SIX MONTHS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT ON NETWORKING (MCSE & CCNA) AT 1ETKING SEC 34 , CHANDIGARH SUBMITTED AS A PART OF COURSE CURRICULUM BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Under the Guidance oI Mr. Baljit singh Mr. Inder Gulati Submitted To: Submitted By: Er. Harpreet Kaur (HOD) Saroj Dogra (697041917) DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SWAMI PAMANAND COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, DERA BASSI, MOHALI ACKNOWLEDGEMENT www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ I Ieel deeply indedted to Mr. Baljit Singh, MicrosoIt trainer who delivered valuable lesson on MCSE, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the subject in better way. His method oI teaching the minute details helped me a lot to acquire the insight into the subject. I am also grateIul to Mr. Inder Gulati, CCNA trainer Ior giving best knowledge about CCNA.the way he instilled knowledge oI the subject was undoubtly praise worthy and valuable. I am also thankIul to Jetking institution as a whole that is doing yeoman`s service by teaching the learner avreast with the computer , networking and hardware knowledge that is the need oI the day. I will be Iailing in my duty iI I do not acknowledge my husband Mr. Nardev Singh Rana who always stood by my side during my studies. I am indepted to my son`s Anirudh Rana and Romil Rana who never clamed my time and get bore by my long absence rather silent. Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at Jetking Ior extending kind co-operation. SARO1 DOGRA List of Figures www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No. 1 Computer network 6 2 Local Area Nework 9
3 LAN ClassiIication 9
4 Campus Area Network 10
5 Metropolitan Area Network 11 6 To Iind location oI a computer using FQDN 24 7 Tree structure 25 8 Structure oI domain Iorest and domain tree 36 9 Multi-Master Mode 37 10 Parent child relationship model 40 11 Direct Sharing Scenario 43
12 ICS scenario 44 13 Scenario oI win proxy server 45 14 NAT Server 46
15 VPN server 48
16 LAN routing 52 17 Static routing 53
www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 18 Architecture oI router 60
19 Variable Subnet Mask 75
20 Scenario oI Telnet 76 21 Scenario oI Static Routing 81
29 IEEE 802.11 Standard 114 List of tables www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Table No. Name of table Page No. 1 DiIIerence between Workgroup & Domain 7 2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 12 3 Address Classes 13 4 Category and Speed oI UTP cables 17 5 Colour Coding Ior straight Cable 18 6 Colour Coding Ior Crossover cable 19 7 Colour Coding Ior Rollover Cable 20 8 Operating Systems 21 9 DiIIerence between Workgroup and Domain 34 10 Exchange Server with diIIerent operating systems 56 11 Router interIaces and connectors 62 12 Router Ports 63 13 DeIault address mask in binary & dotted decimals 71 14 Decimal and Binary values oI subnet mask 72 15 Subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address 74 16 Routing table 86 17 DiIIerence between RIPV1 & RIPV2 90 18 DiIIerence between IGRP and RIP 91
CONTENTS www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Sr. No. Topic Page No. 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Company ProIile 1 2 LITERATURE RIEVIEW 5 3 NETWORKING 6 3.1 Introduction to networking 6 3.1.1 Models oI Networking 6 3.1.2 Categories oI network 8 3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses 12 3.2.1 IPAddressClasses 12 3.2.2 MAC Addressing 15 3.3 NETWORKING MEDIA 15 3.3.1 Ethernet Cabling 17 3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM 20 3.4.1 Types oI Operating Systems 20 3.5 DNS SERVER 22 3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM 23 3.5.2 DNS Zone 26 3.6 DHCP SERVER 28 3.6.1 Working oI DHCP Server 29 3.6.2 InstallationStepsoIDHCPServer 31 3.7 ACTIVE DIRECTORY 33 3.7.1ActiveDirectoryServices 34 3.7.2 CHILD DOMAIN 40 3.8 INTERNET SHAREING 42 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.8.1 Direct Sharing 42 3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing) 43 3.8.3 Win Proxy Server 45 3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation) 45 3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN) 47 3.9.1 VPN components 48 3.9.2 Types oI VPN 49 3.10 ROUTING 51 3.10.1 Types oI Routing 51 3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER 56 3.11.1 Elements oI Exchange Server 56 3.11.2 Exchange Version 56 3.11.3 Requirements Ior Exchange Server 57 3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model 57 3.12.1 Description oI DiIIerent Layers 58 3.13 ROUTERS 60 3.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component 60 3.13.2 Router InterIaces & Ports 62 3.13.3 Modes oI Router 63 3.13.4 ConIiguring Password 65 3.13.5 Managing ConIiguration 66 3.14 SUBNETTING 70 3.14.1 Advantages oI subnetting 70 3.14.2 Types oI Subnetting 73 3.15 TELNET 75 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely 75 3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interIaces 76 3.16 ROUTING 79 3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING 79 3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics 84 3.1.3 R IP (Routing InIormation Protocol) 88 3.1.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol) 91 3.1.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol) 93 3.1.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 95 3.17 LAN SWITCHING 100 3.17.1 SWITCH 100 3.17.1.1 VLAN (Virtual LAN) 103 3.17.1.2 Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP) 108 3.18 Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY) 113 3.18.1 Wireless LAN 113 3.18.2 Wireless Standards 114 3.18.3 Wireless Security 115 4 CONCLUSION 117 5 REFRENCES 118 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 1. INTRODUCTION This project report pertains to six months industrial training that I had underwent at JETKING, Chandigarh as part oI curriculum oI degree in Bachelor oI technology in Electronics and Communication engineering as required by Swami Parmanand College oI engineering and technology (aIIiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar) . I learnt a lot Irom proIessional managers and skilled engineers. I had a great learning experience as trainee in this Iirm. I learnt a lot about how diIIerent networks are controlled in the industry or any department with the help oI networking processes, under MCSE and CCNA. I have learnt about diIIerent type oI servers like DHCP Server, DNS Server, NAT Server. Also I have learnt how to control the LAN and MAN networks under MCSE (MicrosoIt CertiIied System Engineers) and how to control MAN and WAN networks under CCNA (CISCO CertiIied System Engineers). JustiIication cannot be done to whatever I have learnt in these six months within a Iew pages but I have still tried my best to cover as much as possible in this report. In this report I have tried to sum up the technical knowledge I have gained in my six months oI training. 1.1 Company Profile Jetking is an organization came into establishment in1947. Jetking is India`s number one Computer Hardware and Networking Institute. Birth and Evolution It took a lot oI Iailure beIore mankind tasted technological success. Jetking evolved in tune with the changing Iace oI technology. During 55 years in the Iield oI electronic technology. Jetking successIully trained thousands oI students to overcome Iailure Ior high paying careers. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 1947 Birth 1962 Pioneered 'Do-It-YourselI Kits in India 1972 Introduced Asia- 72, Fairchild and Wildcat transistors 1986 Became a Public Limited Company and also introduced entertainment electronics product-T.V sets, Two-in-ones and ampliIiers. 1990 Launched Jetking School oI Electronics Technology 1993 Network oI Jetking training centers spread all over India 1994 Opening oI Jetking, Chandigarh 1995 Tie-up with Heath kit Educational System (U.S.A.) 1996 Introduced advanced courses on Pentium, Notebooks, Modems, Email/Internet, LAN 4.X 1997 Novell Education Academic Partner 1998 Representative Ior International Correspondence School (ICS), USA in India 1999 Added cyber technology to the curriculum 2003 ISO 9001-2000 company and Authorized MicrosoIt online testing centre (VUE) Ior MS, CISCO, MCSA, MCSE, CCNA, A etc. Mr. Suresh G. Bharwani is the CHAIRMAN and MANAGING Director oI Jetking InIotrain Ltd. India`s leading Computer Hardware and Networking Institute. With the vision to promote and the conviction to deliver the widespread propagation oI comp- uter hardware and networking education across the nation, Mr. Bharwani was the Iirst to set up an training institute oIIering innovative courses in computer hardware in 1990. Jetking`s core competency lies in providing complete training and developing hardware engineers and proIessionals with sound technical knowledge. It Iocuses on the overall development oI personality oI an individual with emphasis on personality development, presentation and communication skills, leadership skills etc. Jetking has established more than 125 operational centers and 250 Iaculties across the country and has trained over 3,50,000 students who have move onto the crave www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ success- Iull career. With its alumni placed in the best oI organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking,s vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career prospects oI many young boys and girls. The company has been awarded the ISO 9000:2000 certiIication in 2003.The company has been awarded the ' Maharashtra IT Award Ior a key role in manpower activities in year 2006-07,it was Ielicitated with Franchise Award as Best Franchisor Ior the year 2007-08.Also,ranked 4 th in the list oI 26 th hot Iranchises as per outlook money magazine. Mr. Suresh Bharwani was awarded with 'Pike`s Peak Award by the Bob Pike Group USA Ior eIIective implementing smart lab plus Ior making technical training Iun, Iaster and easier Ior non- technical person. Across all the sectors, industries are upgrading their inIormation technology system. Industries ranging Irom plastics, chemicals, textiles and power to the automotive and telecom sector are now IT savy. Government and public sectors are going hi-tech with EDI and computer networks. The IT industry, soItware companies, data centers, IT- enabled services providers are all equipped with advance IT system and networks. The increasing number oI call centers, BPO`s etc., have given a Iurther boost to the hardware and networking industry. The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great Iocus on active participation through smart lab plus ,that Iocuses on audio visual and learning with hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is technical; it also equips students with soIt skills ,to Iace the multi-Iaceted challenges oI corporate world. PLACEMENT: Jetking is the Iirst and only institute that promises the 100 jobs guarantee to its students. The companies that have recruited jetkings students include: Samsung, Sun Micro system, IBM, Canon, Siement, reliance, TATA, Compaq HP invent, IT-T solutions, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, D-Link, Novell, Dell, Wipro, LG, ICIC InIotech and several other MNCs. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Any student who has qualiIied his or her HSC/SSC examination is eligible to take up a course at jetking. The one year program Jetking certiIied hardware and networking proIessionals give 680 hours oI in-depth knowledge to a student in Basic electronics and computer applications. Computer hardware and peripherals, window 2003 administrator and network administrator (soon it will be replaced with window server 2008).Apart Irame technical knowledge there are personality development sessions which groom the student`s personality, their ability to perIorm better. Jetking, India`s leading hardware and networking training institute has trained over 3,00,000 students Irom its 125 centers spread across India. With its alumni placed in the best oI organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career prospects oI many young boys and girls. Jetking has partnered with some oI the worlds most renowed names in networking to provide you with cutting edge courses and technologies. With academic partnerships with MicrosoIt, Comp TIA,LINUX, NOVELL, and person VUE . Jetking Chandigarh is a division oI Hi-Tech point. Hi-Tech point is an ISO 9001- 2000 IT company. It was established in year 1993 and run by a company oI IT proIessionals. Jetking Chandigarh branch is considered to be the best centre among all centers. It has bagged number 1 center award consecutively Ior last 7 years. Here training on various Iields is going on like Basic Electronic, Hardware, Networking, JCHNP Analog and Digital electronics and Hardware, RHCE, RHCSS, MNA, MCSE (MicrosoIt System Engineers), MCITP, MNA, CCNA (CISCO CertiIied Network Associate), CCNP(CISCO CertiIied Network ProIessional). Partnership with industry leaders like MicrosoIt and Red Hat Jetking ensure its students authentic courseware and technology. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 2. LITERATURE RIEVIEW Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era oI electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perIorm their day to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share Iolders and Iiles with other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN. The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great Iocus on active participation through smart lab plus ,that Iocuses on audio visual and learning with hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is technical; it also equips students with soIt skills ,to Iace the multi-Iaceted challenges oI corporate world. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3. NETWORKING 3.1 Introduction to networking Networking is a practice oI linking oI two or more computing devices such as PCs, printers, Iaxes etc., with each other Connection between two devices is through physical media or logical media to share inIormation, data and resources. Networks are made with the hardware and soItware. Cable/media Fig 1: computer network
3.1.1 Models of Networking Model means the connectivity oI two computers. We have many types oI networking models. (i) Client Server Model (ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model) (iii) Domain Model www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (i) Client -Server Model In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share the resources oI server, but a server cannot share the resources on clients. On the point oI view oI administrator it`s very easy to control the network because we combine with the server also at security point oI view. It is very useIul because it uses user level security in which users have to remember only one password to share the resources. (ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model) In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we cannot manage centralization, administration secutity. In Peer to Perr networking client use operating system like Window 98, Window XP, Window 2000, Window Vista. (iii) Domain Model It is a mixture oI client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can share their resources as peer-to-peer but with the permission oI the server as in client server model thereIore it is commonly used model because in this security is more as we can put restriction on both server and clients. Difference between Workgroup & Domain Table 1 Workgroup Domain 1. It is a peer to peer networking model. 2. There is no client and no server. All the computers are in equal status. 1. It is a server based networking model. 2. There is a centralized dedicated server computer called domain controller which www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3. This model is recommended Ior small networks, upto 10 computers. 4. There is no centralized administrated separately. 5. In this model, low grade OS like 2000/XP proIessional, WIN 98 etc. can be used. 6. Users accounts are created in each PC and are called as Local Users. controls all other computers called clients. 3. This model is recommended Ior large networks. 4. There is centralized administration and each PC can be administrated and managed Irom the server. 5. in this model high grade OS like WIN 2000/2003 Server can be used. 6. Users accounts are created on the server side and are called Domain Users. 3.1.2 Categories of network Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the network. Computer network are divided into Iour categories includes: Local Area Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN). 3.1.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN) LAN is a computer network that is used to connect computers and work station to share data and resources such as printers or Iaxes. LAN is restricted to a small area such as home, oIIice or college. Devices used in LAN are : HUB and switch. Media Ior LAN is UTP cables. Figure 1.2 shows how all work stations, server and printer are interconnected with the help oI the network device. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 2: Local Area Network Types of LAN In LANs, data can be transIerred using techniques like token passing. As per techniques used Ior data sharing, LANS are classiIied into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data InterIace (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classiIication. Fig 3: LAN classification www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Advantages of LAN a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and conIigure. b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results in Iast work. Disadvantages of LAN a). limited number oI computers are connected in a LAN. b). LAN cannot cover large area. c). Network perIormance degrades as the number oI users exceeds. 3.1.2.2 Campus Area Network (CAN) Campus Area Network is a computer network made up oI two or more LANs within a limited area. It can cover many buildings in an area. The main Ieature oI CAN is that all oI the computers which are connected together have some relationship to each other e.g. diIIerent buildings in a campus can be connected using diIIerent CAN. It will help to interconnect academic departments, library and computer laboratories. CAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. Figure 3.4 shows a CAN network. Fig 4: Campus Area Network Devices used in CAN are : HUB, Switch, Layer-3 switch, Access Point .And the media used Ior CAN is Unshielded twisted pair oI cables and Fiber Optics Cable. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.1.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) MAN is the interconnection oI networks in a city. MAN is not owned by a single organization. It act as a high speed network to allow sharing resources with in a city. MAN can also be Iormed by connecting remote LANs through telephone lines or radio links. MAN supports data and voice transmission. The best example oI MAN is cable T.V network in a city.
