CLASSROOM STUDY COURSE CiViL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 8 | STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Theory & Practice Sets) RSS onMRN. ENGINEERS INDIA CENTRE Head Office: 25-A, Ber Sarai, New Delhi-16 | Branch Office: 44-A/1, Kalu Sarai, New Delhi-16 Website: www.iesmadeeasy.org; www.iesmadeeasy.co.in; Ph: 011-26560862, 011-32059862... Update yourself before technology gets updated... aye . f= Je us: Every 3rd Student in IES-08 is from MADE EASY 7 secre a 3\| 25.8, BER. Ph:o t1-26s60 62, 9010547681| | CLASSROOM STUDY COURSE | Cc By Tost l| 2010 Section-B For MADE EASY Students Only —————=_ ‘This book contains copyright subject mati to IES MADE EASY, NEW DELHI. No part ofthis book may be reproduced, sfores in a ferival systera or teanemitted in any form of by any means. Violators are Hable to be legally prosecutedCONTENTS PAGE NG. v2 Practice Set ~ ll Structural Analysis 117 - 188 For MADE EASY Students Only sopitign: subject matter to IES MADE EASY, New Dalti, No part ofthis bock may be repressed. storea ook 20s “> > tatamated in any form or by any means. Violstors ave liable to be legally arosacuted,Siress-strain Curve Simple Tension Test for Mild Stee! Sra arden regen Posbltnore sess region tr plateau ‘une ress poi & i ee at 2 7 CBwer yes part oar tase e9ion| orate ‘ho88 tho m0 Percortage eval © Ais Limit of propartionality: Seyond A near variation ceases. * Bis Elastic fimit: The raximam stress upto which a specimen regains its original length on removai of applied toad. For milds teel B is very near to A. However, for other materials B maybe grestor thariA. © Cris Upper yield point: The magnitude of the stress corresponding to C’ depends on the cross-sectional ares, shape of the ‘specimen and the type of the equipment used to perform the test. It has no practical significance. a © Cepyiignt Subleci mater Ton Properties of Metals, Simple Stress- Strain and Elastic Constants etd point: The stress at Cs yield stress (o,) with 2 typical valus 2 6, = 250 Nimm? for mitd steel. The yielding Dagins at this stress. CD represents. perfectly plastic region: isthe strain which ocours efter the yield point C, without any increase in stress. The strain ‘corresponding to point D is about 1.4% and corresponding to C is about 0.12% for mild steal. Hence, plastic strain is 10 to 15 times of elastic strain. DE represents strain hardening: In this range further addition of-siress gives additional strain. However, strain increases with faster rate in this region. The materiat in this range undergoes ol-enge in its atomic and crystaline structure, resulting in increased ‘esistance tofurther deformation. This portion is not used for structural design. Eis Utimate point The stress corresponding {o this point is ultimate stress (o,) and the corresponding strain is about 20% for mild steel. Fis fracture point: Sess corresponding to thisis called breaking stress and strainis called fracture strain, tis about 25% for mild steel. Region between E and F is the necking region, in which area of cross-section is drastically decreased. = Indlate Bost institute for IES, GATE & PSUS — ees ieCLASSROOM STUDY COURSE(CSC) CIVIL ENGINEERING (2010) Important points to be noted: 1 Strain that occurs before the yield point is called elastic strain and that which occurs fier yield point with no increase instiess is called plastic strain. For mild steel, plastic stain is 10 10 15 times of elastic strain. Ideal curve for tension is shown inthe figure. However, actual behaviour is different and indicates apparently reduced yield stress in compression for mid steel. The divergence between tension and compression results is explained by Bauchinger and is called Bauchinger effect. The stress defined as the ratio of load to original area (A,) is Known as ‘engineering strass' of ‘stressor ‘nominal stvese’. Engineering stress o' Nominal stress k + Onthe contrary when chenging area is token into account, the satio of load to actual area (A) #8 calied ‘rue stress. e ‘True stress = — A Properties of Metals 1. Duetility 2. ‘= Duciiltyis the property by which material cenbestretched. Large deformations are thus possible in ductile materials before the absolute failure or rupture tates place. Some of the examples ar mild steel, aluminium, copper, manganese, teed, nickel, brass, bronze, monal metal etc. Brittleness © Brittleness is the lack of ductility i.e. material cannot be stretched. In brittle materials, failure takes place with a relatively smaller deformation. This property is undesirable. For brittle materials fracture point and ultimate points are same, and after proportional limit very smal strain is Seen. Some of the examples arecastiron, concrete and glass, LTS a GR Be aay OES RSE EAST Wa OOP No ST oO SOON BTS a UGE MRT Ws TO BTS Hood Oise: 254 Bor Ser Now Dan-11001G Balch Giles IN. Kal Sara, New Dain 036 ‘rs 011.28860062, O98 TOSGIGS1, Web: wenniesmecerasy1g: Ema: lesmageeasy@yahoo 2 * To distinguish between these two types of materials, materiais with strain less than, sat fracture pointare regarded as britte and those having strains greater than 5% at fracture pointare calied ductile (this value for mild steet a fracture is about 25%). 