1

2

A GEOSEISMOLOGICAL REPORT ON 8
TH
OCTOBER 2005
KASHMIR EARTHQUAKE






By

Prabhas Pande, D.D. Joshi, G.C. Kandpal, K.C. Joshi, R. J. Singh, B.K. Singh,
Jaya Singh, Biju John, *Rajendra Sanwal, **Sagina Ram and ** S.P. Chaube
Earthquake Geology Division, *Project Landslide Hazard Studies Division and
Geophysics Division, Lucknow

K.S. Jamwal, Raghubir Singh, Joginder Singh, V.K. Sharma and Ajay Kumar
Operation Jammu & Kashmir, Jammu

A.K. Sinha, S. Chopra, A.K. Relhan, A.K. Gupta and J. Bagchi
Operation Punjab, Haryana & Himachal Pradesh, Faridabad

Jognider Singh, A.K. Jain, Sanjiv Kumar, Pradeep Singh, Manoj Kumar,
Sajin Kumar and M.K. Kaistha
Operation Punjab, Haryana & Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh












Geological Survey of India
Northern Region
Lucknow

June 2006
3


CONTENTS





Abstract Pages

I. Introduction 2-4

II. Geotectonic Setting and Seismicity 5-8

III. Macroseismic Survey 9-25

IV. Effects of Kashmir Earthquake in Pakistan and 26-28
Pak Occupied Kashmir

V. Isoseismal Map and Isoseist Characteristics 29-32

VI. Aftershock Monitoring 33-34

VII. Conclusions 35-37

References 38-40

Annexure I: Locality Index
Annexure II: Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK-64) Intensity Scale
Annexure III: Newspaper Reports
4

A GEOSEISMOLOGICAL REPORT ON 8
TH
OCTOBER 2005
KASHMIR EARTHQUAKE

Abstract

A devastating earthquake of Mw7.6 occurred in the Kashmir Himalayan on the morning
of 8
th
October 2005. The tremors were felt in a radius of over 1000 km with damage
taking place in an area of 36000 sq km. The meizoseismal zone was located in Pakistan
and Pak Occupied Kashmir (PoK) in the Kunhar and Neelam (Kishanganga) valleys
where the death and destruction was unprecedented. On the Indian side heavy damage
was restricted to Uri Tehsil of Baramula District and Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsil of
Kupwara District.

The epicentre of the earthquake is located in the Jhelum reentrant, which is the
reflection of Western Himalayan Syntaxis in the Frontal Belt. The area lies south of the
seismically hyperactive Kohistan Arc and is flanked on either side by Peshawar and
Kashmir basins that are locales of dispersed seismicity.

The Geological Survey of India took up the macroseismic survey of the earthquake and
aftershock monitoring on the Indian part. About 100 localities were visited to document
the effects of the earthquake and to constrain the isoseismals. The data pertaining to
Pakistan and PoK were collected from different sources, including Press and Electronic
Media reports and various scientific papers posted in the websites.

The epicentral tract of the earthquake experienced an intensity of X on MSK-64 scale.
This zone encompassed Balakot town in NWFP and Muzaffarabad city in PoK. In this
and adjoining sectors the event generated a very large number of landslides, which
showed concentration along a 65 km long belt trending in N35W-S35E direction and
extending between Balakot and Bagh. In this segment coseismic rupturing of
Muzaffarabad and Tanda faults was observed. Uri Tehsil experienced an intensity of IX
whereas Srinagar was subjected to intensity VII.

The Geological Survey of India carried out 24-day aftershock monitoring by
establishing an array of 5 digital MEQ instruments in the Kashmir Division. In this
period over 1000 events were recorded of which one was of M > 6 and one of M > 5.

The fault plane solution of the main event given by USGS identifies the strike of the
nodal planes as N27W-S27E and N64W-S64E with dips of 39 and 57, respectively.
The isoseismal geometry gives the depth of focus of about 12 km. On the basis of source
mechanism studies, aftershock distribution and isoseismal pattern, a dominant NNW-
SSE trending basement fracture zone has been inferred to be involved in causing the
earthquake.
5
I. Introduction

A devastating earthquake shook the entire western Himalaya and adjoining
regions on the morning of 8
th
October 2005, inflicting very heavy casualties in a large
area, particularly belonging to Pakistan and Pak Occupied Kashmir (PoK). This
deadliest of the Himalayan earthquakes, recording a magnitude of 7.6, took a toll of
thousands of human lives and rendered millions homeless. The human death figure on
account of the earthquake on the Indian side of the Line of Control (LoC) was 1209
whereas in Pakistan and PoK it was reported that more than 87,000 people perished in
the catastrophe. The USGS located the epicentre of 8
th
October 2005 main shock 125
km WNW of Srinagar in the Neelam (Kishanganga) valley in POK. The Harvard
Moment Tensor Solution by USGS, Denver gave the following parameters.

i) Centroid Location
a) Origin Time: 03:50:52.2 (UTC) : 09:20:20:52.2 (IST)
b) Lat. 34.37N: Long. 73.47E
c) Magnitude Mw: 7.6
d) Dep. 12.0 km

ii) Principal Axes
a) (T) VAL = 3.16, PLG = 69; AZM: 338
b) (N) VAL = -0.44; PLG = 19; AZM: 128
c) (P) VAL = -2.71; PLG = 10 AZM: 222

iii) Best Double Couple Mo = 2.9 x 10
27
dyne cm

iv) Nodal Planes
a) NP
1
: Strike 333; Dip. 39; Slip 121
b) NP2: Strike 116. Dip 57, Slip 68

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) also recorded the following
attributes of the 8
th
October 2005 earthquake

a) Origin Time: 03 hrs. 50 min. 35.8 sec
b) Epicentre: 34.6N: 73.474E
c) Magnitude: 7.4

The Broadband Seismological Observatory of GSI at Jabalpur recorded the
origin time of the earthquake as 03 hrs 50 min 56 sec.

6
The short period MEQ digital recorders stationed at GSI Office, Chandigarh for
purpose of microzonation of the Urban Complex picked up the following parameters of
the earthquake.

a) Arrival time of P-wave: 03:51:51.27 (UTC)
b) Time Gap (S-P): 55.00 sec.
c) Signal duration: 15 min.
d) Epicentral distance: 496 km (approximately from Chandigarh)

On the Indian side the maximum impact of the earthquake was in the Kashmir
Division where a total of 92,608 houses were fully or partially damaged, 1199 people
killed, 6149 injured and, in all, 4,50,000 people affected (Table 1).

Table 1
Effects of Earthquake in Kashmir Division

S. No. District Persons
killed
Person
injured or
missing
Property
fully
damaged
Property
partly
damaged
Total No.
houses
damaged
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Srinagar
Baramula
Kupwara
Anantnag
Pulwama
Badgam
02
845
267
Nil
Nil
01
237
4499
1369
13
21
10
16
15663
11696
22
20
80
4256
24597
25905
390
641
9322
4272
40260
37601
412
661
9402

Total 1199 6149 27497 65111 92608


Poonch District, J&K was the other region, which was affected by the
earthquake to a considerable extent. Here, the strong tremors impacted 136 villages and
59000 people. A total of 1524 houses were fully and 627 houses partially damaged in
which 10 people and 78 cattle got killed, and 73 people injured.

The earthquake, apart from damaging the civil structures, induced numerous
landslides and slope failures, which disrupted the road communication, affected human
settlements and killed some people and cattle in Uri Tehsil of Baramula Distict and
Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsil of Kupwara District. However, the well-engineered structures
with aseismic designs like the Uri Hydel Scheme, escaped without any damage to its
various appurtenant structures.
7

The Geological Survey of India, Northern Region carried out the macroseismic
survey and aftershock monitoring of the 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Officers
from Operations J&K, PH & HP and UP & Uttaranchal apart from Earthquake Geology
Division and Project Landslide Hazard Studies Division, Northern Region, were
deployed to collect data on the effects of the earthquake at different places in the States
of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttaranchal and
Uttar Pradesh. An array of five MEQ Digital Recorders remained in operation in the
Kashmir Division between 23
rd
October 2005 and 17
th
November 2005 to record the
aftershock activity, which was prolific during the first few weeks of the main shock. A
preliminary report on the earthquake investigation was posted in GSI website on 18th
October 2005 (Pande, 2005).

The Department also took up the investigation of slope instability affected
villages in Uri Tehsil, Baramula District and Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsil, Kupwara
District, J&K at the instance of the Divisional Commissioner, Srinagar, for which the
field studies were carried out between 8
th
and 14
th
December, 2005. A separate report in
this regard was submitted to the J&K State Government in December 2005 (Pande et
al., 2005).

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Director General, Geological Survey of India
under whose supervision this work has been pursued. The overall support and guidance
provided by Shri U.K. Bassi, D.D.G. (Retd.) and Dr. P.N. Razdan, D.D.G., NR, GSI are
thankfully acknowledged. The authors express their sincere gratitude to Shri Kuldeep
Singh, DDG, Op. J&K, Shri R.K. Singh, DDG, Op. UP & Uttaranchal and Dr. R.P.S.
Pahuja, DDG, Op. PH & HP, GSI, NR for their constant encouragement in carrying out
the work. The authors thank Dr. P.C. Nawani for conveying the information regarding
the earthquake effects in the Garhwal Himalaya. The authors are thankful to Dr. G.M.
Dar, Disaster Management Institute, J&K Government for the help in carrying out the
field survey in Kashmir Division.

