ear and unambi guous pol i cy regardi ng engi neeri ng and envi ronmental
requi rements.
Government pol i ci es that restri ct l andfi l l i ng.
The fact that the owner of the constructi on project i s the responsi bl e party i f
probl ems occur.
Dutch i ndustry al so i denti fi ed the fol l owi ng factors for successful l y creati ng pri vate
markets for recycl ed materi al s:
I ndustry has an acti ve sel l i ng pol i cy.
I ndustry i nvests i n faci l i ti es for processi ng waste i nto useful materi al s.
I ndustry i mproves the qual i ty of recycl ed materi al s and uses hi gh vol umes of
materi al s.
Product Life Cycle:
Different pha ses of development
amount
time
no interest development growth maturity decrease
35
CHAPTER 3
Government acts to sol ve any soci al probl ems that ari se.
As an i ndependent veri fi cati on of the success of the Dutch sustai nabi l i ty model , an
offi ci al of a WTE bottom ash processi ng pl ant attri buted the hi gh l evel of recycl i ng of
the bottom ash to the fol l owi ng factors:
Havi ng cl ear, conci se regul ati ons that everyone understands.
Establ i shi ng and mai ntai ni ng a hi gh l evel of qual i ty control over the process.
Havi ng a hi gh l evel of cooperati on between government and i ndustry.
Based on these di scussi ons, there i s no doubt that the Dutch governments pol i ci es and
acti ons have si gni fi cantl y affected recycl i ng i n the Netherl ands and l ed to thei r
i mpressi ve recycl i ng rates.
FRANCE
The team noted that France has very si mi l ar barri ers to the use of recycl ed materi al s to
those i n the Uni ted States. These barri ers, whi ch i ncl ude economi cs, publ i c rel ati ons, an
undefi ned rol e of the Federal government, and a l ack of strong i ncenti ves, affect the
degree of recycl i ng for sustai nabl e road constructi on. The U.S. del egati on di d, however,
observe some programs and i ni ti ati ves i n France that may be transferabl e to the
Uni ted States.
French del egates i ndi cated that there are i ncreasi ng envi ronmental pressures to use
recycl ed materi al s, and they expect expanded efforts i n the year 2002. They al so stated
that France has a l ong hi story of usi ng waste materi al s, especi al l y duri ng the peri od of
heavy i nfrastructure bui l di ng. Duri ng thi s peri od (1955-1975), bl ast furnace sl ag, coal
fl y ash, coal mi ni ng wastes, and other i ndustri al wastes were recycl ed i nto constructi on.
Si nce 1975 to the present, the responsi bi l i ty to el i mi nate waste i s that of the producer.
When wastes are produced, they are expected to be used wi thi n thei r own i ndustry. Thi s
method was i ntended to encourage i ndustry to fi nd better sol uti ons for reduci ng and
usi ng waste.
A 1992 l aw requi res a l andfi l l ban i n pl ace as of 2002 that wi l l restri ct l andfi l l i ng to
onl y those wastes that cannot be recycl ed. Other parts of the pol i cy i nvol ve the need to
i ncrease the quanti ti es and qual i ty of secondary materi al s and to i mprove the qual i ty of
househol d waste.
As i n other countri es, France has standards, speci fi cati ons, gui dance documents, and
techni cal references for use i n road constructi on; however, there are no standards that
are speci fi c to recycl ed materi al s. I f one wi shes to use a recycl ed materi al as an
aggregate, for exampl e, then one must go to the standards that deal wi th natural
aggregates. Al so, the same testi ng procedures used for tradi ti onal materi al s are used for
recycl ed materi al s. Some vi ew thi s si tuati on as a barri er agai nst use of recycl ed
materi al s, parti cul arl y si nce research has shown that, i n some cases, the tradi ti onal
tests do not appl y; that i s, the tests do not adequatel y eval uate the properti es of
recycl ed materi al s i n speci fi c appl i cati ons.
French pol i cy promoti ng use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads i s onl y a few years ol d, and
has concentrated on the use of WTE bottom ash and constructi on demol i ti on waste. I n
36
CHAPTER 3
onl y a few cases have other materi al s been used. The pol i cy to use recycl ed materi al s
was the resul t of the strong pol i ti cal wi l l of the Envi ronmental Mi ni sters. Others,
however, al so supported the pol i cy. The Mi ni stre de Equi pment, du Logement, des
Transport et du Touri sme (Mi ni stry for Publ i c Works, Housi ng, Transportati on and
Touri sm) was faced wi th shortages of natural materi al s i n some areas of France,
parti cul arl y i n Pari s. I n these areas, the road constructi on i ndustry al so supported the
pol i cy. Concurrentl y, a porti on of the publ i c wi th strong envi ronmental ethi cs hel ped
push the pol i cy.
The French use two mai n ways to i mpl ement i ncreased use of recycl abl es i n road
constructi on:
The Di rectorate for the nati onal road network and the l ocal authori ti es
responsi bl e for thei r roads can use the techni cal references for a constructi on
project to permi t the use of recycl ed materi al s.
The contractor can devel op bi ds i n response to contract proposal requests that
i ncl ude the use of recycl ed materi al s i n pl ace of tradi ti onal materi al s, even i f the
contract request does not i ncl ude thi s provi si on.
I t i s uncl ear how effecti ve these methods are i n encouragi ng use of recycl abl es i n road
constructi on, parti cul arl y i n areas where natural materi al s are pl enti ful .
The Mi ni stry of Publ i c Works faci l i tates
research to encourage i ncreased use of recycl ed
materi al s i n the i ndustry. The research i s
conducted by publ i c techni cal research
organi zati ons such as Servi ce dEtudes
Techni ques des Route et Autoroutes (SETRA)
and Laboratoi re Central des Ponts et
Chausses (Central Bri dge and Road
Laboratory - LCPC). Research generated by
these organi zati ons i s used to devel op
regul ati ons, speci fi cati ons, and codes of
practi ces for usi ng recycl ed materi al s. A major
objecti ve for supporti ng thi s research i s to hel p assure road authori ti es, consul ti ng
engi neers, and others that the candi date recycl ed materi al s wi l l meet performance
requi rements.
Wi th respect to NGOs, the rol e has been to advocate reuse and recycl i ng. Al though the
i nformed publ i c strongl y supports recycl i ng, the general publ i c has not parti ci pated i n
pushi ng for the i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads.
The French di scussed several barri ers, i ncl udi ng:
The added cost of processi ng recycl ed materi al s makes them more expensi ve to
use. Constructi on demol i ti on waste i s a good exampl e.
The l ow cost of l andfi l l i ng i nert waste. Some concern was expressed about how
wel l the 2002 l andfi l l ban wi l l be enforced.
Although the informed public strongly
supports recycling, the general
public has not participated in
pushing for the increased use of
recycled materials in roads.
37
CHAPTER 3
Concerns about who wi l l pay the added cost of usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Al though taxes on usi ng vi rgi n materi al s are bei ng consi dered, no one l i kes
taxes.
Al though grants have been used to hel p start recycl i ng compani es, these grants
are bei ng reduced.
The l ack of standard regul ati ons on the nati onal l evel and the di fferences that
exi st among the vari ous regi ons and l ocal states. Desi res were expressed for a
stronger Federal rol e.
Questi ons and concerns remai n about the l ong-term performance and
contai nment of recycl ed materi al s used i n the road envi ronment. There i s an
i nterest i n obtai ni ng such data.
The fact that there are l arge quanti ti es of natural materi al s avai l abl e i n most of
France. Natural aggregate shortages exi st i n onl y a few areas.
The French del egates al so i denti fi ed i ni ti ati ves and programs that are bei ng
i mpl emented or that are needed to overcome some of these barri ers:
Devel opment of techni cal engi neeri ng and envi ronmental gui del i nes to assi st
l ocal and regi onal stakehol ders i n usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Devel opment of techni cal requi rements for publ i c works professi onal s and
consul tants.
Avai l abi l i ty of assi stance to ai d i nnovati on i n the processi ng and use of recycl ed
materi al s.
Support to conduct pi l ot and demonstrati on projects and testi ng of procedures for
sel ecti ve deconstructi on and demol i ti on.
Devel opment of qual i ty control procedures for processi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Proper characteri zati on of new products.
Pl acement of producti on restri cti ons on quarry authori ti es.
Establ i shment of requi rements that a mi ni mum percentage of recycl ed
materi al s be used i n sel ected constructi on acti vi ti es.
Resurgence of the 1975 l aw that mandates no di scri mi nati on agai nst recycl ed
materi al s.
France i s obl i gated under EU provi si ons to use recycl abl e materi al s i n
constructi on appl i cati ons.
An i ncrease, rather than decrease, i n grants and i nvestments i n recycl i ng
faci l i ti es.
Devel opment of methods for better communi cati on and exchange of i nformati on
among professi onal s and wi th the publ i c to hel p al l evi ate fears about the use of
recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway i nfrastructure.
Uncertai nti es were expressed about the ul ti mate responsi bi l i ty for recycl ed materi al s
i n the event of probl ems, (e.g., mechani cal fai l ure, envi ronmental , etc.), that the
defi ni ti on of waste i s too broad, and about the necessi ty for speci fi c and preci se
38
CHAPTER 3
contracts and control s. As was the case i n Germany, France al so has concerns about the
EUs defi ni ti on that a recycl abl e materi al i s sti l l a waste, whi ch has resul ted i n an
uncl ear defi ni ti on of a materi al that has been processed through a recycl i ng faci l i ty. I s
thi s materi al a product or a waste?
Suppl i ers and contractors emphasi zed several poi nts about the use of recycl ed materi al s
i n thei r constructi on projects. Twenty mi l l i on metri c tons per year of recycl ed materi al s
are used, the market for whi ch was devel oped purel y on economi cs. I ndustry di d not
rel y on government support or i nterventi on i n devel opi ng the market. Worki ng groups
were formed to exchange knowl edge and establ i sh rul es. Performance standards and
envi ronmental gui del i nes were devel oped on the basi s of the concentrati ons of sul fate,
phenol s, and heavy metal s. These acti vi ti es resul ted i n publ i shed gui del i nes and rul es
for usi ng recycl ed materi al s. Qual i ty assurance pl ans are i mportant, and adopted use
must not compromi se qual i ty of the fi nal product. The overri di ng theme i s that i n usi ng
recycl ed materi al s, there can be no compromi se regardi ng qual i ty. The recycl ed
aggregate has to be at l east the same qual i ty as the vi rgi n materi al .
I ndustry representati ves stated that, i n thei r opi ni on, there were di fferences between
the governments tal k about i ncreasi ng the use of recycl ed materi al s and the real i ty
i ndustry experi ences. Exampl es of thi s di sconnect i ncl uded the fact that compani es are
expected to use any waste they generate wi thi n thei r own company, whi ch creates a
barri er for one i ndustry to use the waste from another. I ndustry representati ves al so
ci ted the probl em of the l ow bi d process. Because usi ng recycl ed materi al s usual l y costs
more, i t resul ts i n hi gher bi ds. Another exampl e ci ted was that contractors have been
gi ven permi ssi on to use onl y 10 percent of ol d asphal t i n new mi xes. France produces
about 5 to 6 mi l l i on metri c tons of RAP each year. Contractors want to use greater
amounts of RAP i n the mi xes because they bel i eve i t can be done easi l y. They stated
that i f they were permi tted to use 15 to 20 percent i n the mi xes, they woul d consume al l
that i s produced.
The Techni cal Road Commi ttee i n France i s worki ng wi th the hi ghway i ndustry to
devel op protocol s for val ori zi ng new products. Based on data gathered, i t has publ i shed
a document provi di ng a Charter for I nnovati on. I t offers a framework for compani es to
val ori ze thei r own products. Each company agrees to a protocol speci fi c to i ts product.
To date, more than 100 compani es have done so, and i t has resul ted i n the use of
recycl ed materi al s i n new projects. I t was noted that even though recycl ed materi al s
often cost more, some users are wi l l i ng to pay the added cost because of i ncreased
performance. However, French representati ves al so stated that some government
subsi di es may be needed for si gni fi cant i ncreases i n the use of recycl ed materi al s to
take pl ace.
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS
Al l the countri es that were vi si ted had recycl i ng pol i ci es speci fi cal l y or general l y
promoti ng sustai nabi l i ty. There al so i s a pervasi ve publ i c cul ture about recycl i ng and
soci al democracy that al l ows nati onal behavi or change. Many of the countri es have an
effecti ve stakehol der consensus process that i s used for devel opi ng engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental speci fi cati ons. A wi de vari ety of dri vers i nfl uence recycl i ng success, from
nati onal val ues to practi cal consi derati ons at the regi onal l evel , many of whi ch are
39
CHAPTER 3
common to the Uni ted States. For i nstance, i n the Netherl ands, the Dutch have a
formal pol i cy for sustai nabl e devel opment i n hi ghway and other constructi on that
embraces the use of recycl ed materi al s. There i s publ i c opposi ti on to the l andfi l l i ng of
waste materi al s and to the excavati on of natural materi al s. The government has a
pol i cy that mi ni mi zes the use of natural materi al s and promotes the use of recycl ed
materi al s wi thi n a market system supported by government pol i ci es. The government
cooperates wi th i ndustry by shari ng ri sk and profi t and provi di ng unambi guous
techni cal and envi ronmental standards. Hi gh degrees of recycl i ng are seen, especi al l y
for constructi on and demol i ti on aggregates, bl ast furnace sl ags, asphal t pavements, coal
fl y ashes, and steel sl ags. The government has hel ped to start compani es speci al i zed i n
the brokeri ng of l i ghtl y contami nated soi l s for use i n sound barri ers adjacent to
hi ghways. The successes seen i n the Netherl ands are rel ated to advances i n al l aspects
of the sustai nabi l i ty model : a robust market, cl ear pol i cy, economi cs, appropri ate
techni cal and envi ronmental standards, and i nnovati ve techni cal processes. The Dutch
sustai nabi l i ty model has recycl i ng el ements that shoul d be i ncl uded i n the U.S.
transportati on communi tys overal l goal s for transportati on sustai nabi l i ty.
40
Chapt er Four
ECONOMI CS
Economi cs pl ays a cri ti cal rol e i n the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on i n
al l the countri es vi si ted. Economi cs affects al l aspects of recycl i ng for sustai nabl e road
bui l di ng: engi neeri ng, envi ronmental i ssues, testi ng regi mes, markets, speci fi cati ons,
and al l the other factors necessary for success i n usi ng recycl ed materi al s for
sustai nabl e road bui l di ng. Because recycl ed materi al s can often be more expensi ve than
tradi ti onal materi al s, government pol i ci es and i ncenti ves to devel op favorabl e
economi cs and markets for usi ng recycl ed materi al s are cri ti cal to i ncreased use of
recycl ed materi al s. Key el ements rel ati ng to the economi c forces affecti ng the use of
recycl ed products i n road constructi on i n the countri es vi si ted i ncl ude the use of l i fe-
cycl e anal yses, free market systems, nati onal and l ocal governments pol i ci es,
regul ati ons, taxes, and EU di recti ves regardi ng the free fl ow of materi al s. The degree to
whi ch each of these appl i es vari es from country to country. As an exampl e, the Dutch
governments i nvol vement and support are pl ayi ng a si gni fi cant rol e i n establ i shi ng
markets and the i nfrastructure needed for successful i ncreased use of recycl ed
materi al s i n road constructi on. I n Sweden, thi s i s not yet the case. Thi s di fference i s
evi dent when one compares the l evel of recycl i ng i n road constructi on taki ng pl ace i n
the Netherl ands compared wi th that i n Sweden.
Thi s chapter descri bes preval ent economi c factors i n each of the countri es vi si ted.
SWEDEN
As noted earl i er, Sweden i s not as advanced as some other countri es i n thei r use of
recycl ed materi al s i n roads. For some materi al s (e.g., WTE bottom ash) Swedens
experi ence i s l i mi ted to experi mental demonstrati on projects. However, because of the
year 2000 l egi sl ati on requi ri ng a tax of Sk 250 (~US$28) per metri c ton for l andfi l l i ng,
pl us an Sk 5 (~US$0.57) per metri c ton tax on vi rgi n materi al s, contractors want to use
recycl ed materi al s. They bel i eve that secondary materi al s can work or be engi neered to
work. On the other hand, contractors al so real i ze that processi ng these materi al s wi l l
make them more expensi ve to use. Other factors exacerbati ng the economi cs i ncl ude
the l ack of nati onal engi neeri ng and envi ronmental gui del i nes for these materi al s, the
permi tti ng process at l ocal l evel s, Swedens pl enti ful suppl y of natural materi al s, and
concern about the envi ronment.
Permi tti ng for projects i s done at the l ocal l evel , and the process usual l y requi res many
resources from both the l ocal government and the contractor. Al though the Swedi sh
EPA has devel oped nati onal envi ronmental regul ati ons and pol i ci es, i t has not
devel oped gui dance on how to appl y these to the use of recycl ed materi al s. Local
governments, contractors, and others want these gui del i nes, but the Swedi sh EPA has
not yet shown an acti ve i nterest i n devel opi ng them. Furthermore, the Swedi sh Road
Admi ni strati on has no economi c i nterest i n devel opi ng gui del i nes, si nce i ts general
atti tude i s that roads shoul d not be a dumpi ng pl ace for waste. Havi ng l ocal deci si on
authori ty wi thout nati onal gui dance prevents the i mpl ementati on of many projects.
41
CHAPTER 4
Sweden i nteracts wi th the NORDI C and the Counci l , European Commi ssi ons of
Transportati on Mi ni stri es. I t has worki ng agreements wi th the U.S. FHWA and the
Mi nnesota Department of Transportati on. Sweden i s parti ci pati ng i n the ALT-MAT
program, conducti ng research on candi date recycl ed materi al s. VTI and SGI are
cooperati ng i n doi ng the ALT-MAT research. Dri vers for thi s research i ncl ude the EU
di recti ves and pol i ces concerned wi th the envi ronment and i ncreased recycl i ng goal s, as
wel l as Swedens geographi cal posi ti on i n rel ati on to other countri es. The Swedes
bel i eve they need to be much more acti ve i n order to remai n competi ti ve. They hope
that ongoi ng research wi l l hel p remove some barri ers i mpedi ng the use of recycl ed
materi al s and wi l l provi de i nformati on to val ori ze some of the materi al s and hel p
reduce the permi tti ng costs, to make recycl ed materi al s more competi ti ve i n the
marketpl ace.
Sweden acknowl edges i n the OECD study that
i t has been out-di stanced by many countri es
wi th respect to havi ng strategi es for i ncreasi ng
the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road
constructi on. The OECD noted that, i n order
for Sweden to reach the goal s establ i shed by
several other countri es, the Swedi sh
government wi l l have to be a major i nfl uence
i n establ i shi ng markets. To date thi s has not
happened, and the key to future success wi l l be the pri ce for conventi onal pri mary
materi al s compared wi th candi date recycl ed materi al s. The upcomi ng taxes on
l andfi l l i ng and vi rgi n materi al s may begi n to support i ncreased recycl i ng; however, the
Swedi sh government does not yet have programs i n pl ace to hel p establ i sh markets for
recycl ed materi al s or for educati ng the publ i c about the benefi ts of i ncreased recycl i ng
i n road constructi on. Even though the new envi ronmental l aw requi res contractors to
document why they are not usi ng recycl ed materi al s, i t i s not seen as a strong market
dri ver because the added cost of usi ng recycl ed materi al s can be a val i d reason for not
usi ng them.
DENMARK
Perhaps the key observati on that the U.S. del egati on made i n Denmark was the strong
i nfl uence of the Dani sh government i n the establ i shment of market forces favorabl e to
the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on. Taxes are an exampl e. Presentl y, the
tax for l andfi l l i ng each metri c ton of waste i s Dkr 375 (~US$49). Vi rgi n materi al s are
taxed at Dkr 5 (~US$0.66) for each cubi c meter used. The hi gh cost of WTE, whi ch
ranges from Dkr 280 (~US$36) per metri c ton to Dkr 330 (~US$43) per metri c ton,
dependi ng on how the energy produced i s used, al so i s an i nducement for i ndustry to
recycl e as much as i t possi bl y can.
The i mpl ementati on of taxes has been gradual , but proacti ve. I n 1987, a tax of Dkr 40
(~US$5) per metri c ton was pl aced on i nci nerati on and l andfi l l i ng. I n 1990, i t was
i ncreased to Dkr 130 (~US$17) per metri c ton. I n 1993, the taxes were rai sed to Dkr 160
(~US$20) per metri c ton for i nci nerati on and 195 (~US$25) per metri c ton for
l andfi l l i ng. I n 1997, the taxes were rai sed to Dkr 210 (~US$27) per metri c ton for
i nci nerati on wi th energy recovery, Dkr 260 (~US$34) per metri c ton for i nci nerati on
... the key to future success
will be the price for conventional
primary materials compared with
candidate recycled materials.
42
CHAPTER 4
wi thout energy recovery, and Dkr 335 (~US$43) per metri c ton for l andfi l l i ng. I n 1999,
the taxes were rai sed to Dkr 280 (~US$36) per metri c ton for i nci nerati on wi th energy
recovery, Dkr 330 (~US$43) per metri c ton for i nci nerati on wi thout energy recovery,
and Dkr 375 (~US$49) per metri c ton for l andfi l l i ng. Li mi ted l andfi l l space and the
need to conserve natural resources are al so reasons for the taxes. The combi nati on of
these factors i s a compel l i ng reason for the i ncreased recycl i ng i n Denmark.
Government-pri vate partnershi ps have been used to hel p pri vate compani es establ i sh
faci l i ti es for processi ng and produci ng hi gher val ue recycl ed materi al s. A good exampl e
of thi s i s the Rstof og Genanvendel se (RGS 90) faci l i ty vi si ted by the team (see
Chapter 5). Thi s pl ant was started 8 years ago i n partnershi p wi th the Copenhagen
muni ci pal government. Faci l i ty personnel gave the Dani sh government (federal and
muni ci pal ) hi gh marks for thei r i nvol vement and thei r programs for educati ng and
sel l i ng the concept to the publ i c. There are a l arge number of si mi l ar faci l i ti es i n
Denmark, and competi ti on among them has l ed to i nnovati on and the producti on of
hi gh-qual i ty materi al s that are attracti ve to contractors. Producers pay for the waste to
be del i vered to the processi ng faci l i ti es. Because transportati on costs are hi gh, l ocati on
i s a key factor i n the success of these compani es. RGS 90 provi des an added i ncenti ve by
havi ng suppl i es of vi rgi n materi al s avai l abl e to cl i ents who need them; thi s al l ows a
truck to transport a l oad i n both di recti ons, thus savi ng transportati on costs.
The producti on of hi gh-qual i ty secondary materi al s i s as i mportant as the Dani sh
phi l osophy to recycl e to the hi ghest use possi bl e. I mpl ementi ng thi s phi l osophy al so
affects the economi cs of recycl i ng si nce processi ng and produci ng the secondary
materi al s are more costl y than tradi ti onal materi al s. I n some cases, thi s added cost i s
justi fi ed by the i mproved materi al performance al one. El ectri c arc sl ags were shown to
produce a hi gh-qual i ty product for use i n weari ng courses. Whi l e i ni ti al cost to use thi s
materi al i s hi gher, i t was justi fi ed based on a l onger servi ce l i fe. Usi ng the resul ts from
test tri al s, a l i fe-cycl e cost anal ysi s was used to document the added val ue of the l onger
l i fe, whi ch was then bui l t i nto the bi ddi ng process for the contract. Because of i ts l onger
l i fe, the contractor offered a 12-year warranty i nstead of the usual 5 years. The Road
Di rectorate shared i n the ri sk associ ated wi th the l onger warranty, demonstrati ng i ts
commi tment and support for usi ng recycl ed products.
GERMANY
The i mportance of economi cs i n furtheri ng the use of recycl i ng for sustai nabl e road
constructi on i s equal l y i mportant i n Germany. The 1996 Cl osed Substance Cycl e and
Waste Management Act has not resul ted i n si gni fi cant i ncreases i n recycl i ng. Even
though the act requi res that onl y waste that cannot be recycl ed may be l andfi l l ed.
Under the act, compani es l arger than a certai n si ze wi l l be requi red to perform l i fe-
cycl e anal yses on thei r waste. Thi s effort i s expected to i ncrease recycl i ng wi thi n a
company, but may not be very effecti ve for i ncreasi ng use of recycl ed products i n road
constructi on. Si nce no provi si ons i n the contract bi ddi ng process provi de credi t or other
i ncenti ves for usi ng recycl ed materi al s, contractors wi l l onl y use them i f they are
cheaper. The materi al s al so must perform at l east as wel l or better than tradi ti onal
materi al s.
43
CHAPTER 4
Germany has a free market system, and secondary materi al s have a di ffi cul t ti me
competi ng wi th vi rgi n materi al s. Vi rgi n materi al s i n Germany are cheap and
l andfi l l i ng costs are l ow, even though Germany has stri ct requi rements on l andfi l l i ng.
German l egi sl ati on requi res that compani es perform l i fe-cycl e anal yses and devel op
waste economy pl ans. The EU al so requi res that member countri es devel op waste
management pl ans. I t i s not cl ear how successful these pl ans wi l l be i n i ncreasi ng
recycl i ng. I ndustry representati ves and others expressed the opi ni on that the Federal
government must pl ay a major rol e i n educati ng the publ i c about recycl i ng and i n
devel opi ng markets for thei r use.