3. Malleability + The property by whicha material can be uniformly extended in a direction without fupture. A matleable material possess a high degree of plasticity. This property is of great use in operations like forging, ‘hot roling, drap (stamping) etc. 4. Toughness ‘+ -The propeny which enables material to absorb eneray without fracture. This Properyie very desirable case ofcyct> foading or shock loading. + Tho medulue of toughness is measured as area under entire stress-strain curve and is the energy absorbed by material ‘of the specimen per unit volume upto fracture stage. oy +o Modulus of toughness = | "5 [¢ Where, o, = Yield tensile strength , = Ultimate tensile strength €; = Straivat fracture point » The modulus of toughness will depend ‘pon uliimats tensile strength and strain at failure (fracture strain). Hence the ‘material which is very ductile wil exhibit. ‘@ higher madulus of toughness as the case with mild steel. + The modulus of resilience is the maximum elastic energy per unit volume that can be absorbed without attaining Plastic stage. Madulus of resilience (u) ~— India's Best Institute for IES, GATE & PSUs — enaCIVILENGINEERING (2010) (es ‘+ The modulus of resilience depends upon yield strength and hence @ material with highef yield strength will have higher modulus of resitience. * Higher toughness is a desirable property inmater'-1s used for gears, chains, crane ‘nooks. freight car ete. Higher resilience 18 desiravie in springs. Hsrdness + Hardness is defined as the résistance to inclentaon orseratching orsurtace abrasion. + There are two methods of hardness measurement: {) Scratch hardness - commoniy | measured by Mohs’ test (i) indentation nardness (abrasion) measured by « Brineli hardness method + Pockwell hardness # Vickers hareaoss «Knoop hardness * it should be noted that ductile materials are tough and britle materials are hard. 5. Fatigue » thas been found that material behave ifferently under the static toading and 'c loading. ‘Tre behaviour of material under variable foads (dynamic loads) is teferied to as fatigue. In recent pas| several iailures of structures have been noted due to fatioue. © Factors effecting fatigue are: 4) Leading conditions (@ Recuensycf loading (ii) Corrosion (v) Temperature (4) Stress concentration Creap and Stress Relaxation {adia's Best insti ‘STRENGTHOF MATERIALS 8 = 3 [ SS ee ee | LN TEN ‘Ph: 011-26560862, 09610541651, Wot: wwwdesmaCeeasy.ong: £-maik: lesmadeeasy@yahoo.co.in the stress ‘ below yield point. This phenomenon is called creep. However, such deformation is negligibly smal! at toner temparature. * At higher temperature, due to greater mobility of atoms, most of the materials foose their strength and elastic constants also get reduced. Hence. greater defermations ai elevated temperature results ever under constant loading Therefore, creep is more pronounced et higher temperature, and thus it must be ‘considered for design of engines and fumaces, «The tamperature at which the creep ‘becomes very appreciable is half of the metting point temperature on absohve scale and is known as homologous temperatura. * fa wire of metal is stretched between {wo immovable supports, 80 that it has an initiat tension siress o,. The stress in the wire gradually diminishes, eventually feaching a constant value. This process, which is a manifestation. of creep. called stress relaxation, fn parreeion, Simple Stress and Strain ‘«” Itis the internal resistance vitered by the body agains! externat loading or deformation. Stresses may be of following ‘ype: (i) Direct stresses or normal stresses which may be tensile” compressive (ii) Shear or Tangential stresses (iil) Transverse of Sending stresses (ie) Torsional or Twisting siresses * For direct stresses, it area under consideration is original area, then it is known 2s engingering stress or nomi 38 oF Simply Stress. Su’. F the 223 7115 actual area, then stress 1s znown a8 ue stress, for lES, GATE & PSUs — | 3 Sywkomenwois‘Nominal Stress