Water pollution Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater).

Water pollution occurs whenpollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Introduction Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, !" #" and that it accounts for the deaths of more than !$,%%% people daily. #" &n estimated '%% million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and !,%%% Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. (" )ome *%+ of ,hina-s cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, $" and nearly .%% million people lack access to safe drinking water. ." In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the /nited )tates, $. percent of assessed stream miles, $' percent of assessed lake acres, and (# percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. 0" Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, and1or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. 2atural phenomena such as volcanoes,algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.

,ategories )urface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. '" )urface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. ,onversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. )ources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. 3oint sources 3oint source pollution 4 )hipyard 4 5io de 6aneiro. 3oint source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. 78amples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. 9he /.). ,lean Water &ct (,W&) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. :" 9he ,W& definition of point source was amended in !*:' to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites. *" Nonpoint sources 2onpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. 23) pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. & common e8ample is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertili;ed agricultural lands. 2utrient runoff in stormwater from <sheet flow< over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as e8amples of 23) pollution. ,ontaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of 23) pollution. =owever, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are comple8. ,onsequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. '" >y its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non?point source may be irrelevant. & spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non?point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a to8in plume. 9he movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analy;ed through a hydrological transport modelor groundwater model. &nalysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes 9he specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. =igh concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. @8ygen?depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man?made chemicals. @ther natural and anthropogenic substances may causeturbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. !%" Aany of the chemical substances are to8ic. 3athogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. !!" &lteration of water-s physical chemistry includes acidity (change inp=), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. 7utrophication is an increase in the concentration of

chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an e8tent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Bepending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as ano8ia (o8ygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations. & manhole cover unable to contain asanitary sewer overflow. Pathogens ,oliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. @ther microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems includeC

Burkholderia pseudomallei Cryptosporidium parvum Giardia lamblia Salmonella Novovirus and other viruses 3arasitic worms (helminths). =igh levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. !$" 9his can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less thansecondary treatment (more typical in less? developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. )ome cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms. !." Auddy river polluted by sediment. 3hoto courtesy of /nited )tates Deological )urvey. 3athogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations. Chemical and other contaminants

,ontaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. & garbage collection boom in an urban?area stream in &uckland, 2ew Eealand. Organic water pollutants

Betergents Bisinfection by?products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform Food processing waste, which can include o8ygen?demanding substances, fats and grease Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds 3etroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and !0" fuel combustion byproducts, fromstormwater runoff 9ree and bush debris from logging operations Golatile organic compounds (G@,s), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. ,hlorinated solvents, which are dense non?aqueous phase liquids (B2&3Hs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don-t mi8 well with water and are denser. 3olychlorinated biphenyl (3,>s) 9richloroethylene 3erchlorate Garious chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.

Inorganic water pollutants

&cidity caused by dio8ide from power plants)

industrial

discharges

(especially sulfur

&mmonia from food processing waste ,hemical waste as industrial by?products Fertili;ers containing nutrients??nitrates and phosphatesIwhich are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use !0" =eavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff) !0" !'" and acid mine drainage )ilt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites. Harge visible items polluting the waterImay be termed <floatables< in an urban stormwater conte8t, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items asC

Macroscopic pollution

9rash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters 2urdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets )hipwrecks, large derelict ships. Thermal pollution 9hermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. 9hermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. & common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. 7levated water temperatures decreases o8ygen levels, which can kill fish, and can alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species. !:" !*" #%" /rban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.

9hermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants Aost water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. &dvanced computer models such as )WAA or the B))&A Aodel have been used in many locations worldwide to e8amine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the 2ew Jork >ight, for e8ample. 9he highest to8in loads are not directly at the mouth of the =udson 5iver, but !%% kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. 9he =udson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of o8ygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up o8ygen and by algae blooms, caused by e8cess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because to8ins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. 7ach successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) andpersistent organic pollutants such as BB9. 9his is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. & polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on &nglesey Harge gyres (vorte8es) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. 9he 2orth 3acific Dyre for e8ample has collected the so?called <Dreat 3acific Darbage 3atch< that is now estimated at !%% times the si;e of 9e8as. Aany of these long?lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. 9his results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

Aany chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. & noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethyleneused in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dio8ide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). >oth of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new ha;ardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Droundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. 2on?porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activityC however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Droundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas ofKarst topography. 9here are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. &n e8ample is silt? bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Measurement Water pollution may be analy;ed through several broad categories of methodsC physical, chemical and biological. Aost involve collection of samples, followed by speciali;ed analytical tests. )ome methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Dovernment agencies and research organi;ations have published standardi;ed, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events. #!"