The German Federal Associ ati on for Constructi on Recycl i ng (Verband Deutscher
Baustoff-Recycl i ng-Unternehmen e.V.), consi sti ng of contractors and suppl i ers, bel i eves
that there are market opportuni ti es for recycl ed materi al s; however, there are no strong
German programs to take advantages of these opportuni ti es. The associ ati on al so
bel i eves that the qual i ty of recycl ed materi al s i s the cri ti cal i ssue, but does not bel i eve
that establ i shi ng an arti fi ci al economy for compari ng these materi al s wi th natural ones
i s the answer. To create ecobal ance, each stage of the recycl i ng scheme must be
eval uated i n compari son wi th the di sposal opti ons and these then are compared wi th
vi rgi n materi al s. Economi cs shoul d not be consi dered i n the ecobal ance process.
Al though pol i ti cal forces i n Germany have often demanded more recycl i ng, economi es
of the free market system have cl earl y been a deterrent.
I n the case of C&D waste, a processi ng company i ndi cated that i t must sel l i ts product
at a pri ce l ower than that for vi rgi n materi al s. I t operates on a very smal l margi n, even
though i t gets pai d for taki ng the waste materi al s. Processi ng thi s type of waste i s
expensi ve, and the economi cs of the si tuati on make i t di ffi cul t for these type of
compani es to remai n competi ti ve i n Germany. A posi ti ve i nfl uence, however, i s the
requi rement that producers of thi s waste get a certi fi cati on from a processi ng faci l i ty
that the waste i s not recycl abl e before they can
di spose of i t i n a l andfi l l . Because of thi s
requi rement, the processi ng faci l i ty careful l y
i nspects the waste before accepti ng i t, whi ch
has resul ted i n cl eaner C&D waste comi ng i nto
the faci l i ti es, whi ch i n turn hel ps processi ng
costs and the producti on of hi gher val ue
products. Any waste l eft after the processi ng i s
the responsi bi l i ty of processi ng company.
Because of cheap l andfi l l costs i n nearby
France, some of the waste i s transported there.
Warranti es for roads made wi th recycl ed materi al s i n Germany are usual l y for 5 years,
the same as for vi rgi n materi al s. After the warranty peri od, the owner of the road i s
responsi bl e for probl ems. Thi s i s another i mpedi ment to usi ng recycl ed materi al s
wi thout a hi story of actual use. Contractors or the i ndustry are al so requi red to moni tor
roads made wi th recycl ed materi al s. Thi s requi rement i nvol ves frequent reporti ng to
l ocal and regi onal authori ti es, whi ch can be burdensome and costl y to the contractor.
Although political forces in Germany
have often demanded more recycling,
economies of the free market system
have clearly been a deterrent.
44
CHAPTER 4
Another factor poi nted out as adversel y affecti ng the i ncreased use of recycl ed
materi al s i n roads i s the hi gh cost associ ated wi th German reuni fi cati on and i ts
associ ated economi c stress.
I n 1989, DEUTAG founded DEUTAG Gesel l schaft remex fr Baustoffaufberei tung mbl t
(Remex constructi on company). The company was founded on the basi s of i ts
engi neeri ng and marketi ng experi ences i n recycl i ng i ndustri al mi ni ng waste, and the
expectati on that the Federal government woul d take acti ons to i ncrease recycl i ng. The
objecti ve was for Remex to become a l eader i n the processi ng and marketi ng of qual i ty
materi al s from constructi on demol i ti on waste. Today, Remex and associ ate compani es
are worki ng i n nearl y al l German states wi th more than 60 pl ants. They are expandi ng
to other European countri es. Remex attri butes thi s success partl y to the establ i shment
of a worki ng group of bui l di ng i ndustry stakehol ders to vol untari l y begi n devel opment
of gui del i nes and standards i n the absence of cl ear l egi sl ati ve gui del i nes from the
Federal government. Si nce Remex i s apparentl y successful , some mi ght argue that
there i s no need for the Federal government to i nterfere wi th the free market system to
ai d the i ncreased use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads.
THE NETHERLANDS
There i s no questi on that the Dutch government has been i nstrumental i n creati ng a
market for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on, and i s consi dered a l eader i n
Europe i n thi s area, as was di scussed i n Chapter 3.
Key economi c i nstruments that are dri vi ng recycl i ng i n the Netherl ands i ncl ude:
The very acti ve rol e the Dutch government takes i n supporti ng research,
demonstrati ons, and devel opment of speci fi cati ons and gui del i nes for usi ng
recycl ed materi al s.
Federal pol i ci es regardi ng l and use and the restri cti ons on mi ni ng of natural
materi al s.
Hi gh taxes on l andfi l l i ng and the hi gh cost of WTE.
The ban on l andfi l l i ng of constructi on demol i ti on waste.
The del i nki ng of economi c growth wi th pol l uti on and the resul ti ng Dutch
programs and economi c assi stance to i mpl ement thi s pol i cy.
The requi rement that producers assume the responsi bi l i ty to i nternal i ze
recycl i ng and di sposal costs, whi ch means the pol l uter pays. Thi s creates an
economi c i ncenti ve to recycl e because of the hi gh cost of di sposal .
The use of l i fe-cycl e anal ysi s to gi ve credi t and added val ue to products made
wi th recycl ed materi al s on the basi s of i mproved envi ronmental performance.
The l eadershi p rol e of the Dutch government, whi ch has provi ded a l arge share
of the costs associ ated wi th devel opi ng standards, gui del i nes, and speci fi cati ons
for usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Some consi der that the Dutch have created an arti fi ci al market for recycl ed materi al s,
but they consi der thi s a posi ti ve acti on that was necessary. Qual i ty i s not compromi sed
i n thi s system and recycl ed materi al s must meet performance requi rements. I n some
45
CHAPTER 4
cases, l onger l i fe cycl es hel p offset the hi gher
i ni ti al cost of usi ng recycl ed materi al s. The
Dutch pol i cy of al l owi ng a margi nal i mpact to
the soi l over a l ong peri od of ti me al so has been
a posi ti ve force for usi ng some materi al s, such
as sl i ghtl y contami nated soi l , that mi ght
normal l y be l andfi l l ed. The Netherl ands does
not permi t di l uti on (e.g., mi xi ng contami nated
soi l wi th cl ean soi l ), but one can mi x such
materi al s i f there i s a wel l -defi ned functi onal
use and envi ronmental performance i s not
compromi sed. WTE waste bottom ash i s
normal l y used i n l arge quanti ti es to make i t
more economi cal .
I ndustry has responded posi ti vel y to the partnershi p rol e of the government i n
recycl i ng, whi ch has al l owed the i ndustry to be more i nnovati ve i n devel opi ng markets
for recycl ed materi al s.
FRANCE
Factors affecti ng the economi cs of recycl i ng i n France are si mi l ar to those of the other
countri es. Factors speci fi c to France i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Some areas i n France have shortages of vi rgi n materi al s for constructi on. I n
these areas, the use of recycl ed materi al s i s economi cal for road constructi on.
However, i n many parts of France suppl i es of vi rgi n materi al s are abundant,
whi ch means that recycl ed materi al s wi l l onl y be used i f there are strong
i ncenti ves to do so. Contractors stated that they want to use more recycl ed
materi al s but the government has not done enough to i nfl uence the markets for
these materi al s.
Land di sposal fees for i nert waste i n France are general l y l ow, whi ch acts as an
economi c deterrent to i ncreased recycl i ng and the use of recycl ed materi al s i n
roads. Costs are hi gh for processi ng waste i nto qual i ty secondary materi al s.
Some expressed hope that the year 2002 l andfi l l ban wi l l i mprove thi s si tuati on.
France has provi ded grants for starti ng recycl i ng processi ng faci l i ti es. These
grants, however, are bei ng reduced at a ti me when i ndustry bel i eves they shoul d
be i ncreased.
Accordi ng to several French del egati on members, France has recogni zed the
need for taxes to support i ncreased recycl i ng. Among those di scussed are taxes
on vi rgi n materi al s. No one l i kes taxes so thi s i dea has not gone beyond the
di scussi on stage. Pl aci ng restri cti ons on mi ni ng of vi rgi n materi al s i s al so bei ng
consi dered.
The l aw of suppl y and demand has prevented the use of more bal ed l i ght pl asti c
bottl es for use as fi l l . Al though demonstrati ons have proved thi s a good use, the
rate of producti on requi res that they be stored for several years to generate
enough quanti ti es needed for a road constructi on project. Thi s i s not economi cal
for ei ther the producer or the road contractor.
Dutch industry has responded positively
to the partnership role of the government
in recycling, which has allowed the
industry to be more innovative in
developing markets for recycled materials.
46
CHAPTER 4
Several l arge demonstrati on projects usi ng waste ti res, crumb rubber, and
pl asti c bottl es emphasi zed the need to adjust the economi cs, the i mportance of
parti ci pati on by the authori ti es, and the approval of the publ i c. I n one of the
constructi on projects, the bi d procedures were modi fi ed so that contractors coul d
take economi c credi t for the envi ronmental benefi ts from usi ng the recycl ed
materi al . The authori ti es were i nstrumental i n persuadi ng the publ i c to accept
the 5 percent cost di fferenti al for usi ng recycl ed materi al s. I n another project,
the partnershi p between the contractor and the state and l ocal authori ti es
proved cri ti cal i n getti ng the project approved and done.
Engi neeri ng and envi ronmental l i fe-cycl e cost and benefi ts are a basi s for many of the
recycl i ng i ni ti ati ves i n Europe. The free market general l y pl ays a central rol e i n al l
aspects of the processi ng and uti l i zati on of recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway
constructi on i ndustry. I n some cases, the governments have acted to i mpl ement pol i ces
and other mechani sms, i ncl udi ng subsi di es, to establ i sh markets. Tax pol i ci es and
structures pl ay a si gni fi cant rol e i n promoti ng recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment.
Thi s i s especi al l y true i n Denmark and the Netherl ands, and to a l esser extent i n
Sweden and France. Hi gh l andfi l l i ng taxes and pol i ci es that ban or restri ct waste i n
l andfi l l s are promoti ng recycl i ng i n Denmark and the Netherl ands. Al though l andfi l l
costs i n Germany are l ow compared wi th other countri es, Germanys restri cti ons on
l andfi l l i ng promote recycl i ng. Si mi l ar i nstruments al so are expected to i ncrease
recycl i ng i n France and Sweden. Li ke Sweden, Denmark and the Netherl ands al so
pl ace taxes or other restri cti ons on the mi ni ng of natural materi al s. Germany i s
consi deri ng such a tax.
A pendi ng EU di recti ve ai med at l i mi ti ng the l and di sposal of i nert waste i n 2002 wi l l
i nfl uence the fl ow of recycl ed materi al s; compani es are posi ti oni ng themsel ves to
process more recycl ed materi al s and contractors are doi ng the same to use more. The
qual i ty of recycl ed materi al s i s a key i ssue for thei r successful marketi ng. The
processi ng i ndustri es i n several countri es (e.g., Denmark, the Netherl ands, Germany)
are produci ng hi gh-qual i ty materi al s (recl ai med asphal t pavement, bast furnace sl ag,
crushed concrete, constructi on and demol i ti on aggregates) that meet stri ct engi neeri ng
and envi ronmental standards. They compete favorabl y wi th natural materi al s. Demand
i n the Netherl ands has resul ted i n shortages of some recycl ed materi al s. The pol i cy i n
many of the countri es i s that recycl ed materi al s shoul d be used at thei r hi ghest val ue
based on techni cal consi derati ons, rather than on government di recti ves. Engi neeri ng
and envi ronmental warranti es for roads constructed wi th recycl ed materi al s reduce the
concern of responsi bl e owners for future l i abi l i ti es. I nnovati ve publ i c research, often i n
cooperati on wi th government, has i mproved the qual i ty of recycl ed materi al s and the
appl i cati ons for thei r use. I n several cases, thi s resul ted i n warranti es two ti mes l onger
than normal . Al though i t wi l l take pol i ti cal wi l l and i nnovati ve approaches both i n the
publ i c and pri vate sectors, many of these market model s may be appl i cabl e wi thi n state
or regi onal economi es i n the Uni ted States.
47
Chapt er Fi ve
ENGI NEERI NG
Al l of the countri es vi si ted use establ i shed standard engi neeri ng practi ces i n bui l di ng
thei r roads. These practi ces do not change dramati cal l y when constructi ng roads wi th
recycl ed materi al s. The U.S. del egati on, however, di d observe several strategi es and
technol ogi es rel ati ng to or affecti ng the engi neeri ng aspects of usi ng recycl ed materi al s
i n each countrys road constructi on operati ons. These i ncl ude speci fi cati ons for recycl ed
materi al s, engi neeri ng and envi ronmental performance characteri sti cs, the concept of
equal qual i ty for recycl ed and vi rgi n materi al s, testi ng procedures to predi ct l ong-term
performance, and the use of l i fe-cycl e anal yses. Al though many of these subjects are not
engi neeri ng i ssues, they do affect the fi nal engi neeri ng parameters for a project. One of
the mai n probl ems noted by several countri es appears to be how to better eval uate the
engi neeri ng and envi ronmental performance over the desi gn l i fe of a road. Exi sti ng
procedures used for vi rgi n materi al s may be i nadequate for recycl ed materi al s i n many
cases. The engi neeri ng practi ces of i nterest to the U.S. del egati on are noted i n the
di scussi ons that fol l ow.
SWEDEN
Most of the i nnovati ons occurri ng i n Sweden concern the research bei ng joi ntl y
conducted by VTI and SGI i n conjuncti on wi th the ALT-MAT program. The ALT-MAT
program i s concentrati ng on the rel ati onshi p between l aboratory testi ng and actual
fi el d performance. One of the objecti ves i s to devel op more functi onal tests that better
rel ate to actual performance and thus decrease the rel i ance on empi ri cal measurements
that may not be sati sfactory for recycl ed materi al s. Another objecti ve i s to better
characteri ze the engi neeri ng and envi ronmental properti es of recycl ed materi al s. The
l i nk between engi neeri ng properti es and envi ronmental performance of a product i s
i mportant, and not often consi dered i n the Uni ted States. I n addi ti on to thi s research,
SGI has proposed a procedure to conduct ri sk assessments for usi ng recycl ed materi al s
that i t bel i eves i s better than what i s currentl y bei ng used i n Sweden (see Chapter 6).
VTI s testi ng faci l i ti es i ncl ude a road si mul ator, an advanced wheel -tracki ng machi ne, a
Heavy Vehi cl e Si mul ator (constructed i n South Afri ca and joi ntl y owned by the Fi nni sh
VTT), a fal l i ng wei ght defl ectometer, a rol l i ng vehi cl e defl ectometer, road surface tester
usi ng a l aser techni que, and other equi pment. VTI has used these faci l i ti es to conduct
l aboratory and ful l -scal e research on vari ous aspects of road materi al s engi neeri ng and
performance. The Heavy Vehi cl e Si mul ator permi ts ful l -scal e testi ng under wel l -
control l ed cl i mati c condi ti ons. Fi gure 5 shows the Heavy Vehi cl e Si mul ator and the
ful l y i nstrumented pavement test secti on. The si mul ator can be pl aced i n one of VTI s
i ndoor pavement bays where cl i mati c condi ti ons are control l ed, i ncl udi ng the al terati on
of the ground water tabl e bel ow the pavement and the i nfl uence of freezi ng and
thawi ng cycl es on pavement performance. The pavement l ayers are i nstrumented to
measure strai ns, stresses, and other parameters. The heavy l oad si mul ator wi l l be used
to test pavement structures made wi th recycl ed materi al s. The test system i s expensi ve
to operate. There are apparentl y three i n the Uni ted States: two i n Cal i forni a and one
at the U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers Col d Regi ons Research and Engi neeri ng
Laboratory i n New Hampshi re.
48
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5. The (a) Heavy Vehicle Simulator and (b) a fully instrumented
pavement test section in the pavement bay at VTI.
Beari ng capaci ty i s measured usi ng a fal l i ng wei ght defl ectometer. A rol l i ng vehi cl e
defl ectometer permi ts measuri ng beari ng capaci ti es at normal traffi c speeds. VTI uses a
test i t refers to as osmoti c acti on usi ng sodi um chl ori de sol uti ons i n conjuncti on wi th
freeze-thaw tests to eval uate durabi l i ty of asphal t mi xes under severe wi nter
condi ti ons. Base and bi nder mi xes known to have poor fi el d performance al so perform
poorl y i n thi s test. The test i s not used for porous mi xes. VTI faci l i ti es al so enabl e
testi ng of shear modul us and phase angl e of asphal t mi xes, parameters needed i n a
vi sco-el asti c desi gn system. I t has conducted extensi ve fati gue testi ng usi ng di rect
tensi l e strength tests and has devel oped rel ati onshi ps for both l aboratory and fi el d
testi ng of typi cal Swedi sh base mi xes. These efforts wi l l hel p them better predi ct
performance of recycl ed materi al s.
Dynami c tri axi al testi ng i s bei ng done to compare secondary materi al s wi th natural
materi al s. Fi gure 6 shows the tri axi al test machi ne. Resi l i ent modul us i s pl otted
49
CHAPTER 5
agai nst measurements of stress (kPa) to compare the sti ffness of one materi al wi th
another. Fi gure 7 i s an exampl e of resul ts from usi ng repeated l oad tri axi al tests to
compare secondary materi al s wi th natural materi al s at VTI .
Figure 6. Triaxial testing machine at VTI.
Figure 7. Triaxial testing data.
Courtesy of M aria Arm
Resilient
modulus
(MPa)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Compa rison of stiffness (exa mple)
M ean normal stress (kPa)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
crushed
concrete
crushed
granite
sand
M SWI
50
CHAPTER 5
The U.S. del egati on i denti fi ed the fol l owi ng engi neeri ng practi ces i n Sweden as al so
bei ng i mportant:
The fi ndi ng that sl ags used i n the weari ng course i mparted very good ski d
resi stance and anti -pol i shi ng characteri sti cs.
Engi neeri ng properti es of recycl ed materi al s must meet or exceed that of vi rgi n
materi al s.
Devel opment of speci fi cati ons for the use of bl ast furnace sl ag as a subbase for
roads and gui del i nes for the use of crushed concrete i n heavy l oad areas (e.g.,
parki ng l ots, bus stops).
An i nnovati ve tri axi al test, used at VTI , i n addi ti on to the grai n si ze di stri buti on
and durabi l i ty testi ng of secondary materi al s. Sweden uses thi ck, unbound
l ayers i n i ts roads, and the testi ng of materi al s concentrated on thi s use.
The fact that most of the contractors i n Sweden are I SO 9000 certi fi ed.
Devel opment of draft gui del i nes for usi ng crushed concrete i n road pavements.
The crushed concrete i s pl aced i nto four cl asses based on i ts properti es. The
gui del i nes speci fy the cl ass to use for each potenti al appl i cati on.
Swedens ROAD 94 provi des the general techni cal speci fi cati ons for road constructi on.
Al though recycl ed materi al s can be used i f accepted by the cl i ent, they must be at l east
as good as the vi rgi n materi al s. These speci fi cati ons are not based on performance, and
the researchers and others bel i eve that the standard tests do not appl y to recycl ed
materi al s. Thi s i s seen as a bi g barri er to the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road works.
Therefore, the testi ng program at SGI and VTI were consi dered very i mportant by the
U.S. del egati on. VTI uses repeated l oad tri axi al tests (60 to 120 kPa pressure dependi ng
on the materi al ) to eval uate the engi neeri ng properti es and i s usi ng the test to compare
recycl ed materi al s wi th vi rgi n materi al s. The test i s not a standard one, but i t i s a
functi onal test si mi l ar to the SHRP method. The test eval uates deformati on as a
functi on of repeated l oad (si mi l ar to the ASTM T-292 method) and gi ves i nformati on
about the resi l i ent modul us and permanent deformati on. The U.S. test l ooks at
conti nuous l oads onl y. I n pl ots compari ng resi l i ent modul us wi th mean stress, 250 kPa
i s the hi ghest stress that i s observed i n unbound courses. Based on thi s comprehensi ve
research, VTI and SGI hope that Sweden wi l l begi n to use more functi onal -based tests
to eval uate recycl ed materi al s for road constructi on. I n thi s case, the tri axi al test woul d
measure beari ng capaci ty and stabi l i ty, freeze-thaw tests woul d eval uate frost heavi ng
properti es and durabi l i ty under di fferent cl i mati c condi ti ons, and some test other than
the LA abrasi on test woul d eval uate mechani cal durabi l i ty characteri sti cs.
The SGI research faci l i ti es i ncl ude several l arge l ysi meters currentl y bei ng used to
eval uate several di fferent materi al s i n the EU ALT-MAT program. These are shown i n
Fi gure 8. Al though these are envi ronmental tests, they are i ncl uded here because of
thei r rel ati on to the ALT-MAT program and the joi nt research on engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental properti es of materi al s. SGI s research i ncl udes i nvesti gati ons of
l eachi ng protocol s for characteri zi ng and predi cti ng envi ronmental behavi or over the
l ong term under fi el d condi ti ons. Tests bei ng done i n the ALT-MAT program i ncl ude
total consti tuent anal ysi s, TOC, two-stage seri al batch l eachi ng test, pH stati c at L/S 10,
avai l abi l i ty l eachi ng test at pH 7 and pH 4, and col umn l eachi ng tests. Leachates are
51
CHAPTER 5
anal yzed for al kal i ni ty, Cl , sul fates, major consti tuents, trace el ements, and others
i ncl udi ng non-vol ati l e organi c compounds.
Figure 8. Lysimeters used at SGI for field leaching of candidate recycled materials.
Based on these l eachi ng studi es and the engi neeri ng research, SGI and VTI hope
Sweden wi l l begi n usi ng l ysi meter l eachi ng tests and more functi onal tests to eval uate
the envi ronmental and engi neeri ng characteri sti cs of recycl ed and tradi ti onal
materi al s.
DENMARK
I n Denmark, the U.S. del egati on noted the fol l owi ng engi neeri ng practi ces:
Denmark has abandoned the use of recycl ed ti res because of techni cal and
envi ronmental probl ems. One host reported that crumb rubber pul l ed out the
l i ght oi l s, causi ng the asphal ti c concrete to age prematurel y. Most waste ti res i n
Denmark are burned for energy.
The routi ne use of el ectri c arc sl ag i n the weari ng surfaces.
The warranti es on roads are normal l y 5 years. Some, however, are as l ong as 12
years. An exampl e i s for hi gh-qual i ty asphal t produced usi ng el ectri c arc furnace
steel sl ags.
The consensus process for devel opi ng gui del i nes and speci fi cati ons for usi ng
recycl ed materi al s i s i mportant to the engi neeri ng of road works i n Denmark
(see Chapter 3). The process consi ders both engi neeri ng and envi ronmental
properti es, agai n emphasi zi ng the i mportance of the i nter-rel ati onshi p.
The re-mi xi ng of asphal t i n hot-i n-pl ace recycl i ng on parti al or ful l l ane
appl i cati ons was of i nterest. Sel ecti on of roadways, l ayer thi cknesses, and mi x
desi gns appear to be subject to engi neeri ng judgment and practi cal experi ence.
52
CHAPTER 5
The mi ni -i n-pl ace travel pl ant for i n-si tu asphal t recycl i ng may have some
appl i cati ons for mai ntenance operati ons i n metropol i tan areas i n the Uni ted
States. However, i t onl y scari fi es to about 1 to 1 cm, whi ch may not be
suffi ci ent for many appl i cati ons. I t may, however, have good appl i cati on for
preservi ng pavements over a l onger l i fe by arresti ng deteri orati on from l oad and
envi ronmental stresses before i t becomes si gni fi cant. The l arge asphal t travel i ng
pl ant can scari fy to about 12 cm.
The U.S. del egati on vi si ted a road embankment that contai ned 212,000 metri c
tons of coal fl y ash wi th a densi ty of 1.1 to 1.2 metri c tons/m
3
. I t was constructed
around 1984. Fi gure 9 shows porti ons of the embankment. The U.S. del egati on
noted several i nteresti ng aspects about the embankment. Thi s project was a
demonstrati on, and the desi gn was based on experi ences i n the UK. Al though
the ash contai ned 25 to 45 percent moi sture, compacti on was not a probl em. The
asphal t bi cycl e and pedestri an paths constructed on the si te have shown no
si gns of cracki ng over the 15 years, i ndi cati ng l i ttl e i f any settl ement has
occurred. Because of the hi ghwater tabl e at the si te, a sand l ayer was used to
break the capi l l ary acti on. The si te was covered wi th cl ay soi l to prevent water
i nfi l trati on and potenti al l y contami nated water runoff.
Figure 9. A highw ay bridge embankment constructed w ith coal fly ash in Denmark.
The use of fi el d tests and tri al s to establ i sh performance characteri sti cs of
candi date materi al s was consi dered by the U.S. del egati on as an i mportant
factor i n Denmarks successful use of recycl ed materi al s i n road works. The U.S.
team concl uded that Denmarks conti nued eval uati on of envi ronmental
performance i s more advanced than that i n the Uni ted States.
The Danes i ndi cated that they have had no probl ems wi th asphal ti c recycl i ng
pavements. Asphal t recycl i ng was a standard practi ce i n Denmark even before
taxes were i mposed on di sposal . There i s a network of asphal t pl ants that recei ve
and reuse ol d asphal t. Speci fi cati ons are the same for new pavements and for
those contai ni ng recycl ed asphal t products, si nce the performance i s the same.
Pavement desi gn i s based on the Marshal l method. Di fferent pl ants use RAP to
produce the mi xes; the paral l el drum system prepares mi xes wi th 50 percent
RAP for base courses and 30 percent RAP for weari ng courses. The batch pl ant,
53
CHAPTER 5
whi ch can recycl e 15 percent RAP, i s not wi del y used anymore. Up to 80 percent
RAP mi xes are produced usi ng the Mari ni travel i ng drum system, whi ch i s a
combi nati on drum mi xer and paver that col d mi l l s the asphal t i n si tu and pl aces
i t i nto wi ndrows. The materi al i s then transferred to a drum mi xer and mi xed
wi th asphal t cement. The new mi x i s transferred to the paver. The newl y pl aced
materi al i s compacted usi ng conventi onal rol l i ng equi pment. Recycl i ng i n col d
mi xes al so takes pl ace. Emul si on stabi l i zers, foam bi tumen, and rejuvenators
are not used i n Denmark.