Fig 5 : Metropolitan Area Network 3.1.2.4 Wide Area Network (WAN) WAN covers a wide geographical area which include multiple computers or LANs. It connects computer networks through public networks like, telephone system, microwave, satellite link or leased line. Most oI the WANs use leased lines Ior internet access as they provide Iaster data transIer. WAN helps an organization to establish network between all its departments and oIIices located in the same or diIIerent cities. It also enables communication between the organization and rest world. Devices used in WAN is only Router www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses It is also called as logical addresses. IP is a 32 bit long and it is divided into 4 octets and dot (.) is used to separate one octet Irom another. It is represented in the Iorm oI decimals. There are two versions oI IP addresses: - IPv4 - IPv6 Table 2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
3.2.1 IP Address Classes IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP deIines Class D Ior experimental purpose. TCP /IP address contains two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network address and host address as shown in Iigure 3.1 NETWORK ADDRESS HOST ADDRESS 0 bits 31 bits
IPv4 IPv6 - It is 32 bit long. - It is divided into 4 octets. - Ipv4 perIorms broadcasting, multicasting and unicasting. - IPv4 is divided into 5 classes: A to E. IPv4 is in decimal Iorm. - It is 128 bit long. - It is divided into 16 octets. - IPv6 doesn`t support broadcasting, it perIorms multicasting and unicasting. - Ipv6 doesn`t support classes. - IPv6 is in hexadecimal Iorm. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Class A consists oI 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists oI 16- bit network ID and 16-bit oI host ID. And Class C consists oI 24-bit oI network ID and 8-bit oI host ID. Address Classes Table 3: Address Classes `
Addres s Class Starting Bits (Iirst-byte) Range oI First Octet Mask Value Valid Hosts Class A 0 1to 127 255.0.0.0 256*256*256-2 16,777,214 Class B 10 128 to 191 255.255.0.0 256*256-265,534 Class C 110 192 to 223 255.255.255.0 256-2 Class D 1110 224 to 239 Reserved Ior multicasting Class E 1111 240 to 255 Reserved Ior research and development www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.2.1.1 How to Assign IP Address to Computer An IP address assigned to a computer may either be permanent address or address that is assigned to a computer on a time lease or Ior temporary basis. Hence, the address granted to computers is divided into two categories Dynamic IP addresses and Static addresses. Dynamic IP Addresses Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary connectivity to the network or non-permanent devices such as portable computer. The most common protocol used Ior assigning Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Dynamic Host ConIiguration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer on lease basis. Static IP Addresses Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in the network remains Ior a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent IP addresses which remain allocated to a speciIic device Ior longer time e.g. Server.
3.2.1.2 How to Configure IP Address in window 2003 Right click on My Network Places- properties right click on working LAN card- properties select internet protocol (TCP/IP) -properties Tick on- Use the following IP addresses - now Iill the IP address e.g 10.0.0.1 Tick on Use the following DNS server address Fill the preferred DNS server 10.0.0.1 Ok Close Now check the connectivity oI computer with itselI with command Start-run-cmd-ping 10.0.0.1 3.2.2 MAC Addressing MAC address is a hardware address that is embedded in the NIC card. It is also known as hardware address or physical address. Every NIC card has a unique MAC address assigned by IEEE. MAC address is used to identiIy the nodes at lower levels oI OSI model. The MAC address operates at the data link layer oI the OSI model. MAC address is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit address). It is made up oI numbers Irom 0-9 or a letter Irom A-F. MAC address can be written in any one oI the Iormats: > MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ > MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS T o identiIy the MAC address in window: Click Start Run Enter cmd in the Open text book Type ipconfig /all Press Enter The 12 digit MAC address will be shown as say 00:11:11:EA:8D:F6 3.3 NETWORKING MEDIA To do networking we need to use some type oI media. There are many types oI media. (i) Coaxial Cable (ii) Fiber optic cable (iii) Twisted Pair oI Cables (iv) Micro- wave (iv) Satellite Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable consists oI an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis oI curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically oI two types: (i) Base Band Cable (RG 59) (ii) Broad Band Cable (RG 58) We used Base Band signal cable in Networking oI Computers, It is so called because it carries single Irequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 O. Where as Broad www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Band Cables carries multiple Irequencies. Connector used Ior Coaxial cable is BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-62 coaxial cable. It has an impedance oI 93 O and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation Iactor. Fiber Optical Cable Fiber optic cable consists oI a very Iine Iiber made Irom two types oI glass, one Ior the inner core and the other Ior the outer layer. Here signal is transmitted in the Iorm oI light. DiIIerent varieties oI Iiber optics is used depending on the size oI the network. Single mode Iiber optics is used Ior networks spanning longer distance. Fiber Optics has lower propagation Iactor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure transmission media. Twisted Pair Cable There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI (Electro Magnetic Induction).these cables are easy to terminate. However they have a slightly higher value oI attenuation value and hence have limited distance covering capacity. Connector used Ior Twisted Pair oI Cable is (Registered Jack) RJ-45 and RJ-11. There are two types oI twisted pair oI cables: STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped over the inner cover which holds copper in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal Irom external noise. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) In this type oI wire no shielded cover is there Ior extra protection Irom noise. There are diIIerent categories oI UTP cables:
Categories of UTP Cables Table 4: Category and Speed of UTP cables www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Category Speed
CAT-1 CAT-2 CAT-3 CAT-4 CAT-5 CAT-6 CAT-7 56 Kbps 4 Mbps 10 Mbps 16-20 Mbps 100 Mbps 1Gbps 1Gbps 3.3.1 Ethernet Cabling There are three types oI Ethernet cables: Straight cable Crossover cable Rolled cable 3.3.1.1 Straight cable It is used when we have to connect PC TO Switch PC to Hub Hub to Router Switch to Router Colour Coding for straight Cable TABLE 5 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 568A (one end) (other end) 568B (one end) (other end) Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown 3.3.1.2 Crossover Cable It is used when we have to connect: PC to PC Hub to Hub Switch to switch Router to Router PC to Router Hub to Switch Colour Coding for Crossover cable Table 6 Colour Coding for Crossover cable
(one end) (other end) www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown 3.3.1.3 Rollover Cable Rollover cable isn`t used to connect any Ethernet connections together, but Rollover cable can be used to connect a host to a router console serial communication (com) port. NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used Ior data transIer but Rollover cables are not used Ior data transIer. There are two methods Ior manuIacturing Rollover cables: Table 7 Colour Coding for Rollover Cable 568A (one end) (other end) 568B (one end) (other end) www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown Brown Brown/white Orange Blue/white Blue Orange/white Green Green/white Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown Brown Brown/white Green Blue/white Blue Green/white Orange Orange/white 3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM 3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems (i) DOS (Desktop Operating System) (ii) NOS (Network Operating System) Table 8: Operating Systems DOS 1. It is a desktop operating system. 2. It is used in small networks. 3. In this OS, there is less security. 4. In this OS, all computers are clients. 5. In this OS, MS-DOS, GUI package Win 3.1, Win 95, Win 98, Win ME comes. NOS 1. It is a network operating system. 2. It is used Ior large networks. 3. In this OS, there is more security. 4. In this OS, there are servers and clients. 5. In this OS Win NT, Win 2000, Win 2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and MAC comes. 3.4.1.1 Introduction to Window 2003 Server www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Window server 2003 (also reIerred to as WIN 2k3) is a server operating system produced by MicrosoIt. Introduced in 24 th April 2003 as the successor to window 2000 server, it is considered by MicrosoIt to be the corner stone oI its window server system line oI business server products. An update version Window Server 2003 R2 was released manuIacturing on 6 th dec, 2005. its successor window 2008 was released on 4 th Ieb, 2008. According to MicrosoIt, window server 2003 is more scalable and deliver better perIormance than its predecessor window 2000. Features of Window 2003 (i) A signiIicant improved version oI Internet InIormation Service (IIS) (ii) Increased deIault security over previous version due to the built in Iirewall and having most services disabled by deIault. (iii) Manage your server-a role management administrative tools that allow an administrator to choose what Iunctionality the server should provide. (iv) Improvement to Active Directory. (v) Improvement to Group Policy handling and Administration. (vi) Provides a Backup system to restore lost Iiles. (vii) Improved disk management, including the ability to Backup Irom shadows oI Iiles, allowing the Backup oI open Iiles. (viii) Improved security and command line tools which are part oI MicrosoIt initiative to bring a complete command shell to the next version oI window. (ix) Support Ior a hard based 'Watch Dog Timer, which can restart the server iI the operating system does not suspend with in a certain amount oI time. Removed Features The ability oI creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used instead . Edition of Window 2003 Window server 2003 comes in a number oI editions, each targeted towards a particular size and type oI business. In general, all variant oI window server 2003 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ have the ability to share Iiles and printers, act as application server and host message queue, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509 certiIicate server, provide LDAP (Light Weight Directory Access Protocol) services, serve streaming media, and to perIorm other server-oriented Iunctions. 3.5 DNS SERVER DNS stands Ior domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology Ior managing the names oI websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer and allow your computer to automatically Iind that address on internet. DNS is the resolution mechanism used by Window Server 2003 clients to Iind other computers and services running on those computers Ior computers in a window 2003 network inIrastructure to talk to one another, one oI the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not communicate globally but communicate locally, but iI domain name is added along with it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use Ior name reservation i.e. to convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the Iunction oI DNS is to resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identiIy only user Iriendly name and all computers and technologies identiIy IP address and MAC address DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (Iully qualiIied domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name . 3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM (i) Host name (ii) Domain name www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (iii) FQDN (iv) Namespace (v) DNS server 3.5.1.1 HOST NAME Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can use the transport services oI TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is 16- byte addresses that identiIy a NetBIOS resource on the network. 3.5.1.2 DOMAIN NAME Domain name is used to identiIies the internet site one can identiIies the location without having to remember the IP address oI every location e.g. yahoo.com or gmail.com 3.5.1.3 FQD FQDN means Iully qualiIied domain name which represents a hostname appended to the parent name space in hierarchy. Also in Iully qualiIied domain name diIIerent levels oI namespace are visualize as in Iig below this hierarchy is visualized- the root level namespace, top- level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. LeIt most portion oI the FQDN is the host portion oI the name. A host name is alias we give to an IP address.
