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RMA
BOSTON COLLEGE
SCIENCE LIBRARY
A TEEATISE ON
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
A TEEATISE ON
DYNAMICS OF A PAKTICLE
BY
Sc.D.,
LL.D., M.A.,
F.R.S.,
&c.
G.
E.
STECHERT
NEW YORK
& CO.
0i6co
A cy
PREFACE.
OO
^^
for
many
How,
example,
tell
is it
is it
pendulum we
can
how
Why
does
our earth travel round the sun in an ellipse and what would be
the path
if
Would any
(if
closed
orbit
so
that
Is
there
medium which
sun
?
is
What would be
force
it
?
in a system of
two centres of
When
in its
new
some tokens
Such problems
When we
Beginning at
we
We
when a
presently arrive
Lagrange's
unknown
reactions.
little
we
find Jacobi's
method
VI
PREFACE.
depend on a
single integral.
The
last
The
much
left to
discover and
many new
When we
perturbations and
account of the
finite
size
of
the
much
increased.
In the
and
easier mathematics.
As the
subject
of
dynamics
is
usually read
early in
the
at once.
first
advised
to pass over the other' parts until they are referred to later on.
sides
and we
In
ways of finding a
solution.
put
first,
siraplicity
in two
dimensions.
In the^e ways
the
difficulties
of
it
dynamics
is
are
hoped that
both
difficulties
may
Some
?iints
worked
out,
on others
Many
may
the better
Mr
Dickson of Peterhouse.
He
me
in correcting
EDV/ARD
Peterhouse,
July, 1898.
J..
ROUTH.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
ELBMENTAR^r CONSIDERATIONS.
AETS.
PAGES
Velocity
31 38.
1
30.
and acceleration
Cartesian, polar
and
.
intrinsic
.
components
11
10 13 16 17
39 41
40.
Kelative motion
1415
15
45.
Angular velocity
Units of space and time
4648.
4962.
6367.
16
Laws
of
motion
.
1723
2326
6872.
73
2627
. .
.
79.
The two
28
35
80
91.
94.
Impulsive forces
and impacts
34 41
46
9293.
4142
42
Examples on impacts
'
CHAITER
II.
rectilini;ar motion.
95
104
jVmbiguities
....
....
47
53 60 64
Bough chords
118
53 60
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Centre of force.
Discontinuity of friction, of resistance
Vlll
ARTS.
123
136.
64
73
73
SmaU
oscillations.
Magnification
Smooth.
Bough
76 79 80 82
77 82
Theory of dimensions
83
CHAPTER
III.
MOTION OF PROJECTILES.
154161.
162
Parabolic motion
8492
Special cases
....
92 95
95
102
CHAPTER
IV.
The two
resolutions.
Work
function
....
;
103110
110112 112115
115
191192.
193196.
197
Rough
curves
Zero pressure
Time
of describing
an
arc.
Motion in a cycloid.
Smooth
rough
and a
resisting
medium
Motion in a
circle.
CHAPTER
V.
Moving
axes.
Relative motion
134141
141147
147
254.
154
CONTENTS.
ARTS.
IX
PAGES
Eotating
field of force,
Jacobi
154156 156157
157163
Coriolis
.
Moments and
resolutions
268270.
164166
275. 276284. 285 286. 287 291. 292 295. 296 299.
271
166168
.
and curvature
168177
Small
oscillations.
One
degree of freedom
177180
180182
....
.
183185
185188 188190
190191
Barrier curves
300301.
302
Examples,
Particle
on a surface
303.
Second approximations
Oscillations about steady motion
304.
305.
Finite differences
....
VI.
191193
193196
CHAPTER
CENTRAL FORCES.
197202
306316.
317322, 323324.
Elementary theorems
The
202209 209210
210216
216
Parallel forces
325331.
332340.
341
Law Law
Time
349.
of
describing
eccentricity is small
350355.
356366.
367
Law
370.
371382.
383386.
medium.
387393. 394398.
399_405.
406
Kepler's laws.
Gravitation
The Hodograph
Two
attracting particles
221 227
236 238
227230
230 236
Second approximations
motion
238246
246249
Encke's comet
249252
252254
255259
259
413,
Three attracting
particles.
Stable
414.
A swarm
of particles.
264
264 267
415418.
Tisserand's criterion.
419427.
428.
......
&c
267269
270274
274275
Closed orbits.
Bertrand
X
ARTS.
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Orbits
classified,
(1)
429449.
F=fiu'',
(2)
F=f{u).
.
Stability of
.
asymptotic
circles.
Examples
Newton.
. .
275
283
450464.
Law
of force in a conic.
.
Hamilton.
. .
.
The two
.
laws
283291
465472.
478489.
292-295
Bessel.
problem.
....'.
CHAPTER
Lagrange.
Convergency
of
295303
VII.
Elementary resolutions.
Lagrange's equations
Moving axes
initial
motion
Liouville, Jacobi.
311 317
321
323
Also
321
variable.
323324
525.
526
Motion on a curve,
fixed,
;
moving
or changing.
Free motion
Motion on a surface
special cases
546549.
338339
, ,
. .
Heavy
particle
on a surface
Conical pendulum.
343
Motion on an
ellipsoid.
576584.
Elliptic coordinates
354360
CHAPTER
VIII.
589.
of
force
in
595
Brachistochrones on a surface.
Equal times.
Examples
CONTENTS.
AKTS.
XI
PAGES
Motion
Falling bodies
377380 380382
382
The two
cases of motion
624626.
627.
On On
projectiles
Foucault's
pendulum
382384
History
Inversion of the path.
384385
See also Art. 650, Ex. 2
628630.
Examples
....
. .
.
.
385387
387388
388
390
636638.