8
II. Geotectonic Setting and Seismicity

The area of study comprises a highly diversified and complex domain that was
involved in different orogenic episodes and tectonic phases since Precambrian times.
The northern most tectonic unit incorporates the Trans-Himalayan tectogen. This is
followed towards south by the accretionary complex, late to post tectonic granitoids,
accreted arc with sediments and ophiolite of the Kohistan Arc (Fig.1). Further south in
the Kashmir basin, basic volcanics, high and low grade metamorphic complexes, poorly
metamorphosed assemblages, granitoids and alluvial fill in superposed basins are
recorded. In the adjoining Potwar basin all other packets are present except basic
volcanics and high-grade crystallines. The Frontal Belt exposes cover rocks affected by
the terminal phase of the Himalayan orogeny followed by alluvial fill in the superposed
basins towards south (Narula et al., 2000)

The most spectacular feature of the Himalayan orogen is the Western Himalayan
Syntaxis. In the Frontal Belt this orogenic bend is reflected as the Jhelum reentrant,
which is flanked on either side by the Kashmir and Peshawar basins. The northern most
tectonic discontinuity of the area is the Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT), which
separates the Hindukush-Karakoram belt from the island arc of Kohistan. Towards
south, the Main Mantle Thrust separates the latter from Peshawar and Kashmir basins.
Southern most is the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), which separates the main
Himalayan package from the sedimentary sequence of the Frontal Fold Belt (FFB).

The FFB along with the MBT and the Panjal Thrust (PT), a close sub parallel
discontinuity north of it, is involved in the Kashmir-Hazara Syntaxis, which according
to Powell (1979) was formed due to the interaction of three independently moving
tectonic elements - the Himalayas, the Indo-Pakistan Shield and the Salt Range.
Structurally, the earthquake-affected part of the Western Himalaya broadly has a
concave southward disposition. Within this curvature of the tectonic framework, two
conspicuous structural features interrupt the regional trend: the northwesterly oriented
Kashmir-Hazara Syntaxis and the northeasterly trending Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, the
former bordered by the MBT and the latter by the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) (Bender,
1995)

One of the important discontinuities in this region is the MMT. This and the
Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) are believed to represent the earliest suturing of
Kohistan Island Arc with the rocks of Indo-Pakistan Plate in the south and Hindukush-
Karakoram belt in the north during the collision of the Indo-Pakistan and Eurasian
Plates (Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Coward et al., 1982; Searle et al., 1987; Bender, 1995).

The other important tectonic feature is the MBT, along which neotectonic
activity has been reported at different locales. According to Armbruster et al. (1978),
9
recent seismicity of the Himalaya is associated with the frontal zone of deformation.
This zone parallels the Kashmir-Hazara Syntaxis and should correspond with the MBT
that became active after the cessation of motion along the Main Central Thrust (MCT)
(Le Forte, 1975; Mattauer, 1986; Ni and Barazangi, 1984).

The MBT and the Panjal Thrust, which east of the syntaxis adopt gradually,
curving trends of NS to NW-SE, bend backwards on the western side to follow a N-S
attitude, and further south, assume NE-SW and ENE-WSW trends. Interestingly, west
of the syntaxis or Jhelum re-entrant, these thrusts split into a number of planes.
Southwards, partly underneath the alluvial plain of Northern Punjab in Pakistan, the
sedimentary sequences, associated with a number of additional thrusts, which broadly
follow the configuration of the MBT including the Hazara Syntaxis, are strongly
deformed as well (Bender, 1995).

East of Jhelum Re-entrant within the Tertiaries and following the MBT is
another thrust known as Riasi Thrust. This tectonic plane, in fact, is a continuation of
Jwalamukhi thrust one of the important tectonic elements in the Himalayan Foot Hills
(Karunakaran and Rao, 1979), which can be traced for over 200 km from Riasi to
northwest of Kalka. For most of its length, the thrust brings the Lower Siwalik to rest
over Middle or Upper Siwaliks. West of Ravi river, this thrust continues as Kishanpur-
Mandli Thrust upto Riasi inlier and has brought the Upper Murrees in juxtaposition with
the Upper and Middle Siwaliks of Surien-Mastgarh anticline. The Riasi thrust has
surface manifestation for about 125 km northwest of Riasi town, beyond which it seems
to be dying out in an anticlinal fold (Karunakaran & Rao 1979). North of Riasi thrust
lies Tanhal thrust, which brings Murrees over Siwaliks. Interestingly, a number of blind
faults have been reported from the Himalaya, particularly the Sub-Himalaya. Such
subsurface faults are manifested on the surface as folds. However, most of the regional
thrusts of the Lesser and Sub Himalaya downwards are believed to merge with a gently
sloping detachment/decollment, which represents the upper surface of the Indian Plate
(Seeber et al., 1981; Ni and Barazangi, 1974; Srinivasan and Khar, 1996).

Among the neotectonic discontinuities, the Jhelum fault is regionally the most
extensive. It is a N-S trending left lateral wrench fault, which separates the Peshawar
Basin from the Kashmir Basin. According to Tapponnier, et al., (2006) the motion on
the Jhelum fault is responsible for offsetting and folding the MBT, thus accounting for
its 180 bend northwest of Pir Panjal. Its conjugate set is the Mangla fault, which is a
right lateral wrench fault. Subparallel to the Jhelum fault are the Tarbela and Shinkiari
faults. The former is located well within the Peshawar Basin, while the latter has
developed along the eastern margin of this basin. Both these fault zones cut across the
alluvium and offset streams, and therefore, can be classified as active. A few smaller
faults of the area also show neotectonic activity.

10
In the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis, Nakata, et al., (1991) have established that the
Muzaffarabad and Tanda faults are active. The former was initially reported as a N-S
trending 8 km long fault from clear eastward facing reverse scarplets that cut
Pleistocene river terraces of the Jhelum river south of Muzaffarabad town. Tanda fault
was mapped as a NW-SE trending, 16 km long active fault that dislocated Pleistocene
alluvial fan surfaces on the eastern bank of Jhelum River. The post 8
th
October 2005
earthquake CORONA satellite images indicate that these faults extend further to
northwest and southeast (Nakata and Kumahara, 2006). Hussain and Yeats (2006)
recognise presence of Balakot- Bagh fault in the Jhelum reentrant as an offshoot of the
MBT. This fault reactivated/ ruptured in a length of 65 km between Balakot and Bagh,
in a NW-SE extension consequent to the 8
th
October 2005 earthquake.

Seeber, et al., (2005) have used microseismic data from the Tarbela and Chasma
seismological networks to develop a tectonic model for the Kashmir-Hazara Syntaxis
region in Pakistan. According to them, like in Indian part of the Himalaya, here too
exists a subhorizontal decollement as an interface between the
sedimentary/metasedimentary wedge and the basement. However, they have also
discerned two parallel clusters of epicentres associated with the basement faults,
extending towards northwest from the Hazara Syntaxis, which they interpreted as the
deeper level northwestern extensions of the structural trends in the Kashmir Himalaya,
east of the Syntaxis. Out of the two zones/clusters the northeast one, which they
preferred to call Indus Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ), is currently more active and
indicates predominantly thrust type movement. The other zone towards southeast,
named as Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ,) indicates basement faults with
predominantly strike slip right lateral movement.

The epicentre of the 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir earthquake lies within the Jhelum
Reentrant (Fig.1). The last hundred-year database shows occurrence of a large number
of earthquakes in this tectonically highly diversified domain. The maximum clustering
of seismic events is in the Kohistan Arc, considered to be part of the Indus-Kohistan
Seismic Zone. Majority of the seismic events here lie between 40-70 km depth range.
The fault plane solutions of three seismic events of this domain, which occurred on 3
rd

September 1972, 4
th
September 1972 and 28
th
December 1974 show predominantly
thrust type mechanism with the nodal planes aligned broadly in NW-SE direction. In
one event of 29
th
January 1965, the mechanism is given as predominantly normal type
(Chandra, 1978). North of MKT, some of the events have foci deeper than 150 km.

South of MMT, the seismic events are fairly well dispersed with majority
showing shallow foci. In this domain the 2
nd
September 1963 Badgam earthquake gave
a thrust type solution with the nodal planes trending NW-SE. The 14
th
February 1977
Nilore earthquake located east of Rawalpindi deciphers a left lateral strike slip mode of
rupture.
11

There is mention of two powerful historical earthquakes in the Catalogue of
Indian Earthquakes (Oldham, 1883) that had their profound influence in the region. On
6
th
July 1505 an immense earthquake occurred in the confines of Kabul. The description
in the Catalogue reads, Since the creation of the world there never was so dreadful an
earthquake. It mentions that the ground was elevated and depressed to the height of an
elephant and in many places so split that a person might have hid himself in the gaps.
The second earthquake was that of Cashmir of 22
nd
June 1669. It is mentioned that the
event was very violent, felt all over Cashmir (Kashmir) and lasted the whole night.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) database lists occurrence of 13
earthquakes of M > 5.0 in the Kashmir Division of J&K State, including the Districts of
Kupwara, Baramula, Srinagar, Badgam, Pulwama and Anantnag. These are the events
of 1552 of M 7.5, 1662 of M 7.5, 1735 of M 7.5, 1778 of M 7.7, 1784 of M 7.3, 1828 of
M 6.0, 1863 of M 7.0, 1884 of M 7.3, 1885 of M 7.0 (Kashmir earthquake), 1963 of M
5.3 (Badgam earthquake), 1967 of M 5.5 (Anantnag earthquake), 1973 of M 5.1 and
1999 of M 5.3. In the adjoining territory of PoK earthquakes of 1554 of M 7.7 and 1885
of M 6.5 have been mentioned.