www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identiIy host id and location oI a computer as in Iig above. Suppose we want to Iind location oI pc1 with IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2 nd Iloor in the organization center. The FQDN Ior this is
Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simpliIy this we use 'c name technique as: Pc1.center.com20.0.0.1 3.5.1.4 Domain Namespace DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an organized, hierarchical division oI DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root domain, the top level domain oI the organization and organize these domain in a hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure oI root domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting point oI the www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Iully qualiIied domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2 shows the tree structure or domain namespace. Fig 7: Tree structure or Domain Namespace 3.5.1.5 DNS server Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to convert host name FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To store the name-to-IP-addresses mappings so crucial to network communication, name server uses zone Iiles. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.5.2 DNS Zone Zone is the part oI DNS database that contain record oI domain or multiple domain. II the domains represents logical division oI the DNS namespace, zones represents the physical separation oI the DNS namespace. In other words inIormation about records oI the resources within DNS domain is stored in a zone Iiles, and this zone Iiles exist on hard drive oI server. Zone Iiles are divided into one oI two basic types: Forward lookup zone: Provides host-name-to-IP-address resolution Reverse lookup zone: Provides IP-address-to-host-name resolution 3.5.2.1 Resource record stored in a zone file Each record stored in a zone Iile has a speciIic purpose. Some oI the records set the behavior oI the name server, others have the job oI resolving a host name or service into an IP table.
(i) NS (Name Server): These speciIy the name servers that are authoritative Ior a given portion oI DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are perIorming iterative queries to perIorm name resolution. (ii) SOA (Start of Authority): This resource record indicates the name oI origin Ior the zone contains the name oI the server that is the primary source Ior inIormation about the zone. The inIormation in an SOA record aIIect how oIten transIer oI the zone are done between servers authoritative Ior the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as version inIormation and timings that aIIect zone renewal or expiration. (iii) CNAME (Canonical Name): CNAME can be used to assign multiple names oI a single IP address. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ For example, the server hosting the site www.abc.com is probably not named www, but a CNAME record exist resolution oI www to an IP address all the same. The CNAME record actually points not to an IP address, but to an existing A record in the zone. 3.5.2.2 Steps to Install and configure DNS server Start control panel add and remove program Add remove window components Select networking services and click on detail button Check box oI DNS server Ok and finish
3.5.2.3 Creating a Forward Lookup Zone Statically Iill the IP address Start administrator tools DNS right click on forward lookup zone New zone next Select primary zone next Enter zone name (abc.com) next Tick Allow both secure and non secure updates and secure dynamic updated next next now click on created zone (abc.com) new host enter host name Ior global level (i.e by entering www) Iill IP address oI the web server , click on add button enter another host name, a blank host with same IP i.e do not Iill its host name steps to change SOA and NS records Right click on SOA records properties Fill primary server e.g (www.abc.com) responsible person www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ host master.abc.com apply ok right click on NS records click on add button enter FQDN www.abc.com resolve ok apply ok Now go to start menu ping abc.com On Client Side To access DNS server Iill IP address oI server then use ping command e.g ping www.abc.com 3.5.2.3 Creating a Reverse Lookup Zone Right click on reverse lookup zone New zone next select primary zone next Iill Network ID next next Select allow both non secure and non secure dynamic updates Finish Right click on created reverse zone new pointer enter host IP number e.g (50.0.0.50) enter FQDN (www.chd.com) 3.5.2.4 Some DNS Commands (i) c:~tracert www.yahoo.com command is used to check the path , a data packet Iollow Irom one router to another router. (ii) c:>nslookup command display the domain name with IP (works only when reverse lookup zone is set up). (iv) c:>ipconfig /all This command display FQDN, IP address, MAC address. (iv) c:>ipconfig /flushdns www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ This command Ilush or clear all the inIormation in the cache that is retrieved Irom DNS server. (v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns Display the current contents or entries in the cache. (vi) c:>ip config /register register any DNS name
3.6 DHCP SERVER DHCP (Dynamic Host ConIiguration Protocol) is a protocol that allocates IP address to computer on a network. DHCP centralized the management oI IP address allocation and reduces human error associated with manual IP conIiguration. DHCP server supplies all the necessary networking param-eters. Two things are always handed out as a part oI DHCP conIiguration: IP address and subnet mask. Further DHCP will Irequently conIigure clients with optional values, such as a deIault gateway, DNS server address, and the address oI a Window Internet Naming Server, iI one is present. Scenario showing DHCP server IP address allocation. 3.6.1 Working of DHCP Server (i) DHCP Scope (ii) DHCP Super Scope (iii) Exclusion IP Range (iv) DHCP Lease Time (v) IP Reservation DHCP Scope Scope having the range oI IP address Ior providing dynamic IP address to other computer. A group oI IP address within a scope is called as DHCP scope. DHCP Super Scope A super scope is used to combine two or more scopes each serving diIIerent subnets, and can make the administration oI several scopes on window 2003 DHCP server more manageable. Using super scope you can group multiple scopes as a single administrative www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ entity that allows the client to lease Irom either one. With this Ieature, a DHCP server can: Support DHCP clients on a single physical network segment where multiple logical IP networks are used. When more than one logical IP network is used on each physical subnet or network, such conIiguration is called multinets. Support DHCP clients located on the Iar side oI DHCP and BOOTP relay agent. In multinet conIiguration, DHCP superscope can be used to group and activate individual scope ranges oI IP addresses used on your network. In this way , a DHCP server computer can activate and provide leases Irom more than one scope to clients on a single physical network. Exclusion IP range II you want to reserve some IP Ior any computer i.e iI we want that Irom the series oI 192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 iI we want that a series oI IP addresses must not be assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range. DHCP Leased Time DHCP lease time is validity oI IP address. By deIault DHCP lease time is 8 days minimum,1 day maximum 999 days, 23 hours to53 day. With in 8 days:- AIter 80 oI day clients demand new IP some times server reIuse the client request. AIter 87.5 oI days it will retry, and iI the server did not give the new IP address then the client will receive APIPA address (Automatic Private IP Address). When a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a random IP address Irom the private APIPA address range oI 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask oI 255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is not in use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host number Ior that network. The signiIicance oI APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot Iind a DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other computers on the same subnet mask that also cannot Iind DHCP server. It allows communication www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ when DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assign a deIault gateway, and thereIore it cannot communicate with any computer that lives on the other side oI a router. IP Reservation There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by statically Iilling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help oI MAC address Ior a particular computer. 3.6.2 Installation Steps of DHCP Server start control panel add and remove program add and remove window components select networking services and click on detail button check box oI DHCP server ok finish 3.6.2.1 Steps To Configure DHCP Server start program administrative tool select DHCP create new scope in action menu new scope next give scope name next give IP address range next add exclusion name next check lease duration next finish AIter DHCP server is conIigured, it is required to be authorized and DHCP scope should be active. For that select DHCP server and click on authorize in action menu. Then right click on scope name and click on active. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.6.2.2 On Client Side Go to LAN card properties select TCP/IP protocol properties Select obtain IP address automatically Go to command prompt (cmd) Give command 3.6.2.3 Backup of DHCP Server We can take backup oI all the conIiguration in DHCP server with the help oI administrator. Backup means to export the DHCP database to another system, as it is helpIul in case due to any reason our data is corrupted or deleted, we can take our database Irom the place where it is stored. Steps oI taking backup : Stop the DHCP server and disable the DHCP server services Copy the DHCP server directory to a temporary location, say pen drive or on a new DHCP server. 3.6.3 DHCP Relay Agent The DHCP relay agent is a soItware that listen DHCP discover packet and Iorward to DHCP server. In window 2003 server system the DHCP relay agent can be enabled as a part oI Routing and Remote Access (RRAS). 3.6.3.1 Steps To Configure DHCP Relay Agent Set the network, Iill the IP address and select two LAN cards Open Routing and Remote Access enable Routing and Remote Access Right click on general new routing protocols Select DHCP relay agent New interface Select LAN card which is to be connected to the cross cable i.e L1 Ok www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Right click on relay agent properties Enter IP address of DHCP server add apply ok 3.7 ACTIVE DIRECTORY With the release oI Windows 2000, MicrosoIt introduced Active Directory, a scalable, robust directory service. Active Directory is used to create server based networking. Active Directory`s job is to store and make available a Directory database i.e inIormation about the user, its class, name, address, mails, phone numbers, location. Active Directory is a technology created by MicrosoIt that provides a variety oI network services like Directory Services, DNS based naming and other network inIormation. Active Directory also allows administrator to assign policies, deploy soItware and apply critical updates to an organizations. Active Directory was previewed in 1999, released Iirst with window 2000 server edition and revised to extend Iunctionally and improve administration in Window 2003. Additional improvements were made in Window server 2003 and Window server 2008. The Iundamental building block oI MicrosoIt`s Directory services continues to be a domain. A domain is logically grouping oI network resources, including shares, printers, groups and users accounts. The user account represents the individual to domain, and allows Ior diIIerent type oI access and diIIerent types oI tasks. Every users account is unique. It has uniqueness oI the user account that allows administrator to control access Ior every member oI domain. There are two types oI users accounts: local account and domain account. Local accounts are maintained in the local database oI a computer and cannot be used to grant access to network resources. Local users are primarily used to administer a computer or to allow several people to share a single computer that is not a member oI a domain. Whereas domain users accounts are much more widely used in organizations that local user accounts because they allow Ior central administration and user can log onto any computer in the domain. Domain users accounts are stored in Active Directory. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.7.1 Active Directory Services A computer network can be divided logically into two networking models. Workgroup Domain Difference Between Workgroup and Domain Table 9 Workgroup Domain 1. It is a peer-to-peer networking model. 2. There is no client and no server. All computers are in equal status. 3.This model is recommended Ior small networks (upto 10 pcs). 4. There is no centralized Admin- istration and each PC is administrated separately. 5.In this model, low grade operating system like 2000/xp proIessional, win 98 etc can be used. 6. Workgroup can be given names like sales, HR, accounts etc. 1. It is a server based networking model. 2.there is a centralized dedicated server computer called domain controller (DC)which controls all other computers called clients. 3. This model is recommended Ior large networks. 4. There is centralized administration and each PC can be administrated and managed Irom the server. 5.In this model high grade operating system ,like win2000/2003 server are used. 6. Domain can also given names like abc.com, xyz.com etc. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 7 Users accounts are created in each PC and are called as 'Local Users. 7.Users accounts are created on sever side DC and are called as Domain Users. Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary. Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides beIore they can access resources, such as a shared Iolders. Active Directory also links related domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any oI the domain in which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures oI related domain is called a tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace. All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a Iorest. All domains in the Iorest share same schema. 3.7.1.1 Types of Domain Domain Forest Domain Tree Organization unit Domain Forest A Iorest is created when window 2k3 server computer is conIigured as a domain controller. A Iorest is a collection oI multiple domain link together and relationship between the domains. Domain Tree A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain in the Iorest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set oI two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent domain. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 8: Structure of domain forest and domain tree Organization Unit (OU) Organization unit is the smallest unit in a domain network that can contain users, computer groups, shared Iolders, printers and group policy object in simple words. OU means department like sale department, accounts department like sales, accounts in a company OU can be used to apply diIIerent security policies to computer and users in diIIerent department. OU also helps in dividing administration among diIIerent administrator oI managing only computer and users oI sales department. 3.7.1.2 Types of Domain Controller (i) PDC : Primary domain controller (ii) ADC : Additional domain controller (iii) BDC : Backup domain controller www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Primary Domain Controller (PDC) This is the Iirst domain controller, in this domain all entries are created in it like users account, group policy, Organization unit etc. All FSMO role are done in PDC. Additional Domain Controller (ADC) It is a domain network, it is important to have more than one DC so that iI one DC Iails, the other DC will continue serving the client. There is also load balancing oI Active Directory Service iI we have more than one DC. The Iirst DC we create is simply called PDC and iI we create an extra DC then that DC is known as ADC. ADC has same conIiguration oI AD as primary domain controller. All domain controllers in a domain networking are masters. We can make a change in the active directory oI any domain controller and that change is replicated to all other domain controllers. Replication takes place among all the domain controllers and it is controlled automatically. II we create a user in the Iirst domain controller, it is automatically created in the ADC because oI replication. All the domain controllers in the domain networking are peers and this model is called as multi- master model . Fig 9: Multi-Master Model