639
Grouping of
Jacobi's
trajectories
390393
.
644.
645.
method
393 397
work function
397 399
646648.
649.
399400
400401
of previous theorems
.
.
Case of failure
650
401
402
402 405
407
On an On
ellipsoidal
swarm
of particles
"
406
Note
2.
Lagrange's equations.
function.
of the coordinates
field
Eotating
....
made
408
410
Index
411417
CHAPTER
Velocity
I.
and
Acceleration..
1.
The
science of dynamics
is
In one
is
investiis
gated.
The
first is
called
sometimes
2.
kinetics
given curve.
Let us consider the geometrical motion of a point on a The motion is said to he uniform when equal spaces
If all the
by a jump
In discussing the geometry of the motion, the time is regarded It is merely some continually in-
creasing quantity.
So
far as
is
concerned,
we may suppose that the time is measured by the space described by some standard point moving in a straight line always in the same direction.
Let
s
of a point
moving
^o*
Since V
is
2
described in
t
[CHAP.I.
units of time
is
given by
SQ = v{t to).
This
When
we
all
is
the
velocity
variable.
By
calculus
The
P at the
time
St.
t,
let 8s
be the arc
arc
If this
were
Bs/St.
.
The
limiting
value
when
Bt is indefinitely small is
v=-j-.
ds
This
may
be deis
the position P.
This equation
a point when variable is measured by the space or arc which woidd be described in a unit of time if the point were to move uniformly with the velocity it had at the moinent under.
The- velocity of
consideration.
It is
worth while to give a more formal proof of the important equation r=(Zs/(Jt. Let v^, v^ be the
and
v^dt
between
and v^St, and therefore 5s/5( must lie between Vj and v^ become equal to each other and therefore each therefore must be the value of r.
equal to ds/dt.
This
Parallelogram of velocities. Velocities may be com4. pounded by the parallelogram law. Let a point P move with a uniform velocity u along a finite straight line OA and arrive at A
at the
velocity v
is
BO
in the
same time.
It
OG
which are
OA
and
proportional to the lengths of the straight lines OA and OB, and are evidently represented by those lines in direction and magnitude.
When
velocities
moves with two simultaneous represented in direction and magnitude by the straight
therefore
particle
ART.
lines
7.]
single
same as if it were moved with a and magnitude by the diagonal OG of the parallelogram constructed on OA, OB as sides.
OA, OB,
velocity
motion
is the
represented in
direction
5.
This rule
forces
pounding
of Statics,
is the same as that given in Statics for comwhich act at the same point. Hence all the rules which are derived from the parallelogram of forces, will
We may therefore
and
all
the
compounding
velocities,
both by
The moment of a velocity about a point may be defined in the same way as the moment of a force. Let a point P be moving with a velocity w in a direction repre6.
Moment of a
velocity.
AFB. Let ON =phe the perpendicular G on the straight line APB. The moment G is then defined to be equal to vp.
the
Using the same proof as that adopted in Statics, we infer that moment of the velocity of a point about any straight line is equal to the sum of the moments of its components.
7.
moment
of the
which
12
;
are in
common
use.
Let a point
move along a
curve.
It is proved in Art.
that the polar components of the velocity are dr/dt and rddjdt
the moments of these about the origin are respectively zero and
r^dB/dt.
The moment
moment
x - y-j,
Lastly let A be the polar area bounded by the path, the moving radius vector r and any fixed radius vector. It is clear that pds is twice the area dA traced out by the radius vector.
The moment
8.
is,
pv=2
dA
-,
.
The
moment
straight line
drawn through
C and
the
12
[chap.
I.
APB.
When we
require the
moment of
is
along
AB
CD
which
CAB, we use
Let
along
MN
AB into
and the other along Ny perpendicular to CD. The former is v cos 9, the latter v sin d, where 6 is the angle contained by AB and CD. The moment of the former is
defined to be zero, the
D sin
.jJ
CD CD
moment
of the latter is
where p=MN.
AB
ivith
a velocity
is
v,
moment of
CD
vp sin
0,
IV here
is
AB
and
CD
and
The symmetry
the same as that about
of this result
moment about AB
of a velocity along
CD
is
CD
AB.
9.
\,
fi,
Ex.
v;
X',
where
A
\
X'
particle is
moment
i
of the
/-/'.
9-9',
fl
moving h-h'
V
"'
where
is
the deter-
minant
in the margin.
m'
10.
Relative velocity.
lines
Two
points P,
Q
v.
are
moving
along-
two straight
AB, CD with
velocities w,
It is required to
let
Let any number of bodies be situated within a space and that space be moved carrying the bodies with it (as in a
;
railway carriage)
it
is
is
now
at rest
v,
own
velocity, viz.
and the velocity of Q is the resultant of and the reversed velocity, viz. u, of P.
of Q with regard to P, we compound according to with the reversed velocity of
To find
of
Ex. A circle is rotated in its own plane about a point in its circumference with an angular velocity w and a point P moves on the circle in the opposite direction with angular velocity 2w relative to the circle. Prove that P moves in a straight line and find its velocity. [Coll. Exam. 1896.]
ART. 13.]
11.
COORDINATE VELOCITIES.
Coordinate velocities.
APP'
the times
and
t-\-dt re-
Let
OM=x,
MP = y
P
;
be the coordinates of
OM',
cut
Let PL,
Ox,
PL =
By
ties
c^a;,
XP' = dy.
LP'
of the
triangle
PLP'
the same scale that PP' represents the resultant velocity. The components of velocity are therefore PL/dt and P'Ljdt. If then a point move on a curve, and its coordinates are x, y, the Cartesian
to -rr
and -^
12.
on OP'.