The largest earthquake of this domain of which a geological report is available is
that of 30
th
May 1885 of M 7.0 (Jones, 1885). The epicentre of the event is located 19.5
km west of Srinagar. This earthquake killed about 3000 people and caused widespread
damage around Srinagar. The other significant earthquakes, which had considerable
effect in the area of present study, include that of 2
nd
February 1929 Northwest
Himalaya of M 7.2, 14
th
May 1937 Hindukush of M 7.2 and 21
st
November 1939 Great
Pamir of M 6.9. The isoseismals of the above-referred four seismic events are given in
Fig.2.
12
III. Macroseismic Survey

The 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir earthquake proved to be the deadliest natural
calamity of the Himalaya where the death and damage figures far exceeded that of any
previously recorded ones in the region. The extent of the disaster was, however, much
less on the Indian side as compared with that of Pakistan and Pak Occupied Kashmir
though the felt area had a radius of almost 1000 km. `As the news of the earthquake
poured in from various sources, plans were drawn in the Geological Survey of India to
expeditiously take up the macroseismic survey in different parts of North India. Various
teams of GSI officers from Northern Region were formed to cover parts of North Indian
States. The officers from Operation Jammu & Kashmir were deployed in the J&K.
Geologists from Operation Punjab, Haryana & Himachal Pradesh covered parts of
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, as well as the bordering Districts of
J&K. An expert group from Earthquake Geology Division moved to the meizoseist and
other parts of J&K. Officers from Landslide Hazard Studies and Earthquake Geology
Divisions covered parts of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. In all, about 100 localities
were visited during the course of the survey by different teams of 26 geologists
(Annexure I).

The damage to civil and engineered structures was restricted in J&K region
only. A rapid assessment of the damage pattern and other seismological effects were
carried out using Madvedev-Karnik-Sponheuer (MSK-64) Intensity scale (Annexure II).
The survey work could not be extended to several difficult localities of J&K because of
certain logistic constraints. At places other than in J&K, the assessment was based
mainly on human perceptions because of the lower intensity of ground motions. The
data from Pakistan and Pak Occupied Kashmir were gathered from press and electronic
media reports, and scientific papers and reports published in various Journals and posted
in different websites. The State-wise description of various localities visited during the
course of the survey is given as follows.

1. Jammu & Kashmir

Kashmir Division

In the Kashmir Division comprising six districts of Srinagar, Baramula,
Kupwara, Anantnag, Pulwana and Badgaun, a total of 1199 people got killed and 6149
injured by the earthquake. In all, 92,608 houses were fully or partly damaged.

The survey work was conducted in different localities of Srinagar, Baramula and
Kupwara Districts. The District-wise description is given as follows.

13
Srinagar District

In the district the effect of the earthquake was of moderate order where two
persons were killed and 237 injured. A total of 4272 houses received various grades of
damage. Srinagar city is located over Karewa and alluvial deposits with hillocks of
Panjal Volcanics dotting the landscape. In the urban agglomeration everybody felt very
strong tremors, accompanied by a whizzing sound. There was lot of panic all around,
and some, particularly women and children, remained traumatised for days. The
inhabitants narrated that at the time of the earthquake it was difficult to keep standing,
so people sat down, and some, to maintain balance, kneeled on the ground. During the
passage of strong ground motions, those driving two or four wheelers felt the tremble,
and on impulse, stopped their vehicles immediately, irrespective of where they were.

The damage to the buildings and other civil structures was not significant in
Srinagar. In Batmaloo locality, partial collapses of a few old and weak brick walls, was
noticed (Photo 1). In an old conventional type building constructed of unbaked bricks
with timber bracings, a staircase collapsed (Photo 2). In the Hazaratbal Shrine a few
marble face stones got peeled off from one of the burzis due to the strong shaking
(Photo 3). Cracks appeared in many old buildings in the downtown area and slight
distress in the form of Grade 1 damage could be documented even in well-constructed
structures. The ancient Shankaracharya Temple, located over a hilltop of Panjal
Volcanics, remained unscathed (Photo 4). The structure, repaired and renovated in parts
in recent times, is founded over solid bedrock and is constructed of large, tabular basalt
blocks having very good shear strength. It was perhaps the type of construction and
subsequent repairs that prevented any damage from taking place, where otherwise there
would have been intensity accentuation due to topographic effect. In Srinagar, most of
the buildings are two storied and have used baked bricks with sand-cement mortar in the
walls and G.I. Sheets in roofing. The older buildings deploy timber bracings in the
walls. Such types of structures seem to behave quite efficiently under seismic loading
corresponding to intensity VII or even VIII.

Baramula District

The Baramula District faced the brunt of the earthquake calamity on the Indian
side with 845 people getting killed and 4499 suffering injuries. A total of 40,260 houses
were damaged to various grades.

The town of Baramula, like Srinagar, is located on the banks of Jhelum river
over Karewa and alluvial deposits. The tremors, accompanied by a sound resembling
that of a storm, were very distinct, instilling a deep sense of fear among the residents.
The tremors were described to be having a predominant E-W direction of vibration
under whose influence several of the civil structures came under distress. Some of the
14
low strength compounds walls using stone masonry in mud mortar failed during the
earthquake. A few of such buildings, particularly old ones, suffered partial collapses. In
many buildings, cracks appeared on the walls and the plaster peeled off at places. In a
stray case, the newly constructed portion of a three storey brick structure, housing the
Show Room of Dayal Furnishing caved in and the ground floor walls developed gaping
diagonal shear cracks (Photo 5). It appears that the lean RBC/brick columns supporting
the rather heavy structure were not capable of withstanding the strong horizontal
seismic loading, and thus failed (Photo 6). The building was founded over silty soil
where groundwater occurred at a depth of 7.5 m. In an adjoining two-storey building
made of unbaked bricks and timber bracings, the eastern end gabble portion suffered
partial collapse and the other walls developed gaping shear cracks (Photo 7). This stray
case of intensity accentuation at Baramula could have been prompted by soil
characteristics.

Rampur-Uri Sector

As one proceeded on Baramula-Uri Highway, a perceptible increase in the
intensity of ground motions was witnessed. The masonry gate of Rampur Garrison was
found sheared with chunks of plaster peeling off at places. Further ahead, the ancient
temple of Buniyar, also known as Pandav temple constructed in the 12
th
Century AD by
the Rulers of Avantivarman Dynasty, suffered some conspicuous damage on account of
the earthquake. From its front portal, constructed of large interlocked tabular blocks of
granite, stone slabs slipped off and were seen strewn by the side of the road (Photo 8).
The sanctum sanctorum of the rather dilapidated temple developed gaping cracks.

The Datta Mandir near Mohura of a similar type as that of Buniyar temple but
constructed of large blocks of metavolcanics experienced partial collapse of stone
blocks from one corner (Photo 9). The pitched stones and boulders from the retaining
walls enclosing the temple complex also got dislodged, at places. The dwellings of
nearby hamlets were appreciably damaged forcing their inhabitants to shift in makeshift
tents pitched on flat ground adjoining the temple precinct.

Major failure of terrace slopes on the banks of Jhelum river were first spotted
near Mohura (Photo 10). At Bandi, a coseismic debris slide blocked the highway that
was being cleared up by the Border Road Organisation at the time of the visit.

At Uri, there was a clear accentuation in the intensity level, as from here
onwards most of the structures suffered damage of Grades 4 and 5 (Fig. 3, Photos 11 &
12). The entire Uri Tehsil was severely affected by the earthquake wherein of the total
95 villages, 65 were completely and 30 partially damaged. In this sector large-scale
collapse of dwellings and fairly intense coseismic slope failures were responsible for a
number of deaths and injuries. The sector wise description follows.
15

Uri-Salamabad-Kamalkot Sector

The earthquake destroyed the village of Salamabad, situated about 6 km from
Uri along the Muzaffarabad Highway. Here, most of the structures, constructed of stone
masonry packed in mud or weak sand-cement mortar with sloping GI sheet roofing
suffered total collapse corresponding to Grade 5 of the MSK-64 scale (Photos 13a, b, c
& d). The bunkers (low mud-stone masonry structures) and the abutments of
bridges/culverts came under high distress in this sector (Photo 14). In the region
comprising shale and sandstone bands of Murree Group a number of coseismic
landslides developed, which blocked the Highway and the roads at several places or left
distinct scars on the banks of Jhelum river and its tributaries (Photo 15). On the day of
the visit on 12
th
October 2005, the Muzaffarabad Highway was still blocked by a series
of huge landslides a little ahead of Salamabad (Photo 16). It was reported that a number
of persons were killed or injured by the triggered landslides in the Tehsil.

In Lachi and Sultan Dhakki villages, the damage was near total with heavy loss
of life in most of the settlements (Photo 17).

The damage was equally severe in the village of Kamalkot and the surrounding
hamlets situated at the foot of a high mountain range, about 15 km from Uri (Fig.4). The
inhabitants who were interviewed narrated that an explosion like sound accompanied
the powerful shocks the type of which were never experienced before. They further
stated that there was dust all around and on regaining composure realized that their
world was lost. There were several who were killed instantly and many buried under
tons of debris. In all these settlements the dwellings were constructed in the typical style
with heavy stone masonry walls of low shear strength and slopping GI sheet roofing.
Nearly all such structures were reduced to heaps of rubble (Photos 18a, b & c). From a
distance the dwellings appeared like canopies of glimmering sheets placed over the
ground (Photo 19a). The debris slopes also failed at a number of places (Photo 19b).

In two of the rivulets of the area, the discharge increased several folds as a few
new springs opened up (Photo 20). In one of the nalas that cut across the Kamalkot
road, the water discharge turned blackish in colour and was depositing the fines on its
sides at the break in slopes. The nala originated from a pulverised carbonaceous shale
bed representing the contact of the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). It appears that due to
the earthquake a new spring opened up in the zone, which was eroding away the weak
mass of the fault zone and carrying the sediments along with the swift flow. Whether
this phenomenon was related with some coseismic tectonic movement along the MBT,
is to be established.

16
Salamabad-Urusa-Goalta Sector

Goalta village

The village, located 17 km west of Uri, is spread in four clusters on the fairly
steep banks of Goalta nala, a tributary of Jhelum river (Fig.4). The village located over
Murree Group of rocks has a population of 1242 people who lived in structures made of
thick stone masonry walls in mud mortar with GI sheet roofing. The earthquake had
quite a profound effect in this settlement, resulting in near total damage to almost all of
the low strength dwellings in which 67 people were killed and 73 injured (Photo 21).
The inhabitants had started construction of shelter huts, a timber framed structure with
GI sheet walls and roof and ply board insulation from inside to ward off from the
vagaries of harsh winters (Photo 22).