3.7.1.3 Requirements of Active Directory (i) Window 2000/2003 server computer. (ii) Atleast one NTFS partition. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (iii) Static IP address (iv) Atleast 1GB Iree hard disk space (v) LAN card enabled and connected to the network (vi) Install DNS, iI not installed oI Active Directory and conIigure it. It should be noted that active directory cannot work without DNS.DNS is automatically installed and conIigured during the Active Directory installation. 3.7.1.4 Installation of Active Directory First oI all Iill the static IP address, then install DNS service into it and aIter that install the Active Directory start run dcpromo Ok Welcome to active directory next next Select domain controller Ior a new domain e.g (gmail.com) Next Domain NETBIOS name (gmail.com) Next Data Iolder, Iolder new tech directory service next (SYS VOL) Next Click on install and conIigure the DNS server on this computer to use this DNS server as its preIerred DNS server. Tick on permission compatible only with window server Next Enter the restore mode and the password next next finish now restart computer Command used Ior the removal oI Active Directory www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ start run dcpromo This command is also used to remove active directory, iI aIter this command the active directory is not removed then type startrun cmddcpromo /forceremoval Ok How to identify Active Directory installation Start administrator tool AIter that iI three options speciIied iI come, it means that Active Directory has been installed - Active Directory domain and trusts - Active Directory sites and services - Active Directory users and computer Open DNS console by Administrator toolsDNS Forward lookup zone - msdcs.exam.edu - start oI authority (SOA) - name server (NS) Now ping active directory with domain name like start run ping gmail.com Backup of Active Director Active Directory backup come in use when there is some problem in active directory. II there is any problem in active directory then remove it and restore the backup. Start runntbackupok Select advance mode and untick that is already ticked Select backup www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Selsct system state Change backup path browse keep in your hardware and then send it to the pen drive D:\adbackup 3.7.2 CHILD DOMAIN A domain is created say 'xyz.com. this domain is known as parent domain or the root domain. Now 'chd.xyz.com will be the child domain or the sub domain oI xyz.com. Fig 10 : parent-child relationship model A child domain is created to ease administration in a very large domain network. We can create the parent domain in the head oIIice oI the company and the child domain in the branch oIIices. Each branch oIIice will have its own administrator to manage the users oI the child domain present in the branch oIIice. A true relationship is automatically created between the parent domain and the child domain. This means users in the child domain can access the Iile server oI the www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ parent domain. Moreover users oI either domain can use clients oI either domain Ior logging in the domain but a user can always logon only in the domain in which his account resides, though he physically can use client pc oI parent or client domain. Users oI either domain can logon its own domain Irom either side but only when it use its own domain name. users oI parent domain can communicate with child domain but he has to use its domain name Ior that. 3.7.2.1 Steps to create child domain First oI all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram Below are the steps to cerate child domain. Fill the IP address in the child domain Now ping to the parent domain with the domain name (xyz.com) Run dcpromo ok next select domain controller Ior a new domain next select child domain and existing domain name (mcse.com) next enter username, password and domain name enter user parent domain name also enter child domain name enter complete DNS name i.e xyz.mcse.com next next next next www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the other hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can apply policies or security on the child domain. Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name. First right click on My Computer Properties Computer name Change Write domain name ok Now logoII start and then write user name - Tom Domain name - mcse.com Again logoII and check the other user Start-user name- abc Domain name mail.mcse.com
3.8 INTERNET SHAREING We can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help oI networking or internet sharing. There are Iour ways to share internet. (i) Direct sharing (ii) ICS Internet connection sharing (iii) Win Proxy (iv) NAT Network Address Translation 3.8.1 Direct Sharing Internet sharing can be done between computers directly, just by taking internet connection directly Irom ISP (Internet Server provider), then it is provided to ADSL model, ADSL modem is connected to the ISP through RJ-11 connector. Then it is www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ connected to the switch with RJ-45 connector. Switch, Iurther connects computers those have to be provided with internet connection. The scenario Ior direct sharing is as shown in Iigure:
Fig: 11: Direct Sharing Scenario ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS (Domain Name Server) and GW (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs automatically. 3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing) Internet Connection sharing provides an alternate way to provide Internet Sharing. ICS requires a server with two network interIaces, one Ior the private internal network conIigured with IP 192.168.0.1 address and an adapter Ior public connection. ICS requires two connections in order to work: one public and one private i.e. ICS server www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ requires two LAN cards, Internal (Private) and External (Public). Internal LAN card uses Local LAN card (L2) and External LAN card (L1) is used by Internet. ICS is designed to be as simple as possible. ICS works on Iollowing windows: XP, Vista, 2K3 Server, 2k3 Server SP1.it doesn`t work on the server in which ADSP1 is present. The scenario Ior ICS is shown below: Fig 12: ICS scenario Note:- When we conIigure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address automatically. How to configure ICS Open network and sharing center Network- Properties Click on Manage network connections Right click on LAN Card which is used Ior internet- Properties Click on sharing Enable ICS Ok yes www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.8.3 Win Proxy Server Win Proxy is a third party soItware which is used Ior sharing internet and we can also block the web site with the help oI win proxy. WIN Proxy supports all the three classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario Ior WIN proxy is shown below: Fig 13: scenario of win proxy server
In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First oI all a ADSL modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector and other end oI ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address 192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP address oI 192.168.1.2 and end IP address oI 192.168.1.254. Then aIter ADSL modem connect PC1, assign GW 192.168.1.1 and 3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation) II we have to connect many computers with a single IP address then we will use NAT. NAT exchange IP packet between local network and internet. The routing and remote access server oI window 2K3 server provide us with a component known as NAT. By enabling NAT on a Server 2003 system, you allow connected users on a private system to www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ share a single connection to access a public network such as the internet i.e. NAT enable multiple client computer to connect the internet through a single publicly registered IP address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT eliminates the need Ior large number oI IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addresses.
Fig 14: NAT server
When deploying NAT, it is needed to conIigure setting on both the client side and the server side. On the server side oI NAT Iill the IP address statically. 3.8.4.1 Steps to enable NAT server Open internet Tools Internet options connections LAN settings untick the IP and port address ok ok give site name . On the client side oI NAT, client side is conIigured to obtain IP addresses automatically and then restart the client system. Assuming NAT is used Ior address assignment, the client system will receive TCP/IP inIormation Irom the NAT server. The client inIormation includes: IP address Irom 192.168.0.0 private addressing range www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Subnet mask (255.255.255.0) DNS server address, which would be the address oI the NAT interIace on the server. With the client side conIigured, there are Iew things to do on NAT server: The Iirst step to conIigure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard. Start administrator tools Routing & Remote Access Right click on My Computer right click on computer name Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access Welcome to routing next next Select NAT next Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet next next From any oI the Iour methods oI internet sharing only method is used at a time to remove the other method go to start setting add & remove change/ remove, tick on remove. 3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN) A virtual private network is used to convert public network address to private network. All the clients oI VPN dial to public IP address oI VPN server and receive private IP Irom virtual VPN dynamic host protocol (DHCP).in VPN one can have multiple virtual connections to a single IP address. This way ,one network card can host several inbound connections, rather than require a modem and telephone line Ior each simultaneous remote user. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 15 : scenario of VPN server Using VPN server we can connect many private networks to internet services i.e the remote connection. We can create a private network through public network, we can use Iirewall Ior security and data encryption in VPN server. 3.9.1 VPN components (i) VPN server (ii) VPN Clients (iii) WAN Option (iv) Security Options VPN Server VPN server, serve as the end points oI a VPN connection. When conIiguring a VPN server, you can allow access to just that server, or pass traIIic through VPN server so that the remote user gain access the resources oI the entire network. VPN Client VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client soItware is included in all the modern window operating systems, including Window 2003 server. Router-to router VPN connection can be made Irom computers running server2003 and Windows 2000 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or L2TP connections can be VPN clients oI a window server 2003 system. WAN Options These provide the physical mechanism Ior passing data back and Iorth. These connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or Irame relay. In order Ior VPN connections to be successIul, the VPN client and VPN server must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing into an internet server provider (ISP). Security Options Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet Iiltering and caller ID. 3.9.2 Types of VPN (i) PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol ) (ii) L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA. Point to Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) PPTP is MicrosoIt`s legacy protocol Ior supporting VPN. It was developed in conjunction with other communications companies such as Robotics as an extension to the PPP protocol. PPTP encapsulates IP or IPX packets inside oI PPP datagram`s. This means that you can remotely run programs that are dependent upon particular network protocols. One oI the keys to remember about PPTP is that the protocol provides encryption capabilities, making it much saIer to send inIormation over nonsecure networks. Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) L2TP is a standard based encapsulation protocol with roughly the same Iunctionality as a Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). One oI the key diIIerences www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ between Window`s server 2003 implementation oI L2TPand it cousin PPTP is that L2TPis designed to run natively over IP networks only. This implementation oI L2TP does not support native tunneling over X.25, Irame relay, or ATM networks. Like PPTP, L2TPencapsulates Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Irames, which then encapsulate IP or IPX protocols, allowing users to remotely run programs that are dependent on speciIic network protocols . But unlike the PPTP protocol, L2TP does not provide encryption oI the data. For data security L2TPrelies on the services oI another standards- based protocol, IPSec. 3.9.3 How to configure VPN startadministrative tools Routing and Remote access Right click on computer name configure and enable Routing and Remote access next select remote access (dial up or VPN) next VPN next select LAN card which is connected to internet (172.15.15.50) public IP disable enable security next Irom a speciIic range oI address nextnew enter the required range oknext no radius next finish 3.9.4 Create users in VPN server open user properties dial in allow access apply ok 3.9.5 Working on Client Side Right click on My Network Places properties Double click on New Network Wizard next www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Connect to network at my work place next Virtual private network connection next Enter company name (abc) next Enter public IP address oI VPN server next Any one use next finish 3.10 ROUTING It is a process oI transIerring inIormation through an inter network i.e Irom one network to another. Routing connect diIIerent networks having ID help in process oI routing. The dial-in properties also allow Ior speciIic IP address to be assigned to a user. This is the only way in Window Server 2003 that you can assign a speciIic IP to a user. To assign a speciIic IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Address and enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be speciIied as per user. By deIining static routes, users can be limited to only speciIic parts oI networks. In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the Ior eIIort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer conIigured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network cards. These two network cards, then, are attached to two diIIerent logical IP networks. The routing table helps direct traIIic that is passed through the router. Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to conIigure the router in order Ior that router to pass along traIIic to the proper network. There are two ways the routing table can be built and modiIied: either manually or automatically. 3.10.1 Types of Routing (i) Static Routing (ii) Dynamic Routing www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.10.1.1 Static Routing In this routing inIormation required Ior routing is manually entered into the router by administrator. How to configure LAN routing Enter the static IP in the router Administrator tools Routing and Remote access Right click on computer name (pcc1) Configure and enable routing and remote access next custom configuration select LAN routingnext finish yes and logon to see IP table route Enable LAN routing enable LAN routing InterIace WAN InterIace WAN 10.0.0.0 IP 172.15.0.0 IP 10.0.0.0 SNM 255.255.0.0 SNM 255.0.0.0 GW 20.0.0.2 GW 20.0.0.1
Fig 16 : scenario for LAN routing How to configure static routing www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ At Router R1: enable LAN routing right click on static route interface WAN destination 172.15.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 GW 20.0.0.2 At Router R2: Enable LAN routing Right click on static route Interface WAN Destination 10.0.0.0 Mask 255.0.0.0 GW 20.0.0.1
Fig 17 : static routing 3.10.1.2 Dynamic Routing www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ The other way to manage a router routing tables is to let the computer do it Ior you. Just like DHCP allocate IP addresses, conIiguring the dynamic routing protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative overhead. In dynamic routing, routing inIormation is automatically entered in the router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by Window Server 2003 use one oI two kinds oI algorithms to determine the best possible path Ior a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or link state. RIP is used Ior small networks where as OSPF is used Ior large networks. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) The distance vector protocol in use on Window 2003 is called Routing InIormation Protocol (RIP) Ior IP. This protocol was designed Ior the exchange oI the routing inIormation within a small to medium size IP network. When Router is enabled on Window 2003 machine, the routing table includes entries only Ior the networks that are physically connected. When RIP is enabled Ior an interIace, the router will periodically send an announcement oI its routing table to inIorm other RIP routers oI the networks it can reach. RIP version1 uses broadcast packets Ior its announcement. RIP version2 oIIers an improvement and can be conIigured to use either multicast or broadcast packets when communicating with other routers. Also, RIP version2 oIIers more Ilexibility in subnetted and classless inter domain routing (CIDR) environments. The biggest advantage oI RIPis its simplicity. With a Iew clicks in the Routing and Remote Access Server and MMC console, you can deploy RIP. With the RIP dynamic routing protocol installed on Window`s Server 2003, you get the Iollowing Ieatures:
(i) RIP version1 and version2, with the ability to conIigure individual network cards with separate versions. (ii) Calculations used to avoid routing loops and speed recovery oI the network whenever topology changes occur. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (iii) Route Iilters; you can conIigure RIP to except inIormation Irom only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared with RIP routers. (iv) Peer Iilters, which allow control over which router announcements are accepted. (v) Simple password authentication support. But there are signiIicant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, iI not unusable solution Ior large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used Ior RIP routers is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Where RIP is built to work to work in smaller networks, the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol is designed Ior large or very large networks. The goal is the same: inIormation about connection to other networks is shared Irom one router to another. It oIIers several advantages over RIP, especially signiIicant in large networks: (i) Routes calculated with OSPF are always loop Iree. (ii) OSPF can scale much more easily than RIP. (iii) ReconIiguration Ior network topology changes is Iaster. The biggest reason OSPF is the choice in large networks is its eIIiciency; instead oI changing routing table via broadcast the way RIP does, OSPF conIigured routers maintain a map oI the network. The mapping is called the link state database, OSPF routers keep the link state database up to date. Once changes have been made to link state database, an OSPF router`s link state database is recalculated. As the networks start to multiply, the size oI the link state database increases, and a corresponding hit on router perIormance results. To combat this, OSPF sub divide the network into smaller sections, called areas. Areas are connected to each other through a backbone area, with each router only responsible Ior the link state database Ior those areas connected to the routers. Area Border Routers (ABRs) then connect one backbone area to another. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ The biggest drawback oI OSPF is its complexity; OSPF requires proper planning and is more diIIicult to conIigure and administer. 3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER Exchange server is a mail server, we can send and receive mail Irom one user to another user. Exchange server is the mail server oI MicrosoIt. 3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server Mail Server A server which helps to the users to send and receive mail is called mail server. Mail Box A storage place where senders and receivers mails are stored. 3.11.2 Exchange Version Table 10: Exchange Server with diIIerent operating systems Exchange Version Operating System Exchange Server 5.5 Exchange Server 2000 Exchange Server 2003 Exchange server 2007 WIN NT or 2000 server (without SP). WIN NT or 2000 server (SP3,SP4) without (SP). WIN 2000 Server or WIN2003 server (SP4) without SP. WIN2003 server or R2/WIN 2008 server with SP1.