The
PHP'
on the same
component velocities perpendicular and parallel to the These components are therefore PHjdt and HP'jdt. If OP = r and the angle POx = e we know by the = rdd elementary principles of the differential calculus that and HP' = dr ultimately. The components of velocity along and
radius vector OP.
PH
.
perpendicidar
to the
-j-
and
r-j-
The Let Q be another point whose coordinates are x', y 13. components of its velocity are dx'jdt and dy jdt. To find the component velocities of Q relative to P we follow the rule of Art. 10. Reversing the component velocities of P and adding the results to those of Q, it is clear that the component relative dx' dy dx dy .^. ^ r\ velocities or Q are r. r- and r.
dt
dt
dt
dt
We may put
ing parallel
Let
^,
t],
be the coordinates of
and
dtjjdt.
moving point P, their directions remainto the original axes. The component relative velocities are then d^ldt But since ^=x' -x, v^^v' -y> we arrive by differentiation at the same
results as before.
6
14.
are 2at
[CHAP.
I.
Ex. 1. The component velocities of a point in the directions of two axes and 2bt + /3. Prove that the path is a parabola whose axis is parallel to
ay = bx.
We
first t^
have dxldt=2at, :. x=at^+A. Similarly y and then t, the path follows at onde.
may
be found.
Eliminating
Ex.
are ax
2. The component velocities parallel to the axes and by + p. Prove that the path is (6y + /3)"=4x^ 3.
of
x and y respectively
Ex.
Ex.
circle
of velocity parallel
is br=zaff^
+ A.
If a particle be
moving in a hypocycloid with velocity u, and v, V of the centre of curvature and the centre of the generating
y2
,
4pr2
(c-b)^
c
+
(c
+ 6)2~(c-6)2'
circles,
and
b the radius
[Math. Tripos.]
15.
Acceleration.
is
This word
is
increasing.
It
may
be either uniform or
If a point move in such a manner that the increments of velocity gained in any equal times are the same in direction and equal in magnitude, the acceleration is said to be uniform. The increment
of velocity in each unit of time measures the magnitude of the
acceleration.
16.
First, let the point
move in a straight
line.
Let
Vo
be the
velocity at
any time
to
+f
be the velocity. After a second unit of time the velocity must be Vo + 2f, because equal increments are -gained in equal times. Hence after t to units of time the velocity has increased by f(t
to).
t,
we have
acceleration.
If the point
Let Oy represent the direction in which the constant increments of velocity are given to the point, and Let Uq, v^ let Ox be the direction of motion at the time t = to.
only slightly altered.
be the components of the velocity in the directions of the axes Ox and Oy respectively at the time t^. After a unit of time has elapsed the component of velocity parallel to Oy is Vo+f, but
ART. 21.]
that parallel to
ACCELERATION.
Ox
is
added in that
is still Uq.
direction.
unchanged because no velocity has been After t U units of time, the component
is
Vr,
Oy
parallel to
Ox
t,
If u, V are the
"we
have
= Uo,
V=Vo+f{t-to).
is /,
The magnitude
18.
of the acceleration
and
its
direction
is
Oy.
When
the
said to be variable.
to
To obtain a measure we
velocity.
follow the
method adopted
measure variable
When
any instant
measured by
the velocity
unit of time if the acceleration had remained constant in magnitude during that interval and fixed in direction.
19.
To find
v
the equations
f
t
Let v and
+ dv
and
+ dt.
Assuming the
calculus, dv
being
by a simple proportion that dv/dt is the velocity which would be added in a unit of time, if the acceleration had remained constant. Hence, by Art. 16,
follows
/= dv/dt.
velocity generated in the time
more elementary form. Let dv be the / be the greatest and least accelerations of the particle during the interval dt. Then since the actual rate at which the velocity is increasing is always less than the one and greater than the other, the velocity added is less than J\St and greater than f^St. In the iimit /^ and f^ coincide and we have /= dvldt.
is
The argument
Let
/j
20.
be determined by
Let
_ds
""
~di'
"
_ ^^ _ ^^* _ ^^ ~di~dt'~^ds'
We
for
names
the
and second
differential coefficients of s
with
[CHAP.
I.
not necessary to
dynamics.
22.
It
When
a point
moves
is
Just as velocity
is
increasing or decreasing,
is
increasing or decreasing.
called a retardation.
negative acceleration
is
sometimes
moving in a straight
line
Let the position of the point at the time ^ = io ^e given by 5 = So, and let Vq be the velocity. Since /= d^s/dt"^, we have
v
= dsfdt=ft + A.
Hence
and
Vo=fto
+ A, V f(t - to) +
Vo-,
Hence
Sq
25.
formulae
of elementary kine-
at the time
= 0,
-f
26.
Ex.
1.
A
t.
in time
Prove
that s=^{vo + v)
velocities.
is
the
mean
of
the two
ART. ^.]
Ex.
2.
PAEALLELOGRAM OF ACCELERATIONS.
A
particle
9
Prove that the
moves from
rest
or two-thirds of the final velocity, according as the time or the space is divided into an infinite number of equal portions and the average [St John's Coll., 1895.] taken with regard to these.
average velocity
is half
Ex.
3.
Two
points P,
Q move on
a straight line
AB.
/,
in the direction
AB
starts
from
in the direction
at the
one another
BA with velocity u' and acceleration /'; if they pass middle point of ^jB and arrive at the other ends oi AB with
[Coll.
Exam.
1896.]
Ex.
4.
heavy
particle,
projected
horizontally on
smooth
table with
by the resistance of the air after describing a space s. Supposing the resistance of the air to be a uniform force, prove that, when the particle is projected vertically upwards with any velocity, the squares of the times
of ascent
and descent
- v^ to 2gs + v'^.