Urusa Village

The hamlet is located 14 km from Uri along Uri-Muzaffarabad Highway on the
left bank of Jhelum river (Fig. 4). The settlement, located over three distinct levels
experienced very strong tremors under whose influence Grades 4 and 5 damage was a
common site (Photo 23). It is reported that 7 people got killed and many injured in the
earthquake in the village, located close to the LoC.

Chakra Village

The village is located 18 km from Uri and is approachable from the Weak
Bridge across Goalta nala along the Uri-Muzaffarabad Highway by a 2 km long foot
track (Fig.4). The settlement lies over a gently sloping, northward descending spur on
the right bank of Goalta nala. The village having a population of 235 people has 46
housing units built mostly of random stone masonry with GI sheet roofing. The village
dwellings are clustered at the base of a rock spur comprising an alternate sequence of
sandstone and shale of Murree Group. All the dwellings suffered mostly Grade 5
damage in which 10 people were reported killed and 21 injured.

Nawa -Rundan Villages

The twin villages of Nawa and Rundan are approachable from the Lal Bridge
along the Uri-Muzaffarabad Highway by a fair weather motorable road of a length of 7
km. The village dwellings, scattered in small clusters in a large area, are located on the
banks of Nawa Rundan nala, a tributary stream of Jhelum river. In this locality of about
1500 people, 25 perished and 17 got injured due to the house collapses (Photo 25).

17
Dardkot Village

The village is located on the right bank of Dardkot nala, a tributary of Nawa
Rundan stream, 12 km southwest of Uri and is approachable by a fair weather road from
Lal Bridge. The village dwellings are located over a sprawling terrace, which lies at the
foot of a moderately slopping hill composed of Murree Group of rocks. Like rest of the
villages of Uri Tehsil, Dardkot also suffered heavily on account of the earthquake.

Isham Village

Isham village, located 1 km east of Chakra on the left bank of Jhelum river, is
approachable from Lal Bridge by a motorable road. In this locality 7 people were killed
and 15 injured in house collapses, which were constructed on Jhelum terrace deposits
(Photo 26).

Kupwara District

Kupwara was the other district in which the effect of the earthquake was very
pronounced. In the Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsil, 267 people perished and 1369 injured with
37601 houses suffering various grades of damage.

In the Kupwara town, low order damage was witnessed in many of the
structures. A similar order of effect was witnessed in Sopore. Along the Kupwara-
Tangdhar road, the seismic intensity was observed to be of a higher order at places like
Tregaon, Karalgaon and Chowkibal. Partial collapses of a larger number of structures
could be noticed in these localities. In Tangdhar town partial collapses in many of the
conventional Type A structures were witnessed (Photos 27 & 28). A single storey
structure with symmetrical dispositon showed gaping shear cracks (Photo 29). The
newly constructed single storey Police Station building, made of stone masonry
(dressed stones) in sand-cement mortar with GI sheet roofing, surprisingly suffered total
collapse (Photo 30). The building is located over the Quaternary deposits of Sulaiman
rivulet. There was no loss of life in Tangdhar town.

In villages like Badarkot, Ibekot, Dringla, Dundishtsh, Haridal and Prada,
located west of Tangdhar, the damage was reported to be higher, reaching Grade 5 of
the MSK-64 scale.

Jammu Division

In the Jammu Division the survey was conducted in localities belonging to
Poonch, Jammu, Udhampur, Doda, Rajauri and Kathua Districts. The District-wise
description follows.
18

Poonch District

In the Poonch District the effect of the earthquake was very pronounced. The
State Government records reveal that 10 persons were killed, 73 injured and 78 cattle
heads perished in the earthquake. In all, 50,000 people residing in 136 villages were
affected. A total of 1524 houses got fully and 6272 partly damaged. The worst affected
localities from where deaths were reported include Ajote, Karmara, Khari, Gulpur,
Baila, Mandi, Ghani, Mendhar and Poonch town. The persons who were injured
belonged to Jandrolla, Qasba, Salotri, Azamabad, Gulpur, Loran, Khori, W.No.15 and
Poonch town.

The Poonch town is located at the confluence of Poonch and Betar rivers over
different terrace levels, 25 km south of Uri and 95 km southeast of the USGS epicentre
of the earthquake (Figs.1&5). The area comprises an alternate sequence of sandstone-
shale belonging to Murree Group of rocks and Quaternary deposits. The inhabitants,
who were deeply frightened at the time of passage of seismic waves, heard an explosion
like sound followed by intense ground vibrations.

The tremors induced partial collapse of walls of many poorly constructed
structures of random rubble masonry in mud mortar The Deputy Commissioners Office
Complex comprising a number of individual structures showed various grades of
damage. Whereas a few were raised to the ground, some suffered partial collapses
(Photos 31, 32 & 33). The Deputy Commissioners residence, a two storey well
constructed masonry structure, showed failure of both ground and first floor outer walls
(Photos 34a & b). The Sheesh Mahal, an old conventional type double storey structure
built around 1852 by Raja Jagdeo Singh, presently housing the Girls Higher Secondary
School, suffered partial collapse, in the upper floor (Photo 35). The Geeta Bhawan, a
three storey old structure of the town also received considerable damage.

The newly constructed mosque in the town, using brickwork, sand-cement
mortar and a modern architecture, displayed the most prominent damage. The
ornamental arches, minarets and columns developed shear cracks, the burjis tilted and
the central dome totally sheared off from its base consequent to the strong motions
(Photos 36a & b and 37).

A number of single storey Type A structures in the residential colony located on
the higher-level terrace suffered Grade 4 damage in the form of collapse of partition and
load bearing walls. A three-storey bungalow, a relatively strong structure consisting of
brick masonry reinforced by columns and beams belonging to Dr. Tej Bahadur Sharma
became uninhabitable, as most of the walls, especially of the upper floors, were severely
damaged.
19

The Poonch Fort walls also received considerable damage. The western (back)
portion of the Fort wall built of stone masonry in a mortar of lime and surkhi failed
under the influence of strong motions. Skirting the courtyard on the three sides viz., the
northern, western and southern were built double storey structures. On the eastern side a
three-storey building was present. The earthquake caused collapse of the entire upper
storey on the western side building, housing the G.P. Fund Office of the J&K
Government Finance Department (Photo 38).

Moti Mahal, an old palace built by Sukhdeo Singh, presently being maintained
by the Indian Army, also became uninhabitable as a number of rooms on the first floor
of this stone masonry building suffered Grades 3 & 4 damage (Photo 39).

The Vishnu Temple located within the Fort Complex also had telltale imprints
of the earthquake. The black stone idol of Lord Narada, which was earlier placed over a
20 cm high wooden pedestal, was found lying on the floor, broken into three pieces
(Photo 40). The idol was thrown towards S80E direction. Another idol of Lord
Hanuman apparently fell down from its concrete pedestal towards S80E direction.

Khari village, located northwest of Poonch town on terrace deposits and slope
debris received considerable damage in which one person was killed and another
injured. Masonry walls of a single storey house were heavily sheared and dislodged by
the strong motions (Photo 41). The poor type structures suffered total collapse in the
area (Photo 42). The influence of topography was clearly discernible in the damage
pattern, which was more pronounced on structures located over the higher-level terraces
as compared with the lower ones.

In Ajote village, located on a terrace deposit on the western bank of Betar river
about 2 km northwest of Poonch town, Type A structures composed of random rubble
masonry showed considerable damage. A person was killed in a house collapse in the
village. Some Type B structures also suffered Grade 3 damage in the form of gaping
shear cracks in the walls. The villagers heard a sound resembling that of gushing wind
followed by thundering at the time of the earthquake. The tremors were very strong
under whose influence people lost balance.

In village Dalan, located 5 km north of Poonch town over steep rocky slopes on
the left bank of Betar river, the intensity of ground motions appears to be less than at
Poonch. Here, Type A structures made of random rubble masonry in mud mortar with
thatched roofs suffered maximum damage in the form of partial collapses. The Middle
School building of Bagyal Dar hamlet adjacent to the Dalan village showed damage in
the form of collapse of one of the walls. There was no case of total collapse of any
structure in the locality. It was observed that the Bagyal nala, which remained dry in
20
this part of the year, started discharging water consequent to the earthquake. It is likely
that some of the springs opened up feeding the drainage of the village.

Jammu District

The district comprises a hilly terrain belonging to Siwalik Group of rocks and
vast alluvial plains in the southern part with Tawi river providing the principal drainage.
In this area, the tremors were felt strongly by almost everybody. Accept for stray cases,
no significant damage other than widening of preexisting cracks and opening up of
construction joints was witnessed in and around Jammu town. Prominent cracks in taller
structures like Jammu Medical College building, Tehsil Office of Wazarat road, etc.
were reported. In a 19
th
Century structure known as Mubarak Mandi, a dilapidated wall
constructed of lakhori bricks in lime mortar collapsed (Photo 43). Cracks appeared in
some walls and parapets in the city area.

In Kotli-Shah-Daulla area located along Jammu-Suchetgarh road the corner
burzis of a Gurudwara, a three-storey brick building, got displaced during the
accentuated vibrations and thrown down (Photo 44). In an adjoining newly constructed
temple structure fine horizontal cracks appeared in the walls (Photo 45). In some other
structures in this area fine cracks and opening of construction joints were recorded. In
Saror area located about 20 km from Jammu town along Jammu-Pathankot Highway,
chimneys of some of the brick Kilns either developed shear cracks or got sheared off
from the top part (Photo 46). One of the walls of the Jammu Old Fort also caved in
during the earthquake (Photo 47). An open fissure, traced for a length of 100 m
appeared along a bund structure near Simbal Camp, 15 km south of Jammu (Photo 48).