Sampling )ampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Aany contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason <grab< samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. )cientists gathering this type of data often employ auto?sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals. )ampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and1or animals from the surface water body. Bepending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determineto8icity. Physical testing ,ommon physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (9)))) and turbidity. Chemical testing Water samples may be e8amined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Aany published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include p=, biochemical o8ygen demand (>@B), ##"C!%# chemical o8ygen demand (,@B), ##"C!%$ nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, ;inc, cadmium, lead andmercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (93=), and pesticides. Biological testing >iological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and1or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Control of pollution omestic sewage

Bomestic sewage is typically **.* percent water with %.! percent pollutants. &lthough found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. #(" In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centrali;ed sewage treatment plants. Well?designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove *% percent or more of these pollutants. )ome plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens. Aost municipal plants are not specifically designed to treat to8ic pollutants found in industrial wastewater. #$" ,ities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, includingC

utili;ing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant #." repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment !." increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very e8pensive option). & household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. &lternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community). Industrial wastewater Bissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater. )ome industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), to8ic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need speciali;ed treatment systems. )ome of these facilities can install a pre?treatment

system to remove the to8ic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on?site treatment systems. )ome industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. =eated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled withC

cooling ponds, man?made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and1or heat transfer cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and1or industrial heating purposes. #0" !gricultural wastewater Nonpoint source controls )ediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the /nited )tates. !%" Farmers may utili;e erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. ,ommon techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. #'" #:"Cpp. $?*.4$?*0 2utrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertili;erL animal manureL or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. 2utrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. #:"Cp. #?* Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce e8cess application of nutrients #'" #:"Cpp. $?('4$?(: and reduce the potential for nutrient pollution. 9o minimi;e pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated 3est Aanagement (I3A) techniques (which can include biological pest

control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. #*"

Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the /) and are being subject to increasing government regulation. (%" (!" &nimal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. ,onstructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. )ome animal slurries are treated by mi8ing withstraw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement. Construction site stormwater )ilt fence installed on a construction site. )ediment from construction sites is managed by installation ofC

erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. (#" Bischarge of to8ic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use ofC

spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms. ((" "r#an runoff $stormwater% 5etention basin for controlling urban runoff 7ffective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Hocal governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the

effects of urban runoff. 9hese techniques, called best management practices (>A3s) in the /.)., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. ($" 3ollution prevention practices include low?impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels M oil, fertili;ers and pesticides). (." 5unoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands,retention basins and similar devices. (0" ('" 9hermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. 5etention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. ($"Cp. .?.: Water pollution in India India is recognised as has having major problems with water pollution, predominantly due to untreated sewerage. 5ivers such as the Danges, theJamuna and Kaveri rivers, all flowing through highly populated areas, are heavily polluted. "ntreated sewage & #%%' study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India. 9here is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic waste water in India. 9he problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that e8ist do not operate and are not maintained. !" 9he majority of the government?owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due to improper design or poor maintenance or lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants, together with absentee employees and poor management. 9he wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. 9he

uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions and release pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater. !" & !**# World =ealth @rgani;ation study is claimed to have reported that out of India-s (,!!* towns and cities, just #%* have partial sewage treatment facilities, and only : have full wastewater treatment facilities. #" Bownstream, the untreated water is used for drinking, bathing, and washing. & !**. report claimed !!$ Indian cities were dumping untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies directly into the Danges 5iver. (" @pen defecation is widespread even in urban areas of India. $" ." 9his situation is typical of India as well as other developing countries. &ccording to another #%%. report, sewage discharged from cities and towns is the predominant cause of water pollution in India. Investment is needed to bridge the gap between #*%%% million litre per day of sewage India generates, and a treatment capacity of mere 0%%% million litre per day. 0" & large number of Indian rivers are severely polluted as a result of discharge of domestic sewage. 9he ,entral 3ollution ,ontrol >oard, a Ainistry of 7nvironment M Forests Dovernment of India entity, has established a 2ational Water Nuality Aonitoring 2etwork comprising !$#* monitoring stations in #' states and 0 in /nion 9erritories on various rivers and water bodies across the country. 9his effort monitors water quality year round. 9he monitoring network covers #*( rivers, *$ lakes, * tanks, $! ponds, : creeks, #( canals, !: drains and $!! wells distributed across India. '" Water samples are routinely analy;ed for #: parameters including dissolved o8ygen, bacteriological and other internationally established parameters for water quality. &dditionally * trace metals parameters and #: pesticide residues are analy;ed. >iomonitoring is also carried out on specific locations. 9he scientific analysis of water samples from !**. to #%%: indicates that the organic and bacterial contamination are severe in water bodies of India. 9his is mainly due to discharge of domestic wastewater in untreated form, mostly from the urban centers of India.