Ex. 5. A particle is projected vertically upwards from a point A. If the resistance of the air were constant and equal to ng, where n is less than unity, prove that the times of ascent and descent are as ij{l-n) ^{\ + n).
:
Ex.
point
6.
particle
is
point P.
is
7..
Prove that the product of the times of passing through another given independent of the velocity of projection from P.
Ex.
Two
move in the straight line AA' with velocities when the distance PP' exceeds the
{v'-v)^ = {u'-u)^ + 2{f'-f)s.
If
AA' by
then
27.
direction
Ex.
moment,
is
in the position
is
moving in the
it
Ox with
t
a velocity u.
uniform acceleration /
given to
in the
direction Oy.
and
direction of
motion
after
seconds.
To
after
t
OB
along Ox,
Oy
to
The
direction of
motion
seconds
is parallel to
OD
of the parallelogram
AOB.
To
we measure
OE = ut, OF^jV.
direction parallel to
OG
is
the diagonal of
EOF,
the point
is
at
G moving
in a
OD.
compound
the velocities, to find the position
To find
ice
compound the
28.
spaces.
The parallelogram of
accelerations.
This theorem
Let a point
represent
in
let
OA,
OB
Then by
and magnitude two uniform accelerations given to the definition OA, OB represent the two velocities
.
By
the parallelogram of
10
[CHAP.
I.
00
OA,
OB
of time.
The point
is
is
acceleration
The actual velocity at the time t + t' (if required) could be found by compounding the velocity at the time t, either with both the components OA, OB, each multiplied by t', or with
their resultant after multiplication
29.
time
t.
by
t'.
P be its position at P
Then and
OH
to represent in direction
any and
OH
its
tangent at
is
length
constant introduced to
which
As the point
path, the point
along
its
describes
a second curve
Let P, P' be t\yo positions of the point at the times t, t + dt; H, H' the corresponding points on the hodograph. Since OH, OH' represent the velocities at
P, P' in direction and magnitude, the
thii-d side
HH'
of the triangle
HOH'
must
represent in direction and magnitude the velocity given to the particle in the time
dt.
It follows by a simple proportion that HH'jdt represents the velocity which would have been added to the velocity at P if the acceleration had remained
The tangent
at
in direction
and
the ratio
of an elementary arc
time dt of describing
it
OH represents
r = KV
In general language, the radius vector represents the velocity, the arc gives the
and
d(rjdt=Kf,
30.
of
To find
the
If
are given.
xp
hodograph when both the curve described by P and the velocity be the angle the tangent at P makes with some fixed straight
we
notice that kv
and
\//
H.
From
we
first
find v
and
\p
in terms of
some one
quantity.
Then eliminating
that quantity
we obtain
hodograph.
31.
To find
the equations
We may
the axes of coordinates from the acceleration of a point movingin a straight line.
OM = x,
ART. 35.]
COMPONENTS OF ACCELERATION.
11
The components of the velocity of P have been shown and as they move along the be the actual velocities of axes of X and y respectively. This being true for all positions of P, the acceleration of P is the resultant of the accelerations of Jf
ON = y.
to
and N. have
If then
X,
T are
we
Y-
dt''
Ex.
Y-^^y
df
velocity, its
32.
projection
1. "When a point Q describes a circle with a uniform on any diameter x'Ox oscillates on each side of the centre
through a
P tends
n
towards
and
at the centre,.
a..
the angle
QOx
be a
If
= 0. Then at the time t, the angle QOx=nt + length OP = a cos (nt + a), hence the acceleration d^xjdt^= - an^ cos (nt + a) = - n^x.
when
is
The minus
An
oscillatory
harmonic
oscillation.
x^,
Ex. 2. where
A
?
point
P moves
x=OP.
to or
from
33.
required in dynamics.
The Cartesian components of acceleration are not the only ones which are The components in polar coordinates and those along the
Besides these there are the components
formulaB to three dimensions.
all these
In
we
The others
34.
The general
or acceleration in
any
summed up
Since the component of acceleration is the rate at which the component of velocity in that direction is increasing, we have by
-r
(res. vel.
at time
+ dt)
dt
is
(res. vel.
at time
t)
if
.
_j.
+ dt)
dt
time
t)
To find
a point in polar
co-
ordinates.
Let
OP = r, POx =6
By
'
12
[chap.
I.
P
let
OP
are
t
u = drjdt and
= rdd/dt
At
the time
+ dt
viz.
the
angle
velocity at
= u + du and Vi v + dv. Since P0P' = d9, the component of the time t + dt in the direction
d6
Vj
OP
is
Va COS
sin dO.
for the
time
dt,
the acceleration
+ dv) sin dd u _ du
dt
d0
dt
dt
OP
is
Limit
(u
dv) cos
dO v
= di + di-
dd
dv
Substituting for
R
t
and 8
are respectively
r /d0y R = d'r dp
^_dr dd
dt dt
36.
d
dt
d9\_ld_f,d&
^dt)~~r
dt V
'
dt
To find
and
normal.
AP =
s.
By
Art.
3,
the velocity w at
is
along
= ds/dt.
At
the time
Vi
t+dt
Vi
the point
is
is
and
the
= v + dv.
The components
of
Vi
in
and normal at P d-yjr and cos v^ sin d-yjr, where are therefore Vi (i-v/r is the angle the tangents at P and P'
directions of the tangent
other.
The
-.
therefore
j^
-^.
the
dv
measured
positively, is
dyjr
dyfr
_ v^
p
dt
ART. 38.]
37.
COMPONENTS
.OF
ACCELERATION.
13
tions of a
have now obtained three different sets of components for the acceleramoving point. These are the components A', Y along the axes, the components jB, S along and transverse to the radius vector, and the components T, N along the tangent and normal. Any one set can be deduced from any other set
by a simple resolution.