The RGS 90 A/S pl ant processes 95 percent of the i ncomi ng recovered waste materi al s
to hi gher val ue products. I n 1998, the pl ant recei ved 660,000 metri c tons of constructi on
waste, 120,000 metri c tons of i ndustri al resi dues and sewage sl udge, and 35,000 metri c
tons of garden and park waste. C&D materi al s processed at the pl ant i ncl ude asphal t,
concrete, ti l e, and mi xtures of these materi al s. Products produced i ncl ude screened soi l ,
screened top soi l , crushed concrete (0/30 mm), crushed concrete-ti l e mi xture (0/32 mm),
crushed ti l e (0/32 mm), and metal s. Pri ces recei ved for these materi al s range from Dkr
56 (~US$7) per metri c ton of crushed concrete to Dkr 28 (~US$3) for a metri c ton of
crushed ti l e-concrete mi x. The pl ant al so produces several compost products. The 5
percent of i ncomi ng materi al that cannot be recycl ed i s ei ther i nci nerated or l andfi l l ed.
The pl ant mai ntai ns suppl i es of vi rgi n aggregates so that cl i ents can transport
materi al s i n both di recti ons, thus savi ng transportati on costs. The faci l i ty processi ng
equi pment i ncl udes an el ectroni c wei ghi ng stati on, automati c and manual sorti ng,
crushi ng machi nes, screeni ng equi pment, magneti c separator, storage faci l i ti es, and
other materi al s handl i ng equi pment. Envi ronmental protecti on measures and stri ct
qual i ty control are used throughout the faci l i ty. Fi gures 10 and11 show vari ous
operati ons of the pl ant.
Figure 10. The C&D crushing process at the RGS 90 A/ S materials
processing plant in Denmark.
54
CHAPTER 5
Figure 11. Concrete jaw crusher at the RGS 90 A/ S materials processing plant in Denmark.
As part of the EUs ALT-MAT program to i nvesti gate exi sti ng si tes contai ni ng recycl ed
materi al s, Denmark i s eval uati ng a 5-year-ol d road wi th a muni ci pal waste i nci nerator
bottom ash subbase. The road handl es heavy traffi c l oads. The overal l objecti ve of thi s
porti on of the ALT-MAT program i s to obtai n i nformati on about the functi onal and
envi ronmental behavi or of recycl ed materi al s duri ng actual use. Thi s i nvol ves i n-si tu
observati ons i n tri al pi ts, i n addi ti on to engi neeri ng and envi ronmental testi ng of
sampl es i n the l aboratory. I n-si tu observati ons i ncl ude vi sual i nspecti ons, fal l i ng wei ght
defl ectometry, and si mi l ar testi ng. I ntrusi ve testi ng i ncl udes di ggi ng tri al pi ts,
obtai ni ng l aboratory sampl es, pl ate beari ng tests, and i n-si tu densi ty tests.
GERMANY
As i n the other countri es, recycl ed products i n Germany must meet al l the engi neeri ng
properti es of vi rgi n materi al s. They must al so be envi ronmental l y acceptabl e. I t
appears that Germany i s not i mpl ementi ng new techni ques for recycl i ng materi al s i nto
road constructi on. I t does, however, have a very acti ve research program that i ncl udes
moni tori ng and eval uati on of fi el d demonstrati ons to veri fy and support the l aboratory
work.
The U.S. del egati on concl uded that the research bei ng conducted at the Bundesanstal t
fr Straenwesen (the German Federal Hi ghway Research I nsti tute - BASt), whi ch
i ncl udes l aboratory i nvesti gati ons, accel erated l oadi ng, and freeze-thaw testi ng, i s wel l
pl anned and wel l executed. The resul ts of thi s research may have si gni fi cant effects on
the use of recycl ed materi al s i n German road works. One si gni fi cant observati on was
that BASt i ndi cated that a pl ate beari ng test can be used i nstead of the tri axi al Proctor
method as a measure of performance. Thi s may have val ue and appl i cati on i n the
Uni ted States. However, unl i ke Denmark, Germany appears to test mi x desi gns that
may not be representati ve of a uni form product from a processi ng pl ant.
55
CHAPTER 5
I n research, BASt uses a pavement testi ng faci l i ty that empl oys i mpul se l oadi ng to test
and eval uate the sui tabi l i ty of recycl ed materi al s. Test secti ons contai ni ng di fferent
recycl ed materi al s have been constructed. Ground water can be i njected and
temperature vari ed to eval uate effects of freeze-thaw cycl es. Usi ng speci al equi pment to
si mul ate traffi c acti on, pul se l oadi ng at 5.75 metri c tons per m
3
i s used rather than a
wheel . The equi pment permi ts 25 years of l oadi ng i n si x weeks. Recycl ed materi al s i n
two secti ons met current speci fi cati ons; four di d not. Bui l di ng rubbl e used was mostl y
concrete. Densi ty i s not used as an acceptance cri teri on because of the vari abi l i ty of the
materi al s. Sti ffness measurements from the pl ate beari ng test gi ve rel i abl e resul ts
compared wi th performance. Al l test secti ons meet these requi rements. Resul ts al so
showed that under certai n freeze-thaw condi ti ons, bui l di ng rubbl e needs to be
restri cted. Addi ti onal eval uati on i s requi red to determi ne i f thi s type testi ng woul d be
useful i n the Uni ted States.
The U.S. team toured the Wi rtgen GmbH equi pment manufacturi ng faci l i ti es l ocated i n
Wi ndhagen, Germany. Wi rtgen GmbH i s one of the l argest manufacturers of road
constructi on equi pment. Wi rtgens hot recycl i ng machi ne wi th a capabi l i ty for i n-si tu
recycl i ng and overl ayi ng top courses was i mpressi ve to several team members.
However, some expressed concern about the potenti al for adverse ai r emi ssi ons from
usi ng thi s machi ne. Wi rtgens foamed bi tumen equi pment and process was consi dered
i mpressi ve and envi ronmental l y neutral . The foamed bi tumen process i s a stabi l i zati on
techni que used i n Europe. The European process i s rel ati vel y new i n the Uni ted States.
The scanni ng team noted si gni fi cant advances i n the constructi on equi pment used to
appl y the foamed asphal t. These advances al l ow for deep road base stabi l i zati on at l ow
cost compared wi th other stabi l i zati on techni ques. The European foamed asphal t
process i nvol ves fol l owi ng:
Pul veri zati on of the exi sti ng road surface.
Shapi ng of the surface to near fi nal grade.
Mi xi ng and i njecti on of foamed asphal t cement.
Compacti on to the fi nal grade.
The preferred method i s to pul veri ze the exi sti ng road bed wi thout i njecti on of asphal t
cement. Thi s al l ows the contractor the opportuni ty to adjust the grade to i ts near fi nal
profi l e pri or to mi xi ng and i njecti on. Duri ng the mi xi ng and i njecti on, hot pavi ng grade
asphal t cement i s foamed or expanded and i njected i nto the chamber of the remi xi ng
uni t.
Foamed asphal t can al so be manufactured usi ng a portabl e pl ant. The resul tant
materi al can be stockpi l ed for up to 30 days before use as a base course provi ded i t i s
not compacted. Thi s has al l owed for some recycl ed materi al s to be stabi l i zed pri or to
use.
Foamed asphal t depends on the forceful expansi on of asphal t cement. Expansi on of the
asphal t i s obtai ned by the addi ti on of a smal l amount of water. Ai r may be used i f
worki ng wi th harder pavi ng grade asphal ts. The hot reacti on i s si mi l ar to the addi ti on
of water to hot oi l , but i s control l ed i n the foamed process. I n the expansi on process,
smal l dropl ets of asphal t are forced i nto the pul veri zed materi al s. As opposed to
conventi onal pavi ng techni ques, the purpose i s not to coat the parti cl es but to bi nd the
56
CHAPTER 5
pul veri zed materi al s together. The process has been compared wi th spot wel di ng. The
foamed asphal t has an attracti on to the fi nes because of the hi gh surface area. Thi s
creates a mortar-l i ke paste that provi des strength and cohesi on of the mi x after
compacti on. I t i s i mportant to use the correct amount of water to achi eve opti mum
expansi on i nto the pul veri zed materi al . Expansi on of the asphal t occurs i n speci al l y
desi gned spray nozzl es.
Fol l owi ng the mi xi ng process, a rubber-ti red rol l er may be used as the breakdown rol l er
fol l owed by a steel wheel rol l er as the fi ni sh rol l er. The resul t i s a cost-effecti ve, deep
strength road base.
Some of the benefi ts of foamed asphal t over more tradi ti onal stabi l i zati on techni ques
i ncl ude:
Abi l i ty to stockpi l e materi al for l onger peri ods when a portabl e pl ant i s used.
Abi l i ty to achi eve deeper road stabi l i zati on duri ng i n-pl ace recycl i ng (up to 14
i nches).
Permi ts openi ng of roads to traffi c sooner when i n-pl ace recycl i ng i s used.
Three manufacturers have been i denti fi ed that produce foamed asphal t equi pment:
CMI , Caterpi l l ar Pavi ng, and Wi rtgen. Wi rtgen has manufactured 147 machi nes i n the
past 5 years.
Wi rtgenss mobi l e chi p spreader may al so be of i nterest i n the Uni ted States. Fi gure 12
shows some Wi rtgen recycl i ng equi pment.
Figure 12. Assembled reclaimers ready for shipping at the Wirtgen fabrication facilities.
Based on German work, European countri es use a mi ni mum 45 mega newtons per m
2
(MN/m
2
) pl ate l oad for each l i ft of subgrade. Germany al so uses a frost preventi on l ayer,
dependi ng on the l ocati on of the constructi on project. I n some mi x desi gns, Germany
uses up to 50 percent RAP. Germany i s al so eval uati ng ways to recycl e coal tar roads
usi ng both col d emul si on pl ant mi x and foamed asphal t mi x. Thi s i s bei ng done on a
regi onal project-by-project basi s.
57
CHAPTER 5
The team toured the DEUTAG asphal t pl ant and i ts subsi di ary, the Remex recycl i ng
pl ant. DEUTAG produces about 100,000 metri c tons of asphal t each year. The pl ant
routi nel y uses recycl ed bi tumen and crushed concrete to produce asphal t products. I t i s
currentl y i nvesti gati ng the use of foundry sand and MSWI bottom ash. Fi gures 13 and
14 show several operati ons of the pl ant.
Figure 13. RAP bins for use at DEUTAG hot mix asphalt plant in Germany.
Figure 14. RAP containing tar at the DEUTAG asphalt plant in Germany. The plant is experimenting
w ith processing and use of different recycled matreials.
The RAP containing tar w ill be tested in a foamed bitumen application.
Remex Baustoffrecycl i ng AG processes C&D waste and i ndustri al resi dues i nto
marketabl e materi al . The vari ety of materi al processed (e.g., excavated soi l s, road
demol i ti on waste, rubbl e contai ni ng rei nforced concrete, bri ckwork, road demol i ti on
waste, and si mi l ar non-homogeneous materi al s) requi res a wi de range of processi ng
equi pment. The equi pment i ncl udes crushers, si evi ng and screeni ng equi pment,
magneti c separators, ai r cl assi fi ers, manual and mechani cal sorti ng, and other
58
CHAPTER 5
materi al s handl i ng processes. Thi s parti cul ar pl ant, one of ni ne i n the area, processes
about 60,000 metri c tons annual l y of waste materi al s; 25 percent i s ei ther i nci nerated
or l andfi l l ed. The manual sorti ng l i ne separates out paper, pl asti cs, sel ected wood
products, and some other materi al s. The company i s pai d DM 15 (~US$7) to DM 150
(~US$74) for each metri c ton of materi al recei ved from the waste generators. The cost of
di sposi ng waste remai ni ng after processi ng i s the responsi bi l i ty of Remex. Because of
thi s and other factors, Remex exerci ses good qual i ty control over materi al comi ng i nto
the pl ant. Fi gures 15, 16, and 17 show several operati ons of the pl ant.
Figure 15. C&D w astes to be processed at the Remex C&D processing plant in Germany.
Figure 16. The sorting conveyor at the Remex C&D processing plant. Hand sorting is used to
recover glass, metal, w ood, cardboard, and plastic that is co- mingled w ith the C&D w aste.
59
CHAPTER 5
Figure 17. Aggregate crushing and sorting facilities at the Remex C&D processing
plant. The pile in the foreground is aggregate made from crushed
C&D w aste. It w ill be used in highw ay base course.
THE NETHERLANDS
The U.S. del egati on was i mpressed wi th the amount of recycl ed materi al s the Dutch use
i n road works. Chapter 4 di scusses the research bei ng supported by the Dutch. The U.S.
del egati on was especi al l y i mpressed wi th the process used to devel op speci fi cati ons and
gui del i nes because i t requi res the parti ci pati on of al l i nterested stakehol ders. The
process has been very successful i n establ i shi ng a sound basi s for the use of recycl ed
materi al s i n Dutch road constructi on projects. The Dutch i nvesti gate the fundamental
properti es of materi al s and use thi s i nformati on to hel p determi ne expected
performance. Tradi ti onal l y, speci fi cati ons have been based on the basi c properti es of the
materi al s used. Thi s i nformati on i s al so used to devel op the qual i ty control and qual i ty
assurance pl ans needed to ensure performance i s as expected. As i n Sweden and
Denmark, the Dutch al so thi nk that the tradi ti onal tests used to eval uate vi rgi n
materi al s may not be appropri ate for many recycl ed materi al s and products made wi th
them. As an exampl e, the use of Marshal l testi ng i s not good for determi ni ng the
functi onal properti es of an asphal t mi x. Al though i t i s used to desi gn mi xes usi ng
bi tumen, i t i s i nappropri ate for use wi th recycl ed asphal t. The bi tumen changes and the
vi scosi ty and other properti es may al so be di fferent. I n some cases, performance of a
recycl ed materi al has been better than that i ndi cated by standard testi ng. Tests are
needed to measure the functi onal i ty of a mi x usi ng recycl ed materi al s. Therefore, one
objecti ve of the research i s to determi ne whi ch tests are appropri ate and to devel op new
tests where needed. The Dutch use of porous asphal t surface mi x to reduce noi se was a
si gni fi cant fi ndi ng. Thi s i s an exampl e of the i ntegrati on of engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental awareness i nto the overal l desi gn phi l osophy. The Dutch strongl y
endorse the use of ful l -scal e fi el d testi ng to veri fy l aboratory fi ndi ngs and to determi ne
the ri sks of usi ng recycl ed materi al s. Fi el d testi ng i s done wi th the parti ci pati on of the
materi al producers.
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CHAPTER 5
The Dutch cl assi fy recycl ed materi al s i nto three categori es based on thei r potenti al for
causi ng contami nati on. The process does not rel y sol el y on concentrati ons of
consti tuents i n the materi al , but al so consi ders the amount of harmful consti tuents that
mi ght be rel eased under a speci fi c use si tuati on. The cl assi fi cati ons and requi rements
for usi ng soi l are control l ed by the Soi l s Pol i cy and Bui l di ng Materi al s Decree (see
Chapter 6). Contami nated soi l i s cl eaned and used anywhere. Sl i ghtl y contami nated
soi l s may be used, dependi ng on the l ocati on. Thi s use i s based on resul ts of testi ng and
the al l owance of a margi nal burdeni ng above background to the soi l over a l ong ti me
peri od. A mi ni mum of 10,000 metri c tons must be used i n a gi ven project.
The team vi si ted a resi denti al housi ng devel opment pl anned for 12,000 homes by the
year 2006. Located at Ypenburg, a former ai rport, the si te i s surrounded by three busy
hi ghways. The requi rement to reduce traffi c noi se to 55 deci bel s (dBA) resul ted i n the
desi gn of two embankments approxi matel y 12 meters hi gh requi ri ng l arge quanti ti es
(more than 1,000,000 m
3
) of fi l l materi al s. Because of thi s and the Dutch pol i cy
permi tti ng a margi nal i mpact to soi l and water over a 100-year peri od, sl i ghtl y
contami nated soi l s are bei ng used as fi l l materi al to construct the embankments. The
soi l i s del i vered by truck mai nl y from Rotterdam, Del f, and the Hague. Each del i very i s
i nspected and sampl es anal yzed to determi ne contami nati on l evel s pri or to fi nal
pl acement. I f the contami nati on l evel s do not meet requi rements, the soi l i s moved to a
soi l cl eani ng faci l i ty or i s l andfi l l ed. The l ocati on of each batch used i n the embankment
i s bei ng mapped. The contami nated soi l i s bei ng covered wi th a hal f-meter-thi ck l ayer
of cl ean soi l . Fi gure 18 shows the embankment.
Figure 18. The noise control embankment at Ypenburg in the Netherlands.
The barrier is made w ith lightly contaminated soils.
The producti on, certi fi cati on, and uti l i zati on of WTE bottom ash i n the Netherl ands
i nvol ves the parti ci pati on of the Waste Processi ng Associ ati on, Associ ati on of Road
Contractors, the envi ronmental authori ti es, and the agreement wi th the Certi fyi ng
61
CHAPTER 5
I nsti tute. The ash must meet speci fi c physi cal and envi ronmental requi rements for
certi fi cati on and use. I t must be free of any fl y ash, be stored 6 weeks pri or to use,
contai n l ess than 5 percent scrap metal , and l oss on i gni ti on cannot exceed 5.5 percent.
Processed ash wi th a grai n si ze di stri buti on of 0/20 mm i s used for road base; 0/40 mm
i s used as fi l l materi al . Ash producers must be certi fi ed and are requi red to perform
qual i ty control over the physi cal and envi ronmental properti es of thei r ash product.
Certi fi cati on provi des a tool for qual i ty control and a nati onwi de i denti fi cati on of the
WTE bottom ash as a useful constructi on materi al . The ash i s routi nel y used to
construct road embankments. Because the water tabl e i s hi gh and the embankments
are rai sed, the bottom ash i s usual l y encapsul ated wi th bentoni te cl ay soi l . Regul ati ons
requi re that a mi ni mum of 10,000 metri c tons of ash be used i n a gi ven project.
Contractors general l y use much l arger quanti ti es to make i t more economi cal . The
owner of the embankment, most often a government agency, moni tors the si te.
The scanni ng team vi si ted the I nsul i nde Recycl i ng BV WTE bottom ash recycl i ng
project. Fi gures 19 and 20 show the bottom ash product bei ng used i n a road
embankment l ocated i n the vi ci ni ty of Amsterdam. The project consi sts of two secti ons
of road connecti ng hi ghways A9 and A7. The embankment i s bei ng constructed wi th a
bottom l ayer of sand and a 4-meter-thi ck l ayer of the bottom ash pl aced at l east 1 meter
above ground water, whi ch i s then covered wi th a l ayer of bentoni te cl ay soi l and a
hi gh-densi ty pol yethyl ene l i ner. The bottom ash i s pl aced i n l i fts one-hal f-meter thi ck .
Figure 19. WTE bottom ash use in a road embankment in the Netherlands.
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CHAPTER 5
Figure 20. WTE bottom ash use in a road embankment in
the Netherlands. The embankment w ill be about 3 meters high.
Other engi neeri ng and rel ated functi ons of i nterest that the U.S. del egati on observed i n
the Netherl ands are:
Recycl ed asphal t pavement i s used i n al l mi xes for roads excl udi ng porous
asphal t and stone masti c asphal t (SMA).
The Dutch are not i n favor of usi ng modi fi ed asphal t i n mi xes because there i s
no good qual i ty system that control s asphal t recycl i ng wi th modi fi ed bi nders.
Crumb rubber i s not used i n asphal t.
Cel l ul ose fi bers are used i n SMA.
The Dutch are just begi nni ng to use foamed asphal t.
The U.S. del egati on was very i mpressed wi th the new doubl e paral l el drum asphal t
pl ant, i ts equi pment, and the overal l process. The pl ant i s of Swi ss desi gn (Ammonn)
and i s owned by a number of Dutch road contractors. The pl ant and some of i ts features
are depi cted i n Fi gures 21, 22, 23, and 24. The pl ant i s i nnovati ve and effecti ve i n
maxi mi zi ng the amount of recycl ed asphal t that can be used i n mi xes. The drum system
i s used i n the batch pl ant to prepare mi xes wi th 50 percent RAP for base courses and 30
percent RAP for weari ng courses. Up to 70 percent RAP mi xes are produced.
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CHAPTER 5
Figure 21. The Sw iss- designed Ammonn double drum hot recycling asphalt
plant in the Netherlands. The plant is co- ow ned by Vermeer. The plant
uses high quantities of RAP that is added to the low er drum. The exhaust
gas from the RAP drum is used as burner air for the virgin aggregate drum.
Figure 22. RAP is used at high substitution levels at the Sw iss- designed Ammonn
double drum hot recycling asphalt plant in the Netherlands.
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CHAPTER 5
Figure 23. RAP is sorted before introduction into the low er drum at the Sw iss- designed Ammonn
double drum asphalt plant in the Netherlands.
Figure 24. The double drums allow for high introduction of RAP at the Sw iss- designed Ammonn
double drum hot recycling asphalt plant in the Netherlands. RAP is heated in the low er drum and
virgin aggregates are heated in the upper drum.
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CHAPTER 5
FRANCE
As noted i n Chapter 3, France has a l ong hi story of usi ng recycl ed i ndustri al waste i n
constructi on. Thi s hi story has reveal ed several engi neeri ng aspects of usi ng di fferent
materi al s. The fi rst recycl ed materi al s used i n France were bl ast furnace sl ags, coal fl y
ash, and coal mi ni ng wastes. Bl ast furnace sl ag was i ni ti al l y used pri mari l y as an
aggregate, but now i s granul ated and used more as a hydraul i c bi nder. France produces
about 5 mi l l i on metri c tons of bl ast furnace sl ag annual l y. Of the 3 mi l l i on metri c tons
granul ated, 20 percent i s used as aggregate i n roads. The remai ni ng 80 percent i s used
as a hydraul i c bi nder. Gravel and sand sl ag (ground granul ated bl ast furnace sl ag) are
produced usi ng 15 percent by wei ght of the granul ated bl ast furnace sl ag. The ground
granul ated bl ast furnace sl ag i ncreases the reacti vi ty of the mi x. The use of ground
granul ated bl ast furnace sl ag i s control l ed by economi cs. Cement producers are not
wi l l i ng to pay the added cost; therefore, some i s used i n road constructi on. The French
del egati on noted that they were behi nd i n usi ng granul ated sl ags i n cement producti on,
whi ch i s consi dered the hi ghest val ue use, when compared wi th other countri es i n
Europe. I n the past, steel sl ag was al so routi nel y used after agi ng i n hot water pi ts, but
because cal ci um oxi de hydrates and expands i n weari ng courses, onl y about 20,000
metri c tons are now used each year. The steel sl ag i s used i n base courses.
Coal fl y ash, at l evel s of 8 to 12 percent by wei ght, i s used as a hydraul i c bi nder to hel p
stabi l i ze the sand. The CaO content acti vates the bi nder. I t i s al so used to modi fy the
grai n si ze di stri buti on characteri sti cs of the mi x. Al so, about 1 mi l l i on metri c tons of
hi gh al umi nosi l i cate coal fl y ash i s produced annual l y; about 25 percent i s used. As a
bi nder, i t can be transported l ong di stances and i s used al l over France. Thi s i mproves
the economi cs of usi ng the materi al .
The French have al so found that they can use coal fl y ash that was deposi ted i n pi l es i n
the northern part of the country 25 to 30 years ago. Much of thi s fl y ash has not l ost i ts
hydraul i c properti es. They al so use hydraul i c sul fur fl y ash contai ni ng hi gher amounts
of qui ckl i me. The qui ckl i me i s used to fi x the sul fi tes duri ng the combusti on process.
The materi al can be used l i ke cement, but onl y at about 4 to 4.5 percent by wei ght. I f
hi gher amounts are used, swel l i ng becomes a probl em.
Coal mi ni ng waste (col l i ery shal es) shal es have been used i n both forms. The bl ack
shal es, i ni ti al l y used as aggregates and i n earthworks, are not as good as the red shal es
produced by burni ng the bl ack shal es. The red shal es have better frost resi stance
properti es and are used as subbase. Because the amount of red shal es i s di mi ni shi ng,
producers are tryi ng to i mprove bl ack shal es. An esti mated 50 mi l l i on metri c tons of
bl ack shal es are i n 20 heaps l ocated around France. About 3 mi l l i on metri c tons are
val ori zed each year. After 1975, phosphate gypsum was used i n earth works,
embankments, and i n bi nders to accel erate setti ng of gravel sl ag mi xes. There were
several probl ems wi th phosphate gypsum and i t i s not bei ng used today. Where i t was
used, embankment stabi l i ty was compromi sed because of cracki ng and vari abl e water
contents from top to bottom l ayers. Usi ng the materi al to accel erate setti ng of gravel
sl ag mi xes resul ted i n swel l i ng of the materi al s. The phosphate gypsum had been used
at l evel s up to 20 percent by wei ght. The French now thi nk that i t can be successful l y
used i n some appl i cati ons at about the 1 percent l evel . They are al so i nvesti gati ng the
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CHAPTER 5
use of sul fates generated duri ng ti tani um oxi de processi ng. Today, thi s materi al i s not
used i n road works.
