Final Report on

Effects of cut-outs, holes and cracks on the stress induced in the material
(BITS - G540 RESEARCH PRACTICE) In partial fulfilment of the course Master in Engineering (Design Engineering) Submitted by Yogesh Joshi 2012H141031G Under the supervision of Dr. D.M Kulkarni

Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................................... 4 Effect of cut-outs (holes) in an infinite plate. .......................................................................................... 5 Stress concentration around a circular hole in a plate under biaxial loading. ........................................ 7 Case 1: plate subjected to bi-axial tensile stress: ................................................................................... 8 Case 2: plate subjected to tensile stress on one edge and compressive stress on adjacent edge. ...... 12 Case 3: Plate subjected to biaxial compressive stress. ......................................................................... 17 Stress concentrations around elliptical hole in a plate under tensile loading ...................................... 21 Stress Intensity Factor: .......................................................................................................................... 26 Finding stress concentration factor of a plate with a central crack. ..................................................... 27 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................................ 30 References:............................................................................................................................................ 31

Effects of cut-outs, holes and cracks on the stress induced in the material

Abstract
In many engineering designs, cut-outs or holes are required to meet some service requirements, and often on application of load, local stresses around the cut outs or holes increases to a value which is sometimes even greater than the expected ultimate tensile strength of the material. These stresses are sometimes unavoidable and in certain cases may even lead to failure of the component. In this paper we show by using ANSYS software, how a slot produced is a cantilever beam will affect the stress induced in it and also a plate with a central hole under bi axial loading is considered in the analysis and the effect on the induced stress in observed. Further an elliptical hole is analysed with load applied perpendicular to its major axis and the relationship between maximum stress induced and minor axis is observed. Finally a term called Stress Intensity Factor is defined at the crack tip and the stress intensity factor for a plate with a central crack is determined using ANSYS.

Introduction:
The introduction of a cut-out or a hole in a stressed elastic sheet causes a redistribution of the stress field. This effect is greatest on the boundary of the hole and diminishes with distance until, in regions remote from the hole, it is negligible. Around the boundary of the hole the variation of edge or hoop stress may be considerable and the largest values of the stress are associated with regions of large curvature (i.e. Corners). The value of the maximum hoop stress is an important design parameter and its estimation is, in general, very difficult. Because holes are necessary for fasteners such as bolts, rivets, etc., the need to know stresses and deformations near them occurs very often and has received a great deal of study. Plates with cut-outs (or holes) are widely used in structural members. These cut outs provide stress con-centration in plates. Extensive studies have been carried out on stress concentration in perforated plates, which consider cut out shapes, boundary conditions, bluntness of cut outs, and more. This study presents stress concentration analyses of plates with 2 types of cut outs i.e. for circular hole and elliptical hole, and also plate with a central crack is analysed to find stress intensity factor. In general, plates are easily manufactured and are widely used for fabrication of structural members and eventually for the construction of marine and civil structures. Especially, a bolt-connection is a way of fastening plates by inserting bolts into the cut outs (or holes), which are made through designated areas of target plates that are to be connected. Making cut outs is not merely for connecting but also for reducing the weight of structural members. This type of connection causes stress concentration near the cut outs, causing high stresses, and some-times results in the failure of structural members. To quantify the degree of stress concentration, the concept of stress concentration factor (SCF) is used, which is defined by the ratio of the maximum stress to nominal stress. Most research on stress concentration focuses on the structural members that are mostly subject to (or weakened by) stress concentration. Among such research, the work on stress concentration on cut outs include: analytical works for flat plates with circular holes and notches, optimum design of holes and notches by considering fatigue life, stress concentration analysis of differently materialized circular holes, etc. These works mainly focus on stress concentration on circularly-perforated plates.

Effect of cut-outs (holes) in an infinite plate.