We
ec[uations
X=d-x I dt%
S- -Xs'md + Ycose. r=d-!//df- and substituting x-rcosd, y = r sin 6 we arrive by long differentiation at the values of R and S given in Art. 35.
T=Xcos^+Ysin\l/,
N=
- Xsmxf/ + Y cof\f/.
The process of deducing the polar and the tangential-normal components of acceleration from the Cartesian components may be shortened by the following
artifice.
If
x=r cos
X--
we have by
^d"r
(di-
differentiation
d'x
dt)
cos^it
^drd9
2
dt dt
^ + r dm sm 0.
.
.-.,
dt")
is
We
then have
= 0,
and
X becomes R
hence
iJ
= -,vi - r
df
\dt
To
per-
which S
is
to be
measured
that
is,
the axis of x
Putting therefore
6=
-\-w,
dt\ dt)
'
The three elementary sets of components may be summed up in the followThey are to be measured positively in the direction in which the length named in the fourth column is measured positively.
38.
ing table.
14
39.
[CHAP.
I.
Relative accelerations.
it is
Two
points P,
are
moving
Q relative
By the same reasoning as in Art. 10, it follows that if we impress on both points an acceleration equal and opposite to that of one of them, say P, their relative motions and accelerations
are unaltered.
celeration of
the ac-
to P and components of acceleration, we say that the component of the acceleration of Q in any direction is equal to its component relative
to
Q in space is the resultant of its acceleration relative of the acceleration of P. As we generally require the
P plus
40.
the
1.
Ex.
is
given by
its
polar coordinates
r,
6,
of x.
The
r^,
position of
referred to
is
given by
its
polar coordinates
6^^,
P as origin with
x-^^
parallel to x.
It is required to find
in space.
The polar
accelerations of
P are
ART. 43.]
the acceleration of the bead
ANGULAR VELOCITY.
is
15
and that
its
path
is
an
- ^)K
[Coll.
Exam.
1897.]
Ex. 5. A railway passenger seated in one corner of the carriage looks out of the windows at the further end and observes that a star near the horizon is traversing these windows in the direction of the train's motion and that it is obscured by the partition between the corner windows on his own side of the carriage and the middle window while the train is moving through the seventh part of a mile. Prove that the train is on a curve the concavity of which is directed towards the star and
which,
if it
be circular, has a radius of nearly three miles, the breadth of the carriage
being seven feet and the breadth of the partition four inches.
41. Angnilar velocity and acceleration. A rigid body is said to be turning round an axis OA when each point is describing a circle whose plane is perpendicular to OA and whose centre lies in OA. Let (p be the angle which the plane containing any point P of the body and the axis OA makes with some plane fixed in space and passing through OA. The rate at which the angle tp is increasing is
called the angular velocity of the body.
measured by
dcp/dt
and the
angular acceleration by
<P<pldt^.
(^j
We notice
F^OA makes
If
that
if
so that d<f>ldt=d(pjdt.
its
OA and
tj)=d(f>jdt
be
is
moving perpendicularly
to the plane
QOA
with
a velocity equal
to ow.
OA
is
and w
is
42.
length
is
is
geometrically represented by a
axis.
The
determined by the convention used in Statics to indicate the direction of rotation of a couple. If OA be the direction in which the length is rtieasured the rotation
positive, should
feet at
when
with his
A and
head
at B.
is
hands
velocities of
Parallelogram of angidar velocities. If two instantaneous angular a body are represented in magnitude and direction by tivo lengtlis OA, OB, the diagonal OG of the parallelogram constructed on OA, OB as sides is the resultant instantaneous axis of rotation, and its length represents the magnitude of the
43.
Let
lies
in the plane
AOB
r^,
r^,
the
distances of
Q from OA, OB, p its distance from OC. Let u^ = OA, (i)^=OB, Q=OC. The velocity of Q due to the two rotations w^, Wg is Wjr^ + WjJ'gj while that due to the single rotation is Up. To prove that these are equal it is sufficient to
notice that
if
OA,
OB
sum
moments
of OA,
resultant OG.
16
[CHAP.
I.
+ w.j?'2 = Up.
of
lie
on OC,
p = 0,
OC
is at rest.
Hence
OC
is
Q = vlp
The theorem of the parallelogram of angular accelerations follows from that of angular velocities, just as the parallelogram of linear accelerations follows
44.
from that of linear
velocities.
45.
section
The
rule for
in Statics to
compound
is at
compounding angular velocities being the same as that used forces, we may interpret the limiting case when the interinfinity as we do the corresponding case in Statics. It is however
Let the body have instantaneous angular velocities w, w', about tioo parallel axes OA, O'B distant a from each other. The resultant velocity of any point Q in the plane of OA,'0'B and distant ?/ and y + a from them respectively is uy + u' (y + a).
Firstly, let
w + w' not be
zero.
of
to zero,
,
we
see that
w+ O'B and at a distance y from the former. To find the resultant angular velocity (2 we notice that the velocity of a point Q situated on OA is represented both by Q{-y) and w'a. Hence substi= w + w'. tuting for y,
resultant axis of rotation
is
0"C determined by
is
at rest.
The
Secondly,
equal to w'a.
of the rigid
w + oi' = 0. The resultant velocity of Q is independent of y and is Hence every point in the plane of the axes (and therefore every point body) is moving with the same velocity in the same direction. We
let
46.
is
The ordinary
is
the second of
feet or
Space
centimetre
The unit
velocity is
acceleration
47.
then either one foot or one centimetre per second, and the unit of is a gain of one unit of velocity per second.