Biochemical o&ygen demand In #%%:, the water quality monitoring found almost all rivers with high levels of >@B. 9he worst pollution, in decreasing order, were found in river Aarkanda (.*% mg @1l), followed by river Kali ((0$), river &mlakhadi ((.(), Jamuna canal (#$'), river Jamuna at Belhi ('%) and river >etwa (.:). For conte8t, a water sample with a . day >@B between ! and # mg @1H indicates a very clean water, ( to : mg @1H indicates a moderately clean water, : to #% indicates borderline water, and greater than #% mg @1H indicates ecologically?unsafe polluted water. 9he levels of >@B are severe near the cities and major towns. In rural parts of India, the river >@B levels were sufficient to support aquatic life. Coliform le'els 9otal coliform and fecal coliform densities in the rivers of India range between .%% to !%%,%%% A321!%% ml. '" 9he presence of coliform suggests that the water is being contaminated with the fecal material of humans, livestocks, pets and other animals. 5ivers Jamuna, Danga, Domti, Dhaggar, ,hambal, Aahi, Gardha are amongst the other most coliform polluted water bodies in India. For conte8t, coliform must be below !%$ A321!%% ml, :" preferably absent from water for it to be considered safe for general human use, and for irrigation where coliform may cause disease outbreak from contaminated?water in agriculture. *" !%" In #%%0, $' percent of water quality monitoring the in India are highly reported a total average annual coliform levels above .%% A321!%% ml. Buring #%%:, (( percent of all water quality monitoring stations reported a total coliform levels e8ceeding those levels, suggesting recent effort to add pollution control infrastructure and upgrade treatment plants in India, may be reversing the water pollution trend. 9reatment of domestic sewage and subsequent utili;ation of treated sewage for irrigation can prevent pollution of water bodies, reduce the demand for fresh water in irrigation sector and become a resource for irrigation. )ince #%%., Indian wastewater treatment plant market has been growing annually at the rate of !% to !# percent. 9he /nited )tates

is the largest supplier of treatment equipment and supplies to India, with $% percent market share of new installation. !!" &t this rate of e8pansion, and assuming the government of India continues on its path of reform, major investments in sewage treatment plants and electricity infrastructure development, India will nearly triple its water treatment capacity by #%!., and treatment capacity supply will match India-s daily sewage water treatment requirements by about #%#%. Other pro#lems Water resources have not been linked to either domestic or international violent conflict as was previously anticipated by some observers. 3ossible e8ceptions, notes a #%%$ report, include some communal violence related to distribution of water from the Kaveri 5iver and political tensions surrounding actual and potential population displacements by dam projects, particularly on the2armada 5iver. !#" & !**' article claimed 3unjab is another hotbed of pollution, for e8ample, >uddha 2ullah, a rivulet which run through Aalwa region of 3unjab, India, and after passing through highly populated Hudhiana district, before draining into )utlej 5iver, a tributary of the Indus river, is today an important case point in the recent studies, which suggest this as another >hopal in making. !(" & joint study by 3DIA75 and 3unjab 3ollution ,ontrol >oard in #%%:, revealed that in villages along the 2ullah, calcium, magnesium, fluoride, mercury, beta?endosulphan and heptachlor pesticide were more than permissible limit (A3H) in ground and tap waters. 3lus the water had high concentration of ,@B and >@B (chemical and biochemical o8ygen demand), ammonia, phosphate, chloride, chromium, arsenic and chlorpyrifos pesticide. 9he ground water also contains nickel and selenium, while the tap water has high concentration of lead, nickel and cadmium. !$" 9he=indon 5iver, which flows through the city of Dha;iabad, highly polluted and groundwater of this city has colored and poisoned by industrial effluents, =indon Gahini is strongly opposing of water pollution activities.