Analysis of plate with a hole with thick cylinder analogy

In the above figure, a is the radius of the hole and at a radius r=b, where b>>a, the stresses are not affected by the presence of the hole. Now the elementary equations for the plate is as given below;
, r = x cos2 + y sin2 + 2 xy sin cos

= x sin2 + y cos2 + 2 xy sin cos

r = (x y) sin 2 + xy cos 2

Now for this case, we have x = , y = 0, and xy = 0 Thus the above equations reduces to , r = /2 + /2 cos 2 = /2 - /2 cos 2 r = - /2 sin 2

These are the equation for the stress distribution within r=a and r=b, two components are constant and depend on .

If we use thick cylinder analogy, (P0 = /2, b = infinity, pi = 0) , r = [ a2 b2 (P0 pi) / (b2 a2) * 1/r2 ] [ (a2 pi b2 P0) / ( b2 a2) ] = [ a2 b2 (P0 pi) / (b2 a2) * 1/r2 ] + [ (a2 pi b2 P0) / ( b2 a2) ] Which gives ,r' = / 2 [ 1 a2 / r2] = / 2 [ 1 + a2 / r2]

2nd component is expressed by a stress function { = f cos 2 } [ 2 + (Compatibility equation) { = (A r2 + B r4 + C 1/r2 + D) cos 2} Thus we get: r = -(2A + 6C/r4 + 4D/r2) cos 2 = (2A + 6C/r4 + 12Br2) cos 2 r = (2A +6Br2 - 6C/r4 - 2D/r2) sin 2 Boundary conditions: 1: At r=a, r = 0, r = 0 2: At r=b, r = /2 cos 2, r = - /2 sin 2 Thus we get: r = /2 (1 - a2/r2) + /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4 - 4 a2/r2) cos 2 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 r = - /2 (1- 3 a4/r4 + 2 a2/r2) sin 2
2 1

1 2

][ + 2 2

1 2 2 2

]=0

Stress concentration around a circular hole in a plate under biaxial loading.

A plate subjected to bi-axial loading is analysed in this section and its effect on the stress concentration is observed.

The analytical solution is available for plate uniaxial loafing which is given below, for a plate with a stress 0 applied on the side faces, the maximum and minimum stress observed at the points A and B respectively on the circumference of the hole is given in figure 1:

Figure 1

Maximum stress i.e. stress at A = 3*0 and minimum stress i.e. at point B = - 0

By using the above concept, we can determine the analytical value of stress for any kind of biaxial loading.

Here we consider 3 types of loading. And for all 3 types we find the stress by using ANSYS 13 software and also by analytical method using the above concept, and then compare the 2 results.

Case 1: plate subjected to bi-axial tensile stress:

Here the plate is subjected biaxial tensile stress as shown in the figure 2;

Figure 2

For finding the analytical solution for this problem, the state of stress is split into 2 problems taking one set of stress at a time, finding the magnetite of maximum and minimum stress for each state and then combining the two results to get the solution for the above problem. The stress can be split as shown in the figure 3:

Figure 3

Now using the analogy as mentioned, we can solve this problem by considering it as two problems of plate subjected to uniaxial stress, it is explained in detail below:

At point A, r=a, =/2, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =3

At point B, r=a, =/2, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =3

At point B r=a, =0, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus = -

At point A r=a, =0, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus = -

Thus the state of stress around the hole can be better understood by the figure below

The model is analysed is ANSYS with applied stress of 50 MPa on the edges. The uniform, homogeneous plate above is symmetric about horizontal axes in both geometry and loading. This means that the state of stress and deformation below a horizontal centre line is a mirror image of that above the centre line, and likewise for a vertical centre line. We can take advantage of the symmetry and, by applying the correct boundary conditions, use only a quarter of the plate for the finite element model. For small problems using symmetry may not be too important; for large problems it can save modelling and solution efforts by eliminating one-half or a quarter or more of the work. The quarter model of the plate as modelled in ANSYS is as shown in the fig 4:

Figure 4

The model generated in ANSYS is den solved for the given boundary conditions and applied stress of 50 MPa. Now the analytical solution for the plate is given below. Stress at point A = 2* 0 which gives 2*50 = 100MPa

This value is compared with the stress value obtained by ANSYS. The stress plot as obtained from ANSYS is as shown in the figure 5.