We
Let
The
i.e. (xIt
of the feetis
The
unit of acceleration
a gain of
afr feet per second, to be added on every r seconds, i.e. ajr^ feet The unit of acceleration is per second added on every second.
therefore
a-JT^
Let
o",
and
/ the
feet
and
ART. 50.]
UNITS OF SPACE
AND
TIME.
17
Then
since the
If the acceleration of a falling body due to gravity is </ = 32'19 1. and a second are the units, show that the acceleration is 981*17 when a centimetre and a second are the units.
48.
Ex.
when a
foot
Ex. 2. A point moving with uniform acceleration describes 20 feet in the half second which elapses after the first second of its motion. Prove that the acceleration is to that of gravity as 32 to 32*18. Prove also that if a minute be the unit of time and a mile that of space the acceleration wiU be measured by 240/11.
[Math. Tripos, I860.]
Ex.
3.
Ex.]
Since
an acre
is
100
new
square
units
is
equal to
4840 X 9 X 10 square
feet.
Let
This gives
t=11
seconds.
Laws of
Motion.
If one portion of matter, say A, act on another, B, the 49. mutual action is in dynamics called force. If we are examining the motion of A only, disregarding B, this force is said to be external to A, but if we are taking both portions into consideration, the action is an internal force. An external force is usually called <m impressed force. The mutual actions and reactions between These forces the molecules or parts of a body are internal forces.
case.
is
When
called pressure,
when at a
when
free is
may
be called a particle.
is
This division
purpose.
All that
we
require
is
A particle
bodies
50.
is
may be
Our
body.
We
object in dynamics is to investigate the motion of a have then to consider (1) how a body A moves when
18
left
LAWS OF MOTION.
to itself; (2)
[CHAP.
I.
is affected by the action of due to the presence of another body B; (3) how the action of 5 on -4 is related to th^ reaction of J. on B. The answers to these questions are given in Newton's Laws of
an external
force, say,
Motion.
The
all
strict definition of
is
in dynamics
We
do not consider
the actions which one body can exert on another but those
The following definition or explanation is commonly given. The word force is used to express any cause which produces or tends to produce a change in the existing state of rest or motion of the
body.
The velocity of a body has both direction and magnitude, we must therefore suppose that the cause of this motion also has both direction and magnitude. To determine a force we require to know (1) its point of application, (2) its direction, and (3) its magnitude. The unit of magnitude will be considered presently.
51.
Law Law
force,
its state
it
motion in a straight
far as
change that state by impressed forces. 2. Change of motion is proportional to and takes place in the direction of the straight
3.
the impressed
line in
which
Law
and
reaction ; or,
To every action there is always an equal and contrary the mutual actions of any two bodies are always equal
oppositely directed.
52.
The
first
a body do not
alter
This law
is
not a
The law
*
-
may
Motion by the
late J. Clerk
Thomson and
Nature, vol.
Tait.
Maxwell and to the Elements of Natural Philosophy by There are also Maxwell's two reviews of the latter book in
Several points of controversy are discussed in an
vii.
and
vol. xx.
essay by K. F. Muirhead to which a Smith's Prize was awarded in 1886, see the
Phil.
Mag. 1887.
ART. 54.]
MOMENTUM.
19
inertia.
The law is sometimes expressed by saying that the body has The body has no power of itself to change its state of rest or motion, but goes on moving in the same direction with the same velocity when not acted on by an impressed force.
53. To define a uniform state of motion we require the measurements of space and time. If we assume the truth of the first law for some particular body, we can measure time by the space passed over by that body. The first law then asserts that the spaces described by any other body (not acted on by any external force) are equal when the spaces simultaneously described by the clock-body are equal. There remains the practical difficulty of obtaining a body free from external forces, which could be used as a clock. For this purpose we have recourse to some
other dynamical result.
such a body
may
The
the earth.
The
forces
which tend to
alter
This
is
The
practical
We have specially mentioned the rotation of the earth because that supplies the measure of time in common use. Other phenomena may also be used, for example, the velocities of the different kinds of light and their wave lengths in vacuo are constants. Their numerical values^ have been calculated, and from these we could deduce unalterable units of space and time. The numerical values connected with any perpetual phenomenon would enable future observers to discover our present units from their determinations of the same periods and lengths.
The words " change of motion change of momentum."
54.
" in
mean
This
"
The quantity
unit of mass.
of matter in a body
is
may be measured by
lump may be
mass by
the velocity.
We
gram
magnitude.
law.
momentum of a body has direction and may be compounded and resolved by the parallelo-
Let
velocity,
and
let
9 be the
20
line
;
LAWS OF MOTION.
then v cos 6
is
[CHAP.
I.
mv cos
the
component of momentum
55.
spoken of in the second law is an external magnitude of the force and the time during which its action is considered. During this time the direction and magnitude of the force continue unchanged. We may also regard it as an impulse by which the
force
force.
The
whole
momentum
is
v'.
momentum produced
by the time
t'
in a unit of time,
is
m{v'
v),
divided
of F.
t,
proportional
to
the
magnitude
If the force
is
by
dt
by
asserts
proportional
magnitude of the
force F.
We
then have,
F varies as mf.
56.
The arguments
for
may be
;
to
common
experience
this
We
then
try
be con-
These
we can show
by pure reasoning.
we can assume the laws as a working hypothesis and deduce from them the proper motions of a variety of bodies.
If these are found to agree with the observed motions, the laws
Let us
more
fully.
The
end of an
eclipse
with great accuracy and are therefore severe tests of the truth
ART. 58.]
Newton's laws.