France has a few l ocati ons where approxi matel y 5 mi l l i on metri c tons of C&D waste
are processed to make qual i ty aggregates. France has the potenti al to generate and use
25 mi l l i on metri c tons annual l y of these materi al s. Therefore, there i s great i nterest i n
i ncreasi ng the amount used. Usi ng these aggregates can cause a few probl ems that
must be consi dered i n desi gn and constructi on. The cement bi nder stuck to the
aggregate can break l oose and i ncrease fi nes. Thi s can i ncrease surface porosi ty,
i ncrease the amount of water needed i n the mi x, and retard setti ng. The vari abi l i ty of
the materi al comi ng i nto the faci l i ti es for processi ng can resul t i n vari abi l i ty i n the
products, creati ng a need for cl ose moni tori ng of qual i ty. The cost of these aggregates i s
hi gher than vi rgi n materi al s. However, the French i ndi cated that one needs to consi der
al l aspects, such as transportati on costs, i n determi ni ng the real cost of usi ng the
recycl ed aggregates compared wi th the natural ones.
Recycl i ng of asphal t i s an ongoi ng process. Not as much i s recycl ed as the producers and
contractors woul d l i ke. I n a Pari s suburb, usi ng 10 percent RAP i n base courses i s
permi tted. I n some l i mi ted cases, up to 40 percent can be used i f the l ocal authori ti es
determi ne that the materi al i s of the hi ghest qual i ty. As stated i n Chapter 3, contractors
bel i eve they can routi nel y use 15 to 20 percent, and shoul d not be restri cted to 10
percent. They i ndi cated that such l evel s woul d consume al l of Frances yearl y
producti on. Today about 1 to 2 mi l l i on square meters of asphal t pavements are recycl ed.
Because they are processed to meet engi neeri ng and envi ronmental speci fi cati ons, the
French use WTE bottom ash as aggregates, parti cul arl y i n the Pari s area. I n 1997, 60
percent (about 1.3 mi l l i on metri c tons) of the producti on was used. The ashes can be
mechani cal l y processed and aged to meet engi neeri ng speci fi cati ons. Therefore, the key
to usi ng the ashes i s to ensure that they wi l l not pose any envi ronmental probl ems.
French l egi sl ati on requi res that the ash be cl assi fi ed i nto three categori es based on
thei r l eachi ng characteri sti cs and other properti es (see Chapter 6).
The U.S. del egati on toured the Jean LeFebvre recycl i ng faci l i ti es processi ng C&D
waste, concrete and WTE bottom ash. The C&D pl ant processes onl y concrete from
constructi on demol i ti on operati ons (approxi matel y 250,000 to 300,000 metri c tons
annual l y). The faci l i ty does not process recl ai med asphal t pavements, bri cks, and
si mi l ar materi al s. For pri mary crushi ng, a front end l oader i s used to mi x the concrete
(pi eces l arger than 60 cm
3
are removed to prevent cl oggi ng) wi th gravel and sand. The
pl ant uses a pri mary crusher, a secondary crusher, several screeni ng devi ces, magneti c
separators, and other materi al s handl i ng equi pment to produce i ts recycl ed aggregates.
The recovered ferrous metal s are sol d to a recycl er i n Pari s. Fi gure 25 shows vari ous
pl ant operati ons. The pl ant was conducti ng some experi ments of mi xi ng recl ai med
asphal t wi th recycl ed concrete and processi ng wi th a foamed bi tumen to provi de
materi al for base constructi on.
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CHAPTER 5
Figure 25. The concrete crushing Jean LeFebvre C&D w aste recycling plant in France.
The WTE bottom ash processi ng pl ant processes about 200,000 metri c tons annual l y of
MSW i nci nerator bottom ash del i vered from a l ocal i nci nerator. The ash i s aged for
varyi ng peri ods of ti me, usual l y around 3 months, unti l the pH drops from 11 down
bel ow 9. The pl ant uses several screeni ng devi ces, ai r cl assi fi ers, a magneti c separator
to recover ferrous metal , an eddy current separator to recover non-ferrous metal s,
conveyors, crushers, and si mi l ar equi pment to produce several si zes (0-6 mm, 6-12 mm,
and 12-30 mm) that are then mi xed and stored to dry. The pl ant has a system to col l ect
water runoff, whi ch i s transferred to a treatment faci l i ty. Fi gure 26 shows the pl ant.
Figure 26. The WTE bottom ash crushing and sieving process at the Jean LeFebvre MSW bottom
ash recycling plant in France.
France has used scrap ti res for 20 years i n appurtenances, sl ope stabi l i zati on, and
embankments. Approxi matel y 370,000 waste ti res are produced each year. Of these, 5 to
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CHAPTER 5
10 percent are used i n road noi se barri ers and embankments, 5 to 10 percent are used
as crumb rubber, 10 percent are used as fuel s i n cement ki l ns, 10 percent are l andfi l l ed,
and 20 percent are retread. There are no good records as to what happens to the
remai ni ng 40 to 50 percent; some are exported to countri es were tread depth i s not
i mportant and others are probabl y di sposed of i l l egal l y.
France has some experi ence wi th usi ng vi tri fi cati on technol ogi es for treati ng hazardous
waste and to produce qual i ty products. Al though i t mi ght be worthwhi l e for the Uni ted
States to fol l ow the progress i n thi s area, vi tri fi cati on i s an expensi ve process that has
not had success i n the Uni ted States. The mai n use of thi s technol ogy i n the Uni ted
States has been to treat si tes contami nated wi th radi oacti vi ty. France i s supporti ng
research on coal tar asphal t to fi nd methods to use i t. One opti on bei ng i nvesti gated i s
usi ng cement and water to make an aggregate base materi al .
France has a comprehensi ve set of techni cal references, speci fi cati ons, and standards for
materi al s used i n road constructi on. Si nce recycl ed materi al s are processed to meet
these speci fi cati ons and standards, they can be cl assi fi ed usi ng the aggregate
cl assi fi cati on procedures. These documents have al l the necessary pri nci pl es and
gui del i nes for desi gni ng mi xes for pavements, embankments, and si mi l ar engi neeri ng
appl i cati ons used i n road works. Desi gns usi ng recycl ed materi al s must fol l ow these
gui del i nes. These standards, speci fi cati ons, and gui del i nes are used by admi ni strators,
contractors, uni versi ti es, and others i nvol ved i n the i ndustry.
Three French fi rms are usi ng crumb rubber i n porous asphal t for l ow temperature
appl i cati ons i n weari ng surfaces. The use of crumb rubber provi des good ducti l e
properti es and may hel p reduce noi se. The French reported that when the crumb rubber
i s i ntroduced at di fferent stages of the process, the noi se reducti on properti es of the mi x
are i mproved. A maxi mum 1.55-mm si ze i s used for noi se reducti on. Crumb rubber i s
al so used for seal i ng cracks. Overal l , however, the use of crumb rubber i s not
economi cal l y vi abl e.
LCPC i s Frances representati ve i n the ALT-MAT program. I ts rol e i nvol ves testi ng fl y
ash, sl ags, and MSWI bottom ash. Laboratory testi ng i ncl udes eval uati on of physi cal
properti es and envi ronmental behavi or usi ng l eachi ng tests. France i s al so eval uati ng a
20-year-ol d road subbase of WTE bottom ash and an 8-year-ol d road wi th a crushed
concrete base.
France al so routi nel y eval uates the mechani cal properti es of recycl ed materi al s i n the
l aboratory and i n the fi el d. An objecti ve i s to standardi ze speci fi cati ons for mi x desi gns
usi ng recycl ed materi al s, at l east on a regi onal basi s. However, there are no speci fi c
provi si ons for recycl ed materi al s, and the French bel i eve that qual i ty must not be
compromi sed i n order to use them. Chapter 3 di scusses these i ssues as they rel ate to
sustai nabl e road constructi on i n France.
As expected, the countri es toured use standard engi neeri ng practi ces for constructi ng
roads. Some vari ati ons do exi st, however, because of l ocati ons and pol i ci es. A hi gh
degree of recycl i ng and use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads are present i n most of the
countri es. Bl ast furnace sl ag, asphal t pavements, coal fl y ash, C&D aggregates, and
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CHAPTER 5
steel sl ags are routi nel y used. The Netherl ands and Denmark al so use most of the
muni ci pal waste i nci nerator bottom ash that they produce; Germany uses about 68
percent and France al so uses thi s materi al i n some areas. General l y, as i n the Uni ted
States, recycl ed materi al s must meet the same engi neeri ng speci fi cati ons and
performance as natural materi al s and must be envi ronmental l y acceptabl e. The desi re
to use materi al s at thei r hi ghest val ue may i nfl uence the fi nal appl i cati on; however, i f
the materi al cannot be used i n thi s manner, a l ower val ue use i s acceptabl e. There was
general agreement among the countri es that many standard engi neeri ng and
mechani cal test methods used to characteri ze and measure the performance of recycl ed
materi al s and thei r products are i nadequate. They bel i eve that more functi onal tests
that better predi ct performance are needed. Al so, as i n the Uni ted States, many bel i eve
that current l aboratory tests al one cannot adequatel y predi ct performance of materi al s
i n actual appl i cati ons. Al l the countri es are addressi ng these i ssues i n cooperati on wi th
the EU ALT-MAT program and i n thei r own research programs. There appear to be
opportuni ti es for the Uni ted States to parti ci pate i n these efforts and use the
i nformati on to hel p better eval uate recycl ed materi al s for use i n U.S. roads.
I n several countri es, parti cul arl y Denmark and the Netherl ands, compani es produci ng
natural materi al s al so produce recycl ed materi al s. Some recycl ed materi al processi ng
compani es al so suppl y natural materi al s as a servi ce to thei r cl i ents. Several countri es
have strong QA/QC programs to ensure that recycl ed materi al s meet speci fi cati ons and
qual i ty requi rements. I n the Netherl ands, contractors are certi fi ed once thei r materi al s
are approved. Thi s certi fi cati on process i s i nstrumental i n marketi ng and use of the
recycl ed materi al s for road constructi on. Some other countri es have si mi l ar
certi fi cati ons. Regi onal l y, i n the Uni ted States, si mi l ar acti vi ti es are bei ng devel oped
that mi rror these approaches.
70
Chapt er Si x
ENVI RONMENT
One overri di ng theme i n the countri es vi si ted was that al l recycl ed materi al s used for
sustai nabl e road constructi on must be envi ronmental l y acceptabl e. Al so, the i mportance
of Nati onal envi ronmental pol i ci es speci fi c to recycl ed materi al s use was emphasi zed.
These pol i ci es must be supported wi th cl ear i mpl ementati on gui del i nes. Test methods
for eval uati ng envi ronmental characteri sti cs vari ed among the countri es, but there was
agreement that fi el d testi ng i s cri ti cal to veri fy l aboratory resul ts and to determi ne the
val i di ty of usi ng l aboratory tests to predi ct performance i n the fi el d. The EU 4th
Framework ALT-MAT project emphasi zes thi s approach. The envi ronmental mi ni stri es
or nati onal envi ronmental agenci es i n each country general l y devel op the pol i ci es and
regul ati ons. These pol i ci es are, however, i mpl emented at the regi onal and l ocal l evel s,
often creati ng vari abi l i ty i n thei r appl i cati on among l ocal and regi onal juri sdi cti ons.
Nati onal agenci es support research at nati onal envi ronmental l aboratori es to devel op
test methods, defi ne approaches for eval uati ng envi ronmental performance (i ncl udi ng
ri sk assessments), and assi st i n devel opi ng standards, speci fi cati ons, and gui del i nes for
usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n road works.
Approval s and permi tti ng for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n roads are normal l y done at
the l ocal l evel . I n some cases thi s process can be very ti me consumi ng, adversel y
affecti ng the i mpl ementati on of projects. I n some cases (e.g., Denmark) there are broad
categori cal approval s for usi ng sel ected materi al s i n speci fi c appl i cati ons. More
frequentl y case-by-case approval s are used for speci fi c materi al s on the basi s of
condi ti ons at a speci fi c uti l i zati on si te. The EU i s attempti ng to devel op a standard
approach to eval uate envi ronmental performance of recycl ed products, i ncl udi ng those
used i n road constructi on projects.
The fol l owi ng i nformati on concentrates on envi ronmental i ssues such as testi ng,
appl i cabl e l aboratory and fi el d research, approaches for predi cti ng envi ronmental
behavi or, and other i mportant envi ronmental i ssues for each country.
SWEDEN
I n Sweden, envi ronmental assessments for projects are compl eted and permi ts are
approved on a si te-speci fi c basi s usi ng ri sk cl assi fi cati on gui del i nes establ i shed for soi l s.
These val ues were devel oped by consi deri ng the mobi l i ty or i mmobi l i zati on of
consti tuents; di l uti on i n pore water, surface water, and ground water; means of
exposure; and the toxi col ogi cal effects on humans and the envi ronment. Worki ng
backwards from what was consi dered an acceptabl e dose to a receptor, Sweden
establ i shed the l evel s deemed acceptabl e for soi l s. Gui del i ne val ues have been
establ i shed for a number of el ements and substances. For use, soi l s have been cl assi fi ed
i nto three categori es: sensi ti ve uses of soi l s (KM), l ess sensi ti ve uses of soi l s wi th
ground water extracti on (MKMGV), and l ess sensi ti ve uses of soi l s (MKM). These are
the onl y gui del i nes avai l abl e for permi tti ng the use of recycl ed materi al s i n road
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CHAPTER 6
constructi on. As menti oned earl i er, there are no provi si ons i n Swedens ROAD 94
standards that deal wi th the envi ronmental eval uati ons.
The need for nati onal envi ronmental standards and gui del i nes regardi ng the use of
recycl ed materi al s i s emphasi zed i n SGI s program, Envi ronmental Fri endl y Use of
Secondary (Recycl ed) Materi al s. The program goal i s to achi eve a major breakthrough
i n 5 years for use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on. The program i s desi gned to
hel p al l evi ate probl ems caused by:
Lack of knowl edge about envi ronmental behavi or, mechani cal properti es, and
l egi sl ati on deal i ng wi th recycl ed materi al s.
The fact that there are few establ i shed test methods to eval uate these materi al s.
Lack of gui del i nes for usi ng these materi al s.
Lack of communi cati on between producers and users of recycl ed materi al s.
SGI hopes that thi s program wi l l hel p reduce the i mpedi ments to usi ng recycl ed
materi al s now caused by the si te-speci fi c envi ronmental assessments requi red by
Swedi sh l egi sl ati on.
SGI researchers have proposed to the NV what they bel i eve i s a better approach to
eval uate the ri sk associ ated wi th usi ng recycl ed materi al s. To devel op thei r approach,
they (i ) surveyed pri nci pl es used to eval uate the ri sks of usi ng ci vi l engi neeri ng
materi al s, (i i ) revi ewed i nternati onal l eachi ng protocol s, and (i i i ) revi ewed rel ated
procedures used i n Sweden. For the l eachi ng protocol s, they focused on the Dutch and
Dani sh systems. The approach provi des structure and gui dance for establ i shi ng cri teri a
needed for the assessment. I t i ncl udes formul ati on of the ri sk assessment probl em and
exposure assessment, ri sk eval uati on, and compl eti on of the ri sk assessment. Thi s
approach resul ts i n the l i sti ng of substances, i denti fi cati on and establ i shment of
gui del i nes for the speci fi c use scenari o, and establ i shment of techni cal and
admi ni strati ve measures requi red for the project. Al so i mportant i s the establ i shment of
procedures for QA/QC.
SGI i s usi ng assessment val ues from other establ i shed systems (e.g., ground water,
surface water, agri cul tural soi l s, contami nated soi l s, forest soi l s). I t has provi ded
i nformati on on where and how these val ues shoul d be used for conducti ng ri sk
assessments. SGI bel i eves that the approach now i n use to eval uate exposures i s
unsui tabl e. I t bel i eves that determi ni ng the source term under di fferent condi ti ons
needs work and that deci si ons shoul d be made based on an eval uati on usi ng
concentrati ons cl oser to the source term (i .e., at the source of the contami nati on and not
at the receptor). Thi s change woul d reduce probl ems associ ated wi th usi ng transport
and fate model i ng.
Sweden i s conducti ng comprehensi ve research as part of the EU ALT-MAT program i n
an effort to i ncrease the use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads. Objecti ves of thi s research
i ncl ude defi ni ng the properti es (envi ronmental and engi neeri ng) of materi al s,
establ i shi ng the rel ati onshi p between l aboratory testi ng and fi el d behavi or, devel opi ng
an i mproved approach for assessi ng the ri sks of usi ng recycl ed materi al s, and
devel opi ng protocol s for l each testi ng to eval uate envi ronmental behavi or of recycl ed
materi al s when pl aced i n the fi el d. A key objecti ve i s to devel op tests for characteri zi ng
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CHAPTER 6
the functi onal behavi or of products made wi th recycl ed materi al s rather than rel yi ng
stri ctl y on standard empi ri cal tests most often used wi th vi rgi n materi al s.
The ALT-MAT program i ncl udes i nvesti gati ons usi ng cl i mate chambers, l ysi meter
l eachi ng studi es, and fi el d testi ng of l eachi ng and other characteri sti cs of actual roads
used i n demonstrati on projects. Fi el d studi es i ncl ude repeated col umn l eachi ng,
l ysi meter l eachi ng eval uati ons, and sampl i ng and anal ysi s of ground water beneath
test roads wi th i nstal l ed l eachate col l ecti on systems. Swedens acti vi ti es al so i ncl ude
eval uati ng the l eachi ng properti es of natural materi al s and of new roads constructed
wi th crushed concrete at southern and northern l ocati ons.
SGI i s the l ead organi zati on for l each testi ng. I ts strategi es for i nvesti gati ng the
l eachi ng properti es of a waste (and al so natural materi al s) i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Anal yzi ng the total composi ti on of the materi al s.
Determi ni ng the fracti on of each consti tuent of concern that i s avai l abl e for
l eachi ng. The l eachi ng test used i s NT-ENVI R 003. (NT refers to NORDTEST or
Nordi c Countri es Standard Test)
Appl yi ng the oxi di zed avai l abi l i ty test (NT ENVI R 006).
Usi ng pH stati c l eachi ng tests.
Determi ni ng the rel ati onshi p of a two-step compl i ance test (pr EN 12457-3) to
col umn l eachi ng tests.
DENMARK
Three factors are essenti al to the Dani sh i ntegrated system for successful recycl i ng:
l aws, technol ogy, and economi cs. Laws are needed to protect human heal th and the
envi ronment. Denmarks overal l envi ronmental pol i cy i s to devel op cl eaner technol ogy,
i ncrease recycl i ng, use WTE for energy (el ectri ci ty and heat) where appropri ate, and
l andfi l l waste that cannot be used.
The three mai n objecti ves of i ts envi ronmental regul ati ons are protecti on of water
resources, preventi on of confl i cts wi th respect to use of sensi ti ve l ands, and
harmoni zati on of envi ronmental regul ati ons wi th other l aws and regul ati ons. The
Danes must al so consi der EU di recti ves regardi ng envi ronmental matters.
The MS devel ops nati onal regul ati ons. The 16 counti es are responsi bl e for devel opi ng
county envi ronmental pl ans and i ssui ng permi ts. The 275 Dani sh muni ci pal i ti es must
devel op waste management pl ans, i mpl ement and enforce regul ati ons, and are
responsi bl e for col l ecti ng and di sposi ng of waste. I n an appl i cati on to use a waste
materi al , the producer has the responsi bi l i ty to decl are to the envi ronmental
authori ti es and the end user, the fol l owi ng:
Pl ace of producti on and type of waste bei ng used.
Method used to treat the waste.
Sampl i ng methodol ogy used to col l ect the waste.
Leachi ng test used and the resul ts of the anal yses to eval uate the waste.
Laboratory used for testi ng and anal yses.
73
CHAPTER 6
Desi gnati on of the materi al i nto category 1, 2, or 3.
The user of recycl ed materi al s must noti fy the county and the muni ci pal i ty 4 weeks i n
advance of the project. The noti fi cati on must i ncl ude the start and end dates; the
amount and type of waste; engi neeri ng drawi ngs of the project wi th l ocati ons of
dri nki ng water wel l s, fresh water, sea water; and any di rect di scharge poi nts. The
county and muni ci pal i ty are responsi bl e for ensuri ng the producer handl es the materi al
accordi ng to al l rul es. The muni ci pal i ty al so conducts fi el d i nspecti ons duri ng the
project. Envi ronmental eval uati on wi th respect to ground water, fresh water, and sea
water i s al so the responsi bi l i ty of the county.
Denmarks model for cl assi fyi ng waste materi al s i nto three categori es i s depi cted i n
Tabl e 15. A l eachi ng test (CEN prEN 12457) i s used to determi ne i n whi ch category a
waste i s pl aced. Thi s test i nvol ves a 6-hour contact of the waste sampl e wi th 0.0001
mol ar CaCl
2
or HNO
3
l eachate at a l i qui d to sol i ds rati o of two.
Table 15. Danish model for classifying w aste.
Greater excess by leaching Category 3, specific evaluation Category 3, specific evaluation
required required
Smaller excess by leaching Category 2b, statutory order Category 2b, statutory order
No excess by leaching Category 1, no regulation Category 2a, statutory order
Below the soil quality criteria Exceeds the soil quality criteria
Category 1 materi al s cannot exceed establ i shed l i mi ts for concentrati ons of arseni c,
bari um, l ead, cadmi um, total chromi um, chromi um VI , copper, mercury, manganese,
ni ckel , and zi nc i n the l eachate i n the materi al . Category 2 materi al s cannot exceed the
concentrati on l i mi ts of these same substances i n the l eachates.
The fol l owi ng are addi ti onal requi rements for category 2a and 2b:
They are not hazardous.
They are not contami nated wi th other materi al s.
They cannot be used (or di sposed of) i n a gravel pi t.
They must be pl aced above the hi ghest water tabl e l evel .
They cannot be used above speci fi ed amounts for the speci fi c project.
Category 1 materi al s do not need permi ts. Category 2 materi al s requi re permi ts except
for those that have statutory approval , i ncl udi ng asphal t, crushed concrete and ti l e, coal
fl y ash and bottom ash, and WTE bottom ash. Category 2 materi al s do, however, requi re
si te-speci fi c use permi ts and must meet mi ni mum requi rements. As an exampl e, the
requi rements for WTE bottom ash and coal fl y/bottom ash are:
pH (1% sl urry) > 9.0
Al kal i ni ty > 1.5 eqv/kg
Lead < 3000 mg/kg
74
CHAPTER 6
Cadmi um < 10 mg/kg
Mercury < 0.5 mg/kg
I n addi ti on, Category 2 materi al s cannot be pl aced cl oser than 20 meters to dri nki ng
water wel l s and cannot be used i n l ayers thi cker than 0.3 meters for unpaved
appl i cati ons, or thi cker than 1 to 2 meters under paved surfaces.
Category 3 materi al s must go through a compl ex permi tti ng process, whi ch i nvol ves
appl i cati on, revi ew and permi tti ng based on gui del i nes, and publ i c noti fi cati on. I f the
publ i c compl ai ns, the Dani sh EPA revi ews the appl i cati on. I f the publ i c appeal s the
EPAs deci si on, i t goes to a compl ai nt board for revi ew. I f the boards deci si on i s
appeal ed, the courts deci de. Some questi on the economi cs of a Category 3 waste permi t
appl i cati on.
Mobi l e hot mi x asphal t pl ants must al so be permi tted. A temporary permi t i s gi ven for
operati ons of 2 months or l ess. The pl ant must get a permanent permi t for l onger
operati ons. Because permi tti ng i s di ffi cul t, and a separate one i s needed for each new
si te, mobi l e hot mi x pl ants are not wi del y used.
Denmark parti ci pates i n the EU ALT-MAT program. A part of thi s program i s
i nvesti gati ng ol d si tes that used recycl ed materi al s. Denmark i s eval uati ng a 5-year-ol d
road wi th a subbase of MSWI bottom ash. The overal l objecti ve i s to obtai n i nformati on
about the functi onal and envi ronmental behavi or of recycl ed materi al s under use
condi ti ons. The i nvesti gati ons i nvol ve destructi ve and non-destructi ve testi ng both i n
the fi el d and i n the l aboratory. Denmarks envi ronmental testi ng resul ts for the WTE
bottom ash and several other materi al s are presented i n Tabl e 16.
Table 16. Environmental testing results for WTE bottom ash in Denmark.
Material Environmental Results
Crushed concrete subbase High pH and calcium in leachates; chromium and lead levels higher
than natural sand
MSWI bottom ash subbase Some migration of salts into subgrade; all samples comply w ith
Danish w ater quality criteria
Natural sand subbase (reference) Ver y low leachability; little or no migration into subgrade
These and si mi l ar resul ts from other parti ci pati ng countri es l ed to an overal l
concl usi on that, al though l eachi ng of the al ternati ve materi al s may affect the
concentrati ons of certai n consti tuents i n the subgrade, they are far bel ow nati onal
pol l uti on l i mi ts.
C-RESs (see Chapter 3) research wi l l further characteri ze the envi ronmental behavi or
of a wi de range of materi al s, i ncl udi ng C&D wastes, sl ags, bottom ash, fl y ash, mi ni ng
wastes, and a number of organi c waste materi al s. Parti ci pants i n the Centers research
i ncl ude i ndustry partners and others i nvol ved i n the treatment, uti l i zati on, and
di sposal of waste materi al s; academi a; and other research organi zati ons. These
parti ci pants, i n addi ti on to the steeri ng commi ttee, are addi ng credi bi l i ty to the resul ts,
and shoul d hel p to provi de a better understandi ng of the envi ronmental behavi or of
75
CHAPTER 6
secondary materi al s. Rapi d di ssemi nati on of i nformati on, a Center goal , wi l l i ncrease
uti l i zati on of these materi al s i n road and other constructi on.