Figure 5

The comparison of the results obtained from ANSYS with the analytical solution is as given in the table below:

Case 1 At point A At point B

Analytical result 100MPa 100MPa

Result from ANSYS 106.293MPa 106.293MPa

Case 2: plate subjected to tensile stress on one edge and compressive stress on adjacent edge.
The state of stress which is applied on the plate in as shown in the figure 6:

Figure 6

Even for this case, for finding the analytical solution for this problem, the state of stress is split into 2 problems taking one set of stress at a time, finding the magnetite of maximum and minimum stress for each state and then combining the two results to get the solution for the above problem. The stress can be split as shown in the figure 7:

Figure 7

The problem is solved as given below:

At point A, r=a, =/2, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =3

At point B r=a, =0, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus = -

At point B, r=a, =/2, =- implies: r=0, r=0 =-/2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =-3

At point A r=a, =0, =- implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =

14

The state of stress on the circumference of the hole is gives as follows:

The component is modelled in ANSYS and the stress is applied at the edges. On one edge tensile stress is applied and on the adjacent face compressive stress is applied. And even for this case, the symmetry of the plate is taken into account and only one quarter of the plate is taken for analysis as it will be symmetrical about the horizontal and vertical axes, The component after modelling in ANSYS is as shown in the figure 8:

15

Figure 8

16

The model generated in ANSYS is den solved for the given boundary conditions and applied stress of 100 MPa. Now the analytical solution for the plate is given below. Stress at point A = 4* 0 which gives 4*100 = 400MPa This value is compared with the stress value obtained by ANSYS. The stress plot as obtained from ANSYS is as shown in the figure 9.

Figure 9 The results obtained from ANSYS is compared with that of the analytical solution and the comparison is as given in the table below:

Case 2: At point A At point B

Theoretical result 400MPa -400MPa

Result by ANSYS 366.429MPa -366.429MPa

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Case 3: Plate subjected to biaxial compressive stress.

In this case the plate is subjected to compressive stress on all of its faces. The state of stress is as shown in the figure 10

Figure 10

Even for this case, for finding the analytical solution for this problem, the state of stress is split into 2 problems taking one set of stress at a time, finding the magnetite of maximum and minimum stress for each state and then combining the two results to get the solution for the above problem. The stress can be split as shown in the figure 11:

Figure 11

18

The problem is solved as follows:

At point A, r=a, =/2, =- implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus = -3

At point B, r=a, =/2, =- implies: r=0, r=0 =-/2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus = -3

At point B r=a, =0, implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =

At point A r=a, =0, =- implies: r=0, r=0 = /2 (1 + a2/r2) - /2 (1+ 3 a4/r4) cos 2 Thus =

The state of stress on the circumference of the hole is given as follows:

19

The component is modelled in ANSYS and the stress is applied at the edges. On one edge tensile stress is applied and on the adjacent face compressive stress is applied. And even for this case, the symmetry of the plate is taken into account and only one quarter of the plate is taken for analysis as it will be symmetrical about the horizontal and vertical axes, The component after modelling in ANSYS is as shown in the figure 12:

Figure 12

The model generated in ANSYS is den solved for the given boundary conditions and applied stress of 50 MPa. Now the analytical solution for the plate is given below. Stress at point A = -2* 0 which gives -2*50 = -100MPa

20

Stress at point B= -2* 0 which gives -2*50 = -100MPa This value is compared with the stress value obtained by ANSYS. The stress plot as obtained from ANSYS is as shown in the figure 13.

Figure 13

The results obtained from ANSYS are compared with analytical results and the comparison\ is as shown in the table:
Case 3: At point A At point B Analytical results -100MPa -100MPa Results by ANSYS -106.293MPa -106.293MPa

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Stress concentrations around elliptical hole in a plate under tensile loading

In this section, we model and analyse a plate with elliptical hole with load applied perpendicular to major axis. The analysis for elliptical hole is important then circular hole because unlike circular hole, elliptical hole will not have equal spacing from the centre and the maximum stress induced depends on whether the stress is applied perpendicular to major or minor axis, it is found that when the stress applied is perpendicular to major axis, the maximum stress in quite high and so it is important to analyse this type if state of stress so as this is more seviour case.

