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continuous amplitude
discrete amplitude
x(t)
2
x(t)
2
1 0.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4
University of Toronto
discrete-time
-3 -2 -1
-2
-2
x[n]
1 2
x[n] n
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Discrete-time Sinusoids
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
MINIMUM OSCILLATION
MAXIMUM OSCILLATION
ENVELOPE CYCLES
MINIMUM OSCILLATION
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
NOT PERIODIC
ENVELOPE CYCLES
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Uniqueness: Continuous-time
Uniqueness: Continuous-time
F1 = F2 :
For F1 = F2 ,
A cos(2 F1 t + ) = A cos(2 F2 t + )
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Uniqueness: Discrete-time
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Let f1 = f0 + k where k Z, x1 ( n ) = = = = A e j (2f1 n+) A e j (2(f0 +k )n+) A e j (2f0 n+) e j (2kn) x0 (n) 1 = x0 (n)
-3
-2
-1
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
where N Z:
Harmonically related sk (n) = e j 2kf0 n = e j 2kn/N , (dts-time) k = 0, 1, 2, . . . There are only N distinct dst-time harmonics: sk (n), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A/D converter xa(t) x(n) Sampler Quantizer Discrete-time signal xq(n) 01011... Coder Digital signal
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A/D converter xa(t) x(n) Sampler Quantizer Discrete-time signal xq(n) 01011... Coder Digital signal
Analog signal
Quantized signal
Analog signal
Quantized signal
Sampling: conversion from cts-time to dst-time by taking samples at discrete time instants E.g., uniform sampling: x (n) = xa (nT ) where T is the sampling period and n Z
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A/D converter xa(t) x(n) Sampler Quantizer Discrete-time signal xq(n) 01011... Coder Digital signal
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A/D converter xa(t) x(n) Sampler Quantizer Discrete-time signal xq(n) 01011... Coder Digital signal
Analog signal
Quantized signal
Analog signal
Quantized signal
Quantization: conversion from dst-time cts-valued signal to a dst-time dst-valued signal quantization error: eq (n) = xq (n) x (n) for all n Z
Coding: representation of each dst-value xq (n) by a b -bit binary sequence e.g., if for any n, xq (n) {0, 1, . . . , 6, 7}, then the coder may use the following mapping to code the quantized amplitude:
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A/D converter xa(t) x(n) Sampler Quantizer Discrete-time signal xq(n) 01011... Coder Digital signal
Sampling Theorem
If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal xa (t ) is Fmax = B and the signal is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B then xa (t ) can be exactly recovered from its sample values using the interpolation function sin(2 Bt ) 2 Bt is called the Nyquist rate. g (t ) =
Analog signal
Quantized signal
Example coder: 0 1 2 3 000 001 010 011 4 5 6 7 100 101 110 111
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Note: FN = 2B = 2Fmax
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Sampling Theorem
Sampling Period = T = 1 1 = Fs Sampling Frequency
Bandlimited Interpolation
xa (t ) =
n=
xa (nT )g (t nT )
x(n) samples
xa (t ) =
n=
x (n) g (t nT )
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
original/bandlimited interpolated signal
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
original/bandlimited interpolated signal
x(n)
1
zero-order hold
-3T -2T -T
2T
3T
Common interpolation approaches: bandlimited interpolation, zero-order hold, linear interpolation, higher-order interpolation techniques, e.g., using splines In practice, cheap interpolation along with a smoothing lter is employed.
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 25 / 58
Common interpolation approaches: bandlimited interpolation, zero-order hold, linear interpolation, higher-order interpolation techniques, e.g., using splines In practice, cheap interpolation along with a smoothing lter is employed.
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 26 / 58
Chapter 1: Introduction
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
original/bandlimited interpolated signal
linear interpolation
T 2T 3T
-3T -2T -T
Common interpolation approaches: bandlimited interpolation, zero-order hold, linear interpolation, higher-order interpolation techniques, e.g., using splines In practice, cheap interpolation along with a smoothing lter is employed.
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 27 / 58
= ur (n + 1) ur (n)
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Signal Symmetry
Even signal: x (n) = x (n)
Signal Symmetry
Even signal component: xe (n) = 1 [x (n) + x (n)] 2 [x (n) x (n)] Odd signal component: xo (n) = 1 2
x(n)
2 1
x(n)
2 1
x(n)
2 1
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
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Signal Symmetry
1 0.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
x(n)
even part
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-0.5
2 3 4
5 6
7 8
time shift: n n k , k Z
Question: what if k Z?