GERMANY
The German Federal government establ i shes regul ati ons for recycl i ng and waste
management. Under these regul ati ons the producer of the waste i s responsi bl e for
ensuri ng that the waste i s used or di sposed of properl y. Veri fi cati on of thi s requi rement
i s covered under the Law on Waste Di sposal . I ndustry i s requi red to devel op waste
economy pl ans that i ncl ude descri pti ons of how a waste wi l l be managed, wi th emphasi s
on recycl i ng. Waste must be anal yzed before any management deci si ons can be made.
Enforcement of Federal envi ronmental regul ati ons i s the responsi bi l i ty of regi onal and
state governments. Thi s has resul ted i n non-uni formi ty i n appl i cati on of the
regul ati ons.
Germany stresses the protecti on of ground water. Dependi ng on the materi al , materi al s
used are pl aced i n a manner to ensure that ground water i s protected and that
i nfi l trati on of moi sture to the recycl ed materi al i s kept to a mi ni mum.
The envi ronmental aspects of usi ng recycl ed materi al s i nvol ve the fol l owi ng process:
Determi ni ng the quanti ty and qual i ty of the materi al under consi derati on.
Determi ni ng the recycl i ng scheme or appl i cati on to be used and the appropri ate
di sposal method i f the materi al i s not used.
Determi ni ng and compari ng the emi ssi ons from the recycl i ng scheme and
di sposal method.
Thi s i nvol ves a ti me- and energy-i ntensi ve process, and for some materi al s (e.g.,
concrete), data are not avai l abl e. I n such cases, a theoreti cal anal ysi s i s done based on
what coul d be i naccurate i nformati on. A worki ng group of Federal and state offi ci al s i s
eval uati ng the use of a l eachi ng test (DI N 38414 - S4 Batch Extracti on test) to
determi ne emi ssi ons data (concentrati ons of consti tuents i n l eachates) for recycl ed
materi al s. Certi fi ed l aboratori es are doi ng the testi ng i n cooperati on wi th pri vate
compani es that al so have been certi fi ed. Natural materi al s are not bei ng i ncl uded,
al though some offi ci al s expressed a wi sh to have them i n the program. Some German
offi ci al s expressed the opi ni on that certai n natural materi al s woul d not perform as wel l
as recycl ed materi al s wi th respect to the envi ronment, an opi ni on shared by offi ci al s i n
some other countri es.
Wi th respect to l ong-term moni tori ng of recycl ed materi al s i n fi el d appl i cati ons, the
degree of moni tori ng depends on the speci fi c si tuati on. One must eval uate the materi al
and the use appl i cati on. Test secti ons contai ni ng the new recycl ed materi al are
eval uated wi th respect to engi neeri ng and envi ronmental behavi or. Ground water
qual i ty i s a major concern. I f, for exampl e, a waste i s potenti al l y dangerous (e.g.,
contai ni ng di oxi n, heavy metal s, etc.), then constant moni tori ng i s requi red. Because of
heavy metal s (e.g., l ead, zi nc, etc.), fi el d moni tori ng of l and spreadi ng of MSW compost
has been requi red si nce 1981. Thi s i s to mi ni mi ze any potenti al soi l contami nati on. For
l ess sensi ti ve si tuati ons, moni tori ng i s l eft to i ndustry wi th oversi ght by state offi ci al s.
I f there i s a drai nage l ayer (e.g., rubber, concrete, etc.) under the si te and appl i cati on,
76
CHAPTER 6
i ndustry i s requi red to anal yze drai nage water and keep the data i n fi l es for i nspecti on
on demand by state offi ci al s.
Conti nuous process and emi ssi on moni tori ng vi a tel ephone data transmi ssi on hookups
wi th l ocal offi ci al s i s requi red for hazardous waste i nci nerators. Compani es recei vi ng
waste for recycl i ng must compl ete forms to document waste ori gi n, characteri sti cs, and
processi ng hi story.
Petrol eum contami nated soi l s are consi dered hazardous and must be di sposed of under
stri ct envi ronmental control s. Contami nated soi l s removed from ol d gas stati ons are
di sposed of i nto sal t mi nes. These soi l s can be processed to produce cl ean sand, but thi s
materi al does not have good grai n si ze di stri buti on characteri sti cs. Usi ng contami nated
soi l requi res that there be no connecti on to ground water, and that the materi al be
pl aced over cl ay and under pavement or other engi neeri ng measures to prevent
mi grati on of contami nants.
Tabl e 17 presents the concentrati ons of heavy metal s and other consti tuents permi tted
i n waste for di sposal i n l andfi l l s and i n WTE bottom ash for use. The l i mi ts for wastes
were establ i shed by the Techni cal Di recti ve Resi denti al Waste; the bottom ash l i mi ts
were establ i shed by a memorandum of the Board of German States
(Landerarbei tagemei nschaft Abfal l - LAGA.) These are determi ned by appl yi ng the
German DEV S4 l eachi ng test.
Table 17. German limits for landfilling w aste and for using bottom ash.
Parameter Class 1Landfill Class 2 Landfill Bottom Ash Use
Loss on ignition (w t%) 3 5
Total organic carbon (w t%) 1 3 1
DEV S4 Leach Test
Total dissolved matter (w t%) 1 6
Electric cond uctivity (mS/ m) 1000 5000 600
Cl (mg/ l) 250
Cu (mg/ l) 1 5 0.30
Zn (mg/ l) 2 5 0.30
Cd (mg/ l) 0.05 0.10
0.00
0.30
Pb (mg / l) 0.20 1 0.05
NGOs i n Germany have i n the past caused consi derabl e probl ems regardi ng
envi ronmental concerns, pri mari l y because, accordi ng to one offi ci al , they were not
knowl edgeabl e about the i ssues. However, they have been credi ted wi th causi ng change,
and the German EPA bel i eves these NGOs are now very competent and are needed to
promote and push i mpl ementati on of envi ronmental i ni ti ati ves.
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CHAPTER 6
THE NETHERLANDS
Dutch overal l envi ronmental pol i cy and practi ce are stated i n the 1989 Nati onal
Envi ronmental Pol i cy Pl an, i ts predecessors, and a number of ordi nances and
regul ati ons that have emerged as a resul t of the pol i cy. The pol i cy focuses on
envi ronmental i ssues, i ncl udi ng cl i mate change, aci di fi cati on, eutrophi cati on, toxi c and
hazardous pol l uti on, soi l contami nati on, waste di sposal , ground water depl eti on, and
resource di ssi pati on. The Di rectorate-General for Envi ronmental Protecti on, part of the
Mi ni stry of Housi ng, Spati al Pl anni ng and the Envi ronment (VROM) has 11 pol i cy
di rectors who focus on these i ssues. To devel op i ts pol i ci es and regul ati ons, thi s
organi zati on works wi th other government organi zati ons (e.g., V&W), educati onal
i nsti tuti ons, envi ronmental protecti on organi zati ons, i ndustry, and trade uni ons.
The vari ous ordi nances and regul ati ons determi ne how waste i n the Netherl ands wi l l
be managed. Stri ct envi ronmental engi neeri ng control s are i mposed on l andfi l l s and
i nci nerators and the wastes that can be di sposed of by these technol ogi es. Wastes are
cl assi fi ed as hazardous or non-hazardous based on the concentrati on of sel ected
consti tuents (e.g., Cu, Hg, Cd) i n the waste (e.g., Cu > 5000 mg/kg). I f the concentrati on
of any of the consti tuents exceeds the l i mi t, then the waste must be cl assi fi ed as a
hazardous waste. However, even i f cl assi fi ed as hazardous, the waste sti l l fal l s under
the hi erarchy of preferred treatments. There are three cl asses of l andfi l l s i n the
Netherl ands, 80 percent of whi ch are owned by l ocal governments. These l andfi l l s are
for i ndustri al waste, for non-hazardous waste wi th and wi thout l eachate recovery, and
for hazardous waste. Starti ng i n October 1995, to faci l i tate recycl i ng the Netherl ands
i ni ti ated a ban on l andfi l l i ng of 32 types of waste over several years. Banned wastes
i ncl ude househol d waste, cl eanabl e contami nated soi l s, packagi ng, ti res, wrecked
automobi l es, and si mi l ar wastes. As of January 1, 1997, the ban al so i ncl udes reusabl e
C&D waste, wood waste, and horti cul ture waste.
The Decree on Waste Di sposal at Landfi l l s (under the Soi l s Protecti on Act) requi res
stri ct envi ronmental engi neeri ng and other control s for l andfi l l s i n operati on after
March 1995. These control s i ncl ude the i nstal l ati on of l i ners and caps, l eachate
col l ecti on and treatment, a system for moni tori ng soi l and ground water, mai ntenance
and repai r of faci l i ti es, and fi nanci al securi ty for pl aci ng the fi nal covers. The
requi rements for l ong-term post cl osure care went i nto effect i n Apri l 1998. I n a
separate rul e, hazardous waste i s di vi ded i nto categori es to determi ne i n whi ch l andfi l l
i t can be deposi ted.
Costs of l andfi l l s i n the Netherl ands range from about f. 175 (~US$75) per metri c ton
for non-i nci nerabl e waste to f. 800 (~US$352) per metri c ton for waste di sposed i nto the
countrys onl y category 2 l andfi l l . Other hazardous waste l andfi l l costs range between
f. 200 (~US$88) and f. 300 (~US$132) per metri c ton.
I nci nerators are regul ated under the Waste-to-Energy Decree (1993), whi ch establ i shed
requi rements for ai r emi ssi ons, pl ant constructi on, the WTE process, measurement and
record keepi ng, and cal cul ati ons and acti ons to take when emi ssi ons standards are
exceeded. For hazardous waste i nci nerators, the regul ati ons were enforced starti ng i n
Apri l 1998. There are stri ct emi ssi ons l i mi ts for HCl , HF, SO
2
, NO
x
, heavy metal s, (Cd,
Hg, Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn, V, Sn, Co, As, Ni , Se, and Te), di oxi ns/furans, CO, and organi c
carbon.
78
CHAPTER 6
Costs for WTE range from f. 220 (~US$96) per metri c ton for non-hazardous waste to as
much as f. 10,000 (~US$4,400) per metri c ton for hazardous waste. Some speci fi c
hospi tal waste costs f. 1000 (~US$440) per metri c ton to i nci nerate.
The use of recycl ed materi al s i n road constructi on i s control l ed by the DBMD. Thi s
decree cl assi fi es materi al s i nto two categori es on the basi s of emi ssi ons and the
composi ti on of sel ected consti tuents i n the materi al . Emi ssi ons val ues are establ i shed
based on the maxi mum quanti ty of sel ected i norgani c consti tuents that may di sperse
i nto soi l and surface water wi thout i ncreasi ng unacceptabl e burdeni ng. Acceptabl e
burdeni ng has been establ i shed as 1 percent over background l evel s over a 100-year
peri od. For exampl e, i n a peri od of 100 years, not more than 540 mg of copper from
bui l di ng materi al s used i n constructi on works may di spense over 1 m
2
of soi l . These
val ues are cal cul ated usi ng resul ts from l eachi ng studi es consi deri ng the form of the
materi al (e.g., granul ar, monol i thi c, etc.), and how i t wi l l be used. No sui tabl e l eachi ng
tests have been i denti fi ed for organi c compounds i n bui l di ng materi al . For organi c
compounds, total composi ti on val ues are determi ned. As an exampl e, a bui l di ng
materi al may not contai n more than 0.5 mg PCB/kg. Thi s i nformati on i s used to
determi ne the condi ti ons for usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n constructi on, the need for and
types of nati ve soi l s i n constructi on, and need for surface water protecti on.
Category 1 materi al s are those that do not exceed any of the establ i shed l i mi ts. These
materi al s may be used wi thout addi ti onal envi ronmental protecti on measures.
Category 2 materi al s are those that do not exceed any of the organi c composi ti on l i mi ts,
but have cal cul ated i norgani c consti tuent emi ssi ons that woul d exceed the l i mi ts
wi thout addi ti onal envi ronmental protecti on measures. Category 2 materi al s may be
used, however, i f engi neeri ng methods are used to i sol ate them, and the resul ti ng
emi ssi ons l i mi ts are acceptabl e. Materi al s that exceed these l i mi ts may be treated to
fal l i nto one of these categori es. I f treatment fai l s, they must be di sposed. These
materi al s must be removed at the end of thei r useful l i fe.
There are excepti ons for some materi al s that do not fal l i nto these two categori es. WTE
bottom ash i s permi tted to exceed the l i mi ts, but onl y i f speci al i sol ati on measures are
used. TAA, produced from ol der, macadam roads, exceeds the l i mi ts for pol ycycl i c
aromati c hydrocarbons (PAH). Bui l di ng materi al s contai ni ng asphal t aggregates may
be used wi th speci al i sol ati on measures i f they do not exceed any l i mi ts other than for
PAH.
Earth i s defi ned i n the Netherl ands as l oose materi al s that can be excavated by hand
or l and tool from the sol i d soi l on whi ch one stands. I n addi ti on to the above categori es,
earth i s al so cl assi fi ed as cl ean earth. I n cl assi fyi ng earth, an addi ti onal composi ti onal
val ue (C
e
) was establ i shed. The earth i s consi dered cl ean when i ts composi ti on val ues
(organi c and i norgani c) are l ess than C
e
1. I n thi s case onl y porti ons of the DBMD appl y
to cl ean earth. I f the val ue fal l s between C
e
1 and C
e
2, then i t i s requi red that the
emi ssi on val ues (i norgani c) be determi ned. Earth that exceeds organi c and i norgani c
val ues greater than C
e
2 may not be used as a bui l di ng materi al . The Bui l di ng Materi al
Decree al so sti pul ates the mi ni mum quanti ti es of category 1 earth, category 2 materi al ,
WTE bottom ash, and TAA that may be used i n a project. I t al so speci fi es the
engi neeri ng and other requi rements requi red for i sol ati ng these materi al s. Tabl e 18
summari zes the regul ati ons for bui l di ng materi al s i n the Bui l di ng Materi al s Decree.
79
CHAPTER 6
ECN has conducted comprehensi ve research on the l eachi ng properti es of materi al s. I n
cooperati on wi th the EU, the Commi ttee European de Normal i zati ons (CENs) program
on the harmoni zati on of l eachi ng and extracti on tests i nvol ves the Netherl ands, the
U.K., Denmark, France, and Spai n. The mai n objecti ve of these acti vi ti es i s to devel op a
standard approach to eval uate the l eachi ng behavi or of materi al s. The program was
started because of the many di fferent approaches bei ng used, the fai l ure of researchers
and others to properl y document condi ti ons of the tests (e.g., pH), and the very l i mi ted
use of the l arge amount of data avai l abl e. The work i s bei ng conducted by techni cal
group CEN/TC 292, whi ch consi sts of seven worki ng and three ad hoc groups. These
groups are concentrati ng on sampl i ng, l each test procedures, termi nol ogy, anal ysi s,
basi c characteri zati on, ecotoxi col ogi cal properti es, bi odegradati on, characteri zati on of
househol d waste, and val i dati on procedures. Materi al s i ncl ude contami nated soi l s,
sedi ments, compost, sewage sl udge, waste (e.g., WTE ashes, stabi l i zed ashes),
constructi on materi al s (e.g., concrete, bri cks), preserved wood, and others. Data are
avai l abl e for more than 30 di fferent materi al s.
Work al so i ncl udes eval uati ng rel ati onshi ps between l aboratory and fi el d data and fi el d
val i dati on of model s used to predi ct behavi or i n fi el d condi ti ons. As an exampl e, thi s
work compared the rel ease of copper from WTE bottom ash used as a subbase i n
Rotterdam. Model i ng, based on l aboratory test resul ts, predi cted a rel ease of 1530 mg
per m
2
; the measured rel ease was 1386 mg per m
2
.
The l each testi ng hi erarchy adopted by TC 292 i s:
Use of characteri zati on or l eachi ng behavi or test that takes a few days to
several weeks.
Use of a compl i ance test that takes a maxi mum of 2 to 3 days.
Veri fi cati on of l aboratory characteri zati on/l eachi ng behavi or tests by on-si te
moni tori ng.
TC 292 concl uded that the pH stati c test can be useful for:
Compari ng l eachi ng tests wi thi n a speci fi c cl ass of materi al s.
Model i ng of geochemi cal phases that control l eachi ng.
Eval uati ng l ong-term behavi or and effects of external stresses on materi al
l eachi ng behavi or.
Compari ng data and i nformati on among di fferent cl asses of materi al s.
The commi ttee al so i ndi cated that the characteri zati on test can provi de the i nput data
needed to predi ct l ong-term envi ronmental behavi or, and concl uded that an
understandi ng of the l eachi ng behavi or of materi al s can be used to devel op protocol s for
qual i ty control and regul atory compl i ance tests. Resul ts from the extensi ve l eachi ng
tests have shown that most consti tuents l eached contami nates at l evel s l ower than
expected.
Addi ti onal work i s needed to ful l y document fi ndi ngs and generate the addi ti onal data
needed for i norgani c contami nants. Leachi ng tests for organi c contami nants l ag far
behi nd, and si gni fi cant work i s needed to resol ve thi s i ssue. Establ i shi ng a European or
worl dwi de database on the l eachi ng behavi or of materi al s i s consi dered an i mportant
need and woul d hel p prevent dupl i cati on of efforts and l ead to much needed
standardi zati on of l each testi ng.
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Table 18. Review of the regulations in the German Building Materials Decree.
Removal Reporting to the Competent Authority
Material of Building Minimum Before Use Submit Data to
Material Quantity Soils Surface Water Authorities on Request
Clean earth No No No Yes, > 2 days before use Yes, until 1 year after application
Cat 1 building material Yes No No Yes, > 2 days before use Yes, until 1 year after application
(excl. earth)
Cat 1 earth Yes 50 m
3
Yes, > 2 days before use Yes, > 2 days before use No, done w ith reporting
Cat 2 building material Yes 10,000 metric tons Yes, > 1 month before use Permit based on Pollution of No, done w ith reporting
(including earth) (1,000 in road base) Surface Waters Act
WTE bottom ash Yes 10,000 metric tons Yes, > 1 month before use Permit based on Pollution of No, done w ith reporting
Surface Waters Act
TAA Yes 10,000 metric tons Yes, > 1 month before use Permit based on Pollution of No, done w ith reporting
(1,000 in road base) Surface Waters Act
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FRANCE
For the use of by-products i n roads, Frances current envi ronmental regul ati ons
concentrate on two types of waste materi al s: WTE bottom ashes (Ci rcul ai re
Mi ni i sti el l e du 09/05/1994) and foundry sands (Arrt du 16/07/1994). There are no
regul ati ons deal i ng wi th recycl ed materi al s, though there are requi rements for the
el ement contents (e.g., sul fates) because of techni cal requi rements for use. There are no
envi ronmental regul ati ons for natural materi al s.
For envi ronmental purposes, WTE bottom ashes are pl aced i nto three categori es (V, M,
and S) based on resul ts of a l eachi ng test (French standard X31-210) that uses three
successi ve l eachi ng extracti ons of the ash sampl e. The l eachate i s anal yzed for heavy
metal s, total organi c carbon, and total di ssol ved sol i ds. The requi rements are provi ded
i n Tabl e 19. Category V ashes can be used i n road constructi on and for embankments.
Category M ashes must be treated before use ei ther by stabi l i zati on or by maturati on.
I f treatment i s not successful , these ashes must be di sposed of i nto a non-hazardous
waste l andfi l l . Category S ashes must be l andfi l l ed.
Table 19. Categories of WTE bottom ash and leach test requirements in France.
V M S
Loss on ignition < 5 % < 5 % < 5 %
Mercury < 0.2 mg/ kg < 0.4 mg/ kg > 0.4 mg/ kg
Lead < 10 mg/ kg < 50 mg/ kg > 50 mg/ kg
Cadmium < 1 mg/ kg < 2 mg/ kg > 2 mg/ kg
Arsenic < 2 mg/ kg < 4 mg/ kg > 4 mg/ kg
Chromium VI < 1.5 mg/ kg < 3 mg/ kg > 3 mg/ kg
Sulfates < 10,000 mg/ kg < 15,000 mg/ kg > 15,000 mg/ kg
TOC < 1500 mg/ kg < 2000 mg/ kg > 2000 mg/ kg
Total dissolved solids < 5 % < 10 % > 10 %
Faci l i ti es processi ng the bottom ash for use must have a qual i ty assurance pl an i n pl ace
for the envi ronmental i nspector assi gned to regul ated faci l i ti es. For approval , faci l i ti es
must take i nto account al l envi ronmental i ssues such as effl uents, noi se, dust, traffi c,
etc. At the ti me of recei pt, the cl i ent recei vi ng the ash must be provi ded a data sheet
wi th i nformati on about the physi cal and envi ronmental characteri sti cs of the ash. The
form al so must sti pul ate l ot number, truck vol ume, and si mi l ar data to faci l i tate
tracki ng. Documentati on i s requi red that l eachates from the resi due meet appl i cabl e
French requi rements for use. Resul ts of Frances ALT-MAT program testi ng showed
that WTE bottom ash used as base and subbase i n roads l eached at l evel s far bel ow
nati onal standards.
The uti l i zati on appl i cati on for foundry sands wi th organi c bi nders depends on thei r
l eachate phenol content. They may be used i n embankments i f the phenol content i s
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l ess than 1 mg/kg of dry sand. I f the phenol content i s l ess than 5 mg/kg dry sand, the
sands are used i n the manufacture of hydraul i c bi nders. Regardl ess of the phenol
content, these sands may be used for manufacturi ng cement, bri cks, ti l es, and si mi l ar
products.
The Mi ni stry of the Envi ronment i s worki ng to i mprove envi ronmental regul ati ons and
i s concentrati ng on resi dues from thermal processes (e.g., coal fl y ash, MSW bottom ash,
sl ags). Efforts are eval uati ng the behavi or of the materi al s under di fferent uti l i zati on
and di sposal scenari os. Thi s testi ng wi l l be based on the envi ronmental behavi or of the
materi al s and the transfer of pol l utants to ground waters. Threshol d val ues wi l l be
sel ected usi ng di fferent factors, i ncl udi ng compari son wi th the envi ronmental
characteri sti cs of natural materi al s, pol l utant concentrati ons i n soi l s, dri nki ng water
threshol d val ues, and negoti ati ons wi th the publ i c. Any new rul es wi l l need to be
consi stent wi th EU di recti ves concerni ng constructi on products.
Envi ronmental rul es wi l l be determi ned by the Mi ni stry of Land Use and the
Envi ronment (MATE), admi ni strators, constructi on and publ i c works professi onal s, and
eventual l y representati ve associ ati ons. France i s usi ng the advi ce of speci al i zed
nati onal counci l s (e.g., publ i c wel fare, cl assi fi ed i ndustry, etc.). The Counci l for Waste
Reuse, for exampl e, i s a parti ci pant. The devel opment of waste pl ans i n geographi cal
areas al so i s an i mportant component of the overal l project. The pl an i nvol ves i nformal
agreements for accepti ng a waste fami l y for use. The onl y formal agreement thus far i s
for WTE bottom ash. Local agreements are possi bl e for usi ng a si ngl e waste i n a speci fi c
appl i cati on. Condi ti ons for thi s type of appl i cati on i nvol ve a control system desi gned to
determi ne potenti al adverse effects on the envi ronment. General l y, an authori zati on i s
requi red for conducti ng an experi mental demonstrati on project on a control l ed si te to
determi ne these effects.
The fol l owi ng pri nci pl es are bei ng appl i ed i n thi s process:
The waste cannot be used i n a weari ng surface.
The waste cannot be used i n or under dri nki ng water sources.
Hazardous waste i s prohi bi ted unl ess i t has been stabi l i zed or otherwi se treated.
Large quanti ti es of the waste shoul d be used to assi st i n future tracki ng.
The waste must have a cl ear functi onal use i n the product; di l uti on i s not
permi tted.
The MATE i s the control l i ng authori ty and i s assi sted by the Agence de
l Envi ronnement et de l a Mai tri se de l Energi e (Agency for Envi ronmental and Energy
Management - ADEME). There are at l east two l evel s of control s: i nternal and external .
These i ncl ude the cl assi cal geotechni cal engi neeri ng test and envi ronmental tests.
Qual i ty assurance procedures are an i mportant part of the control process. The MATE
l ocal admi ni strati on i s the deci si on-maki ng body regardi ng usi ng waste materi al s
wi thi n i ts juri sdi cti on. I t may seek the advi ce of other publ i c agenci es, but there i s no
systemati c approach or control regardi ng the deci si on-maki ng process. The waste
materi al shoul d have the same functi onal properti es and use as the natural road
materi al s; i f not, any new use appl i cati on must be eval uated to ensure that the waste
does have a l egi ti mate functi on i n the new use appl i cati on.
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Envi ronmental mi ni stri es devel op the regul ati ons governi ng the use of recycl ed
materi al s i n hi ghway constructi on. Al l have a si mi l ar hi erarchy for waste management:
preventi on, reuse, recycl i ng, WTE, and di sposal . I n some cases, parti cul arl y i n the
Netherl ands and Denmark, gui del i nes for i mpl ementi ng these rul es al so are devel oped
at the nati onal l evel . The Swedi sh EPA, however, has not devel oped such gui del i nes
al though the secondary materi al s i ndustry bel i eves thi s step i s necessary for
establ i shi ng wi despread use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads. I mpl ementati on and
compl i ance are usual l y l eft to the regi onal and l ocal governments. I n some cases, as i n
the Uni ted States, thi s has resul ted i n non-uni formi ty i n appl i cati on of the rul es, whi ch
has i mpeded the use of recycl ed materi al s. Envi ronmental standards vary somewhat
among the countri es, al though EU programs and di recti ves wi l l tend to make mi ni mum
requi rements the same among member countri es. Some countri es have or are
i mpl ementi ng very stri ct requi rements on l andfi l l i ng of waste materi al s, l i mi ti ng
l andfi l l s to onl y very hazardous waste and i nert waste that cannot be recycl ed or
i nci nerated. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherl ands are good exampl es of countri es
whose envi ronmental pol i ci es are assi sti ng the use of recycl ed materi al s i n roads. Dutch
envi ronmental rul es permi t sl i ght burdeni ng of soi l s and waters above background
l evel s over a 100-year ti me frame. Thi s pol i cy, and si mi l ar ones i n Denmark and other
countri es, permi ts the use under speci fi c condi ti ons of some materi al s (e.g., sl i ghtl y
contami nated soi l s, WTE bottom ash) that woul d not meet al l of the other standards.