Flooding during monsoons worsens India-s water pollution problem, as it washes and moves all sorts of solid garbage and contaminated soils into its rivers and wetlands. 9he annual average precipitation in India is about $%%% billion cubic metres. 0" From this, with the state of Indian infrastructure in #%%., the available water resource through the rivers is about !:0* billion cubic meters. &ccounting to uneven distribution of rain over the country each year, water resources available for utili;ation, including ground water, is claimed to be about !!## billion cubic meters. Auch of this water is unsafe, because pollution degrades water quality. Water pollution severely limits the amount of water available to Indian consumer, its industry and its agriculture. Specific ri'ers 9o know why !,%%% Indian children die of diarrhoeal sickness every day, take a wary stroll along the Danges in Garanasi. &s it enters the city, =induismOs sacred river contains 0%,%%% faecal coliform bacteria per !%% millilitres, !#% times more than is considered safe for bathing. Four miles downstream, with inputs from #$ gushing sewers and 0%,%%% pilgrim?bathers, the concentration is (,%%% times over the safety limit. In places, the Danges becomes black and septic. ,orpses, of semi? cremated adults or enshrouded babies, drift slowly by. Aore than $%% million people live along the Danges 5iver. &n estimated #,%%%,%%% persons ritually bathe daily in the river, which is considered holy by =indus. !0" Danges river pollution from sewage and semi? cremated remains is thus a major health risk. The (amuna Belhi-s sacred Jamuna river is described as <a putrid ribbon of black sludge< where fecal bacteria is !%,%%% over safety limits despite a !.?year program to address the problem. !'" ,holera epidemics are not unknown. !'" 2ewsWeek observes India-s messy democracy is particularly ill equipped to handle the conflicting pressures of rapid growth and poverty.

7ven though India revised its 2ational Water 3olicy in #%%# to encourage community participation and decentrali;e water management, the country-s >y;antine bureaucracy ensures that it remains a <mere statement of intent.< 5esponsibility for managing water issues is fragmented among a do;en different ministries and departments without any coordination. 9he government bureaucracy and state?run project department has failed to solve the problem, despite having spent many years and P.%% million on this project. Water Pollution Management in India 9he rapid pace of industriali;ation and the greater emphasis on agricultural growth for overall development have brought in a host of environmental problems in recent years in India. Financial and technological constraints have led to inefficient conversion processes, thereby leading to generation of larger quantities of waste and resulting pollution. 9he concentration of industries in certain pockets and the skewed distribution of rainfall have further compounded the scenario. 9hus, India encounters water quality problems both on account of water pollution and overe8ploitation of groundwater. Go'ernment Measures on Water Pollution Control Aajor industries in India responsible for water pollution are fertili;ers, sugar, te8tiles and chemicals, mines and minerals, pulp and paper, leather tanneries, and process industries. 3ollution problems in India are addressed by a combination of legislative, punitive, and motivational measures. 9he government of India has enacted a number of pieces of legislation, such as the Water (3revention and ,ontrol of 3ollution) &ct, !*'$ and amended in !*::L the Water (3revention and ,ontrol of 3ollution) ,ess &ct, !*'' and amended in !**!L and the 7nvironment 3rotection &ct, !*:0, etc. 9he problem is compounded by the presence of a large number of small?scale industries. & system of environmental audit has therefore been introduced to enable the production units to evaluate the raw materials, utilities, and operational efficiencies to effect any possible midcourse corrections and minimi;e environmental pollution. Imposition of cess for water required and

wastewater produced represent the punitive measures that would force the industries to reduce the pollution load. &t the same time, the government has come out with a number of schemes to encourage setting up of treatment plants to mitigate the pollution load through subsidies and soft loans. Water Pollution Mitigation #y Industries Initially, the affected industries directed their efforts to treat their effluents so as to meet the discharge norms such as AI2&) (minimum allowable standards), usually defined in terms of temperature, p=, >@B, ,@B, suspended loads, and to8ic constituents such as mercury, chromium, cadmium, etc. 9he norms are different for inland and coastal discharges. Harge? and medium?scale industries have their own infrastructure and resources, and they have adopted their own effluent treatment schemes so as to render their discharge streams environmentally safe. )mall?scale industries, because of their limited resources in terms of finance, space, and technology, cannot afford to treat their wastes. 9he concept of ,ommon 7ffluent 9reatment 3lant (,793) was evolved to provide necessary assistance to this sector, wherein the wastes generated by a number of industries are brought together to a central place and treated. & number of plants are in operation in different parts of India. )ignificant variations in the composition of the wastewater arising from a cluster of industries has created difficulties in ensuring the efficiency and effectiveness of the ,793. Insisting on a pretreatment system by the individual industries to ensure consistency of the composition of effluents would defeat the very purpose of ,793. With the knowledge that the addition of domestic sewage improves the treatability of industrial wastewater, a new approach, referred to as a ,ombined 7ffluent 9reatment 3lant, has evolved, wherein the domestic sewage of the surrounding community is jointly treated with the industrial wastewater!. Water Management in Indian Industries