Udhampur District

The District, comprising mainly a hilly terrain with longitudinal valleys, is
represented by rocks belonging to Murree and Siwalik Groups and Sirban Formation.
The tremors were strongly felt by everybody though damage to civil structures was, by
and large, absent. In a stray case, a hotel building located 7 km from Udhampur town
suffered Grade 1 damage. The owner described that the GI sheet roofing clattered as if
monkeys were jumping over it. A hot spring appeared in the lawn of Triyath High
School, located at the border of Udhampur and Rajouri Districts.

There was evidence of somewhat stronger seismic intensity towards southeast of
Rajauri in Triyath, Paoni and Riasi area. At Triyath, partial collapses in a few houses
constructed of random rubble masonry and cracks in brick structures were recorded.
New hot springs giving sulphurous odour spouted at places from Sirban Formation. At
Damar village, the inhabitants found it difficult to stand. Partial collapse in a few poor
type structures was reported from the locality. At Kheral village, located 6 km west of
21
Riasi towards Pauni, collapse of mud walls of a thatch-roofed structure was noticed
(Photo 49). Here, two inhabitants were injured. The walls of the old Riasi Fort suffered
partial collapse. Southeast of Riasi the seismic intensity showed a diminishing trend.

At Katra there was no significant damage though the inhabitants experienced
strong tremors and came out of their dwellings in panic. At Chiara, located a few
kilometers east of Katra, a few collapses from poor quality constructions were reported.

Doda District

The mountainous terrain of the District with Chenab river forming the principal
drainage was shaken by the tremors of 8
th
October earthquake. However, there was no
report of damage in this region.

Rajauri District

The intensity of ground motions in the District was similar to that at Jammu
though no significant damage to civil structures was observed or reported from the area.
However, the famous hot spring of Tatta Pani in the district located near Kalakot
Eocene Coal deposits with temperatures of 45C dried up consequent to the earthquake.
It is reported by the local people that immediately after the main shock water gushed out
from the spring for some time before gradually drying up.

Change of flow in springs was reported from Bimbergali, located 25 km west of
Rajauri. South of Rajauri towards Akhnoor the seismic intensity distinctly diminished.
In this area, most people felt the tremors and ran outdoors. The tremors were, however,
not strong enough to destabilize even small objects kept in shelves. Cracks in poor
quality mud masonry structures were reported as the maximum damage. At Surankot, it
was reported that half litre cold drink bottles kept over the top of a refrigerator fell down
whereas 2 litre bottles remained untoppled.

Kathua District

The effect of the earthquake was very conspicuous in this District, whose
western margin forms the International border with Pakistan and the southern and
southeastern with the States of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, respectively. Drained by
Ravi river and its various tributaries, the region is an assemblage of hilly terrain
composed of Murree and Siwalik Group of rocks and a dissected alluvial plain. The
distinct tremors observed for a considerable duration infused a sense of panic among the
residents. At Basantpur, located on the right bank of river Ravi over terrace deposits,
water spilled out from the containers. However, no report of damage was received from
this locality. In Bilawar Tehsil utensils and other objects kept over racks and tables
22
started clattering and water spilled out from buckets. In localities between Ramkot and
Udhampur, people reported that even deep bore well water (80 m depth) turned turbid.
This turbidity was evident for about 12 hours following the main shock of 8
th
October
2005. At Rampur, water in a lake turned muddy. At Manawal and Kuthed, the shutters
of the shops and GI sheet roofing clattered violently during the passage of the seismic
waves. Cracks appeared in a few Type B structures of the locality. Grade 1 damage was
also reported from a few Type A structures. It was also reported that 85% of the hand
pumps started giving muddy water after the quake. There was vigorous shaking of the
trees.

The Navodaya Vidhyalaya building at Nad (located between Mansar and
Samba) received Grade 1 damage in the form of cracks. Water supplied through
pipelines turned muddy and remained so for about 30 minutes after the earthquake. The
furniture got displaced and books kept in the racks fell down. In Hira Nagar and
Lakhanpur the water in a few hand pumps became reddish brown in colour. In the RTO
Office at Lakhanpur a joint in the stone slab floor opened by about 2 mm due to the
shaking. Here, a farmer reported that the tremors were so strong that it became difficult
to maintain balance, doors rattled, utensils kept on the racks fell down and hair line
cracks appeared in the walls and roof.

In Kathua town, it was noticed that the ground oscillated in E-W direction. The
shutters vibrated vigorously. In the house of Diwan Chand, a wall-floor joint opened by
3-4 mm. Many hand pumps discharged muddy water. Hairline cracks developed in a
School boundary wall. Firozuddin, a farmer from the outskirts of Kathua, reported
appearance of cracks in roof and walls of his house and falling down of utensils in the
kitchen. Many hand pumps started discharging muddy water.

Harnam Singh, the Patwari of Padyari and Phalote villages reported that in his
locality 20%-30% Type B houses developed hairline cracks mostly in N-S trending
walls. He also reported that all hand pumps and even deeper tube wells discharged
muddy water throughout the day following the earthquake. A few people lost balance
and fell down. In the house of Dilbagh Singh, a farmer, cracks, disposed vertically and
horizontally, developed in the walls of all the rooms of his village house. Water spilled
from tanks, objects kept in the almirah fell down, some lost balance and fell down and
water remained turbid for 6-7 hours.

Other Seismological Effects in Jammu & Kashmir

The earthquake induced various other seismological effects, particularly in the
Uri and Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsils, of which conditions of slope failures were the most
conspicuous. The highly tectonised rocks of Murree Group, represented by alternate
bands of shale and sandstone are even otherwise highly susceptible to slope failures.
23

The strong ground motions therefore induced numerous slope failures some of which
adversely affected the road sectors, endangered the settlements and cultivated fields and
became responsible for some casualties of people and cattle. The Jhelum valley south of
Uri and Kishanganga valley in Tithwal area were marked by numerous coseismic slope
failures.

The hydrological effects like changes in flow of springs, and opening of new
and closing of old springs were common in the higher intensity zones. Several such
cases have come to notice from areas surrounding Kamalkot village (Photo 20). The
discharge from Tatta Pani thermal spring stopped consequent to the earthquake.
Groundwater fluctuations were common in many parts of Kathua and Jammu Districts.

A case of liquefaction was documented from Simbal Camp area, located 15 km
south of Jammu town. On the left bank of Balawal nala, ground fissures extending
interruptedly in a length of about 1 km and trending in N40 -70E -S40-70W
directions were seen arranged in en echelon patterns (Fig. 6). At many places, fine sand-
water mixture spouted for some time through these fissures and vents consequent to the
8
th
October 2005 earthquake and rose to a height of 0.6 m. The sand deposits on the
sides of the fissures attained a maximum height and width of 12 cm and 3.0 m,
respectively (Photos 50a & b). The opening of the fissures varied from 15 cm to almost
50 cm. Trenches excavated across the ground fissures at two places showed presence of
5.5 to 2.5 cm thick liquefaction induced sand dykes cutting through silty clay deposits
(Photos 51a & b). In this area the ground water was very shallow, of the order of 1 to
1.2 m only and the strata comprised sand-silt of newer alluvium. It is interesting to note
that the villagers who were interviewed told that they heard a sound accompanying the
tremors though the place is located some 250 km away from the epicentre.

In the Uri Sector the most important tectonic feature is the Main Boundary
Thrust (MBT), along which the Pre-Tertiary Formations represented by rock sequence
of limestone and carbonaceous shale override the Murree Group of rocks. The thrust
zone is demarcated by highly pulverised carbonaceous material. In the Jhelum valley
south of Salamabad the MBT appears to be off set by a cross fault. Near the junction of
these two structural discontinuities some fresh rupturing along the MBT is discernible,
which may be coseismic in nature (Photo 52). From the northward displaced part of the
MBT a few new springs opened up. On 12th October 2005, it was witnessed that one of
the new springs originating in the MBT was bringing lot of carbonaceous material along
a gully and depositing part of the debris on the Kamalkot road.

24
2. Punjab

Amritsar-Beas-Batala-Gurdaspur-Jalandhar Sector

In this sector the tremors were strong enough to be felt by all and infuse a sense
of fear among the residents. Some people reported giddiness consequent to the
earthquake. At Batala, Kalanaur and Amritsar oscillations were noticed in water bodies.
Fine cracks developed in walls of buildings at Batala, Kalanaur, Dera Baba Nanak,
Amritsar and Gurdaspur. A few cases of widening of old cracks in monumental
buildings came to notice at Batala and Amritsar. In the building of Guru Nanak Dera
Sahib at Bata, a historical palace, a casualty was reported because of collapse of a
portion of an old wall.

At Shahpur Jajhan located near Dera Baba Nanak, a 7-year-old boy got killed
due to collapse of a mud wall. Fall of minor nature were noticed from projections of old
buildings at Gurdaspur. The reported direction of vibrations was N-S. In and around
Jallandhar, all felt the vibrations and people got frightened, but there was no report of
damage to any structure. At village Madhar in Jalandhar district the groundwater level
remained raised so much that for almost 10 days the hand pumps started overflowing.
At Kaporthala a few fell dizzy.

Beas-Hoshiarpur Sector

The earthquake was strongly felt in the region, frightening the people
everywhere. In Hoshiarpur cases of minor dislodgements of projections in old buildings
were reported. In Una, a Chunk of alluvium from a road cut bluff fell down.

Mamoon-Shahpur-Madhopur-Ranjit Sagar Dam Sector

At Mamoon Cantonment near Pathankot most of the people felt giddy though
there was no damage in the area. At Shahpur Kandi there was general panic, pictures on
the walls swung, water spilled from buckets, shutters rattled and a sound resembling
that of a passing train was heard. But there was no structural damage though hairline
cracks were reported from buildings. At Madhopur it was reported that the shutters of
shops rattled vigorously, trees and parked trucks swayed and electric wires swung but
the buildings escaped any damage.