Where SP stands Ior Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded externally to remove some bugs that come during installation oI server CD. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.11.3 Requirements for Exchange Server Protocols Required POP3 (Post Office Protocol) This protocol is used Ior receiving e- mails. IMAE4 (Internet Messaging Access Protocol) This protocol is advance version oI POP, this is also used to receive mail. LMTP (Local Mail Transfer Protocol)/SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) This protocol is used to send mails. NNTP (Network News Transfer protocol) This protocol is used Ior transIerring messages on internet. Hardware Requirements Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz RAM: min. 256MB Rec. 512MB Other Requirements OS: 2k or 2k3 Server NTFS partition Static IP address Active Directory DNS installation with AD zone IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service 3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network. OSI provides Iollowing advantages: - (i) Development oI new technology will be Iaster. (ii) Devices Irom multiple vendors can communicate with each other. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (iii) Implementation and troubleshooting oI network will be easy. 3.12.1 Description of Different Layers Application Layer Application layer accepts data and Iorward into the protocol stack. It creates user interIace between application soItware and protocol stack. Presentation Layer This layer decides presentation Iormat oI the data. It also able to perIorms other Iunction like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption. Session Layer This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between diIIerent applications. Due to this layer multiple application soItware can be executed at the same time. Transport Layer Transport layer is responsible Ior connection oriented and connection less communication. Transport layer also perIorms other Iunctions like (i) Error checking (ii) Flow Control BuIIering Windowing Multiplexing (iii) Sequencing (iv) Positive Acknowledgement (v) Response (vi) Network Layer This layer perIorms Iunction like logical addressing and path determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network. Logical addressing deIines network address and host address. This type oI addressing is used to simpliIy implementation oI large network. Some www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ examples oI logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc. Network layer has diIIerent routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and ARP etc. to perIorm the path determination Ior diIIerent routing protocol. Network layer also perIorm other responsibilities like deIining quality oI service, Iragmentation and protocol identiIication. Data Link Layer The Iunctions oI Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers Logical Link Control Media Access Control (i) Logical Link Control deIines the encapsulation that will be used by the NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples oI Logical Link Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-Ii. (ii) Media Access Control deIines methods to access the shared media and establish the identity with the help oI MAC address. Some examples oI Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing. Physical Layer Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this layer deals with the standard deIined Ior media and signals. This layer may also perIorm modulation and demodulation as required. 3.13 ROUTERS www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 13.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component Incomplete IOS IOS Startup ConIiguration Fig 18 : Architecture of router Processor Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz Architecture: - RISC Reduce Instruction set computer ManuIacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Orion, Intel. Flash RAM Flash memory is just like a hard copy oI the computer. Flash RAM is the permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies oI router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The size oI Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM). NVRAM NVRAM is a 'Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store the startup conIiguration oI the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb. Processor Memory Controller BIOS ROM NVRAM RAM Flash RAM O/S I/O Controller LAN WAN Ports www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ RAM (Random Access Memory) It is a volatile memory. All the activities we do are stored in RAM,this means that it holds the running conIiguration. RAM oI the router is divided into two logical parts. Primary RAM Shared RAM Primary RAM Primary RAM is used Ior: - (i) Running copy oI IOS. (ii) Running conIiguration (iii) Routing table (iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC address) (v) Processor & other data structure Shared RAM Shared RAM is used as a buIIer memory to shared the data received Irom diIIerent interIaces. Size oI RAM in a router may vary Irom 2 MB to 512 MB. The types oI memory that may be present in a RAM are: (i) DRAM -~ Dynamic RAM (ii) EDORAM -~ Extended Data Out RAM (iii) SDRAM -~ Synchronous Dynamic RAM ROM (Random Access Memory) It has Iour components: POST (Power on SelI Test) It perIorms hardware testing. BOOT Strap Boot strap speciIies Irom where and which inter operating system is to be loaded. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Mini IOS Cisco 2500, 1600 ROM MOW 333333 Router Inter!ces " #orts InterIace is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router. InterIace will use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used Ior the conIiguration oI routers. Ports are not used to connect diIIerent networks. The primary purpose oI port is the management oI router. 33333333 Router Interface Table 11: Router interfaces and connectors AUI Attachment Unit InterIace EPABX Electronic Private Automatic Branch PSTN Public Services Telephone Network 3.13.2.2 Router Ports Table 12: Router Ports www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
333333 Modes o Router When we access router command prompt the router will display diIIerent modes. According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user. User mode Router> In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status oI the router we can test connectivity and perIorm telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change and save router conIiguration. Privileged mode Router# In this mode, we can display all inIormation, conIiguration, perIorm administration task, debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perIorm here conIiguration editing oI the router. The command to enter in this mode is enable`. We have to enter enable password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ than enable password. II both passwords are conIigured then only enable secret will work. Global configuration Route(config)# This mode is used Ior the conIiguration oI global parameters in the router. Global parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are perIormed in this mode. But here we cannot see and save the changes. For e.g: - router hostname or access list oI router, password, Banner, Routing, Security. The command to enter in this mode is conIigure terminal` Line configuration mode In this mode we can set the password oI the user mode, i.e to set user mode password .This mode is used to conIigure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main types oI line that are conIigured. (i) Console Router(config)#line console 0 (ii) Auxiliary Router(config)#line aux 0 (iii) Telnet or vty Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Interface configuration mode In this mode we can set ip addresses oI the interIaces. This mode is used to conIigure router interIaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interIace type~ number~ Router(config)#interIace serial 1 Routing configuration mode This mode is used to conIigure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc. Router(config)#router protocol~ |option~| www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Router(config)#router rip Router(config)#router eigrp 10 333333 Coni$urin$ #!ss%ord There are Iive types oI password available in a router Console Password router#conIigure terminal router(conIig)#line console 0 router(conIig-line)#password word~ router(conIig-line)#login router(conIig-line)#exit To erase password do all steps with no command. Vty Password router~enable router#conIigure terminal router(conIig)#line vty 0 4 router(conIig-line)#password word~ router(conIig-line)#login router(conIig-line)#exit Auxiliary Password router#conIigure terminal router(conIig)#line Aux 0 router(conIig-line)#password word~ router(conIig-line)#login router(conIig-line)#exit Enable Password router~enable router#conIigure terminal www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ router(conIig)#enable password word~ router(conIig)#exit Enable Secret Password Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in conIiguration where as enable secret password is the encrypted password. Router~enable Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#enable secret word~ Router(conIig)#exit Encryption all passwords All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. The command to encrypt all password are Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#service password-encryption 3.13.& M!n!$in$ Coni$ur!tion There are two types oI conIiguration present in a router (i) Startup ConIiguration (ii) Running ConIiguration Startup conIiguration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup conIiguration is used to save settings in a router. Startup conIiguration is loaded at the time oI booting in to the Primary RAM. Running ConIiguration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a command Ior conIiguration, this command is written in the running conIiguration. To save configuration Router#copy running-conIiguration startup-conIiguration Or Router#write www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ To abort configuration Router#copy startup-conIiguration running-conIiguration To display running-configuration Router#show running-conIiguration To display startup configuration Router#show startup-conIiguration Coni$urin$ 'ost N!me Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#hostname name~ name~#exit or end or /\z Router#conIig terminal Router(conIig)#hostname r1 R1(conIig)# Coni$ur!tion Inter!ces InterIaces conIiguration is one oI the most important part oI the router conIiguration. By deIault, all interIaces oI Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use diIIerent commands as our requirement to enable and conIigure the interIace. Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace type~ no~ Router(conIig-iI)#ip address ip~ mask~ Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router(conIig-iI)#exit To display interface status Router#show interIaces (to show all interIaces) Router#show interIace type~ no~ This command will display Iollowing parameters about an interIace (1) Status www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ (2) Mac address (3) IP address (4) Subnet mask (5) Hardware type / manuIacturer (6) Bandwidth (7) Reliability (8) Delay (9) Load ( Tx load Rx load) (10) Encapsulation (11) ARP type (iI applicable) (12) Keep alive Configuring optional parameter on WAN interface Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIac type~ no~ Router(conIig-iI)#encapsulation protocol~ Router(conIig-iI)#clock rate value~ Router(conIig-iI)#end Command displaying history of Router To display commands present in history Router#show history To display history size Router#show terminal To change history size Router#conIig terminal Router(conIig)#line console 0 Router(conIig-iI)#history size value(0-256)~ Router(conIig-iI)#exit www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Coni$urin$ (!nners Banners are just a message that can appear at diIIerent prompts according to the type. DiIIerent banners are: - Message oI the day (motd) This banner appear at every access method Login Appear beIore login prompt Exec Appear aIter we enter to the execution mode Incoming Appear Ior incoming connections Syntax:- Router#conIig terminal Router(conIig)#banner type~ delimation char~Text Massage delimation char~ Router(conIig)# Example Router#conIig terminal Router(conIig)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router connected to Reliance $ Router(conIig)# To set time in router We can conIigure router clock with the help oI two methods: (i) ConIigure clock locally (ii) ConIigure clock on NTP server (Network Time Protocol) Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset to the deIault on reboot. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ To display clock Router#show clock To configure clock Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009 To configure clock from NTP server Router#conIig terminal Router(conIig)#ntp server IP address~ Router(conIig)#exit C:\~ping pool.ntp.org To get ntp server ip Irom internet C:\~route print 3.14 SUBNETTING Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is done to reduce the wastage oI IP addresses ie instead oI having a single huge network Ior an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based networks. In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id. This process borrows bits Irom the host id Iield. In this process, the network size does not shrink but the size oI hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within the network. 333333 Advantages of subnetting Size oI the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage. Reduce network traIIic. Easy to troubleshoot. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Reduce the wastage oI IP address. Subnet Mask A subnet mask speciIies the part oI IP address that is to be used Ior identiIying a sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit network address. This binary address gives the Iirst address in the subnet block speciIied in the large network. Default Mask ClassIull addresses consists oI three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used Ior subnet.Each class has a deIault subnet mask C lass A consists oI eight 1s in the network address Iield and 24 0s in remaining Iield, Class B consists oI 16 1s in network address Iield and 16 0s in remaining Iield, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network address Iield and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the deIault address mask in binary and dotted-decimal is shown in the table To Calculate the Subnet Mask 1. IdentiIy the class oI address assigned. For this example the class oI IP address is Class B. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 2. check the deIault address mask Ior the appropriate class and convert it to binary Iormat .Ior this example the deIault address mask is 255.255.0.0 and the equivalent binary Iormat is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 3. check the no. oI 1s in the deIault mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class B, 16 bits 2 octat are Ior net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are Ior host id. 4. now iI we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power oI 2. the next no. that is power oI 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the network Iield which has to be borrowed Irom the host id Iield. 5. the total no. oI 1s is 16420, as 16 1s are Irom network id and 4 1s are oI additional bits required Ior subnetwork. The no. oI 0s in the n/w is 32-2012. which deIines whole address. 6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in decimal Iormat can be given as 255.255.240.0 Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask Decimal Binary 0 128 192 224 240 248 252 254 255 00000000 10000000 11000000 11100000 11110000 11111000 11111100 11111110 11111111 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 333333 Types of Subnetting Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM) Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) Steps of Subnetting for FLSM For IP address 192.168.10.0 (Class C) Step 1: IdentiIy the total no. oI subnets 2`n no.oI subnets Where n are the no.s and borrowed bytes Irom host ID portion. Let we are given that we have to make 4 subnets. ThereIore 2`n 4 i.e n2 Step 2: To idettiIy the total no. oI the valid hosts Ior each subnet. 2`m-2 no.oI valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. oI bits in host ID 2`6- 262 Step 3: Calculate the subnet mask and range Subnet mask Ior n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is 11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192 range~ 256-19264 step 4: IdentiIy the total no oI subnets, no. oI valid hosts and the broadcast address.