-1
-0.5
time scale: n n, Z
Question: what if Z?
-1
x(-n)
1 0.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
(x(n)-x(-n))/2
1
-0.5
2 3 4
5 6
7 8
0.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-1
-1
-0.5
2 3 4
5 6
7 8
amplitude scaling: y (n) = Ax (n), < n < sum: y (n) = x1 (n) + x2 (n), < n < product: y (n) = x1 (n)x2 (n), < n <
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3 1
x(n)
x(n)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 1
15
x(n)-x(n+1)
20
-3 -2 -1 0 1
-1
-2 -3
-1 -2
-1 -1 -2 -3
-1
-1
-1
-x(n+1)
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+1 < 1 2 1 2 1 4
11 2 5 2
0 if
3n 2
10 13 16 19 > 19
35 2 29 2 23 2
17 2
0 if
3n 2
n x ( 32 + 1) + 1 is an integer; undened otherwise undened x (1) = 1 undened x (4) = 2 undened x (7) = 3 undened x (10) = 2 undened x (13) = 1 undened x (16) = 1 undened x (19) = 2 + 1 is an integer; undened otherwise
3 1
3 2 2 1
This signal is undefined for values of n that are not even integers and zero for even integers not shown on this sketch.
10 11 12 13 14
-3 -2 -1 0 1
-1
2 3 4
5 6
7 8 9
-2 -3
-1 -2
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Discrete-time signal
Discrete-time signal
Input-output description (exact structure of system is unknown or ignored): y (n) = T [x (n)] black box representation: x (n) y (n)
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 37 / 58
causal stable
. . .
a system is static i (if and only if) y (n) = T [x (n), n] for every time instant n.
For N = M = 0, y (n) = T [x (n)], the system is static. For 0 < N , M < , the system is said to be dynamic with nite memory of duration N + M + 1. For either N and/or M equal to innite, the system is said to have innite memory.
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|x[n]|
|x[n]|
x[n]
x[n]
BOUNDED SIGNAL
UNBOUNDED SIGNAL n
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Recall: x (n ) =
x (k ) (n k )
k =
x (k ) (n k )
k = T k =
x (k )h(n k )
x (n) y (n)
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 43 / 58 Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 44 / 58
Therefore,
y (n) =
k =
y (n) =
k =0
h(k )x (n k )
nonrecursive systems
y (n ) =
k =0
h(k )x (n k )
recursive systems
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System Realization
General expression for N th-order LCCDE:
N M
Adder:
ak y (nk ) =
k =0 k =0
bk x (nk )
a0
1
Constant multiplier:
Unit delay:
Unit advance:
Signal multiplier:
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v(n)
y (n) =
k =1
ak y (n k ) +
k =0
bk x (n k )
=
k =0
bk x (n k ) input 1
N
nonrecursive
...
...
...
+
=
k =1
ak y (n k ) + v (n) input 2
recursive
LTI All-zero system LTI All-pole system
Unit delay:
+
Constant multiplier: +
+ +
+
Unit advance:
+
...
...
...
...
...
Signal multiplier:
...
...
For N>M
...
+
...
Region of Convergence
X (z ) =
n=
x (n)z n
the region of convergence (ROC) of X (z ) is the set of all values of z for which X (z ) attains a nite value The z -Transform is, therefore, uniquely characterized by:
Notation: X (z )
Z
Z{x (n)}
x (n) X (z )
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z -Transform Properties
Property Notation: Time Domain x (n ) x1 (n) x2 (n) a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n) x (n k ) z -Domain X (z ) X1 (z ) X2 (z ) a1 X1 (z ) + a2 X2 (z ) z k X (z ) X (a1 z ) X (z 1 ) X (z ) dX (z ) z dz X1 (z )X2 (z ) ROC ROC: r2 < |z | < r1 ROC1 ROC2 At least ROC1 ROC2 At least ROC, except z = 0 (if k > 0) and z = (if k < 0) |a|r2 < |z | < |a|r1 1 < |z | < r1 r1 2 ROC r2 < |z | < r1 At least ROC1 ROC2 among others . . .
ROC All z |z | > 1 |z | > |a| |z | > |a| |z | < |a| |z | < |a| |z | > 1 |z | > 1 |z | > |a| |z | > |a|
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