In the Ranjit Sagar (Thein) dam project area, a landslide activity occurred for
about 30 minutes downstream of the dam structure. The workers who were inside the
dam galleries felt three distinct shocks and were terribly frightened. Some lost their
balance. The discharges in Transverse gallery at EL.432 m (hole No.22), Longitudinal
gallery (hole No.2), Crest gallery (hole No.7) and L/S gallery EL. 400 m (hole No. 2, 6
25
and 11) increased. Some of the casegrande piezometers, which were initially in dry
condition, started overflowing and the pore potential in some other holes increased by
about 1m after the quake. As such, there was no damage at Ranjit Sagar Dam project
and the powerhouse remained fully operational, uninterruptedly.
Ropar and Patiala Districts

At Mohali and Kurali everybody felt the tremors with some complaining of
giddiness. Many ran outdoors out of fear. In stray cases cracks of minor nature appeared
in wall plaster. Splashing of water from tanks, swaying of trees and parked vehicles, etc.
were reported from Kwali. People witnessed perceptible swaying of the 120 and 140 m
high chimneys of the Super Thermal Power Plant. It is reported that during the tremors
the speed of the turbine crossed its optimum limit and got tripped. At Zirakpur stray
cases of plaster cracks were reported from upper floors of buildings.

3. Himachal Pradesh

Chamba-Bathri-Nanikhad-Jandrah Sector

The earthquake was strongly felt in the region. In Chamba town, the ground
motions were in E-W direction and resembled that of a rocking boat. Minor cracks were
reported to have developed in some buildings in Chamba town, Holi and Bharmour area
of Chamba District. Hanging objects swung violently at all the places. No incidence of
co-seismic landslides was recorded.

Nurpur-Kotla-Draman-Shahpur-Gagal-Kangra-Palampur Sector

All who were indoors or outdoors felt the tremors but those who were moving in
vehicles could not feel them. Trees, buildings and parked vehicles were found swaying.
A very small percentage of people in Palampur town did not feel the tremors at all. In
general, there was no damage in the area from the earthquake.

Chamba-Koti-Sundla-Salooni-Langera Sector

This sector, located close to the J&K border, had a similar seismic intensity as at
Chamba town, where stray cases of non-structural damage occurred. At Langera loose
objects fell down, a trishul (trident) embedded vertically shook vigorously but bells in
temples did not ring. In a poor structure Grade 1 damage was witnessed. Along the road
cut, minor dislodgement of rock blocks was noticed. The springs momentarily turned
muddy after the quake. The quantity of water in natural springs reduced by as much as
50%.

26
Sundarnagar-Mandi-Simla Sector

All in the region distinctly felt the shocks and people came out in the open.
Some had a feeling of nausea due to the rocking motions. In Sanskrit College building,
Sundernagar constructed in 1980, a crack developed in one of the walls. Accept for
some poor type constructions where minor damage occurred, rest of the buildings in the
locally escaped without any damage. In PWD Colony, Kusumli, Simla a wall of a Type-
III Quarter suffered a partial collapse. It was reported that the structure was in quite a
dilapidated condition. A crack in the wall of Dental College building was also reported.

Kulu- Manali Sector

In this sector, almost everybody rushed out of their buildings on perceiving the
strong tremors. Accept for stray cases the structures escaped without any damage. In an
isolated case, a two-storey old and poor quality house in Chong village in the Parbati
valley suffered partial collapse. It was noticed that persons working in the underground
structures of Larji project, like power house cavern, surge gallery, tail race tunnel, draft
tube gate gallery, etc., did not feel the tremors at all whereas those in the open felt them
distinctly. It was reported that in remote areas of Lahaul and Spiti as well most of the
people felt the tremors, which were of frightening proportions.

4. Chandigarh

All felt the tremors, which lasted for a minute. Those residing in the upper floors
of the buildings were frightened and rushed out of their houses. Some felt giddy and
were reported to have lost balance. The hanging objects swung to moderate extent.
Objects like trees and poles swayed considerably and water in containers splashed in
some cases. Perceptible waves were generated in the Sukhana lake. The tremors were
not perceptible to those who were moving in vehicles.

5. Haryana

Panchkula

The effect of the earthquake at Panchkula was similar to that at Chandigarh. In
the Jalvayu Vihar, an eight storey residential complex, small unstable objects got
toppled. A pendulum clock in a 6
th
floor apartment stopped due to the vibrations. Stray
cases of plaster cracks occurred in some high-rise buildings in Sector 20. Dogs started
barking and birds chirped and flew away.

27
Faridabad-Gurgaon

All felt a total of three shocks lasting for duration of 50-60 seconds. Some felt
giddy by the swaying motions. Those residing in upper floors felt the tremors more
strongly and therefore moved out of the buildings. Rattling of doors and windows and
swinging of hanging objects were the common observations.
In stray cases minor damage in buildings was noticed. In Kali Bari Society,
Sector 21D, Faridabad, cracks developed in one of the ground floor toilet floors. In the
5
th
Floor of flat No. C-52, Ringwood Apartments in DLF Phase IV, Gurgaon, about 2 m
long and 2-3 mm wide cracks developed. Minor cracks in plaster and Plaster of Paris of
8
th
floor flat No. 308 B of Hamilton Court Apartment at Gurgaon were noticed. A tile
got separated out in the BSF Apartment located along Faridabad-Gurgaon road.

Bahadurgarh-Rohtak-Meham-Sorkhi-Hansi-Hissar

The tremors lasting for about 50 seconds were of mild intensity and could be felt
by all the people. Not much of fright was associated. In the 80-year-old Chaupal
building at Sorkhi, cracks appeared in the arches. An adjoining old structure also
suffered some damage in the form of widening of old cracks/development of minor new
cracks. Some people reported giddiness.

Fatehabad-Ratia-Moonak-Narwana-Jind-Safidon-Panipat-Ballabhgarh

Three distinct shocks in E-W direction, lasting for duration of 40-50 seconds
were observed in this part of Haryana. Some reported giddiness. No damage was
reported. However, at Safidon a preexisting crack in an old Type B structure widened.

6. Delhi

Four localities in Delhi were surveyed to get an idea of seismic intensity in the
capital region. The localities were Mayur Vihar, Adarsh Nagar, Peetam Pura and Delhi
Secretariat. Almost all who were indoors and many who were outdoors felt the
earthquake. Those residing in upper floors felt much stronger vibrations and therefore
attempted to come out of their buildings. The furniture shook and the hanging objects
swung. No case of damage to buildings was reported except from Delhi Secretariat
complex where hairline plaster cracks appeared in some walls.

7. Uttaranchal

Traverses were taken in different parts of Garhwal and Kumaon regions to
observe the effect of the 8
th
October 2005 earthquake. Special care was taken to
investigate any distress in major river valley projects like Tehri dam, Koteshwar dam
28
and Maneri Bhali Hydel Scheme Stage-II. Tremors of feeble to moderate intensity were
felt in different parts of the State. There was no report of any damage to structures in
Uttaranchal due to the earthquake.

8. Uttar Pradesh

A large number of localities in Central and Western parts of the State were
reconnoitered to gather information on the effects of the earthquake. At Lucknow only
those residing in G+4 or above floors perceived feeble tremors. At Bareilly the intensity
was higher than at Lucknow. At Meerut the tremors were distinctly felt by almost
everybody.
29
IV. Effects of Kashmir Earthquake in Pakistan and Pak Occupied
Kashmir

The earthquake had a devastating effect in a large part of North Pakistan and
Pak Occupied Kashmir, where, as per Government reports of November 2005, 87,350
people perished, 1,38,000 injured and over 3.5 million rendered homeless. Of the dead,
19000 included children. The earthquake affected more than 5,00,000 families. Over
7,80,000 buildings were either destroyed or damaged beyond repair. Approximately
17,000 School and Hospital buildings in and around the epicentre were totally damaged.
The entire road network in the affected region became dysfunctional due to massive
landslide activity triggered by the strong motions. Several areas were unapproachable
by road even after three months of the main shock. Power-water supply and
telecommunication links remained disrupted for varying lengths of time in different
sectors.

The death and damage figures in North West Frontier Province, Pakistan and
Pak Occupied Kashmir are given in Table 2.

Table 2
Death and Damage Figures
(Source: MEA Report 05-04, 2006)

Sl.
No.
District
North West Frontier Province (NWFP)
Dead Injured Buildings Damaged
Fully Partially
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Shangla
Manshera (Balakot)
Kohistan
Abbottabad
Batagram
423
24511
661
515
3232
957
30585
639
1730
3279
15880
32293
4504
7267
29015
11087
43925
18737
27813
8841
Pak Occupied Kashmir (PoK)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Neelum
Muzaffarabad
Bagh
Rawalakot
Sudhmoti
Mirpur
447
33724
8157
1025
4
6
1013
21374
6644
1909
16
11
3692
115211
48365
15362
430
0
8991
17209
18736
25770
1777
0

30
As per reports gathered from various sources, the maximum damage occurred in
an area of about 458 sq km between Balakot and Muzaffarabad. It has been estimated
that 30%-35% buildings in Muzaffarabad, located on the banks of Kishanganga
(Neelam) and Jhelum rivers were either destroyed or badly damaged (Fig.7). Major
damage concentrations were in areas of deeper alluvial deposits (EERI, 2006). An
assessment of damaged buildings in Muzaffarabad and the surrounding areas carried out
by the Earthquake Engineering Center of the University of Engineering and
Technology, Peshawar showed that about 60% of the urban structures were
unreinforced solid concrete block masonry buildings and it was the collapse of more
than 60% of them that became responsible for majority of the deaths and injuries (Photo
53a). The Combined Military Hospital, a well designed and well constructed structure
with a soft storey suffered major damage due to the strong and prolonged shaking
(Photo 53b).

The town of Balakot, situated on the banks of Kunhar river, a tributary of
Jhelum, was the worst affected where majority of the buildings suffered high-grade
damage (Fig. 8). The RCC deck of Balakot bridge over Kunhar river having two central
piers got displaced by about a metre from it s support bearings due to the strong motions
(Photo 54). It has been analysed that lack of lateral resistance allowed sliding of the
bridge where vertical motions might have played a significant role in reducing the
vertical force on the bearings, leading to the large observed lateral displacement (MEA
Report no. 05-04, 2006). The effect of topography was also significant in accentuating
the damage intensity at Balakot.