www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address Subnetwork Valid Host Broadcast Address 192.168.10.0 192.168.10.64 192.168.10.12 8 192.168.10.19 2 192.168.10.1 to 192.168.10.63 192.168.10.65 to 192.168.10.126 192.168.10.129 to 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.193 to 192.168.10.254 192.168.10.63 192.168.10.127 192.168.10.191 192.168.10.255 VLSM In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. oI hosts. The network having more no oI hosts is given priority and the one having least no oI host comes at last and Ior each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario given: www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ )i$ 1*+ ,!ri!-le su-net m!s. 3.15 TELNET Telnet stands Ior terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on the network. Purpose oI Telnet is to access the remote device in order to conIigure it. It provides textual access oI the remote device. It uses the services oI TCP. Telnet service is used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access oI the remote device. Port number oI Telnet is 23. 3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely For this purpose we have to assign the IP addresses to the PCs and the interIaces. For Telnet the Routers are to be conIigured with RIP version1 , so that the device can ping each other. Also DCE cable is used to connect the Routers. The serial link should have the speed oI 64K also apply vty password and enable secret password. Set up the Routers so that they can manage via Telnet. First oI all select the PCs and the routers connect the ports to the router, double click on router, switch oII the router iI it is on. Then select the serial port according to the routers, switch on the router. Select the cable to connect the Routers. Router to Router connections are made by the serial cable, so go on Iirst Router select the serial port as s0/1/0 in the scenario, then go to the other Router and connect the serial cable at interIace s1/0. Accordingly connect the third Router with interIaces s1/1 and s1/2. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Now connect the PCs to the routers, to do this Iirst select the console cable, click on the PC select RS232 option, then connect it on the Router and select console cable. Now select cross- over cable on the PC select Fast Ethernet option and on the Router select I0/0 option now as the PCs and Routers are connected to each other assign IP addresses to the PCs and the Routers. According to the Iig set the IP addresses oI the PCs double click on the PC choose the option oI desktop IP conIiguration. Now set the IP address, subnet mask, and the deIault gateway. Like wise set the IP address oI all the PCs. Now set the IP address oI the interIaces oI router. 3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces: At Router1: Router~ Router~enable Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace I0/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Fig 20: scenario of Telnet www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Router# Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace s0/1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router(conIig)#interIace s0/1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#clock rate 64000 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interIaces the command used is Router#show ip interIace brieI At router 2: Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace I0/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router# Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace s1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace s1/1 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router(conIig)#interIace s1/1 Router(conIig-iI)#clock rate 64000 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ At router 3: Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace I0/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown Router# Router#conIigure terminal Router(conIig)#interIace s1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(conIig-iI)#no shutdown To Telnet a device from Router At all the Routers use these commands Router(conIig)#line vty 0 4 Router(conIig-line)#password cobra Router(conIig-line)#login Router(conIig)#enable password cobra Router(conIig)#enable secret cobra1 To telnet a device from router Router#telnet IP~ Or Router~telnet IP~ To exit from telnet session Router#exit To exit from a hanged telnet session CtrlshIt6 Or www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Router#disconnect To display connected session Router#show sessions This command shows those sessions, which are created or connected by us. II we want anyone can telnet our router without password then on the line vty type command 'No Login. 3.16 ROUTING Routing is a process or technique to identiIy the path Irom one network to another. Routers don`t really care about hoststhey only care about networks and the best path to each network. To route the packet the router must know the Iollowing things: Destination network Neighbour device Irom witch it can learn about remote Networking. Possible number oI routers to reach the destination. Best route to reach the destination. How to maintain & veriIy the routing inIormation. 3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING Static routing. DeIault routing. Dynamic routing. 3.16.1.1 STATIC ROUTING In static routing an administrator speciIies all the routes to reach the destination. Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router`s routing table.By deIault, Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) oI 1 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Features There is no overhead on the router CPU. There is no bandwidth usage between routers. It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain networks only. Advantages of static routing (1) Fast and eIIicient. (2) More control over selected path. (3) Less overhead Ior router. (4) Bandwidth oI interIaces is not consumed in routing updates. Dis!d,!nt!$es o st!tic routin$ (1) More overheads on administrator. (2) Load balancing is not easily possible. (3) In case oI topology change routing table has to be change manually. Syntax for Static Routing Router (conIig)# ip route destination N/w~ Subnet mask~ Next Hope- address or exit interIace~ |administrative distance~Permanent|. To c/ec. t/e routin$ t!-le o router Router # show ip route www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 21: scenario of static routing Static routing oI router (R1) Router(conIig)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router(conIig)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router(conIig)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router(conIig)#interIace so/1/0 Router(conIig)# clock rate 64000
Router # show ip route Static routing oI router (R2) Router(conIig)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1 Router(conIig)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.2 Router#show ip route Router(conIig)#interIace s1/0 Router(conIig)# clock rate 64000 Router(conIig)#interIace s1/1 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Router(conIig)#clock rate 64000 Router#show ip route Static routing oI router (R3) Router(conIig)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router(conIig)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router(conIig)#ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router(conIig)#interIace s1/0 Router(conIig)# clock rate 64000 Router#show ip route 3.16.1.2 DEFAULT ROUTING DeIault routing is used to send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table to the next-hop route. DeIault routing is also a type oI static routing which reduces the routing overhead & deIault routing is also used with stub networks. Stub networks are those having a single exit interIace. DeIault routing is also used Ior unknown destination. A special address is used to perIorm the deIault routing ie 0.0.0.0 The scenario Ior deIault routing is same and but the commands used at the routers having single exit interIace like R1 and R3 have diIIerent commands. At Router (R1) Router(conIig)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router#show ip route At Router (R3) Router(conIig)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router#show ip route www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.16.1.3 DYNAMIC ROUTING Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to Iind networks and update routing table on routers. A routing protocol deIines the set oI rules used by router when it communicates routing inIormation between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing inIormation to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the inIormation and write new routes to the routing table. The routers will pass routing inIormation receive Irom one router to other router also. II there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is selected. Some examples oI dynamic protocol are: - RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF There are two type oI routing protocols used in internetwors: Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) IGPs are used to exchange routing inIormation with routers in the same Autonomous System(AS) number. Routing which is perIormed within a single autonomous system is known as interior routing. The protocol that are used to perIorm this type oI routing are known as IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol). These protocols are:- (i) RIPv1 (Routing InIormation Protocol Version 1) (ii) RIPv2 (Routing InIormation Protocol Version 2) (iii) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) (iv) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) (v) IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System) Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) EGPs are used to communicate between diIIerent Autonomous System. Protocol that used to do this type oI routing are called exterior gateway protocols. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Autonomous System:- An autonomous system is a collection oI networks under a common administrative domain, which basically means that all routers sharing the same routing table inIormation are in the same AS. 3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics (i) Administrative Distances (ii) Routing protocol (iii) Routing Loops Administrative Distances The Administrative Distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness oI routing inIormation received on a router Irom a neighbor router. An Administrative Distance is an integer Irom 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traIIic will be passed via this route. II a router receives two updates listing he sane remote network, the Iirst thing the router checks is the AD. II one oI the advertised routes has lower AD than the other, then the route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.II both advertised routes to the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics (such as hop count or bandwidth oI the lines) will be used to Iind the best path to the remote network. The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table. But iI both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then the routing protocol will load-balance in the remote network. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.16.2.1 Classes of Routing Protocols There are three classes oI Routing Protocol (i) Distance vector protocol (ii) Link state protocol (iii) Hybrid protocol. Distance vector protocol The Distance-vector protocols Iind the best path to remote network by judging distance. Each time a packet goes through a router, that`s called a hop. The route with the least number oI hops to the network is determined to be the best route. The vector indicates the direction to the remote network. They send the entire routing table to directly connected neighbors. Ex: RIP, IGRP. The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing table contents to neighboring routers. A router receiving an update Irom a neighbor router believes the inIormation about remote networks without actually Iinding out Ior itselI. It`s possible to have network that has multiple links to the same remote network, and iI that`s the case, the administrative distance is checked Iirst. II the AD is the Route Source Default AD Connected interIace 0 Static Route 1 EIGRP 90 IGRP 100 OSPF 110 RIP 120 External EIGRP 170 Unknown 255 This route will never be used www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ same, the protocol will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to use to that remote network. Fig 16: Routing table Converged Network
Fig 23 : Routing table of covered networks Routing Loops www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Distance-vector routing protocols keep track oI any changes to the internet work by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interIaces. This broadcast includes the complete routing table. Routing loops can occur because a every router isn`t updated simultaneously. Routing Loops Example Router 0 Router ( Router D Router C Router 1 Net%or. 3 Net%or. 2 Net%or. & Fig 24: Routing loops The interIace to Network 5 Iails. All routers know about Network 5 Irom Router E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B. When Network 5 Iails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D don`t know about Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update inIormation. Router C will eventually send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and D are still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through Router B with a metric oI 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-second 'Hello, I`m still herethese are the links I know about message, which includes the ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderIul news that Network 5 can be reached Irom Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ inIormation that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined Ior Network 5 will go to Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop. Link state protocol Also called shortest-path-Iirst protocols, the routers each create three separate tables. One keeps track oI directly attached neighbors, one determines the topology oI the entire internet work, and one is used as the routing tables. Link state routers know more about the internet work than any distance-vector routing protocol. Link state protocols send updates containing the state oI their own links to all other routers on the network Ex: OSPF Hybrid protocol Hybrid protocol use aspects oI both distance-vector and link state protocol. Ex: EIGRP 3.16.3 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) Routing InIormation Protocol is a true distance-vector routing protocol. It is an IGB (Inter Gateway Protocol). It sends the complete routing table out to all active interIaces every 30 seconds to its immediate neighbour. This is slow convergence means that one router sends a request to other about its route or network get networks which are not assigned to it aIter all thee three routers have same networks, this process is repeated to send and receive request so it is called slow convergence RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop count oI 0-15 by deIault, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP version 1 uses only class Iull routing, which means that all devices in the network must use the same subnet mask. RIP version 2 provides something called preIix routing, and does send subnet mask inIormation with the route updates. This is called classless routing. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Hop Count It is a way oI measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15 routers, iI there is one more router in the network then this routing will Iails. Default administrative distance (120) Timers of RIP (i) Update timers. (ii) Hold timers. (iii) Invalid timers. (iv) Flush out timers. Route update timer Router update timer sets the interval 30 seconds between periodic routing updates, in which the router sends a complete copy oI its routing table out to all neighbors. Router invalid timers A router invalid timer determines the length oI time that must elapse 180 seconds beIore a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will come to this conclusion iI it hasn`t heard any updates about a particular route Ior that period. When that happens, thee router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting them know that the route is invalid. Hold-down timer This sets the amount oI time during which routing inIormation is suppressed. Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet is received with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The deIault is 180 seconds. Route flush timer Route Ilush timers` sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its interval Irom the routing table 240 seconds. BeIore it`s removed Irom the table, the router notiIies its neighbors oI that route`s impending demise. The value oI the route invalid timer must be less than that oI the route Ilush timers. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2