There i s consi stent agreement among the countri es that movi ng from l aboratory testi ng
to performance model i ng requi res fi el d val i dati on. Al l the countri es are conducti ng
research and most are parti ci pati ng i n the EU 4th Framework ALT-MAT project to
address these i ssues. Wi thi n the EU, there are efforts to standardi ze an approach for
eval uati ng the envi ronmental behavi or of recycl ed materi al s. Vari ous approaches are
bei ng used i n the countri es for obtai ni ng envi ronmental approval and permi ts. There
are broad categori cal approval s, speci fi c recycl ed materi al s approval i n speci fi c uses,
and si te-speci fi c approval s. EU efforts al so are addressi ng thi s i ssue. The EU 4th
Framework ALT-MAT project may be a model for U.S. consi derati on.
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Chapt er Seven
RECOMMENDATI ONS
CONCLUSIONS AND PRIMARY RECOMMENDATIONS
I n the European countri es that were vi si ted, recycl i ng occurs when i t i s economi cal to
do so. Factors i n the marketpl ace are domi nant, but are general l y supported by
government pol i ci es and regul ati ons such as bans on l andfi l l i ng, l andfi l l taxes, and
natural aggregate taxes. General l y, cl ear and unambi guous engi neeri ng and
envi ronmental test methods and performance standards hel p to reduce uncertai nty and
al l ow recycl ed materi al s to compete wi th natural materi al s. Where tests and standards
do not exi st, governments often support recycl i ng by shari ng ri sk.
Thi s i s i n some contrast to the U.S. si tuati on. I n the Uni ted States, some recycl ed
materi al s such as RAP, coal fl y ash, and bl ast furnace sl ag are wi del y used i n a true free
market si tuati on because of thei r excel l ent performance and competi ti ve costs. Other
materi al s (e.g., foundry sands, steel sl ags) are used more l ocal l y i n response to more
speci fi c l ocal market forces. There i s l i ttl e Federal government i nvol vement, except for
comprehensi ve procurement gui del i nes for materi al s such as coal fl y ash. Rather, the
si tuati on i s dri ven at the state l evel . For exampl e, the State of Pennsyl vani a has
adopted l egi sl ati on to promote recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment. However, there i s
a wi de range of engi neeri ng and envi ronmental approaches to BUDs by di fferent states.
Cal i forni a, I l l i noi s, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsyl vani a are worki ng to
standardi ze the BUD process and create reci proci ty. There i s wi despread need for cl ear
engi neeri ng and envi ronmental test methods and performance standards. The owner or
contractor general l y assumes ri sk. The states, academi a, and the pri vate sector are
conducti ng si gni fi cant research.
Tabl e 20 provi des a summary of speci fi c fi ndi ngs and correspondi ng recommendati ons
for the U.S. si tuati on. The U.S. del egati on wi l l provi de l eadershi p i n shari ng these
recommendati ons at the nati onal l evel wi th thei r vari ous consti tuenci es. Tentati ve
organi zati on assi gnments to act on recommendati ons are l i sted i n the tabl e. The
del egati on bel i eves i t i s parti cul arl y i mportant to adopt aspects of the Dutch
sustai nabi l i ty model as a means to promote recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment.
Further i mpl ementati on strategi es for the U.S. del egati on wi l l i ncl ude el ectroni c and
wri tten di stri buti on of the fi nal report, presentati ons, publ i shed arti cl es, and
devel opment of a websi te.
ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The fol l owi ng recommendati ons were made by team members on thei r dai l y report
sheets:
The U.K. concept of pri vati zati on of roads to 30-year ownershi p and
mai ntenance shoul d be revi ewed for appl i cati on i n the Uni ted States.
The Uni ted States needs to change the negati ve i mage about usi ng recycl ed
materi al s and provi de i ncenti ves (or di si ncenti ves) for contractors to use
recycl ed materi al s and to work wi th contractors. A tax on l andfi l l i ng usabl e
materi al s shoul d be consi dered as one i ncenti ve.
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Table 20. Summar y of findings and recommendations.
Subject Findings Recommendations (Lead Organization from Scanning Team
To Act on Recommendation)
Recycling for sustainable The Dutch sustainability policy centers on a market system w here - Include a recycling strategy in the sustainability aspect of FHWAs
road construction policy and economy influence the market. There are clear and and AASHTOs strategic plans and long- range research priorities
unambiguous technical and environmental standards. The (FHWA, AASHTO Standing Committee on Environment).
government promotes recycling by using taxes as incentives or - Create a framew ork for state DOTs to consider using recycled
disincentives and by assisting startup companies. Technical materials in project planning, analysis of alternatives, and
processes are developed to assist production of quality material. mitigation analysis (AASHTO Standing Committee on Environment,
Subcommittee on Materials).
A high degree of information and technology transfer w as seen - Encourage state DOTs to conduct long- term materials supply
among various ministries and agencies in each countr y, and plans and recycled materials availability plans (AASHTO
among countries. The EU 4th Framew ork Alternative Materials Subcommittee on Materials).
(ALT- MAT) project is one example of such cooperation and - Develop clear engineering and environmental guidelines at the
technology transfer. state and Federal level that are available to suppliers and
decision- makers (RMRC).
There is a high degree of public aw areness and participation in - Prepare a briefing document for the U.S. Congress and state
recycling in Europe. Federal and local governments have excellent legislatures (FHWA, RMRC).
informational compaigns. There can still be concern at the public - Prepare a briefing document for environmental foundations
level. Non- governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in (RMRC).
policy development in the Netherlands. - With the new FHWA- EU partnership negotiated under the EU 5
th
Framew ork Program, explore research coordination, technology
transfer, and exchange of experts [FWHA, AASHTO, Association
of state and Territorial Solid Waste Management Officials
(ASTSWMO), RMRC].
- Hold a special Transportation Research Board (TRB) session on
recycling in the highw ay environment (RMRC, FHWA, AASHTO,
NAPA).
- Develop a National Highw ay Institute course on recycling (RMRC).
- Conduct a public aw areness program (AASHTO, FHWA).
Economics Recycling successes in the Netherlands, Denmark, and France - Encourage contractors to use their private markets as a
are based in part on market opportunities for materials suppliers place to innovate and develop technologies (NAPA).
and contractors. Life- cycle cost analyses (LCCA), some using - Adapt current FHWA LCCA procedures to include recycled
environmental costs, are used. materials; it should address environmental costs (FHWA, RMRC).
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Table 20. Summary of findings and recommendations (contd).
Subject Findings Recommendations (Lead Organization from Scanning Team
To Act on Recommendation)
Engineering A number of countries are moving tow ard performance- based - Conduct recycling demonstration projects about foam bitumen,
design procedures and to accelerated testing to predict material hot recycling, C&D aggregate use (FHWA, AASHTO, NAPA, RMRC).
performance. How ever, there is still concern that test methods do - Encourage AASHTO and state DOTs to involve contractors more
not predict true field performance. in committees establishing specifications (AASHTO).
- Evaluate contractors w ith respect to use of recycled materials or
Environment The Netherlands uses a hierarchy of mechanistic leaching tests of environmental protection during contract performance review s
both recycled materials and their highw ay products to look at (AASHTO).
cumulative release of constituents and their marginal impacts to - Develop and implement the use of w arranty and performance-
soils and w aters. This also is generally the basis for an EU based specifications.
normalization activity to adopt this approach. - Make connections to the European efforts to establish a
leaching database (RMRC).
Efforts are under w ay to create a European database on product - Hold an AASHTO and state EPA w orkshop on the Dutch and
leaching. EU approach to evaluate product leaching behavior
(RM RC).
There is coordination betw een transportation and environmental - Include state DOT environmental staff and state EPA staff on
ministries. Innovations and New Product Review s (AASHTO).
- Develop a model geographic information system (GIS) layer to
Many countries expressed a need to develop an approach to track recycled materials use and aid future maintenance and
management decisions.
evaluate the environmental behavior of recycled and natural - Add an Excellence in Recycled Materials Innovation category in
materials by looking at source terms, the fate and transport of their the annual FHWA Environmental Excellence Aw ards and the
constituents, and their relation to human health and ecological risk. AASHTO Environmental Best Practices Aw ard (FHWA, AASHTO).
- Encourage the U.S. EPA to w ork more w ith state BUD programs to
expand reciprocity (U.S. EPA).
- Encourage U.S. EPA to expand the Federal procurement
guidelines to recycled materials in the highw ay environment (U.S.
EPA).
- Perform long- term monitoring (AASHTO, state EPAs).
- Conduct a w orkshop on issues related to source term description,
fate and transport, and risk (RMRC).
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CHAPTER 7
Consi der expandi ng Swedens approach or hi erarchy of appl i cati ons for recycl ed
materi al s to other transportati on uses (e.g., sl opes, embankments, storm water
control s, appurtenances, l andscapi ng, etc.).
U.S. regul atory agenci es shoul d use l eachi ng tests to assi st i n determi ni ng what
and how recycl ed materi al s can be used.
Devel op a tabl e of cl asses of materi al s and suggested uses si mi l ar to that
devel oped by VTI (Sweden) for crushed concrete.
The Uni ted States shoul d consi der startup (demonstrati on) projects usi ng
donated recycl ed materi al s as a means of i ntroduci ng and eval uati ng recycl ed
materi al s i n road constructi on. (Note: thi s has been done for MSW bottom ash.)
Encourage U.S. state DOTs to have envi ronmental staff parti ci pate i n al l
commi ttee work for usi ng al ternati ve materi al s (si mi l ar to Denmarks Road
Di rectorate). They can hel p advocate use of recycl ed materi al s.
Encourage and i ntroduce l egi sl ati on that provi des i ncreased grants for research
and devel opment for economi cal use of waste products. I ncrease the awareness of
pol i ti ci ans and the publ i c regardi ng the benefi ts of usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
I nvi te Peter Mi kl os (Denmark) to share hi s knowl edge at techni cal asphal t
trai ni ng semi nars i n the Uni ted States.
The Uni ted States needs to better market recycl ed materi al s that are the
equi val ent of vi rgi n materi al s i n engi neeri ng appl i cati ons.
U.S. DOTs shoul d adopt a phi l osophy and consensus approach to recycl ed
materi al s use si mi l ar to Denmarks.
Begi n to establ i sh a database si mi l ar to that i n the Netherl ands on the
envi ronmental behavi or of di fferent materi al s.
Devel op cooperati ve/partnered research and standards devel opment wi th
i ndustry techni cal and fi nanci al i nput.
The Uni ted States shoul d parti ci pate i n the ECN and CEN standardi zati on
efforts i n the Netherl ands.
The Uni ted States shoul d consi der usi ng the Netherl ands detai l ed speci fi cati ons
on performance measures, tenderi ng, and admi ni strati on as a means of maki ng
contractors more i nnovati ve i n devel opi ng and usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
The RMRC shoul d coordi nate a TRB sessi on on the use of recycl ed materi al s.
Speakers from Sweden, the Netherl ands, Denmark, Germany, and France shoul d
be i nvi ted to parti ci pate.
The Uni ted States shoul d i denti fy and devel op test methods that wi l l predi ct
l ong-term mechani cal (engi neeri ng) and envi ronmental performance of recycl ed
materi al s.
Adopt warranty and performance speci fi cati ons si mi l ar to those used i n several
of the countri es vi si ted.
The U.S. team shoul d fol l ow Frances progress i n usi ng i ncenti ves to support the
waste pl ans bei ng devel oped and the l andfi l l ban.
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CHAPTER 7
IDENTIFIED RESEARCH NEEDS
The U.S. team members i denti fi ed a number of research needs on the basi s of thei r
observati ons:
Devel op procedures for processi ng, QA/QC and routi ne use of C&D wastes and
muni ci pal sol i d waste i nci nerator bottom ash i n U.S. transportati on appl i cati ons.
Formul ate and conduct a mul ti -county shared project to demonstrate the use of
cost-benefi t anal ysi s so that al l can communi cate on a common basi s.
I nvesti gate and devel op methods to encourage rai l roads to parti ci pate and
i denti fy opportuni ti es where they coul d use recycl ed materi al s. The abi l i ty of the
hi ghway sector to use recycl ed materi al s i s dependent on the parti ci pati on and
cooperati on of al l publ i c works devel opers to create a demand for recycl ed
materi al s.
Research how to establ i sh an envi ronmental eval uati on system that i s speci fi c
to recycl ed materi al s i n transportati on constructi on. Look at each materi al to
determi ne whi ch consti tuents l each and how much i t l eaches, rather than basi ng
deci si ons on the concentrati ons i n the materi al .
I nvesti gate the use of the tri axi al test (or wheel track) to devel op qual i ty
characteri sti cs of a recycl ed materi al i n vari ous appl i cati ons.
Devel op a database rel ati ng the performance characteri sti cs of materi al s to
l ong-term performance i n the fi el d.
Conduct research to defi ne and devel op speci fi cati ons for usi ng WTE ash i n
embankments.
Eval uate the use of a val ue-added performance system i n the bi ddi ng process for
contracts i n the Uni ted States.
I nvesti gate model i ng usi ng l eachi ng resul ts to eval uate envi ronmental behavi or
of recycl ed materi al s i n constructi on appl i cati ons.
Devel op any necessary safety and human heal th protecti on procedures for
handl i ng recycl ed materi al s and any trai ni ng and educati onal materi al s needed
to i mpl ement them.
I nvesti gate the use of foamed bi tumen as a preventi ve mai ntenance tool .
Eval uate the pl ate beari ng test to determi ne i f i t gi ves a better correl ati on to
performance than the densi ty test for non-homogeneous recycl ed materi al s.
I nvesti gate and determi ne val ues for the envi ronmental behavi or of natural
materi al s as a standard to compare wi th recycl ed materi al s.
I nvesti gate the appl i cabi l i ty of usi ng the pH stat and other tests used by the
Dutch for U.S. i ndustri es.
I denti fy government and pri vate sector successes i n usi ng recycl ed materi al s.
Eval uate the factors that contri buted to the successes and devel op model s that
wi l l hel p determi ne recycl ed product techni cal and economi c feasi bi l i ty i n
vari ous appl i cati ons.
Eval uate the Netherl ands 5-year pl ans for materi al s usage to determi ne i f they
woul d be feasi bl e i n the Uni ted States.
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Chapt er Ei ght
I MPLEMENTATI ON
Tabl e 21 descri bes the i mmedi ate i mpl ementati on strategy as a resul t of the scanni ng
tour. The U.S. del egati on wi l l work wi th thei r respecti ve consti tuenci es to promote
recommendati ons from thi s summary report. Speci fi c i mpl ementati on strategi es i ncl ude
el ectroni c and wri tten di stri buti on of the fi nal report, presentati ons, publ i shed arti cl es,
and devel opment of a websi te.
Table 21. Immediate communication strategy.
Implementation Item
Action on recommendations in Summary Report
Publication of the Final Report on the RMRC w ebsite at w w w.rmrc.unh.edu
Electronic announcement of Final Report availability (as dow nloadable pdf, Word, or WordPerfect files on
the RMRC w ebsite) to the follow ing electronic distribution lists: (i) appropriate TRB committees and
subcommittees, (ii) the Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP) list server, (iii) the Recycled Materials
Resource Center list ser ver, (iv) the AASHTO Subcommittee on Materials, and (v) the AASHTO Standing
Committee on Environment.
Lists for Final Report distribution by FHWA International Programs/ ATI to include: FHWA, TRB, FHWA ATLP
Centers, U.S. EPA, state DOTs, AASHTO, state EPAs, Environmental Councils of States (ECOS), ASTSWMO,
the NAPA, American Concrete Paving Association (ACPA), Asphalt Recycling and Reclamation
Association (ARRA), Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA), Portland Cement Association
(PCA), National Aggregates Association (NAA), National Stone Association (NSA), ASTM, the Asphalt
Institute, American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), Association of Environmental Professionals, etc.
Prepare magazine articles to be published in Better Roads, the Transporter, Hot Mix Asphalt
Construction, APWA Rep orter, Environmental Technical Assistance Program (ETAP) Weekly, HMAT, NCAT,
etc.
Develop presentations for use by the team at w orkshops, conferences, special presentations, etc., at
the national, state, association, and local level. Provide Pow er Point presentation electronically or on
diskette and provide overheads.
These are some of the presentations by team members at national venues: (i) 1999 AASHTO Meeting in
Tulsa, Oklahoma, 10/ 99; (ii) Beneficial Use of By- Product Materials in Construction Applications
Conference in Albany, New York, 11/ 99; (iii) NAPA Annual Meeting, Haw aii, 2/ 00; (iv) AASHTO Standing
Committee on Environment in Gulf Shores, Alabama, 3/ 00; (v) PennDOT Transportation & the
Environment for the 21
st
Centur y, 5/ 00; (vi) AASHTO Subcommittee on Materials, 8/ 00; (vii) the ASTSWMO
Annual Meeting, 10/ 00; and (viii) 2001TRB Meeting in Washington, D.C., 1/ 01.
These are some of the intended presentations by team members at regional/ state meetings: (i)
Association of Pennsylvania Contractors/ PennDOT Fall Workshop, 11/ 99; (ii) MinnDOT, 11/ 99; (iii) Brow n
Bag Lunch for Washington State Agencies, Legislators, Governor s Staff, Fall 1999; (iv) TEA- 21/ EPA Region
10 Meeting, Fall 1999; (v) Washington Counties Regional Maintenance Supervisors, 12/ 99, (Campbell); (vi)
Pennsylvania Construction Industry Spring Conference, 2/ 00; (vii) Minnesota Transportation Conference,
2/ 00; (viii) Asphalt Recycling and Reclamation Association 24
th
Meeting, Cancun, Mexico; (ix) 2000
Southern Regional Quality Workshop for Materials and Construction, Birmingham, Alabama, 3/ 20; (x)
Georgia Department of Environmental Services Recycling Workshop, Atlanta, Georgia, 3/ 00; (xi)
Minnesota Transportation Conference, 5/ 00; (xii) Washington State University Road and Street School,
10/ 00 and 12/ 00; and (xiii) Michigan SEMCOG, MAPA, Michigan DOT Conferences, dates not provided.
Appropriate research recommendations and problem statements w ill be sent to the appropriate
AASHTO committees and to NCHRP to encourage additional research activity.
90
Chapt er Ni ne
LI ST OF REFERENCES BY COUNTRY
SWEDEN
1. Envi ronmental Report 98. Publ i cati on 1999:34E. Swedi sh Nati onal Road
Admi ni strati on, Buti ken, 8F-178 87 Borl ange, Sweden, 1998.
2. Hobeda, P. Short i nformati on about VTI s research on road surfaces. Swedi sh
Nati onal Road and Transport I nsti tute (VTI ), Li nkpi ng, Sweden, September
1999. (Paper provi ded to U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team).
3. Hobeda, P. Past experi ence i n usi ng by-products and waste materi al s i n the
upper l ayers of the pavement. VTI , Li nkpi ng, Sweden, September, 1999. (Paper
presented to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team).
4. Sol i d Waste, Granul ar I norgani c Materi al : Col umn Test (NT ENVI R 002, 1995);
Sol i d Waste, Granul ar I norgani c Materi al : Avai l abi l i ty Test (NT ENVI R 004,
1996); Sol i d Waste, Parti cul ate Materi al s: Sampl i ng (NT ENVI R 006, 1999).
Publ i shed by NORDTEST, PO Box 116, FI N-02151, Fi nl and.
5. Fl l man, A.M., J. Hartl n. Qual i ty assurance of sorted bottom ash from waste
waste-to-energy, a system for sampl i ng and l eachi ng tests. Swedi sh Geotechni cal
I nsti tute, Li nkpi ng, Sweden, November, 1996.
6. Fl l man, A.M., B. Aurel l . Leachi ng tests for envi ronmental assessment of
i norgani c substances i n wastes, Sweden. The Science of the Total Environment
178, El sevi er Sci ence BV, 1996, pp. 71-84.
7. Johansson, H.G., Ni l sson, U. I ncreased usage of al ternati ve materi al s i n roads
i nternati onal research project. Nordic Road & Transport Research 3, 9-11, 1999.
8. Annual Report 98. Swedi sh Geotechni cal I nsti tute, Li nkpi ng, Sweden, 1998.
9. Annual Report 98. Swedi sh Nati onal Road Admi ni strati on, Publ i cati on
1999:33E, SE-781 87, Borl ange, Sweden. I nternet: www.vv.se
10. Hartl n, J. Waste management i n Sweden. Cycle and Stabilization Technologies
of MSW Waste-to-energy Residues, Waste Management, Vol . 16, Number 516,
1996, Edi tor: Wi l l i am A. Caul ey, El sevi er Sci ence Ltd., Oxford, U.K. pp 385-388.
DENMARK
1. State Road Network, 1999. Road Di rectorate, Mi ni stry of Transport, Denmark.
2. Mi kl os, P. Recycl i ng i n the Dani sh asphal t i ndustry. Presented at the FHWA
workshop, Copehagen, Denmark, September, 1999.
3. Ludvi gsen, K. RGS90 A/S acti vi ti es. Presentati on to the FHWA Europe tour,
Copenhagen, Denmark, September, 1999.
4. Ludvi gsen, K. Recycl i ng of constructi on and demol i ti on waste i n Denmark -
State of the art. Second meeti ng of I WSAs subgroup on constructi on and
demol i ti on wastes. Copenhagen, Denmark, September 3-4, 1999.
5. European Commi ssi on DG VI I , 4
th
Framework Programme, ALTernati ve
MATeri al s, Road Di rectorate, Mi ni stry of Transport, Sweden.
91
CHAPTER 9
6. Hjel mar, O. C-RES project acti vi ti es. Presentati on to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng
Team, Horshol m, Denmark, September, 1999.
7. Rasmussen, P. Envi ronmental practi ces i n Denmark. Mi ni stry of Envi ronment
and Energy, Dani sh EPA. Presentati on to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team,
Copenhagen, Denmark, September, 1999.
8. Hjel mar, O. Waste management i n Denmark. Cycle and Stabilization
Technologies of MSW Waste-to-energy Residues, WASTE MANAGEMENT, Vol .
16, Number 516, 1996, Edi tor: Wi l l i am A. Caul ey, El sevi er Sci ence, Ltd., Oxford,
U.K.
GERMANY
1. Roads i n Germany. Federal Mi ni stry of Transport (BMV), D-53175 Bonn,
Germany. 1
st
Edi ti on, 1994.
2. Towards Sustai nabl e Devel opment i n Germany. Federal Mi ni stry for the
Envi ronment, Report to the Speci al Sessi on of the Uni ted Nati ons General
Assembl y on Envi ronment and Devel opment, New York, 1997.
3. Federal Hi ghway Research I nsti tute (BASt). Publ i shed by the Federal Hi ghway
Research I nsti tute, D-51427 Bergi sch Gl adbach, Germany, May, 1999.
4. Wi rtgen. Presentati on and company publ i cati ons presented to the U.S. Recycl i ng
Scanni ng Team, D-53578 Wi ndhagen, Germany, September, 1999.
5. Remex Baustoffrecycl i ng AG. Presentati on and company i nformati on presented
to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, D-47269 Dui sburg, Germany, September,
1999.
6. Kal i sch, H., H. Werner. Recycl i ng baustoffe i m Straenoberbau. German Federal
Roads I nsti tute, D-51427 Bergi sch Gl adbach, Germany, September, 1999.
7. Hei nri ch, W. Recycl ed materi al s i n bi tumi n pavements. Presentati on to U.S.
Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, BASt, Bergi sch Gl abach, Germany. September, 1999.
8. Beer, F. Cycl i c Economy and Waste Act, BASt, Bergi sch Gl adbach, Germany,
September, 1999.
9. Kurkowski , H. Processi ng of bi tumen bound and tar bound recl ai med materi al s.
Remex Baustoffrecycl i ng AG, Al bert-Hahn-Strae 9-D-47269 Dui sburg,
Presentati on to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, September, 1999.
10. Di pl .-Geol . I ngo Schul z. The representati on of the i nterest of the German and
i nternati onal recycl i ng sector - i ts tasks and ai ms. Federal I nsti tute for
Hi ghways, Bergi sch Gl adbach, Germany, September, 1999.
11. Vehl ow, J. Muni ci pal Sol i d Waste Management i n Germany, Cycle and
Stabilization Technologies of MSW Waste-to-energy Residues, Waste
Management, Vol . 16, Number 516, 1996, Edi tor-i n-Chi ef: Wi l l i am A. Caul ey,
El sevi er Sci ence Ltd., Oxford, U.K. pp. 367-374.
92
CHAPTER 9
THE NETHERLANDS
1. New CROW manual for Appl i cati on of Secondary Road Materi al s (Overvi ew).
One page revi ew of CROW manual to be publ i shed, November, 1999. CROW,
Ede, The Netherl ands, September, 1999.
2. Hennevel d, R. J. P., J. Th. Van der Zwan. I am not old. I am just recycled. CROW,
I nformati on and Technol ogy Centre for Transport and I nfrastructure, Ede, The
Netherl ands, September, 1999.