To show how the maximum will increase for an elliptical hole and how it depends on the geometry of the ellipse and on the orientation of the load direction with respect to hole geometry I analysed the plate by keeping the axis of the major axis of the ellipse constant and also load and its direction which is tensile in nature and perpendicular to major axis, and only varying minor axis from maximum to minimum, noted down the maximum stress value observed for each case, found the stress concentration factor for each case and then plot a graph with SCF vs. minor axis to show how the SCF increases with decrease in minor axis and at one point when the minor axis is very small as compared to major axis, we get the highest value of SCF.

Analytically for an elliptical hole under tensile stress 0, the maximum stress induced in the hole is given by the relation: 2 ]

max = 0[1 +

o = max * (1+ 2b/a)

Where 2b = major axis and 2a = minor axis

Now it is clear from the above equation that max depends on a/b ratio and as b i.e. minor axis decreases, the maximum stress also increases.

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The plate with elliptical hole with load applied perpendicular to major axis and the stress distribution that will occur in the hole is as shown in the figure 14.

Figure 14

The plate is modelled in ANSYS and applied boundary conditions and load. On the similar lines as we did for plate with circular hole, where we considered only quarter section of the plate for analysis considering the symmetry of the geometry, for plate with elliptical hole, we proceed in the similar manner. Considering only quarter section of the plate, the model along with the boundary conditions as modelled in ANSYS is as shown in the figure 15,

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Figure 15

The plate is solved in ANSYS and the maximum stress in recorded, also stress concentration factor is calculated, and the stress plot for the above plate is as shown in the figure 16:

Figure 16

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Now for this case when we compare the maximum stress obtained from ANSYS and maximum stress obtained by analytical formula, we find they are very similar, the comparison for this case is given in the table below:

Maximum stress analytical 250 MPa

Maximum stress by ANSYS 234.712 MPa

Stress concentration factor 5

Now in the similar manner, I analysed the plate for different value of minor axis and solved it in ANSYS to get the value of maximum value of stress for each case and then found stress concentration factor for each case, and then used those values to plot a graph of SCF vs. Minor axis and from the graph it is clear that maximum stress and thus stress concentration factor increases with decrease in minor axis. The graph is as shown in the figure 17,

Figure 17

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Now from the graph it can be seen that SCF is maximum for small value of minor axis, now as minor axis tends to zero, the maximum stress tends to infinity, i.e. at this point ellipse is more like a crack, and the stress at the crack tip intensifies and this state is worse for the material. For this purpose, the study of stress around crack tip requires the use of a different parameter called Stress Intensity Factor. This is discussed in detail in the sext section.

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Stress Intensity Factor:

In practical engineering problems, different types and numbers of cracks are often randomly distributed and encountered in the structure components under various loading and boundary conditions. So, the strength of a structure could be severely affected by the presence of crack and the defects are unavoidable in a cost effective manufacturing process. In most of the structures, cracks may be located or developed during the service in the zones of stress concentration and the crack may be large enough so that the crack-tip may be closer to a boundary. The crack may grow to cause structure failure due to low stress, which acts to a structure. Stress intensity factor (SIF) is a most important single parameter in fracture mechanics, which can be used to examine if a crack, would propagate in a cracked structure under particular loading condition, i.e. it controls the stability of the crack. For relatively simple components and loadings, SIF can be calculated very easily, but problem might arise when one is dealing with complicated cracked structures.

Stress Intensity Factor, K, is used in fracture mechanics to more accurately predict the stress state ("stress intensity") near the tip of a crack caused by a remote load or residual stresses. When this stress state becomes critical a small crack grows ("extends") and the material fails. The load at which this failure occurs is referred to as the fracture strength. The experimental fracture strength of solid materials is 10 to 1000 times below the theoretical strength values, where tiny internal and external surface cracks create higher stresses near these cracks, hence lowering the theoretical value of strength.