Steps to do routing (version 1) At router 1 Router(conIig)# router rip Router(conIig-router)#network 10.0.0.0 Router(conIig-router)#network 40.0.0.0 www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Router#show ip route
At router 2 Router(conIig)# router rip Router(conIig-router)#network 20.0.0.0 Router(conIig-router)# network 40.0.0.0 Router(conIig-router)# network 50.0.0.0 Router#show ip route
At router 3 Router(conIig)# router rip Router(conIig-router)#network 30.0.0.0 Router(conIig-router)# network 50.0.0.0 Router#show ip route 3.16.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco-proprietary distance-vector routing protocol. To use IGRP, all your routers must be Cisco routers. IGRP has a maximum hop count oI 255 with a deIault oI 100. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay oI the line by deIault as a metric Ior determining the best route to an internetwork. Reliability, load, and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are not used by deIault. Table 18 : Difference between IGRP and RIP IGRP RIP Can be used in large internetworks Works best in smaller networks Uses an autonomous system number Ior activation Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers Gives a Iull route table update every 90 seconds Gives Iull route table update every 30 seconds www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Has an administrative distance oI 100 Has an administrative distance oI 120 Uses bandwidth and delay oI the line as metric (lowest composite metric),with a maximum hop count oI 255 Uses only hop count to determine the best path to a remote network, with 15 hops being the maximum IGRP Timers To control perIormance, IGRP includes the Iollowing timers with deIault settings: Update timers These speciIy how Irequently routing-update messages should be sent. The deIault is 90 seconds. Invalid timers These speciIy how long a router should wait beIore declaring a route invalid iI it doesn`t receive a speciIic update about it. The deIault is three times the update period. Hold down timers These speciIy the hold down period. The deIault is three times the update timer period plus 10 seconds. Flush timers These indicate how much time should pass beIore a route should be Ilushed Irom the routing table. The deIault is seven times the routing update period. II the update timer is 90 seconds by deIault, then 7 90 630 seconds elapse beIore a route will be Ilushed Irom the route table. At Router 1 R1(conIig)#router igrp 10 R1(conIig-router)#network 10.0.0.0 R1(conIig-router)#network 40.0.0.0 R1#show ip route www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ At Router 2 R2(conIig)#router igrp 10 R2(conIig-router)#network 40.0.0.0 R2(conIig-router)#network 20.0.0.0 R2(conIig-router)#network 50.0.0.0 R2#show ip route At Router 3 R1(conIig)#router igrp 10 R1(conIig-router)#network 30.0.0.0 R1(conIig-router)#network 50.0.0.0 R1#show ip route 3.16.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol) Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that gives us a real edge over IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept oI an autonomous system to describe the set oI contiguous routers that run the same routing protocol and share routing inIormation. But unlike IGRP, EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates. The advertisement oI subnet inIormation allows us to use VLSM and summarization when designing our networks. EIGRP is sometimes reIerred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics oI both distance-vector and link-state protocols. It sends traditional distance-vector updates containing inIormation about networks plus the cost oI reaching them Irom the perspective oI the adverting router. EIGRP has a maximum hop count oI 255. Powerful features that make EIGRP a real standout from IGRP www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Support Ior IP, IPX, and AppleTalk via protocol-dependent modules Considered classless (same as RIPv2 and OSP Support Ior VLSM/CIDR Support Ior summaries and discontiguous networks EIIicient neighbor discovery Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) Best path selection via DiIIusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) Cisco calls EIGRP a distance vector routing protocol, or sometimes an advanced distance vector or even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports diIIerent Network layer protocols through the use oI protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series oI tables containing the routing inIormation that applies to a speciIic protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables, IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables. Neighbor Discovery BeIore EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met Ior neighborship establishment: Hello or ACK received AS numbers match Identical metrics (K values) To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue receiving Hellos Irom their neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to diIIerent autonomous systems (ASes) don`t automatically share routing inIormation and they don`t become neighbors. The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new neighbor and Iorms an adjacency with it through the exchange oI Hello packets. When this happens, both neighbors advertise their entire routing tables to one another. AIter www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ each has learned its neighbor`s routes, only changes to the routing table are propagated Irom then on. EIGRP maintains three tables containing inIormation about the internetworks. (i) Neighbor Table Records inIormation about routers with whom neighborship relationships have been Iormed. (ii) Topology Table Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received Irom each neighbor. EIGRP Metrics Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a single Iactor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a combination oI Iour: Bandwidth Delay Load Reliability 3.16.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open standards routing protocol that`s been implemented by a wide variety oI network vendors, including Cisco. This works by using the Dijkstra algorithm. First, a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the routing table is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although perhaps not as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same destination. But unlike EIGRP, it only supports IP routing. OSPF is an IGP protocol. It is a link state routing protocol. It is supported by many operating systems. Its deIault AD is 110, hop count limit is unlimited. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ It is classless routing protocol, supports VLSM/CIDR. By deIault the highest IP address oI interIace will be elected as Router id. OSPF provides the following features Consists oI areas and autonomous systems Minimizes routing update traIIic Allows scalability Supports VLSM/CIDR Has unlimited hop count Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard) OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical Iashion, which basically means that you can separate the larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called areas. This is the best design Ior OSPF. The reasons Ior creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include: To decrease routing overhead To speed up convergence To conIine network instability to single areas oI the network Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area iI at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interIace must be in area 0. OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR). OSPF Terminology Link www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ A link is a network or router interIace assigned to any given network. When an interIace is added to the OSPF process, it`s considered by OSPF to be a link. Router ID The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identiIy the router. Cisco chooses the Router ID by using the highest IP address oI all conIigured loopback interIaces. II no loopback interIaces are conIigured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP address oI all active physical interIaces. Neighbors Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interIace on a common network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link. Adjacency An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange oI route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing inIormation unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all oI its neighbors. Instead, OSPF directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends upon both the type oI network and the conIiguration oI the routers. OSPF Topologies database The topology database contains inIormation Irom all oI the Link State Advertisement packets that have been received Ior an area. The router uses the inIormation Irom the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that computes the shortest path to every network. LSA packets are used to update and maintain the topology database. A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing link-state and routing inIormation that`s shared among OSPF routers. There are diIIerent types oI LSA packets. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only with routers to which it has established adjacencies. A designated router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the same multi-access network. A prime example is an Ethernet LAN. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby Ior the DR on multi-access links The BDR receives all routing updates Irom OSPF adjacent routers, but doesn`t Ilood LSA updates. OSPF areas An OSPF area is a grouping oI contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the same area share a common Area ID. Broadcast (multi-access) Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be elected Ior each broadcast multi-access network. Non-broadcast multi-access Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25, and Asynchronous TransIer Mode (ATM). These networks allow Ior multi-access, but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF conIiguration to Iunction properly and neighbor relationships must be deIined. Point-to-point Point-to-point reIers to a type oI network topology consisting oI a direct connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to- point connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it can be logical. Point-to-multipoint Point-to-multipoint reIers to a type oI network topology consisting oI a series oI connections between a single interIace on one router and multiple destination routers. All oI the interIaces on all oI the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ SPF Tree Calculation Within an area, each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network in that same area. This calculation is based upon the inIormation collected in the topology database and an algorithm called shortest path Iirst (SPF) OSPF uses a metric reIerred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing interIace included in an SPF tree. The cost oI the entire path is the sum oI costs oI the outgoing interIaces along the path. Cisco uses a simple equation oI 10 8 / bandwidth.The bandwidth is the conIigured bandwidth Ior the interIace. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interIace would have a deIault OSPF cost oI 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interIace would have a cost oI 10. An interIace set with a bandwidth oI 64,000 would have a deIault cost oI 1563. Benefits of OSPF (i) Minimum routing updates. (ii) Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1. (iii) The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination Router) Steps to apply OSPF Syntax: Router(conIig)#router ospI ospI process id~ Router(conIig-router)#network network address~ wild card mask~ area area number~ www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 25: OSPF Scenario At Router r1 Router(conIig)#router ospI 1 Router(conIig-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig)#interIace s0/1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#clock rate 64000 Router#show ip route At Router r1 Router(conIig)#router ospI 2 Router(conIig-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig)#interIace s0/1/0 Router(conIig-iI)#clock rate 64000 Router#show ip route At Router r3 Router(conIig)#router ospI 1 Router(conIig-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(conIig-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router#show ip route www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 3.13 40N S5ITC'IN6 3.17.1 SWITCH Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segments. Smaller switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable oI oI creating 24 diIIerent network segment Ior the LAN. Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 6500 can have hundreds oI ports. Switches can also be used to connect LANs with diIIerent media, Ior example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN can be connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, witch reduces latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-Iorward traIIic switching. Finally switches reduce collision on network segment . A switch is a networking device which Iilters and Iorward packets through the network. It is a layer 2 device. It is more advanced then hub but not as advanced as router.The basic Iunction oI a switch is to manage the signal Ilow. When the switch is open, it allows the signal to Ilow through it and when it is closed, it stopes the signal to Ilow. Switch connects separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A switch is a hardware device that Iilters and Iorward data packets between network segments. Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches Iorward the traIIic on the basis oI MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC addresses and port numbers are used to perIorm switching decision. WORKING OF SWITCH When switches receives data Irom one oI connected devices, it Iorward data only to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access Control (MAC) address oI the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a uniqe number that is programed in to every Network InterIace Card(NIC). Concider, device A wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch than cecks the MAC address oI the destination system. It then transIer data to device B www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ only instead oI brodcasting to all the devices. By Iorwarding data only to the system to witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount oI traIIic on each network link. SWITCHING METHODS There are three types oI switching method: Store-and-forward switching The entire Irame is received and the CRC is computed and veriIied beIore Iorwarding the Irame. II the Irame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it will be discarded. It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency Ior switching. However, Ior high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is not signiIicant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by most switches. Cut-through switching It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A Irame is Iorwarded as soon as the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes Iollowing the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a Irame is Iorwarded without veriIying the CRC and conIirming there is no collision) but the shortest latency Ior switching Fragment-free switching ( Modified Cut-through switching ) A Irame is Iorwarded aIter the Iirst 64 bytes oI the Irame have been received. Since a collision can be detected within the Iirst 64 bytes oI a Irame, Iragment-Iree switching can detect a Irame corrupted by a collision and drop it.ThereIore, Iragment-Iree switching provides better error checking than cut- through switching. The error rate oI Iragment-Iree switching is above store-and-Iorward switching and below cut-through switching. The latency oI Iragment-Iree www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ switching is shorter than store-and- Iorward switching and longer than cut- through switching. NOTE: Bridges only support store-and-Iorward switching. Most new switch models also use store-and-Iorward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches use Iragment-Iree switching by deIault. Types of switch based on OSI model (i) Layer-2 switch (ii) Layer-3 switch Layer-2 Switching Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC address Irom the host NIC card to Iilter the network traIIic. Layer-2 switch can be considered as multi- port bridge. Layer 2 switches are Iast because they do not look at the network layer header inIormation, instead it looks at the Irames hardware address beIore deciding to either Iorward the Irame or drop it. Limitations of Layer 2 Switching With bridge the connected networks are still one large broadcast domain. Layer 2 switch cannot break the broadcast domain, this cause perIormance issue which limits the size oI your network. For this one reason the switch cannot completely replace routers in the internetwork. 