9he migration of population and the clustering of industries around urban centers have escalated the demand for good?quality water, both for industrial and domestic use. Inadequate natural resources and increased generation of sewage have created problems, both in the supply of water and disposal of sewage, forcing the government to increase the water charges and effluent cess. In urban centers, a dual pricing system for water is being adopted, whereby water for domestic consumption is charged less. Furthermore, industries are encouraged to set up water recovery or desalination plants to meet their demands. ,onsequently, industry has not only started adopting measures to minimi;e waste, but also has been looking for various means by which they can recover and recycle their wastewater. )ome industries, such as 5ashtriya ,hemicals and Fertili;ers Htd., have successfully e8perimented to recover and reuse water from their regenerant waste streams using reverse osmosis and are in the process of setting up large?capacity plants. )ole of Mem#ranes in Water )eco'ery and )euse Aembrane processes, with their variety and fle8ibility, are characteri;ed by ambient temperature operation, low energy consumption, and modular nature. 9he physicochemical mechanism of separation requires only limited use of chemicals, making the process eco?friendly. In some cases, the processes allow the recovery of valuable chemicals for reuse. Aembranes are available in the market covering a wide range of characteristics. Water recycling and reuse, in this conte8t, has assumed greater significance. 9hus, industries have resorted to methods whereby they can recover and reuse water. 9he general scheme# followed, as shown below, consists of preliminary, primary, and secondary treatments for the reduction of suspended matter andbio?contaminants. & scheme consisting of reverse osmosis at the tertiary treatment stage has been adopted on a trial basis by Aadras Fertili;ers Htd. (AFH) and Aadras 5efineries Htd. (A5H) to recover good?quality water from sewage. 9he water thus recovered is being used as a boiler feed after polishing through deminerali;ers. 9his process has encouraged the state

government to adopt the scheme for ,hennai, traditionally a water? starved city in India, for recycling about (% ADB of water for industrial use. Management of rin*ing Water 9he overe8ploitation of groundwater has particularly affected the availability of good?quality drinking water in remote villages of India. & significant number of villages have problems related to brackishness and contamination by iron, fluoride, arsenic, etc. 5ain harvesting and groundwater recharge techniques are being encouraged to make the villages self?sufficient, but they have limited potential. Aembrane processes, such as reverse osmosis and electrodialysis, have been widely adopted for the provision of drinking water for salinity?affected villages, but a number of improvements are required in order to simplify the operating features so as to absorb the technology under the rural infrastructural constraints. +uture Scenario It is e8pected that in the future all process industries will have water recycling plants and coastal industries may adopt seawater desalination plants either using process waste heat or reverse osmosis membranes. Bomestic water requirements would be met with natural resources, while industrial requirements may have to be supplemented by desalination. !ssessment of the Current Technology Aembrane technology, though originally developed for desalination, has made a major impact in a number of industrial separations. With reference to desalination and effluent water treatment for reuse, the technology is considered mature enough for large?scale e8ploitation. Whether for domestic use or industrial process water requirements, the cost of desalted water, however, continues to be an area of attention. ,ost?reduction strategies include reduction in process energy requirements by adopting1integrating energy?recovery systems and enhancing permeate recovery through better feed water pretreatment practices and employing high?salt rejecting membranes. 9hese

measures are partially adopted for seawater desalination in India. )eawater desalination on a large scale is generally considered for industrial process water needs in India rather than for domestic use. For small?capacity brackish water desalination in rural inland areas, membrane technology is at present facing a setback owing to the higher cost of water produced and operational problems such as nonavailability of skilled manpower needed for plant operation and frequent electric power breakdowns. 5egarding effluent water treatment for reuse in industries, membrane technology is most suited for Indian conditions and is being rapidly adopted.