Unlike "stress concentration", Stress Intensity, K, as the name implies, is a parameter that amplifies the magnitude of the applied stress that includes the geometrical parameter Y (load type). These load types are categorized as Mode-I, -II, or -III. The Mode-I stress intensity factor, KIc is the most often used engineering design parameter in fracture mechanics and hence must be understood if we are to design fracture tolerant materials used in bridges, buildings, aircraft, or even bells. Polishing just won't do if we detect a crack. Typically for most materials if a crack can be seen it is very close to the critical stress state predicted by the "Stress Intensity Factor".

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Finding stress concentration factor of a plate with a central crack.

In this section, I have considered a plate with a central crack under tensile loading and used ANSYS to solve the problem and get the stress intensity factor for the plate. Further analytical solution is used to find the stress intensity factor for the plate using an empirical formula and the results are compared. The plate with central crack is as shown in the figure 18,

Figure 18

Let the youngs modulus E=200 GPa, poissons ratio v=0.3. Let the dimensions of the plate be 2W=0.2m 2a=0.02m. The applied stress is 100 MPa.

We can take advantage of the symmetry of the plate and use only quarter portion of the plate for our analysis.

28

The quarter portion is modelled in ANSYS, given proper boundary conditions and applied load, the model is as shown in the figure 19,

Figure 19

The problem is solved in ANSYS to get a value for stress intensity factor as 26.53 MPa

Now this value is compared with the value calculated by the below given empirical formula

Analytical method:
The analytical solution for this problem can be found out by using the formula: K1 = f()**(a) (As given in the text book on fracture mechanics by Prashant Kumar) Where f()= 1+0.128 -0.288 2+1.523 3 = a/w

29

= applied stress = 100MPa By solving the above equation, we get the value of K1=25.35 MPa. The two values of stress intensity factors are compared and the comparison is as shown in the table below:

Analytical result 25.35 MPa

result from ANSYS 26.53 MPa

Percentage error 4.6%

Thus the two results are very similar with an error of 4.6%. The figure 20 shows the stress plot as obtained for the plate. Clearly it can be seen that maximum stress occurs at the crack tip, and its here where the stress is intensified, and it may even lead to the growth of crack and finally to the failure of the material.

Figure 20

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Conclusion:
In this paper, we analysed plates with hole subjected to different orientation of loads and obtained stress concentration for the plates, and compared it with analytical solution. We then considered an elliptical hole in a plate and analysed it for maximum stress on load applied perpendicular to major axis We then considered ellipse with varying minor axis and observed how maximum stress increased with decreasing minor axis. We defined stress intensity factor and saw how important it is in deciding the failure of the component. We analysed a plate with central crack and found out its stress intensity factor and compared it with the analytical formula. Thus we conclude that stress intensity and fracture toughness are critically important fracture mechanics parameters used by materials engineers and designers. There are a lot of factors that determine fracture of a material. KIc is a unique material property that is used by engineers to design and manufacture products for durability and safe operation.

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References:
1. Referred paper Effect of Cutout Orientation on Stress Concentration of Perforated Plates with Various Cutouts and Bluntness by Jinho Woo and Won-Bae Na Department of Ocean Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Korea 2. Referred paper stress concentration around a hole in a radially inhomogeneous plate by Mohsen Mohammadi,, John R. Dryden, Liying Jiang, Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B 3. Journal of Mechanics of materials and structures 4. Paper Introduction to Fracture Mechanics by C.H. Wang, Airframes and Engines Division Aeronautical and Maritime Research Laboratory 5. Paper Stress-Intensity Factors for Elliptical Cracks Emanating From Countersunk Rivet Holes 6. Paper Stress-Concentration Factors for Rounded Rectangular Holes in Infinite Sheets By A. J. 8OBEY, M.A. 7. Paper Stress Concentrations for Straight-Shank and Countersunk Holes in Plates Subjected to Tension, Bending and Pin Loading by K. N. Shivakumar Analytical Services & Materials, Inc. Hampton, Virginia 8. ANSYS Tutorial, Release 8.0 9. Paper STRESS CONCENTRATION AROUND A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A FG PLATE UNDER BIAXIAL LOADING by Mohsen Mohammadi and John Dryden, Faculty of Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada, N6A 5B9