3. Ei kel boom, J. Warm recycl i ng of asphal t i n the Netherl ands. Mi ni stry of
Transport, Publ i c Works and Water Management, Road and Hydraul i c
Engi neeri ng Di vi si on, Del ft, The Netherl ands, 1999.
4. Leeders, P. I ntermedi ary acti vi ti es on MSWI bottom ash. I nsul i nde Recycl i ng
BV, Amsterdam, September, 1999.
5. Bottom ash i n The Netherl ands. Verengi ng van Afval verwerkers, The
6. Ei kel boom, R. Waste i n the Netherl ands. Sl i des and publ i shed fact sheets,
Mi ni stry of Housi ng, Spati al Pl anni ng and the Envi ronment, Di rectorate of
Waste Management Pol i cy, The Hague, The Netherl ands, September, 1999.
7. Wol de, J.G. ten. Waste Products and the Bui l di ng Materi al s Decree. Pri nted
paper presented to the U. S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, The Hague, The
8. Van der Sl oot, H. European standardi zati on acti vi ti es, harmoni zati on of l eachi ng
tests, European l eachi ng data base and research i ssues. Copy of sl i des presented
to the U. S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, The Hague, The Netherl ands. September,
1999.
9. Van der Zwan, J. Engi neeri ng practi ce, market forces, emergi ng technol ogi es,
research l ong ti me moni tori ng and performance measures. Road and Hydraul i c
Engi neeri ng Di vi si on, Di rectorate-General for Publ i c Works and Water
Management, Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c Works and Water Management,
Del ft, The Netherl ands, undated.
10. Van der Zwan, J. Appl i cati on of waste materi al s a success now, a success i n the
future. See reference 9. Undated.
11. Van der Zwan, J. Th. R.J.P. Hennevel d. Sustai nabl e devel opment and road
constructi on. I nternati onal Road Federati on Worl d Meeti ng, Toronto, Canada,
16-20 June 1997.
12. Van der Zwan, J. Th. Dutch (envi ronmental ) pol i cy concerni ng the use of
secondary materi al s (reuse and recycl i ng of waste materi al s i n The Netherl ands.
Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c Works and Water Management, Del ft, The
Netherl ands. Undated.
13. Hoogweg, P.H.A. Cross-l i nki ng theme: KL1-Road i nfrastructure assets
management performance. Nati onal report of the Netherl ands, XXI
ST
Worl d
Road Congress, Kual a Lumpur, Mal aysi a, 3-9 October, 1999.
93
CHAPTER 9
FRANCE
1. Col ombel , J. H. Atel i er franco-ameri cai n sur l uti l i zati on des materi aux recycl s.
Presentati on and paper presented to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, Pari s,
France, September, 1999.
2. Basuyau, V. Househol d refuse waste-to-energy sl ag i n road engi neeri ng - The
French experi ence. Yprema, France. Paper presented to the U.S. Scanni ng Team,
Pari s, France, September, 1999
3. Use of by-products and waste i n road constructi on: French envi ronmental
regul ati ons. ADEME, Presentati on and paper to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng
Team, Pari s, France, September, 1999.
4. Di ffi cul ti es, Envi ronmental Practi ces, Programs and other i ssues. CETE de
Lyon, Presentati on and paper presented to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng, Pari s,
France, September, 1999.
5. CETE de Lyon, Envi ronmental , appropri ati on, control s, di ffi cul ti es, data and
other i ssues of recycl i ng i n French roads. Presentati on and paper presented to
the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team, Pari s, France, September, 1999.
6. Lac, C. Atel i er franco-ameri cai n sur l uti l i zati on de materi aux recycl s et
techni ques routi res, Theme 3: Technol ogi es en mergence. LCPC. Pari s, France,
September, 1999.
7. Franoi s, M.L. The L.P.C. network research programme on muni ci pal sol i d waste
i nci nerator bottom ash. Laboratoi re Central des Ponts et Chausses-Centre de
Nantes, France. Paper and presentati on to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team,
Pari s, France, September, 1999.
8. Corte, J.F., D. Franoi s. Methodol ogi e pour l a dtermi nati on du comportment a
l ong terme des dchets. Laboratori e Central des Ponts et Chausses (LCPC)-
Centre de Nantes, Undated. Presented to the U.S. Recycl i ng Scanni ng Team,
Pari s, France, September, 1999.
9. CFTR (Comi t franai s pour l es techni ques routi res), The fol l owi ng fact sheets:
The road i n France.
An organi zati on at the servi ce of a shared vi si on of road engi neeri ng.
Mi x desi gn: an approach based on performance.
Pavement desi gn: a rati onal approach.
Road i nnovati on charters: An assurance of qual i ty.
Techni cal opi ni ons: more than i nformati on, a reference.
Surface dressi ng.
Secretari at of the Charter Steeri ng Commi ttee, SETRA 46, avenue Ari sti de-
Bri end, BP 100 - 92225 Bagneux, France. (www.serta.fr)
10. Brret, Y-B. Que mettre sous l a route? Environment Magazine, jui l l et-aout, 1999
33-39.
94
CHAPTER 9
11. Col umbel , M., M. Berrebi , M. Lomerty. La val ori zati on des dechets et des sous -
produi ts, 229-253. Manuscri pt publ i sher and date not noted.
12. Comi t de l i ai son et es i ni ti ati ves. Gesti on des dchets, de constructi on et
dexpl oi tati on l i es a l a route. Rapport d tude, real i se par Lyden RI CCI , mai tre
de stage. Vi ri nes BERNARDON-BI LLON, Mai 1999.
13. Franoi s, N. Lai ti ers de haut-furneau vi tri fi s: defi ni ti ons, caracteri sti ques et
speci fi cati ons, edi te et di ffuse par l associ ati on franai se de normal i zati on
(AFNON), Tour Europe cedex 7, 92049, Pari s l a Dfense, 1999.
UNITED STATES:
1. Frankl i n Associ ates, LTD. (1999). Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in
the United States: 1998 Update. U.S. Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency, Offi ce of
Sol i d Waste, U.S. EPA. Washi ngton, D.C. (Avai l abl e at www.epa.gov/epaoswer/
non-hw/muncpl /mswrpt98)
2. User Guidelines for Waste and By-Products in Pavement Construction.
Publ i cati on No. FHWA-RD-97-148. FHWA, Jul y, 1998.
95
Appendi x A
RECYCLE SCANNI NG TEAM MEMBERS
Vi ncent E. Schi mmol l er (Co-chai r)
Program Manager
Offi ce of I nfrastructure (HI F)
Feder al Hi ghway Admi ni str ati on
400 Seventh Street, SW
Washi ngton, DC 20590
Tel : (202) 366-0371
Fax: (202) 366-3043
Emai l : vi ncent.schi mmol l er @fhwa.dot.gov
Kather i ne Hol tz (Co-chai r )
Di r ector, Mater i al s Secti on
Constr ucti on Di vi si on
Texas DOT
125 East El eventh Street
Austi n, TX 78701-2483
Tel : (512) 465-7615
Fax: (512) 302-2215
Emai l : khol tz@dot.state.tx.us
Dr. T. Tayl or Ei ghmy (Report Faci l i tator)
Di r ector, Recycl ed Mater i al s Resour ce Center
Di r ector, Envi r onmental Resear ch Gr oup
123 Nesmi th Hal l
Uni versi ty of New Hampshi re
Durham, NH 03824-3591
Tel : (603) 862-1065
Fax: (603) 862-3957
Emai l : t.ei ghmy@rmrc.unh.edu
Car l ton Wi l es (Techni cal Wr i ter )
Consul tant
Recycl ed Mater i al s Resour ce Center
Uni versi ty of New Hampshi re
525 County Down Lane
Lovel and, OH 45140
Tel : (513) 774-9974
Fax: (Not avai l abl e at thi s ti me)
Emai l : c.c.wi l es@wor l dnet.att.net
Mi chael Smi th
Materi al s Engi neer
Souther n Resour ce Center
61 Forsyth Street, Sui te 17T26
Atl anta, GA 30303
Tel : (404) 562-3694
Fax: (404) 562-3700
Emai l : smi th1964@msn.com
96
APPENDIX A
Geral d Mal asheski e
Chi ef, Engi neeri ng Technol ogy and I nformati on Di vi si on
Pennsyl vani a DOT
PO Box 2926
Harri sburg, PA 17105
Tel : (717) 787-7150
Fax: (717) 783-5955
Emai l : gmal asheski e@hotmai l .com
Geral d J. Rohrbach
Di rector, Offi ce of Materi al s and Road Research
Mi nnesota DOT
1400 Gervai s Avenue
Mapl ewood, MN 55109-2044
Tel : (651) 779-5590
Fax: (651) 779-5616
Emai l : ger r y.rohrbach@dot.state.mn.us
Shari Schaftl ei n
Deputy Di r ector of Envi r onmental Ser vi ces
Washi ngton DOT
310 Mapl e Park Avenue, SE
PO Box 47331
Ol ympi a, WA 98504-7331
Tel : (360) 705-7446
Fax: (360) 705-6833
Emai l : sschaft@wsdot.wa.gov
Greg Hel ms
U.S. Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency, Offi ce of Sol i d Waste
401 M Street, SW (5304 W)
Tel : (703) 308-8845
Fax: (703) 308-0522
Emai l : hel ms.greg@epamai l .epa.gov
Robert D. Campbel l (Ameri can Publ i c Works Associ ati on)
Oper ati ons Pl anni ng Speci al i st
Snohomi sh County Publ i c Works
1201 Bonnevi l l e Avenue
Snohomi sh, WA 98290-2003
Tel : (360) 862-7513
Fax: (360) 862-7538
Emai l : bob.campbel l @co.snohomi sh.wa.us
Charl es H. Van Deusen (Nati onal Asphal t Pavement Associ ati on)
Consul ti ng Engi neer
Payne and Dol an, I nc.
21160 East Farm Lane
Northvi l l e, MI 48167
Tel : (248) 474-4417
Fax: (248) 442-2456
Emai l : chuckvan@mi ch.com
97
APPENDIX A
Bob Ford
Di vi si on Chi ef
Offi ce of I nternati onal Programs
400 Seventh Street, S.W.
Tel : (202) 366-9632
Fax: (202) 366-9626
Emai l : bob.ford@fhwa.dot.gov
John A. Al mborg (Del egati on Coordi nator)
Ameri can Trade I ni ti ati ves, I nc.
3 Fai rfi el d Court
Stafford, VA 22554-1716
Tel : (540) 288-9700
Fax: (540) 288-9423
Emai l : j.al mborg@gte.net
98
APPENDIX B
Appendi x B
DETAI LED AMPLI FYI NG QUESTI ONS
The fol l owi ng ei ght general categori es of questi ons have been i denti fi ed as i mportant
areas of i nterest by the del egati on. The speci fi c questi ons are i ntended to serve as a
gui de for the host agenci es. There i s some overl ap between categori es and some
questi ons coul d al so be associ ated wi th other categori es. Si nce the del egati on members
are not aware of al l aspects of recycl i ng i n the host agencys country, the host agency
shoul d feel free to i denti fy other i ssues that the del egati on shoul d l earn about.
To hel p cl ari fy our perspecti ves, the del egati on has defi ned recycl ed materi al s as
recl ai med hi ghway pavi ng materi al s, secondary materi al s, by-product materi al s, and
waste materi al s. These i ncl ude recycl ed asphal t pavement, recl ai med concrete
pavement, coal fl y ash, bl ast furnace sl ags, foundry sands, muni ci pal wastewater sl udge
compost, gl ass, ti res, constructi on and demol i ti on debri s, etc. From our perspecti ve, the
hi ghway envi ronment i ncl udes constructi on wi thi n the hi ghway ri ght of way (e.g.,
roads, shoul ders, medi ans, bri dges, cul verts, swal es, appurtenances), though acti vi ti es
associ ated wi th hi ghway constructi on can al so resul t i n use of recycl ed materi al s
outsi de the hi ghway ri ght of way. From our perspecti ve, recycl ed materi al s are typi cal l y
used i n such appl i cati ons as bi tumi nous pavements, portl and cement concrete
pavements, road base, embankments and fi l l s, fl owabl e fi l l s, l andscapi ng, bi ke paths,
parki ng l ots, and appurtenances (si gns, fenci ng, barri ers, traffi c del i neators, etc.).
Whi l e our focus i s di rected at recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment, transportati on i s
i nter-modal . There can be obvi ous recycl i ng connecti ons wi th other transportati on
modes so appropri ate rel ated recycl i ng acti vi ti es are al so of i nterest.
1. Engi neeri ng Practi ces for Recycl ed Materi al s Use i n the Hi ghway Envi ronment
1.1 What recycl ed materi al s are used i n the hi ghway envi ronment and i n what
appl i cati ons? Can thi s i nformati on be quanti fi ed for the del egati on? Have
some materi al s been used hi stori cal l y? Have some materi al s been used onl y
recentl y?
1.2 What speci fi cati ons and standard engi neeri ng practi ces (desi gn,
constructi on, mai ntenance) are i n pl ace for these uses? Are these more
stri ngent or l ess stri ngent than those used for natural materi al s?
1.3 How do you determi ne that the recycl ed materi al used i n hi ghway
envi ronments equal s or exceeds the engi neeri ng performance of standard or
tradi ti onal materi al s they repl ace?
2. Envi ronmental Practi ces for Recycl ed Materi al s Use i n the Hi ghway
Envi ronment
2.1 What standard envi ronmental regul ati ons, speci fi cati ons, and practi ces are
i n pl ace for the uses and appl i cati ons i denti fi ed i n questi on 1.1 above? Are
these more stri ngent or l ess stri ngent than those used for natural materi al s?
2.2 How do you determi ne that the recycl ed materi al used i n hi ghway
envi ronments equal s or exceeds the envi ronmental performance of standard
or tradi ti onal materi al s they repl ace?
99
APPENDIX B
2.3 Does the publ i c, the suppl i er, or the contractor get i nvol ved i n envi ronmental
regul ati on or speci fi cati on devel opment?
2.4 Are there di fferent types of envi ronmental approval s, such as general ,
condi ti onal , appl i cati on-speci fi c, or si te-speci fi c?
2.5 What envi ronmental agency (e.g., Envi ronmental Mi ni stry) i s responsi bl e
for i denti fyi ng and quanti fyi ng pol l utant l evel s rel eased from recycl ed
materi al s use and how are envi ronmental control s establ i shed? Are there
databases avai l abl e?
2.6 What methods are used to determi ne ri sks to human heal th and the
envi ronment associ ated wi th usi ng recycl ed materi al s i n the hi ghway
envi ronment?
2.7 From the envi ronmental standpoi nt, who provi des data that the use of a
recycl ed product i s not harmful to the workers and the publ i c? Can
pavement wi th recycl ed materi al s be l ater reused i n another appl i cati on
wi th no adverse envi ronmental effects?
2.8 I s tracki ng (documentati on of appl i cati on, amount used, l ocati on, etc.) of
recycl ed materi al s use by a regul atory agency requi red?
3. Emergi ng Technol ogi es
3.1 What process or path i s used to i mpl ement or i ntroduce new recycl ed
materi al s (especi al l y l ess tradi ti onal recycl ed materi al s) or new appl i cati ons
(e.g., use of recycl ed materi al s l i ke metal or pl asti c i n appurtenances)?
3.2 Does cost, performance, or concern for the envi ronment dri ve the process?
3.3 What outreach acti vi ti es are used to encourage the use of recycl ed
materi al s?
3.4 Are demonstrati on or fi el d tri al projects cruci al to new technol ogy adopti on?
3.5 Are there exampl es that can be hi ghl i ghted of recycl i ng successes?
3.6 Are there exampl es that can be hi ghl i ghted of recycl i ng fai l ures?
3.7 What i s your parti ci pati on wi th the ALT-MAT project (under the European
Uni ons Di rectorate General VI I 4
th
Framework Program)? Can summary
i nformati on from your country be shared wi th the del egati on?
4. Pol i ci es, Market Forces, and I nterest Groups That Dri ve Recycl ed Materi al s
Usage
4.1 What i s the nature of the i nteracti on between governmental authori ti es
(e.g., between a transportati on mi ni stry and an envi ronmental mi ni stry)
wi th juri sdi cti on over approval s of recycl ed materi al s use?
4.2 Who wi thi n the transportati on sector (e.g., Transportati on Mi ni stry) takes
responsi bi l i ty for advocati ng, l eadi ng, and respondi ng to recycl i ng i ssues?
100
APPENDIX B
4.3 Who general l y dri ves recycl ed materi al s uti l i zati on? The peopl e through
referendums? The government through l egi sl ati on? The pri vate sector
through market forces?
4.4 How do other l ocal governmental agenci es, research organi zati ons,
uni versi ti es, hi ghway associ ati ons, and the general publ i c parti ci pate i n thi s
process?
4.5 What rol e do non-governmental organi zati ons (NGOs) pl ay i n the process?
4.6 How acti ve i s the publ i c i n supporti ng or opposi ng recycl ed materi al s use?
4.7 After the desi gn l i fe of the pri nci pal reuse appl i cati on i s reached, how i s
subsequent reuse or di sposal managed? Are there mechani sms i n pl ace to
encourage conti nued reuse?
4.8 Are there taxes that dri ve recycl i ng or fi nanci al i ncenti ves/di si ncenti ves
used to encourage recycl i ng i n the hi ghway envi ronment?
4.9 Are there other types of i ncenti ves provi ded to i ncorporate recycl ed
materi al s i nto constructi on products?
4.10 Have recycl i ng mi ti gati on credi ts been devel oped as a tradeoff for
unavoi dabl e transportati on envi ronmental i mpacts?
4.11 Are there speci fi c cost anal ysi s studi es (e.g., by recycl ed materi al type or
appl i cati on) that l ook at pl anni ng costs, fi rst costs, operati on and
mai ntenance costs, l i fe-cycl e costs, etc.? Can a typi cal one be provi ded?
4.12 What l evel of governmental support i s provi ded for research and
devel opment i n thi s area? I s the trend i ncreasi ng or decreasi ng?
5. Barri ers to Recycl ed Materi al s Use and Means to Overcome Such Barri ers
5.1 What barri ers to recycl ed materi al use i n the hi ghway envi ronment have
been i denti fi ed at the nati onal , regi onal , or l ocal l evel ?
5.2 What i ni ti ati ves, programs, or acti vi ti es have been devel oped to reduce
barri ers?
5.3 Are l ong-term l egal l i abi l i ti es a barri er? I f these are an i ssue, how are they
addressed?
5.4 What protecti on i s there for the potenti al of future l i abi l i ty i f recycl ed
materi al s used i n hi ghways are found to be a heal th or pol l uti on probl em i n
the future?
5.5 Does your agency share techni cal data and project resul ts wi th other
organi zati ons through databases, case study resul ts, etc. usi ng the I nternet
or other i nformati onal servi ces (e.g., web-based databases)? I f so, can these
be i denti fi ed?
5.6 Have centers of cri ti cal acti vi ty or experti se been establ i shed? I f so, can
these be i denti fi ed?
101
APPENDIX B
5.7 I n the Uni ted States, the l ack of reci proci ty agreements between states i s
seen as a si gni fi cant barri er to uni form use of recycl ed materi al s i n the
hi ghway envi ronment. Wi thi n a nati onal context, or even wi thi n a European
Uni on context, i s reci proci ty for approval of recycl ed materi al use bei ng
consi dered?
6. Long-Term Moni tori ng and Performance Measures
6.1 Are there speci fi cati ons or goal s that address l ong-term engi neeri ng or
envi ronmental performance of an appl i cati on usi ng a recycl ed materi al ?
6.2 Are fi el d demonstrati ons consi dered to be the best way to l ook at l ong-term
performance?
6.3 Are there l aboratory methods or model s devel oped to predi ct l ong-term
performance from ei ther a physi cal or envi ronmental perspecti ve? I f so, can
they be provi ded? Are they bei ng used i n a regul atory sense?
6.4 What l ong-term physi cal or envi ronmental moni tori ng i s requi red at
uti l i zati on si tes? Can exampl es be provi ded? Are there demonstrati on or ful l -
scal e use si tes where l ong-term moni tori ng i s occurri ng that the del egati on
can vi si t? I s there typi cal data that can be presented to the del egati on?
6.5 Are there speci al mai ntenance acti vi ti es that are used i n conjuncti on wi th
l ong-term moni tori ng? I f so, can they be descri bed?
7. The Perspecti ve of Materi al s Suppl i ers and Contractors
7.1 Does the suppl i er or contractor get i nvol ved i n engi neeri ng or envi ronmental
speci fi cati on devel opment?
7.2 How i s recycl ed materi al s processi ng handl edat central faci l i ti es or at the
job si te?
7.3 Do tradi ti onal aggregate processi ng faci l i ti es handl e recycl ed materi al s? I f
so, are they segregated?
7.4 Does the suppl i er or contractor get i nvol ved i n engi neeri ng or envi ronmental
speci fi cati on devel opment?
7.5 Are there processi ng faci l i ti es that the del egati on can vi si t?
7.6 Are I SO 9000 procedures used by suppl i ers duri ng processi ng of recycl ed
materi al s?
7.7 Are the same processi ng control s requi red for recycl ed materi al s as they are
for natural materi al s?
7.8 What qual i ty assurance/qual i ty control procedures are used by the suppl i ers
worki ng wi th recycl ed materi al s? Are these the same as those used for
natural materi al s?
7.9 Are I SO 9000 procedures used by contractors worki ng wi th recycl ed
materi al s duri ng constructi on?
102
APPENDIX B
7.10 What constructi on qual i ty assurance/qual i ty control procedures are used
by the contractors worki ng wi th recycl ed materi al s? Are these the same as
those used for natural materi al s?
7.11 What i ssues do contractors face when mai ntenance operati ons or
procedures are conducted on i nfrastructure contai ni ng recycl ed materi al s?
7.12 How i s the use of l ess-conventi onal recycl ed materi al s handl ed i n the
contract process? Are they speci fi ed by the owner; i s the contractor al l owed
to be i nnovati ve i n the use of these materi al s? I f a warranty i s i nvol ved,
how i s i t affected by the presence of a recycl ed materi al ?
8. Other
8.1 Are bi o-materi al s (muni ci pal wastewater sl udge compost, muni ci pal sol i d
waste compost, street sweepi ngs, storm drai n wastes, wood chi ps, si te
grubbi ng materi al , nati ve pl ant sal vage) used i n hi ghway constructi on
acti vi ti es?
8.2 Are there any efforts to set up a bi o-materi al s exchange for mi ti gati on or
waste reducti on purposes?
8.3 Some U.S. experi ences wi th ti re chi p embankments suggests that
spontaneous combusti on can occur. What has been your agencys experi ence?
8.4 What are your agencys experi ences of usi ng petrol eum-contami nated soi l s
as aggregate substi tutes i n asphal ti c pavements?
8.5 To what extent are recycl ed materi al s used i n hi ghway appurtenances?
103
Appendi x C
CONTACTS/WEB ADDRESSES OF
PARTI CI PANTS AND ORGANI ZATI ONS
Sweden
Mari a Arm, M.Sc.
Seni or Researcher
Swedi sh Nati onal Road and Transport
Research I nsti tute
S-581 95 Li nkpi ng, Sweden
Tel : 46 13 20 42 77
Fax: 46 13 14 14 36
Emai l : mari a.arm@vti .se
Ann-Mari e Fl l man, Ph.D.
Research and Consul ti ng Engi neer
Dept of Envi ronmental Technol ogy
Swedi sh Geotechni cal I nsti tute
SE-581 93 Li nkpi ng, Sweden
Tel : 46 13 20 18 07
Fax: 46 13 20 19 09
Emai l : annmari e.fal l man@swedgeo.se
Karsten Hkansson, Ph.D.
Seni or Sci enti st
Dept of Anal ysi s and Model s
SE-581 93
Li nkpi ng, Sweden
Tel e: 46 13 20 18 13
Fax: 46 13 20 19 14
Emai l : karsten.hakansson@swedgeo.se
Jan Hartl n, Ph.D., Adj. Professor
Dept of Geotechnol ogy
Soi l s Mechani cs and Foundati on
Engi neeri ng
Lund Uni versi ty
PO Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
John Eri ccsons vg 1
Tel e: 46 (0) 708 390 365
Fax: 46 (0) 46 222 91 27
Emai l : jan.hartl en@tg.l th.se
Hel ena Hel gesson, M.Sc.
Research and Consul ti ng Engi neer
Dept. of Envi ronmental Technol ogy
Tel : 46 13 20 18 14, Fax: 46 13 20 19 09
Emai l : hel ena.hel gesson@swedgeo.se
Torbjrn Jacobson
Research Engi neer, Bi tumi nous
mi xtures and aggregates
Swedi sh Nati onal Road and Transport
Research I nsti tute
S-581 95 Li nkpi ng, Sweden
Tel : 46 13 20 42 52
Fax: 46 13 14 14 36
Hans G. Johansson, Ph.L.
Seni or Researcher
Swedi sh Nati onal Road and
Transport Research I nsti tute
Tel : 46 13 14 42 79
Fax: 46 13 14 14 36
Emai l : hans.g.johansson@vti .se
Per Jdahl , Ambassador
Di rector of the I nternati onal
Secretari at
Swedi sh Nati onal Road
Admi ni strati on
S-781 87 Borl nge, Sweden
Tel : 46 243 759 27
Fax: 46 243 757 73
Emai l : per.jodahl @vv.se
sa Li ndgren
Road Engi neeri ng Di vi si on
Tel : 46 243 7754
Fax: 46 243 755 65
Emai l : asa.l i ndgren@w.se
104
APPENDIX C
I ngri d Sdergren
M. Sc. Ci vi l Engi neeri ng
Road Engi neeri ng Di vi si on
Swedi sh Nati onal Road
Admi ni strati on
Tel : 46 243 758 70
Fax: 46 243 755 65
Emai l : i ngri d.sodergren@vv.se
Brje Thunberg
Di rector General
Tel : 46 13 20 43 07
Fax: 46 13 20 40 82
Emai l : borje.thunberg@vti .se
Kri ster Ydrevi k
Researcher, Mechani cal properti es
of unbound aggregates
Hi ghway Engi neeri ng
Tel : 46 13 20 42 95
Fax: 46 13 114 14 36
Emai l : kri ster.ydrevi k@vti .se
Lei f G. Wi nman, M.Sc.