3.17.1.1 VLAN (Virtual LAN) VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation oI Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices, which are member oI same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ devices oI diIIerent Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that diIIerent Vlan devices will use diIIerent n/w addresses. Vlan provides Iollowing advantages: - Logical Segmentation oI network Enhance network security Creating port based Vlan In port based Vlan, Iirst we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we have to add ports to the Vlan. A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a broadcast domain created based on the Iunctional, security, or other requirements, instead oI the physical locations oI the devices, on a switch or across switches. With VLANs, a switch can group diIIerent interIaces into diIIerent broadcast domains. Without VLANs, all interIaces oI a switch are in the same broadcast domain; switches connected with each other are also in the same broadcast domain, unless there is a router in between. DiIIerent ports oI a switch can be assigned to diIIerent VLANs. A VLAN can also span multiple switches. The advantages of implementing VLAN are It can group devices based on the requirements other than their physical locations. It breaks broadcast domains and increases network throughput. It provides better security by separating devices into diIIerent VLANs. Since each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain, devices in diIIerent VLANs cannot listen or respond to the broadcast traIIic oI each other. Inter-VLAN communication can be controlled by conIiguring access control lists on the router or Layer 3 switch connecting the VLANs. Types of VLAN Static VLAN www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set up and manage. Dynamic VLAN Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses oI the devices connected to the ports. A VLAN management application is used to set up a database oI MAC addresses, and conIigure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the MAC addresses oI the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS). Cisco switches support a separate instance oI spanning tree and a separate bridge table Ior each VLAN. A VLAN A Broadcast Domain Logical Network (Subnet)
VLAN Operation www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 26: VLAN Operation Each logical VLAN is like a separate physical bridge. VLANs can span across multiple switches. Trunks carry traIIic Ior multiple VLANs. Trunks use special encapsulation to distinguish between diIIerent VLANs. VLAN links There are two diIIerent types oI links in a switched network: Access link www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ A link Irom Pc to switch is called as access link or A link that is part oI only one VLAN. ThereIore, a port connecting to an access link can be a member oI only one VLAN. And the mode oI port is called as access mode. Trunk link A link Irom switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100 Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries Irames oI diIIerent VLANs . ThereIore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member oI multiple VLANs. All VLANs are conIigured on a trunk link by deIault. VLAN Trunking, by making use oI Irame tagging, allows traIIic Irom diIIerent VLANs to transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches. VLAN Trunking identiIies the VLAN Irom which a Irame is sent by tagging the Irame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This Ieature is known as Irame tagging or Irame identiIication. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to connect one switch with other. II we are not using trunk links then we have to connect one cable Irom each vlan to the corresponding vlan oI the other switch. With Irame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should Iorward a broadcast Irame (Iorward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It also knows which bridge table it should use Ior Iorwarding an unicast Irame (since a separate bridge table is used Ior each VLAN). www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ A Irame tag is added when a Irame is Iorwarded out to a trunk link, and is removed when the Irame is Iorwarded out to an access link. ThereIore, any device attached to an access link is unaware oI its VLAN membership. Commands to create Vlan Switch#vlan database Switch(vlan)#vlan no.~ |name name oI vlan~| Switch(vlan)#exit Commands to configure ports for a Vlan By deIault, all ports are member oI single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan membership according to our requirement. Switch(conIig)#interIace type~ no.~ Switch(conIig-iI)#switchport access vlan no.~ Switch(conIig-iI)#exit Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan Switch(conIig)#interIace range type~ slot/port no. (space)(space) port no.~ Switch(conIig-iI)#switchport access vlan no.~ Switch(conIig-iI)#exit Example: - Suppose we want to add interIace Iast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5 Switch(conIig)#interIace range Iastethernet 0/10 18 Switch(conIig-iI)#switchport access vlan 5 Switch(conIig-iI)#exit To display mac address table Switch#show mac-address-table Vlan Mac address type ports www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ 20 00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b dynamic Ia0/7 To Display Vlan and port membership Switch#show vlan brieI Command to make Trunk link Switch(conIig)#interIace type~ type number~ Note :- Trunk mode should not be a member oI any vlan port. 3.17.1.2 Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP) With the help oI VTP, we can simpliIy the process oI creating Vlan. In multiple switches, we can conIigure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will be conIigured as VTP client. We will create Vlans on VTP server switch. The server will send periodic updates to VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans Irom the update received Irom the VTP server. VTP Operation VTP advertisements are sent as multicast Irames. VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number. VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change. VTP Modes VTP server mode By deIault all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modiIy Vlans.yhe switch in this mode Iorwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates Ior VTP clients. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ VTP client mode On VTP client, we are not able to create, modiIy or delete Vlans. The switch in this mode creates the vlans that are received Irom server mode switch.The client will receive and Iorward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as deIined in vtp update. VTP Transparent mode Transparent is a switch, which will receive and Iorward VTP update. It is able to create, delete and modiIy Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be Iorworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will not learn any inIormation Irom received vtp update. VTP configuration At Switch 1: Creat vlan Port assignment Trunk port Switch vtp Switch(conIig)#vtp mode server Switch(conIig)#vtp domain cisco Switch(conIig)#vtp password sun At switch 2: Switch(conIig)#vtp mode server Switch(conIig)#vtp domain cisco Switch(conIig)#vtp password sun At switch 3: Switch(conIig)#vtp mode server Switch(conIig)#vtp domain cisco Switch(conIig)#vtp password sun www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Fig 27 : VTP Configuration To see all the configurations Switch#show vtp password Switch#show vlan brieI Switch#show vtp status Vtp version Vtp domain Vtp mode Vtp pruning Vtp reusion number Maximum vlan supporting Total no. oI vlans
VTP Pruning Pruning is the VTP Ieature through which a trunk link can be automatically disable, Ior a particular Vlan iI neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1 is not prun eligible. Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary Ilooded traIIic Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is Ilooded only toward any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Command to configure VTP Pruning We have to use only one command on VTP server Ior VTP Pruning. Switch#conIigure terminal Switch(conIig)#vtp pruning Switch(conIig)#exit
Fig 28 : VTP Pruning Spanning Tree Protocol When we connect multiple switches with each other and multiple path exist Irom one switch to another switch then it may lead to the switching loop in the network. Multiple paths are used to create redundancy in the network. STP is only required when multiple path exist then there is possibility oI loop in n/w. Problems that occur with redundancy path (i) Multiple copies oI the Irame will be received by destination. (ii) Frequent changes in the mac address table oI switch. (iii) A mac address may appear at multiple ports in a switch. (iv) Packets may enter in the endless loop.
www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy interIace. So that only one path will remain active in the switches. II the primary path goes down then disabled link will become enable and data will be transIerred through that path. Spanning Tree Protocol Basics Spanning Tree Protocol or STP (IEEE 802.1d) is used to solve the looping problem.It runs on bridges and switches in a network. It implements a Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA), which calculates a loop-Iree topology Ior the network. STP ensures that there is only one active path between any two network segments by blocking the redundant paths. A redundant path is used only when the corresponding active path Iailed. It is not used Ior load-balancing. Because STP solves the looping problem by blocking one or more links in a network, the Irames traveling between some source / destination devices may not be able to use the shortest physical path. Bridges exchange STP inIormation using messages called Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) through Layer 2 multicast. 3.18 Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY) The term "Wi-Fi" suggests "Wireless Fidelity", compared with the long- established audio recording term "High Fidelity" or "Hi-Fi". The term "Wi-Fi", Iirst used commercially in August 1999. Wi-Fi is an IEEE standard 802.11. 3.18.1 Wireless LAN Wi-Fi is also known as wireless LAN. The name oI a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. "Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio Irequency (RF) technology, a Irequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic Iield is created that then is able to propagate through space. The Typical Range of a Wi-Fi LAN The range oI a home Wi-Fi LAN depends on the wireless access point (WAP) or wireless router being used. Factors that determine a particular WAP or wireless router's range are: the speciIic 802.11 protocol employed the overall strength oI the device transmitter the nature oI obstructions and interIerence in the surrounding area A general rule oI thumb in home networking says that 802.11b and 802.11g WAPs and routers support a range oI up to 150 Ieet (46 m) indoors and 300 Ieet (92 m) outdoors. Another rule oI thumb holds that the eIIective range oI 802.11a is approximately one-third that oI 802.11b/g. Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal Irames or siding greatly can reduce the range oI a Wi-Fi LAN by 25 or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher signalling Irequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions. InterIerence Irom microwave ovens and other equipment also aIIects range. 802.11b and 802.11g are both susceptible to these. 3.18.2 Wireless Standards The diIIerent wireless standards that are used Ior IEEE 802.11 standard are www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 29: IEEE 802.11 Standards 802.11 It was released in year 1997. The standard was original oI 802.11. the max. data rate oI this is 2Mbps and Irequency oI this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m. 802.11a It was modiIied in year 1999. this is improved version oI original standard. Operates at the Irequency oI 5GHz, which is less crowded than 2.4GHz where telephones and microwaves may cause interIerence. Although the speed is up to 54Mbps, the range is only up to 75 Ieet or distance covered is 46m. 802.11a standard is incompatible with both 802.11b and g because it operates at a diIIerent Irequency. 802.11b This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz Irequency band and can transmit data at speeds oI up to 11Mbps within a range oI up to 100-150 Ieet or a distance oI 90m.Wireless range can be aIIected by reIlective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors. 802.11g This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate Ior the standard is 54Mbps. It supports a Irequency range oI 2.4GHz, covers a distance oI 90m. 802.11n www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ The latest version oI IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress oI development. The next generation oI high-speed wireless networking, capable oI delivering the range and capacity to support today's most bandwidth-hungry applications like streaming high deIinition video, voice, and music. Wireless-n is based on MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to transmit multiple streams oI data over multiple channnels. Operates in two modes oI Irequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz Irequency band and can transmit data at speeds oI up to 11Mbps within a range oI up to 100-150 Ieet . Wireless range can be aIIected by reIlective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors. Wi-Fi is supported by many applications and devices video game consoles home networks PDAs mobile phones major operating systems other types oI consumer electronics 3.18.3 Wireless Security A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users is to suppress the AP's SSID broadcast, "hiding" it. This is ineIIective as a security method because the SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID query. Another unproductive method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the network. MAC address are easily spooIed. II the eavesdropper has the ability to change his MAC address, then he may join the network by spooIing an authorized address. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or aircrack can quickly recover WEP encryption keys. www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Ior wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed liIetime, has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended. In 2004 the Iull IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. II used with a 802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2 is still considered secure, as oI 2009. 4. CONCLUSION General Conclusion Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era oI electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perIorm their day to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share Iolders and Iiles with other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN. Applications Communication Field Industries Medical Field Rearch Field Organisations School Colleges
REFRENCES www.goole.com www.jetkinginIotrain.com www.microsoIt.com www.nythimes.com www.digitech-engineers.com www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/ Network Essentials module 4-in-1 MCSE study material Introduction to Window Server2003 CISCO CretiIied Network Associate Faruk Husain www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/