The masonry abutment of one of the bridges sheared off along a subhorizontal
fracture plane (Photo 55). One of the suspension bridges between Balakot and
Muzaffarabad snapped off (Photo 56). High order damage was also recorded in places
like Garhi Habi Bullah, Bagh, Manshera, Abbottabad, Rawalakot, Batgran, etc. Peak
Horizontal Ground Acceleration (PHGA) of 0.231g was recorded at Abbottabad by the
strong motion recorders (EERI, 2006). At Tarbela dam, located about 78 km from the
epicentre, the PGA was 0.16g at the crest and 0.1g at the base of the structure (EERI,
2006).

According to the Associated Press hundreds of people were affected in the
collapse of a nineteen storey building in Islamabad, known as Margalla Towers (Photo
57). This was a stray case of major damage to a well-constructed building in the city
located 95 km away from the epicentre. In Rawalpindi also damage to many buildings
was recorded.

The earthquake induced profuse landslide activity in a very large area. Sato et
al., (2006), identified presence of over 100 coseismic landslides on the basis of
IKONOS imagery in the isoseist and surrounding areas of 8
th
October event (Photos 58a
31
& b). They confirmed that most of the landslides occurred along the uplifted northeast
side of Muzaffarabad and Tanda faults.

One of the rare earthquake phenomena witnessed in the epicentral and
surrounding regions was rupturing/displacements along faults. The thrust referred to as
Jhelum thrust that slipped during the 8
th
October 2005 earthquake stood out clearly in
the geomorphic landscape of the Jhelum valley in the form of triangular facets
(Tapponnier, et al., 2006). Just north of Muzaffarabad the thrust stepped leftwards
across the Neelam valley, continuing into the Kunhar valley along high faceted spurs.

Hussain & Yeats (2006) found reactivation of the primary surface trace of MBT
between Balakot and Muzaffarabad. Southward, it diverged from the MBT and
followed the northern bank of Jhelum river passing near the villages of Garhi Dupatta,
Chakar, Sudangalli and Bagh where its surface trace ended. The fault appeared to have
broken along its entire 65 km trace and new springs opened up at places. Between
Balakot and Muzaffarabad the fault separated Precambrian dolomitic limestone and
carbonaceous shale from Miocene Murree Formation. Further south, the fault remained
restricted within Murrees.

Nakata and Kumahara (2006) observed reactivation of Muzaffarabad and Tanda
faults in a total 60 km long segment. The sense of movement was identified as right
lateral together with westward thrusting component on the basis of off setting of
streams. The high order of damage followed the trace of the rupture zone.
32
V. Isosleismal Map and Isoseist Characteristics

The shock waves generated by the Mw 7.6 Kashmir Earthquake of 8
th
October
2005 could be perceived throughout the northern part of India for hundreds of
kilometres from the epicentre, including the States of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Jammu & Kashmir,
being closest to the rupture zone, was shaken to the maximum extent, resulting in low to
high order seismic effects in different parts of the Himalayan State. The Geological
Survey of India mobilised several teams of scientists to record and document the effects
of the earthquake in various places with the main objective of preparing the isoseismal
map. To assess the intensity levels, Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK-64) intensity
scale was used (Annxure II). The grades of damage to different types of structures and
damage patterns were evaluated, human perceptions recorded and the coseismic
secondary effects documented. The intensity levels were assigned after carefully
collating and analysing the evidences collected from different sources (Figs.1& 9). The
seismic intensity distribution in the adjoining territory of Pak Occupied Kashmir and
Pakistan was assessed by going through the press and electronic media reports
(Annexure III) and various scientific reports posted in the websites and presentations
made in the Seminars (Zare, 2005).

The epicentral tract of 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir Earthquake encloses an area of
458 sq km and includes localities like Muzaffarabad, Balakot, Ghori Habibulla, etc.
belonging to NWFP and PoK. As per reports gathered from various sources, the city of
Balakot was almost totally destroyed with most of the structures suffering Grade 5
damage. In this District a total of 24511 deaths and 30585 injuries, apart from damage of
over 76000 buildings were reported (MEA Report no. 05-04. 2006). The old type stone
masonry structures, the mixed type structures using RCC columns and beams with
brick/stone partition walls, well constructed RCC framed structures and RCC buildings
with soft stories all suffered heavily, including total to near total collapse.

The intensity of ground shaking appears to be equally strong in Muzaffarabad
were over one lakh buildings were destroyed. Huge landslides were generated and
coseismic rupturing took place along Muzaffarabad and Tanda Faults within the
epicentral tract. Judging from the damage pattern and other seismological effects, the
epicentral tract has been assigned an intensity of X on MSK-64 Scale (Fig.1&9).

Isoseismal IX encloses part of NWFP, PoK and the western sectors of Baramula
and Kupwara Districts in Kashmir Division. The isoseist occupies an area of 3867 sq km
and is highly elongated in N36W-S36E direction with long-short axes ratio of 2.5:1.
The major localities within this isoseist include Uri, Tithwal on the Indian side of LoC
and Bagh (PoK), Shinkiari and Deoli (NWFP). In this intensity zone the people heard an
explosion like sound accompanying very powerful shocks that were never felt before.
33
The typical Type A structures of the area consisting of walls using large stone masonry
packed in mud or sand- cement mortar and GI sheet roofing over timber support, failed
in this intensity, showing Grades 5 and 4 damage. A number of new springs opened up
and numerous landslides generated from the rock and debris slopes. Casualties in this
isoseist were also quite high.

The isoseismal VIII is also elongated in N35W-S35E direction with the long-
short axes ratio of 1.8:1. The isoseist, occupying an area of 9142 sq km, encompasses a
considerable part of the Indian Territory. The important localities in India include
Poonch, Rampur, Mahura, Tangdhar, Tregaon, etc. The localities in Pakistan and PoK
are Abbottabad, Rawalakot, Manshera, Batagram, etc. In this intensity tremors were
very strong. Partial collapse and development of cracks in Type A structures were
common. Many Type B structures also suffered damage of Grades 2-3. Low order
landslide activity occurred in this zone.

The egg shaped isoseismal VII occupies an area of 22673 sq km in the territory
of NWFP, PoK and Jammu and Kashmir. The Isoseist is distinctly elongated in N35W-
S35E direction with long-short axes ratio of 1.85:1 The important localities in this
isoseist include Srinagar, Baramula, Sopore, Kupwara, Mendhar, Murree, etc. In this
intensity strong tremors lasting for a considerable duration were experienced, instilling a
deep sense of anxiety and fear. There were reports of loss of balance and those driving
cars/two wheelers felt wobbling effect. In stray cases poorly constructed Type A
structures suffered partial collapse. In many such structures cracks appeared. Some well-
constructed buildings also developed fine cracks. Cases of appearance/ disappearance of
springs/thermal spring occurred in this intensity. An isolated intensity high of VII amid
intensity VI was observed around Riasi-Paoni area. In this more or less circular zone
partial collapse of weak structures was witnessed. This included walls of Riasi Fort.

Isoseismal VI is highly elongated in N30W-S30E direction though it has been
constrained on the Indian side, its full trace in the territory of Pakistan and further north
in Afghanistan could not be closed due to lack of information. The prominent localities
falling in this isoseist are Anantnag, Rajauri, Batote, Udhampur, Kathua, Gurdaspur,
Pathankot, etc. Places such as Islamabad, Tarbela, Mirpur, Jhelum, Sialkot, etc. lie in
this isoseist in Pakistan. Here, the tremors were strong enough to be distinctly felt by
everybody, instilling a sense of panic amongst the residents. Fine cracks appeared in
some poor type structures. In stray cases a few old walls suffered partial collapse.
Fluctuations in groundwater levels and its getting turbid was widely reported from many
localities falling in the alluvial tract.

Jammu city and surrounding areas form an isolated intensity high where the
intensity approached VII on MSK-64 scale. Partial collapse of some structures and brick
kiln chimneys has also been witnessed. In this zone near Ranbir Singh Pura,
34
liquefaction occurred in the very shallow groundwater regime in the recent flood plane
deposits. It is interesting to note that in Jammu area the inhabitants heard a low
explosion like sound accompanying the tremors. The place is located about 240 km
away from the epicentre. It is unlikely to hear a seismic sound, which is produced by
passage of strong phase of P-waves into the air, at such a distance. It may be possible
that at Jammu a secondary rupture got triggered at a very shallow depth along another
inflamed zone under the influence of seismic perturbations. This is how the isolated
intensity high at a far off place can be explained.

Table 3
Isoseist Details of 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir Earthquake

S.No.

Isoseist Area
(sq km)
Cumulative
Area (sq km)
Long
Axis
(km)
Short
Axis
(km)
Ratio
L: S
Radius
(km)
1.
2.
3.
4.
X
IX
VIII
VII
458
3867
9142
22673
458
4325
13467
36140
36
120
177
286
18
48
98
155
2:1
2.5:1
1.8:1
1.85:1
12.071
37.094
65.459
107.233

For constraining isoseismal V some localities in Punjab and a few in Himachal
Pradesh were visited. Places such as Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Chandigarh,
Simla, and Chamba showed effects of intensity V. All felt the tremors and some reported
a feeling of giddiness, fear and anxiety. In some cases preexisting cracks got widened,
and in some, plaster cracks appeared. No structural damage took place in this intensity.

Places located in parts of Punjab Haryana, Uttaranchal, Delhi and NW Uttar
Pradesh showed characteristics of Intensity IV where the tremors were widely felt but
were not strong enough to cause any panic. The observations made at places like
Bareilly and Jaipur indicated effects of int ensity III. At Lucknow, located more than
1000 km away from the epicentre, the tremors were felt only above G+4 floor levels in
the form of mild shaking. Those on the ground floor could not feel the tremors at all,
which puts the intensity at Lucknow as II (Fig.9).