Chi ef Engi neer
Pavement Structural Desi gn
Swedi sh Road and Transport Research
I nsti tute
S-581 95 Li nkpi ng
Tel : 46 13 20 40 00
Fax: 46 13 14 14 36
Andrew Dawson
The Uni versi ty of Notti ngham
School of Ci vi l Engi neeri ng
Uni versi ty Park
Notti ngham, NG7 2RD
Engl and
Tel : 44 115 951 3902
Fax: 44 115 951 3898
Emai l :
andrew.dawson@notti ngham.ac.uk
www.notti ngham.ac.uk
Denmark
Magne Aasen
M.Sc. Ci vi l Engi neeri ng
Head of Constructi on Uni t East
Road Di rectorate
Denmark Mi ni stry of Transport
El i sagaardsvej 5, DK-4000 Roski l de,
Denmark
Tel : 45 46 30 01 00
Fax: 45 46 30 01 05
Emai l : maa@vd.dk
Jrgen Chri stensen
M.Sc. Chem. Eng., M.S.O.R.
Di rector
Dani sh Road I nsti tute
El i sagaardsvej 5, DK-4000 Roski l de,
Denmark
Tel : 45 46 30 70 00
Fax: 45 46 30 71 05
Emai l : ri s@vd.dk
Thomas Hjl und Chri stensen
Professor, Dr. Agro., Ph.D.
Dept. of Envi ronmental Sci ence and
Engi neeri ng
Techni cal Uni versi ty of Denmark
Bygni ng 115, DK-2800
Lyngby, Denmark
Tel : 45 45 25 16 03
Fax: 45 45 93 28 50
Emai l : thc@i mt.dtu.dk
Henni ng Grosel l
Deputy Di rector, Constructi on Di vi si on
Road Di rectorate
Thomas Hel steds Vej 11, P.B. 529
DK-8660 Skanderborg, Denmark
Tel : 45 89 93 22 00
Fax: 45 86 52 20 13
Bernt T. Hansen
RGS 90
Mi l j
Rstof og Genanvendel se
Sel skabet af 1990 A/Sel i nevej 4
2300 Kbenhavn S, Denmark
105
APPENDIX C
Jette Bjerre Hansen, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Chemi cal Engi neer
Dept. of Groundwater, Sol i d Waste &
Mi crobi ol ogy
VKI
Agern Al l 11
DK-2970 Hrshol m, Denmark
Tel : 45 45 16 92 00
Fax: 45 45 16 92 92
Emai l : jbh@vki .dk
Ol e Hjel mar, M.Sc. Chem. Eng.
Chi ef Engi neer
Dept. of Groundwater, Sol i d Waste &
Mi crobi ol ogy
VKI
Agern Al l 11
DK-2970 Hrshol m, Denmark
Tel : 45 45 16 92 00
Fax: 45 45 16 92 92
Emai l : oh@vki .dk
Karen Kruse Knudsen, Ci vi l Engi neer
Project Leader
I /S Amagerforbrndi ng
Kraftvrksvej 31
DK 2300 Kbenhavn S, Denmark
Tel : 32 95 03 51
Fax: 32 96 05 13
Karsten Ludvi gsen, Ci vi l Engi neer
RGS 90
Mi j
Rstof og Genanvendel se
Sel skabet af 1990 A/S
Sel i nevej 4
Tel : 32 48 90 90
Fax: 32 50 80 80
Peter Mi kl os
Deputy Managi ng Di rector
TARCO VEJ A/S
Ri ddersti en 38, Fjel sted
DK-5560 Aarup, Denmark
Tel : 6488 1717
Fax: 6488 1827
Emai l : pmi @tarco.dk
Jens Nejrup
Manager
Ci ty of Copenhagen
Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency
Copenhagen Recycl i ng Center
Sel i nevej 2
Tel : +45 32 50 50 42
Fax: +45 32 50 32 04
Emai l : mi l joe@mi l joe.kk.dk
Jrn Pederson
Di rector, Envi ronmental Affai rs
Superfos
Frydenl undsvej 30
DK-2950 Vedbk, Denmark
Tel : +45 45 67 00 00
Fax: +45 45 67 20 29
Knud A. Pi hl , M.Sc. Ci vi l Engi neeri ng
Research and Testi ng Department
Road Envi ronment and Pavement
Materi al s
El i sagaardsveji 5, DK-4000 Roski l de
Denmark
Tel : 45 46 30 01 00
Fax: 45 46 30 01 05
Emai l : kap@vd.dk
Povl Ol sbjerg Rasmussen, M.Sc.
I ndustri al Waste Di vi si on
Mi ni stry of Envi ronment and Energy
Dani sh Envi ronmental Protecti on
Agency
Strandgade 29, DK-1401
Copenhagen K, Denmark
Tel : 45 32 66 01 00
Fax: 45 32 66 04 79
Arne Hol m
Di rector
NYFALT A/S
Postboks 166, Grnnemosen 9
DK-2860 Sborg, Sweden
Tel : +39 69 79 13
Fax: +31 67 73 77
106
APPENDIX C
Ol e Mi l vang Jensen, M.Sc. Ci vi l
Engi neeri ng
Research and Testi ng Department
Road Envi ronment and Pavement
Materi al s
El i sagrdsvej 5, DK-4000 Roski l de
Denmark
Tel : +45 46 30 70 00
Fax: +45 46 30 71 05
Emai l : omj@vd.dk
Germany
Dr. Frank Beer
Federal Hi ghway Research I nsti tute
Brderstrasse. 53
51427 Bergi sch Gl adbach
Federal Republ i c of Germany
Emai l : Beer@bast.de
Jan groe Bei l age, Di pl .-I ng
BASt
Brderstrae 53
Tel : 49 2204 43 311
Fax: 49 2204 43 148
Emai l : bei l age@bast.de
Thorsten Frbel , Di pl .-I ng.
Constructi on Materi al s and Process
Engi neer
Wi rtgen GmbH
Hohner Strae 2
D-53578 Wi ndhagen
Tel : 49 26 45 /131 782
Fax: 49 26 45/131 313
Emai l : engi neeri ng@wi rtgen.de
Rudol f Gnodtke, Geschftsfher
remex
Entsorgungsgesel l schaft Borken mbh
Zur Di nkel 21-25 D-4839 Legden
Tel : 0 25 66 9 63 44
Fax: 0 25 66 9 62 68
Haral d Kurkowski , Di pl .-I ng Di pl .-Wi rt.-
I ng
Lei tung Produkt-/
Projecktmanagement
remex Baustoffrecycl i ng AG
Al bert-Hahn-Strae 9-D-47269
Dui sburg
Tel : 0203 76803-30
Fax: 0203 76803-42
Emai l : i nfo@remex-ag.de
Wal ter Grber, Product Manager
Recycl i ng
Wi rtgen GmbH
Hohner Strae 2
D-53578 Wi ndhagen
Tel : 2645/131-142
Fax: 2645/131-242
Hans Schmi dt, Di pl .-I ng.
DEUTAG GmbH & Co. KG
al bert-Hahn-Strae 5-7
47269 Dui sburg
Tel : 0203/7685-180
Fax: 0202/7685-232
Wol fgang Schul te, Dr.-I ng.
Secti on Leader, Bi tumi nous Pavement
(BASt)
Brderstrae 53
Tel : 49 2204 43 750
Fax: 49 2204 43 673
I nternet: www.bast.de
I ngo Schul z, Di pl .-Geol .
Zentral verband Deutsches
Baugewerbe
Kronenstrae 55-58
D-10117 Berl i n-Mi tte
Tel : 030 2 03 14 532
Fax: 030 2 03 14 565
Emai l : schul z@zdb.de
107
APPENDIX C
Hei nri ch Werner, Di pl .-I ng.
Secti on Head, Pavement Testi ng and
Desi gn
(BASt)
Brderstrae 53
Tel : 49 2204 43 740
Fax: 49 2204 43 673
Eckhard Wi l l i ng, Prof. Dr.
Di rector and Professor
Umwel t Bundes Amt
Berl i n-Spandau
Seecktstrae 6- 10
1351 Berl i n
Tel : 030 8903-3284
Fax: 030 8903-3336
Emai l : wi l l i ng@uba.de
Mr. Hi l l man
Head of Secti on
Earthworks, Mi neral Aggregates
BASt
Brderstrae 53
Tel : 49 2204 43 720
Fax: 49 2204 43 148
Emai l : hi l l man@bast.de
Wal ter Wi nkel mann
Betri ebsl ei ter
DEUTAG GmbH & Co. KG
WORK LEDGEN:
Zur Di nkel 15-17
48739 Ledgen
Tel : 02566/3017
Fax: 02566/4085
VERWALTUNG:
Al bert-Hahn-Strae 5-7
47269 Dui sburg
Tel : 0203/7685-0
Fax: 0203/7685-232
The Netherlands
A. Antoni adi s
Hoofd Asfal ttechnol ogi e
APNH BV
ASFALTPRODUKTI E NOORD
HOLLAND
Azi havenweg 20
1046 BK Amsterdam
Postadres: Postbus 272, 1940 AG
Beverwi jk
The Netherl ands
Tel : 020-6118435
Fax: 020-6149709
i r. L.A. Bosch, FRI CS
Head, I nfrastructure
Mi ni stry of Transport Publ i cWorks
and Water Management
Di rectorate-General of Publ i c Works
Road and Hydraul i c Engi neeri ng
Di vi si on
Van der Burghweg 1, P.O.Box 5044
2600 GA Del ft, The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 15 251 83 50
Fax: 31 15 251 85 55
Emai l : l .a.bosch@dww.rws.mi nvenw.nl
Henk Brons
Manager, Legal Affai rs
Vereni gi ng van Afval verwerkers
Cathari jnesi ngel 55
v
Postbus 19300
3501 DH Utrecht
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 0 30 232 30 30
Fax: 31 0 30 233 21 22
Emai l : h.brons@vvav.nl
R. Buterman
Opzi chter Weg-en Waterbouw
Provi nce Noord-Hol l and
Zi jl weg 245, Haarl em
Postbus 205, 2050 AE Oveereen
The Netherl ands
Tel : 023 514 52 92/06
FAX:023 514 50 50
Emai l : B&upro@noord-hol l and.nl
I nternet: www.noord-hol l and.nl
108
APPENDIX C
G.J. van Dri el
Stafmedewerker
VERMEER I nfrastructuur BV
Rayon Noord-Hol l and
Spaarneweg 31 Cruqui us, Postbus 199
2130 AD Hoofddorp
The Netherl ands
Tel : 023 548 72 60
Fax: 023 548 72 99
Emai l : g.j.van.dri el @vermeer.nl
I nternet: www.vermeer.nl
Rei n T. Ei kel boom
Di rectore-General for Envi ronmental
Protecti on
Mi ni stry of Housi ng and Spati al
Pl anni ng and the Envi ronment
Department of Soi l Protecti on/I CP 625
Soi l Protecti on and Soi l Qual i ty
Secti on
8, Ri jnstraat, P.O. Box 30945
2500 The Hague, The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 70 3394299
Fax: 31 70 3391290
rei n.ei kel boom@dbo.dgm.mi nvrom.nl
Rob J.P. Hennevel d
Project Manager
CROW-I nformati on and Technol ogy
Centre for Transport and
I nfrastructure
P.O. Box 37, NL-6710 BA Ede
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 318 620410
Fax: 31 318 621112
Emai l : hennevel d@crow.nl
I nternet: www.crow.nl
i r. Roel and Heuff
Di rector
LCHG, Logi sti ek Centrum Hergebrui k
Grond
Postbus 270 AG Del ft
Antoni a Veerstraat 3
2614 HT Del ft, The Netherl ands
Tel : 015-256 47 72
Fax: 015-257 24 98
Peter Leender
Di recti el i d
I NSULI NDE RECYCLI NG B.V.
Deccaweg 38
1042 Amsterdam, The Netherl ands
Tel : 020-614 90 07
Fax: 020-611 96 85
Adri an J. van Leest, Msc
Project Manager
CROW
PO Box 37, NL-6710 BA Ede
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 318 620410
Fax: 31 318 621112
Emai l : vanl eest@crow.nl
i r. S.M. Dri l l enburg Lel i jvel d
Standardi zati on Consul tant,
Envi ronment
Nederl ands Normal i sati e-i nsti tuut
I ndustry Di vi si on
Kal fjesl aan 2, P.O. Box 5059, NL-2600
Del ft, The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 15 2 690 390
Fax: 31 15 2 690 190
Emai l :
Sven.Dri l l enburgl el i jvel d@nni .nl
i r. Robert W.M. Naus
Hoofd Lwal i tei sdi enst en
Advi es & Ontwi kkeki ng
Spaarneweg 31 Cruqui us, Postbus 14
2130 AA Hoofddorp, The Netherl ands
Tel : 023 548 29 74, Fax: 023 548 29 79
Emai l : r.naus@vermeer.nl
I nternet: www.vermeer.nl
Kees Ni je, Msc
Executi ve Di rector
CROW
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 318 620410
Fax: 31 318 621112
Emai l : ni je@crow.nl
109
APPENDIX C
J.H. Spaans, Di rector
APNH BV, ASFALTPRODUKTI E
NOORD HOLLAND
Zui derkade 14, 1948 NG Beverwi jk
Postadres:
Postbus 272
1940 AG Beverwi jk, The Netherl ands
Tel : 0251-278110
Fax: 0251-278120
Robert-Jan van der Berg
Head RAW-users support group
CROW
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 318 6220410, Fax: 31 318
621112
Emai l : vandenberg@crow.nl
I nternet: www.crow.nl
W.J.F. van der Hul st
Bedri jsl ei der
Rayon Noord-Hol l and
Spaarneweg 31 Cruqui us
Postbus 199, The Netherl ands
Tel : 023 548 72 67
Fax: 023 548 72 99
I nternet : www.vermeer.nl
i r. J. Th. Van der Zwan
Research Coordi nator
I nfrastructure, Laboratori um
Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c Works
Road and Hydraul i c Engi neeri ng
Di vi si on
Tel : 31 15 251 83 91
Fax: 31 15 251 85 55
Emai l :
j.t.vdzwan@dww.rws.mi nvenw.nl
M.H.P. Venhui zen
Constructeur/Projectmedeweker
Provi nci e Noord-Hol l and
Zi jl weg 245, Haarl em
Postbus 205
2050 AE Overveen
The Netherl ands
Tel : 023 514 53 63
Fax: 023 514 50 50
i r. J. G. ten Wol de
Reststoffenuni e Waterl ei di ngbedri jven
B.V.
Groni ngenhaven 7
3430 PE Ni euwegei n
Postbus 1072
3430 BB Nei uwegei n
The Netherl ands
Tel : 030-6069721
Fax: 030-6069720
Emai l : restoffenuni e@compuserve.com
Dr. H.A. van der Sl oot
Soi l & Waste Research - Department
Fuel Cel l s, Conversi on & Envi ronment
ECN, P.O. Box 1, 1755 ZG
Petten, The Netherl ands
Tel : +31-224 564249
Fax: +31-224 563163
Emai l : vandersl oot@ecn.nl
Aart Di jkzeul
Di rectorate-General for
Envi ronmental Protecti on
Mi ni stry for Housi ng, Spati al
Pl anni ng and the Envi ronment
Department of Waste Pol i cy/I CP 645
8, Ri jnstraat, PO Box 30945
2500 GX The Hague
The Netherl ands
Tel : 31 70 3394191
Fax: 31 70 3391284
Emai l :
Aart.di jkzeul @da.dgm.mi nvrom.nl
110
APPENDIX C
France
Jacques Al ai n Bernard
DLB, Docks de Li mei l -Brvannes
Recycl age de Bton
B.P. 1- Rue Al bert Garry prol onge
94451 Li mei l -Brvannes Cedex,
France
Tel : 01 43 82 57 55
Fax: 01 43 89 62 46
Franoi s Chai gnon
Di recteur Techni que et Dvel oppment
Di recti on Gnral e I nternati onal e
Ouest
COLAS
7, pl ace Ren Cl ai r
92653 Boul ogne-Bi l l ancourt Cedex,
France
Tel : 01 47 61 75 12
Fax: 01 47 61 74 81
Emai l : fchai gnon@compuserve.com
Kathari na Charousset
I ngni eur
Caractri sati on et Trai tement des
Dchets et Sol s Pol l us
I nsti tut Nati onal De LEnvi ronnment
I ndustri el et Des Ri sques (I NERI S)
Parc Technol ogi que ALATA-B.P.N
o
2
60550 Verneui l -en-Hal atte, France
Tel : 03 44 55 61 51
Fax: 03 44 55 68 72
Emai l : i neri s@i neri s.fr
Jean-Hugues Col ombel
Chef de l a Secti on Chausses
Centre dEtudes Techni ques de
LEqui pment
Normandi e Centre (CETA)
10, Chemi n de l a poudri re, BP 245
76121 Le Grand Quevi l l y Cedex,
France
Tel : 02 35 68 81 73
Fax: 02 35 68 81 72
Jean-Franoi s Cort
Techni cal Manager Road Secti on
LCPC
Rout de Porni c, PB 19
44340 Bouquenai s, France
Tel : 33 40 84/58 00 (Di rect - 58 15)
Fax: 333 40 84/59 97
I van Drovadai ne
Jean LeFebvre
5/7 rue Gustove Ei ffel
91351 Gri gny, France
Emai l : i van.DROVADI NE@JEL.com
Cri sti an Franck
I ngni eur Gotechni ci en
Department Sol , Sous-Sol et
cosystmes
I NERI S
Parc technol ogi que ALATA , B.P. No 2
60550 Verneui l -en-Hal atte, France
Tel : 03 44 55 65 05
Fax: 03 44 55 67 00
Deni s Franoi s
LCPC
58, bd Lefebvre
75732 Pari s Cedex 15, France
Tel : 33(1)40 43 50 00
Fax: 33(1)40 43 54 98
Emai l : deni s.francoi s@l cpc.Fr
Eri c Gi roul t
Mi ni stre de l Equi pment, des
Transports et du Logement
Tour Pascal B
92055 La Dfense Cedex, France
Tel : 33 (01) 40 81 68 38
Fax: 33 (01) 40 81 23 93
Anne Gobbey
I ndustry Envi ronmental I mpact and
Technol ogy Department
Waste Behavi or Assessment
ADEME-Centre DAngers
Agency for Envi ronment and Energy
Management
2, square La Fayette, B.P. 406
49004 ANGERS Cedex 01, France
Tel : 33 2 4191 4046
Emai l : anne.gobbey@ademe.fr
111
APPENDIX C
Georges Pi l ot
LCPC
58, bd Lefebvre
75732 Pari s Cedex 15, France
Jean-Paul Van Hoove
Charg de Mi ssi on
Mi ni stre de l Equi pment, des
Transports et du Logement
Tour Pascal B-92055 La Dfense
Cedex, France
Tel : 01 40 81 29 51
Fax: 01 40 81 27 31
Emai l : jean-paul .van-
hoove@equi pment. gouv.fr
Chri stophe Jozon
Di recteur Adjoi nt I l e-De-France
Jean LeFebvre
Di recti on I l e-De-France
76, Boul evard Robert Schuman
BP 100
93891 Li vry-Gargan Cedex, France
Tel : 01 49 36 50 44
Fax: 01 49 36 51 04
Cori ne Lac
Chef de Projet
TRI VALOR sa
I ngwni eri e Dechets Et Energi es
367 avenue du Grand Ari taz - Bi ssy
73000 Chambery, France
Tel : 04 79 69 89 69
Fax: 04 79 69 06 00
Franoi s de Larrard
Di vi si on Chi ef
Methods and Faci l i ti es for Road
Constructi on and Mai ntenance
LCPC
Rout de Bouaye, BP 4129
44 341 Bouguenai s Cedex, France
Tel :(33)2 4084 5638
Fax:(33)2 4084 5992
Emai l : l arrard@l cpc.fr
Mauri ce Lefort
Chef du Groupe Chausses
Laboratoi re Rgi onal De LOuest
Pari si en
LCPC
12 Tei sserenc-de-Bort
78190 Trappes, France
Tel : 01 34 82 12 25
Fax: 01 30 50 83 69
Emai l : l rof@wanadoo.fr
Jean Pi erre Marchand
Techni cal Manager, Techni cal
Department
EUROVI A
18 pl ace de l Europe
92565 Ruei l -Mamai son, Cedex, France
Tel : 33 01 47 16 38 00
Fax: 33 01 47 16 38 01
Emai l : jpmarchand@eurovi a.com
Jacques Mhu
C-di rector
I NSA LYON
Pol den-Pol l uti on Waste &
Envi ronment
I NSAVALOR s.a.- Di vi si on POLDEN
BP 2132, 69603 Vi l l eurbanne Cedex,
France
Tel : 33 4 72 43 8386
Fax: 33 4 72 43 9866
Emai l : pol den@i nsa-l yon.fr
Franoi s Mi ersman
Devel opment and Techni cal Manager
Surschi ste
299, rue Sai nt-Sul pi ce, B.P. 513
59500 Douai , France
Tel : 03 27 71 56 72
Fax: 03 27 71 56 79
Emai l : surschi ste.si ege@wanadoo.fr
112
APPENDIX C
Henri Mol l eron
Presi dent-Di recteur Gnral
COLAS, Envi ronnement et Recycl age
7, pl ace Ren Cl ai r
92653 Boul ogne-Bi l l ancourt Cedex,
France
Tel : 01 47 61 74 49
Fax: 01 47 61 74 77
Emai l : mol l eron@si ege.col as.fr
Jean-Pi erre Ngre
Assi stant Manager for Techni cal
Engi neeri ng Departments and Local
Agenci es
Mi ni stry for Publ i c Works, Housi ng,
Transportati on and Touri sm
Hi ghways and Motorways Di vi si on
La Grande Arche, 92055 Pari s
La Dfense Cedex, France
Tel : 01 40 81 14 91
Fax: 01 40 81 19 30
Jacques Reynard
Di recteur
Centre Techni que et de Promoti on des
Lai ti ers Si derurgi ques (C.T.P.L.)
I mmeubl e l a Paci fi c - TSA 20002
92070 La Dfense Cedex, France
Tel : 01 41 25 61 51
Fax: 01 41 25 93 55
Pi erre Si l vestre
Centre dtudes Techni ques de
l qui pement
25, avenue Franoi s-Mi tterrand
Case no1 - 69674 Bron Cedex, France
Tel : 04 72 14 31 90
Fax: 04 72 14 33 11
Emai l :
pi erre.si l vestre@equi pement.gouv.fr
Jean-Cl aude Vautri n
Counsei l l er techni que
Centre de l a Scuri t et des
Techni ques Routi res
46, avenue Ari sti de Bri and-BP 100-
92225
Bagneux Cedex, France
Tel : 01 46 11 34 03
Fax: 01 46 11 36 80
Emai l : vautri n@setra.fr
113
FHW FHW FHW FHW FHWA I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNATI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS
Infrastructure
Geotechni cal Engi neeri ng Practi ces i n Canada and Europe&
Geotechnol ogySoi l Nai l i ng&
I nternati onal Contract Admi ni strati on Techni ques for Qual i ty Enhancement-
CATQEST&
Pavements
European Asphal t Technol ogy&&
Eur opean Concr ete Technol ogy&&
South Afri can Pavement Technol ogy
Hi ghway I nformati on Management
Hi ghway/Commer ci al Vehi cl e I nter acti on
Bridges
Eur opean Br i dge Str uctur es
Asi an Br i dge Str uctur es
Br i dge Mai ntenance Coati ngs
European Practi ces for Bri dge Scour and Stream I nstabi l i ty Countermeasures
Advanced Composi tes i n Bri dges i n Europe and Japan&
Planning and Environment
European I ntermodal Programs: Pl anni ng, Pol i cy and Technol ogy&
Nati onal Travel Surveys&
Safety
Pedestri an and Bi cycl e Safety i n Engl and, Germany and the Netherl ands&
Speed Management and Enforcement Technol ogy: Europe & Austral i a&
Safety Management Practi ces i n Japan, Austral i a, and New Zeal and&
Road Safety Audi tsFi nal Report&
Road Safety Audi tsCase Studi es&
I nnovati ve Traffi c Control Technol ogy & Practi ce i n Europe&
Commerci al Vehi cl e Safety Technol ogy & Practi ce i n Europe&
Op era tions
Advanced Tr anspor tati on Technol ogy&
Eur opean Tr affi c Moni tor i ng
Traffi c Management and Travel er I nformati on Systems
Eur opean Wi nter Ser vi ce Technol ogy
Snowbreak Forest Book Hi ghway Snowstorm Countermeasure Manual
(Translated from J apanese)
Policy & Information
Emergi ng Model s for Del i veri ng Transportati on Programs and Servi ces
Acqui ri ng Hi ghway Transportati on I nformati on from AbroadHandbook&
Acqui ri ng Hi ghway Transportati on I nformati on from AbroadFi nal Report&
I nternati onal Gui de to Hi ghway Transportati on I nformati on&&
&Also available on the internet
&&Only on the internet at www.international.fhwa.dot.gov
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