21
The
calculations
by which these
combination of
many
say so that any small might be expected by accumulation to produce a Yet notwithstanding both these opportunities of sensible effect.
error,
Almanac
in a velocity,
In many of the astronomical calculations the truth of the law The comparison of the predictions of gravitation is assumed.
with observations
is
The
some
which had never been discovered For example, no one had until they were suggested by theory.
cases led to unexpected results,
pendulum
it
from
Our
motion
may be made
these laws
We may regard
All its which the science of dynamics is It is only when we arrive predictions have as yet been verified. at a result contradicted by experience, after due allowance has
founded.
been made
error.
Still
for
we can
felt to
know how the laws were discovered, or at least what considerations would make them probable. For this reason a very brief summary of the arguments has been given in the
require to following articles.
58.
First laic.
We
Let a body be
set in
it is
projected
when the cause ceases to act, the body continues in motion. It has therefore some power of retaining the motion given There is only a question of degree does it retain the whole or only some to it. portion of the velocity given to it ? The body gradually comes to rest, but we also observe that there are forces tending to stop the body, such as friction and the resistance of the air. We observe that when these resistances are small the body
along a horizontal plane.
notice that
;
We
may
This suggests that the diminution of the it does not prove that fact.
sufi&ciently
We
22
LAWS OF MOTION.
Any
[CHAP.
I.
may
is
Atwood's machine.
let
How
is
We must
and in magni-
be experimented on.
the floor that
We
the ceiling of a railway carriage in rapid uniform motion, hits the same point of
it
Since,
law, the stone retains the horizontal velocity of the carriage, gravity
number
with different
is
velocities,
heard.
in the
same
This experiment suggests that the magnitude of gravity motion of the particle attracted.
not
to
These experiments cannot be made with great accuracy. They are first attempts answer the question placed at the beginning of this article.
60. In Atwood's machine two heavy particles are attached together by a string which passes over a pulley. If lo, w' are the weights of the particles, the moving
force is
w-w'
moved
is
lo+w'.
equal values of
w and
we
The spaces described and the velocities generated can therefore be please. measured with some degree of accuracy, and the results compared with the laws of The machine being carefully constructed, some allowance may be falling bodies.
made
Even the
owing to simplicity of the motion, could be allowed for; but it is almost imperceptible in such slow motions. By an arrangement of platforms small weights can be added or subtracted so that the moving force can be suddenly increased or decreased at pleasure. By making this force balance the resistances we can test the first law. By other changes we can determine whether the effect of a force is
modified by a previously existing velocity.
61.
Let
when
we can imagine the body on in the same direction by two forces each equal to gravity. Each of these forces can act only by producing motion in the body and we have just seen that this action is not modified by any existing motion. Assuming this, each Thus twice the force will generate the same velocity in the body in the same time. velocity is produced by twice the force, and generally the velocity produced varies as
attracted by the earth.
to be acted
Then
the force
when
if
the
mass
is
constant.
Again,
we suppose
that two equal volumes of the sanle material are placed side
by side, and each acted on by equal forces, equal velocities are generated in the same time. If the initial velocities are equal, the bodies will continue to move side by side, without pressing on each other, and we may suppose them to be united into one mass. Thus twice the force will produce in twice the mass the same
ART. 63.]
velocity,
UNITS OF MASS.
23
force varies as the mass when the velocity produced is Varying both the velocity and the mass, we conclude that the magnitude This product of the force vai-ies as the mass multiplied by the velocity generated.
constant.
is called
momentum.
Lastly
let
Art. 54.
62.
us consider
how
and reaction
is
we
If a horse pull a
body by a
To determine if these actions are the conditions when the bodies are in contact
have to prove that when two bodies in contact press on each other, the In our test experilost by one is equal to that acquired by the other. ment, we arrange the circumstances so that these changes of momenta can be readily observed. Let us suspend two spherical balls by strings and allow them to
We
momentum
The
initial positions
being given
impact.
By
impulse
is
concluded.
In this
we can find the velocities we can deduce the way Newton showed that
by one was equal to
the changes of velocity were such that the that gained by the other.
momentum
lost
Let us next compare the forces exerted by two mutually attracting bodies. It was a well-known fact that a magnet attracts iron, but Newton showed experimentally that the iron attracts the magnet with an equal force. This he effected by floating both in separate vessels in standing water. The vessels being placed in contact, neither was able to propel the other. The resultant force on each body was therefore zero. Admitting that the mutual action and reaction of the vessels in contact are equal and opposite, it follows that the attraction of each of the distant bodies on the other was equal to the pressure between the vessels and
therefore equal to each other.
Units of mass. The second law of motion enables us measurement of mass to bodies of different materials. We first select some quantity of a standard substance and define that to be the unit of mass. Such a quantity of the same or another substance is then said to be of the same mass when two forces, known to be equal, acting on the two masses generate
63.
to extend our
asserts
momentum
Art. 55.
generated by
The
It is a quantity of platinum preserved in the office of the Exchequer and called the Imperial standard pound Avoirdupois. One seven-thousandth part of it is declared to be a grain, and 5760
grains to be a
pound Troy.
This
is
of
mass
is
called
the gramme.
is
24
kilogramme
centimetre,
LAWS OF MOTION.
[CHAP.
I.
The system of units derived from the to 2 '2 pounds. gramme and second is usually called the c.G.s. system. That founded on the foot, pound and second may be called the F.P.s. system. It should be noticed that the pound and the gramme A
very
full
64.
Units of Force. The unit of force is that force which, mass for a unit of time, generates a unit of
This
is
When
of force
and a mean
called
a poundal.
is
When
a dyne.
the
gramme, and the units of space and time are a centimetre and" a
second, the unit of force
called
is
453"59
is
39*37 inches,
it is clear that the poundal generates a velocity of 1 200/39*37 centimetres in 453"59 grammes. By the second law the magni-
tude of a force
is
velocity generated
the poundal
is
therefore equal to
,
39:3^
When
1200 X 453-59
dynes.
we know
by the second law that F=\mv where \ is some constant depending on the units of m, v and F. Since F is a. unit when 7/i and V are units, \ = 1. Hence F=mv.