The isoseists are highly elongated in N35W-S35E direction showing a strong
geological control. The focal depth of the main event of 8
th
October 2005 has been
evaluated using the following empirical relationships.
35

1. Gzovsky, 1962

Io=1.5 M - h/15 (where, Io is epicentral intensity, M magnitude and h focal
depth)
This gives h = 21.0 km for M 7.6 (USGS)
and 16.5 km for M 7.4 (IMD)

2. Shebalin, 1974

Io =1.5M 3.5log h + 3
This gives h = 18.07 km for M 7.6
and h = 14.83 km for M 7.4

3. Karnik

Io In = log Dn/h

Where, Io = Maximum Intensity
In = Intensity of the chosen Isoseismal
V = a constant (say 3)
Dn = r
2
+h
2

r = Distance from maximum to chosen isoseismal
h = focal depth

According to this relationship h = 13 km for In = IX and h = 12 km for In =
VIII.
36
VI. Aftershock Monitoring

The 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir earthquake was followed by an intense aftershock
activity. Reports indicated that in the first week over 575 seismic events occurred with
peak of the activity forming in the first two days. The India Meteorological Department
(IMD) and USGS Permanent Seismological Observatories recorded numerous
aftershock events, a plot of which is shown in Figure 1. The Geophysics Division, GSI,
NR deployed an array of five digital MEQ recorders at Stations i) Srinagar, ii)
Baramula, iii) Bandipore, iv) Gulmarg and v) Gingal (Uri) with the objective of
recording the aftershock activity as accurately as possible (Fig.10, Table 4).

Table 4
Details of Temporary MEQ Network

S.
No.
Station with code Latitude (E) Longitude (N) Period of operation
1
2
3
4
5
Srinagar (SGR)
Baramula (BML)
Gingle ( GNL)
Gulmarg (GLM)
Bandipore (BDP)
34.06
34.02
34.12
34.07
34.42
74.82
74.34
74.10
74.33
74.63
23
rd
Oct- 17
th
Nov05
24
th
Oct- 14
th
Nov05
25
th
Oct- 14
th
Nov05
2
nd
Nov- 15
th
Nov05
9
th
Nov-16
th
Nov05


Each microearthquake station of the network was equipped with a digital
seismograph (K2-Altus, Kinemetrics Inc, USA) coupled to three numbers seismometers
(Ranger SS-1, Kinemetrics Inc, USA). The two sensors were aligned in north-south and
east-west directions and one placed vertically over the ground.

The monitoring was done for a total duration of 24 days from 23
rd
October to
17
th
November 2005. In this period about 1000 events, mostly aftershocks of 8
th

October 2005 main shock, were recorded of which 20 were of magnitude > 5 and one of
magnitude > 6 on the Richter scale.

The P-phase, S-phase and coda duration of aftershocks were determined from
their digital waveform. These phased data of aftershocks were analysed and processed
on computer using SEISAN seismological software at Geophysics Division, Geological
Survey of India, Lucknow. The epicentral, hypocentral and other statistical parameters
of the aftershocks were computed and analysed in rela tion to the seismotectonic setup of
the area.

37
The daily statistics of the aftershocks is shown in Fig.11. This is in accordance
with Omris law of aftershock distribution related to an earthquake. Even after 15 days
of the main shock the frequency of occurrence of aftershocks was as high as 30 events
per day, which came down to about 5-6 events per day by 17
th
November 2005. This
indicates that the strain adjustment was fast occurring to attain normal values in the
Kashmir region.

Most of the aftershocks were generated in the epicentral zone, located about
120-150 km WNW of Srinagar. The cluster of epicentres suggests emergence of certain
trends, which are aligned along the surface traces of MBT and Jhelum fault in N35W to
NNW directions. However, their relation to these tectonic features would be clear after
a detailed analysis of the data is completed. The data analysis indicates generation of
maximum number of the aftershocks within 20 km depth.
The preliminary results of the study are listed as follows.

1. Approximately 1000 aftershocks were recorded during the period from 23
rd
October
to 17
th
November 2005.

2. A total of 20 aftershocks of Richter magnitude 5 and one of 6+ were recorded
during the 24 days of monitoring.

3. Daily statistics of aftershocks of Kashmir earthquake obeys Omris Law. By 17
th

November 2005, it seems that the strain adjustment in Kashmir region reached near
normal values.

4. Maximum number of aftershocks originated within the epicentral zone, which was
about 120-150 km WNW of Srinagar.

5. Aftershocks were aligned along MBT and Jhelum fault.











38
VII. Concluding Remarks

1. The 8
th
October 2005 Kashmir earthquake has reiterated the high vulnerability of
the region to seismic hazard, included in Zones V and IV of the Seismic Zoning
Map of India. The colossal loss of life and property in this natural catastrophe
has been of unprecedented scale in the entire Himalayan habitat.

2. The earthquake occurred in the Hazra-Kashmir Syntaxis represented by Jhelum
reentrant south of the Kohistan Arc. The dominant tectonic discontinuities of
this domain are the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the left lateral Jhelum
tear fault. In the Tertiary Frontal Belt the surface trace of Balakot-Bagh offshoot
of the MBT got coseismically reactivated and ruptured in a length of 65 km. The
landslide activity was profuse along this surface and conspicuously high damage
also witnessed. It is likely that the reactivation of the MBT and its offshoots may
be sympathetic to the rupture along the hidden causative fault.

3. The fault plane solution of the 8
th
October 2005 earthquake of Mw 7.6 shows
that one of the nodal planes has strike of N27W-S27E with dip of 39 towards
NE. A net slip of 4.2 0.5 m and a maximum slip of about 5.0 have been
estimated for the event. The focal depth has been calculated ranging from 12 to
26 km in various solutions. The general elongation of the isoseismals is in
N30W-S30E direction. This trend matches well with the strike of the above-
referred nodal plane, which could be the trend of the causative fault.

4. The plot of M 5 aftershock sequence as given by USGS and IMD indicates
distinct clustering at two locales, one 50 km northwest of USGS epicentre of the
main shock and the other, less prominent one, 90 km NNW to it (Fig.1).

5. The inferred causative fault more or less assumes the surface trend of the MBT
in the area. The migration of the aftershock activity has also been in NNW
direction with respect to the epicentre, that is to say imitating the trend of the
MBT. In the southeastern quadrant, the lower intensity isoseismal VI as well as
isoseismals VII, VIII and IX, are also strongly influenced by this trend (Fig.1).
So, in all probability, a regional basement fracture zone, trending in NNW-SSE
direction passes below Jammu, Bagh, Muzaffarabad, Balakot and Kalam. A
sharp NW swing in the surface trace of Main Mantle Thrust where intersected
by this hypothetical trend may not be only coincidental. The obliteration of the
surface trends of MBT and other structural discontinuities within the Jhelum
reentrant during the terminal phase of the Himalayan orogeny seems to be
confined to the upper crustal depths only. At deeper levels the parent trends of
the geological structures seem to have remained uninfluenced by this late
tectonics.
39

6. The phenomenon of liquefaction was witnessed near Jammu, located 250 km
away from the epicentre in seismic intensity VI (high). In the higher isoseists
liquefaction related features could not be observed though, at some places, the
geotechnical environment seemed conducive to produce such an effect. The
constraints in carrying out field investigation might be one of the reasons in
missing the evidences of this secondary effect of the earthquake. Reports from
Pakistan that were gone through also do not mention of liquefaction related
features.

7. The IMD records show that in the last 450 years 13 earthquakes of M > 5
occurred in the Kashmir Division of J&K State. In the 30
th
May 1885 earthquake
some 3000 people were killed in the Kashmir valley. This level of seismic
activity in the Kashmir Himalaya has brought parts of Srinagar, Badgam,
Pulwama, Anantnag and Doda Districts in Seismic Zone V and rest of J&K
State in Zone IV of the Seismic Zoning Map of India (IS 1893, Part 1, 2002). In
light of the recent earthquake of 8
th
October 2005 of Mw 7.6, which caused
heavy destruction in parts of Baramula and Kupwara Districts where the seismic
intensity reached IX on MSK scale, extension of Zone V to this part may be
considered. It is to be mentioned that as per definition given in the BIS Seismic
Code, seismic intensity IX and above are broadly associated with Zone V and
intensity VIII with Zone IV.

8. In the Uri and Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsils of Baramula and Kupwara Districts,
respectively, majority of the rural and even some urban constructions have used
non or poorly dressed stones in mud or weak cement mortar in the thick-heavy
walls of single or double storey structures with sloping GI sheet roof over timber
support. Such URM walls invariably failed in seismic intensity IX, thus,
becoming the cause of large number of casualties. A more or less similar type of
construction seems to be prevalent in PoK and NWFP, where the damage was
much higher because of higher intensity of ground motions. It was observed that
structures constructed of brick masonry in cement mortar with proper
reinforcement performed well upto intensity VIII and were damaged to lesser
extent in intensity IX. Therefore before taking up reconstruction and
rehabilitation work in the affected localities the design aspects of the new
constructions should be carefully looked into. It is also important to assess the
stability of slopes in the fragile mountain terrain prior to siting of the new
constructions and realigning the communication networks, particularly in Uri
and Karna (Tangdhar) Tehsils of J&K State.

9. Very little work has so far been done to understand the status of faults, thrusts
and lineaments of the Kashmir Himalaya from the point of view of active
40
tectonics and its relation with seismicity. Same is the case with palaeoseismicity
of this hyperactive region. Systematic studies of these two important fields of
earthquake geology should be initiated to have a better comprehension of the
seismotectonics of this complex domain.

10. The Indo-Pak border region, particularly of Kashmir and Kutchh, are seismically
very active in the contemporary times. For a fuller understanding of the
earthquake mechanism and for a realistic assessment of the seismic hazard of
this populous belt, exchange of information on seismology and seismotectonics
as well as scientific collaboration between the two countries would go a long
way in seismic disaster management.
41
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