Pp a where.A, = Original area of specimen Az Actual area of specimen + Whena prismatic baris subjected to axial load, it undergoes a change in length. This change is length is usually called ‘deformation. The deformation per unit lengihol hebaris termed es strain. Since strain is deformation per unit length, itis ‘dimensionless quantity. Sut sometimes in practice, strain #6 cocorded in forms such as mmiin er umm ete. pet A True Stress $ cogineerig exesssvaie eae Ve tave ncompreion Tue ctczeaticin FScRe! t Pp oom Foiciaein season Sraing—e Tension and compression monotonic Stress-strain diagrams ‘Shoes fale ‘Bran (e)—> ‘Tensile stress-strain diagram for different steels CLASSROOM STUDY COURSE(CSC) ‘Wand Oise: 25-8, Ber Sai, Now Dah TIODIG: Branch OFicn 14A, Katy Soe, New Dan TiOOTS Pr, 01726560062, OoBTUSEIGAS, Ws: ww keamaeaneyorg: E-mail anmadoessy@yangn co 32d i any form without TES MADE EASY, New Delhi No part hie book may be reprodveed or lo} CIVILENGINEERING (2349) S058 fo)» Stress-strain diagrams for different materials 1. Hooke's Law ‘* itstates that within elastic limit stress for most of the metals is propertional to strain. ie. SSS Constant =E Where, E = Young's modulus of elasticity + Hooke's law is valid up to tims -4 proportionality. However for => proportional limit and elastic tit. sot equal. But for other metals ‘als, elas limit may be higher than pes, .:torial linrit. e.g. rubber. © The slope of stress-strain curv: called modulus of elasticity (E), The :soci- is of elastiiy (E)isthe corstentt provor? nay which iS defined as the intensity 0 Wess that causes unit strain. Thus, elasticity (E) has the units same as Units of stress, 2. Proof Stress ‘* When. material suchas aluminium does, not have an obvious yield point and yet undergoes large sirains after the LAS iS — India's Best institute for IES, GATE & PSUS = “ars given by AL = LaT~6 + It may ve noted that thermal sess or temperature stress does not depend upon the ‘cross sectional area. Temperature Stresses in Composite Sections (a) When ends of a compound bar are ree to expand + if the temperature is increased! then the metal wih greater value of a. will be in ‘compression and the other metal will be in tension. On the other hand if the temperature is decreased then thenatre TTA ciate cont nonstetorses, Garearsus — |: Same [ohne aie ent 2 Eee |CIVIL ENGINEERING (2010) ‘STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. ® TTR SE 0 ote 26 65 Sa es Dai e Ohen SR Wav Sas es TTS] of stresses changes i.e. metal with greater vaive of a will be in tension and the other metal willbe in compression. * In copper and steel composite section, ‘since coetticient of expansion of copper (a,)is greater than coeff. of expansion of steel (a,). Hence free expansion of cooper is more than that of steci. + Let the actual exoansicn of composite parbe's'thenLa,T>3>La,1. Therelore, sieai is in tension and copper is in compression when the temperature is raised Lel the 6, and @, a2 stresses in steo! and copper. Then for equilibriun: of system, ‘Total tension in steel = Total compression incopper 2,4, = oe o Also for composite section, Actual expansion of stee! = Actual ‘expansion of copper. This gives folowing condition 8 a Where E, and €, are modulus of elasticity of steel and cagper respectively. Note : When énds of a compound ber are resitained, then on increasing the temperature saetal with greater value of will be in compression and the other etal willbe in tension and vice versa (b) When two bars are connected end to end between two fixed supports © Ifthe tomporaiure is increased both the bars will undergo change in length. Butdue to the supports, the change in length is restrained, Hence both the bare will experiance compressive sifesses. If the temparatute is dacreased then both the bars will experience tensiie stresses. (@,~a,)T il) 1 THe part of inl Bok Gay te vaprecuseg or waned Tp 1g WADE EARY. Now. Pr: r-2esene62, COSTOSAI651, Web: woieenadeeasyor: Emit emadenesye.ano9 coun The value of m lies between 2 To pressive jores Total extension = 0 Therefore Elasiic Constante Poisson's ratio (x) t we = Poisson's: m of the metals. 0.05 10.0.1 for glass - = 2.1 190.2 for concrete 0.25 00.42 for metals = 0.5for pure rubber Volumetric sirain (&,) a eysereyte, For cylindrical tod, having diamet: = ey = 2egt For spherical body, having diameter d « fa rectanguiar blocks subjectesothrse acral stresses ,, 6, and «, on ail ts ‘aces, mutually per pendioular to each other inx, yand z directions respectively. hen volumetric strain of the specimen is given by aoe | 1 River Gainer cm goo) |