When
time,
the force
is
we have recourse to the principles of the differential calculus. Let /be the acceleration, then /is equal to the velocity
which would be generated in a unit of time if the continued constant in magnitude for that time. Hence
see Art. 55.
65.
F F = mf,
force
The determination
an inconvenient method
that
on them.
The law
the forces of
ART. 66.]
UNITS OF FORCE.
25
This
is
the,
may be
earth.
regarded as particles
body is made, provided only they when compared with the size of the
an experimental fact which is independent of the laws of motion, and is referred to here as a practical method Forces therefore may be compared by of comparing forces. measuring the weights which they would support at .any the same
This
is
be the force of attraction of the earth on a mass at any given place, let g be the acceleration, then the equation F = mf becomes = mg.
Let
The law
is
is
It
constant of gravitation.
32'18
of
is
about
of space
is
and a second.
When
is
= 'mg shows that the weight The equation poundal, or unit of force, is therefore The g.
is
of a unit of
mass
the
1/gth. part of
oz.
Since 16
make
The dyne is consequently equal to l/13800th part of half an ounce. Art. 64, roughly a 64th part of a grain.
66.
is
it
may
be shown that g
a constant at the same place and from which the numerical value
may
be
deduced.
In Atwood's machine, let vi^^ m^ be the masses suspended by a string over the If the law of gravitation is true, the weights are m^g and m.^^'.
,
nii
+ m.-, and
m^
g,
the equation
the acceleration.
terminal velocities
we
can find the value of / and therefore of g for any assumed masses m^, m.-.. Repeating the experiment with other masses, we find that the constancy of g is verified as
far as the imperfections of the
machine
allow.
67.
of oscillation of hollow
The method adopted by Newton is more accurate. He measured the times wooden balls which he filled with substances of different
26
kinds.
LAWS OF MOTION.
'
[CHAP.
I.
similar circumstances)
Whatever the matter placed inside might be, the time of oscillation (under was found to be the same. The forces of attraction, measured dynamically by the motion communicated, must therefore have been proportional to the masses moved.
The theory
is
given in the
since Newton's
In these the
these experiments
is
An
vol.
account of some of
i.
68.
Accelerating Force.
The quantity
in the equation
F= mf is
is
called
It is equal to the acceleration and the word " force " appears to have been added merely to show from It is a which side of the equation the quantity is derived.
when we wish
The product of
effective force.
The
The
is
m and velocity v
mv^.
half of this quantity has also been called the vis viva,
it is
but in England
more usual
70.
The work
of a force.
The theory
of work
is
so
much
used in
B, where
Let the point of application A of a force F be moved to a point AB = ds. Let 6 be the angle made by the direction of
motion of
the
force.
Then Fcosdds
is
work of
F for
It is
moment
of F.
move and
jF cos dds
is
If a weight
Wdz.
ART. 72.]
WORK OF A
is
FORCE.
the work
27
If the space
finite
and equal to
h,
is
Wdz.
The
work
is
therefore
Wh.
unit
of
71.
The
theoretical
work
is
dynamical unit of force acting through a unit of space. As explained in Art. 64, this unit of force might be the poundal and the
unit of space the foot.
>
to raise a given
taken as a practical unit of work. is that required to overcome a force equal to the gravity This unit is called & footof a pound through a space of a foot.
engineers
pound.
In the
djTie
c.G.s.
is
in acting through
This unit
is
called
the erg.
(Art.
63)
is
raised one
metre is the practical unit and is written kilogramme-metre. kilogramme-metre is 7*23 foot-pounds very nearly.
72.
The
rate of doing
Thus,
if
work
is
time
dt,
F cos 6 dsjdt.
The
rate
is
therefore
Fv
cos
d.
is
measure.
diflPerent units.
The term force de cheval corresponds to horse-power, but with The unit of force de cheval is 75 kilogramme-
541 foot-pounds
i.e.
"98 of
Ex. 1. If the unit of space is a feet, the unit of time t seconds, and the unit of mass fi pounds, prove that the unit of force is fJi.<rJT\ the unit of energy is ixa^ir'^, the
unit of horse-power
li F,
ixa^jr^
;
E,
H represent
where
feet,
their measxires
Ex.
metres.
2.
and an inch-ton
is
25*8 kilogramme-
28
[CHAP,
I.
Equations of Motion.
When
is
F of
to
are given,
found by equating
Fjm
in
that direction.
Cartesian coordinates,
pressed force,
Xj, Y^,
we
X,
in Art. 31.
We
thus have
d^^X-,
dt'
d^_Y,
'
in
dt^
m
treated in the
The
may be
same way.
74.
the action of several forces, ^i, F^, &c. The corresponding theorems when there are no restrictions on the motion of the
particle will
be considered later
on.
If
form
/-IN
<^>'
t.
This equation
t
may
Taking the
we have
(2),
and the limits of integration are ^o to t The forces F-^^, Fo, &c. may not act during the whole time, thus F^ might act from t^ to + ol, F.^ might act from t to limits of each integral should the and so on. cases In such + /3 be from the time of beginning to the time of ending of the force. For the sake of conveniently using the equation we notice (what
the velocity at the time
to,
t-^
t.2
F adds
This
is
is called the
The equation
as
(2)
of momentum,.
75.
we
have
^mv-- ^mVo"-JF,ds+JFods+
(3).
ART. 76.]
29
mass
the
energy equal
to
JFds where
The equation
mass
is
(3)
called
sometimes
the
of the forces
must be equal
to that
must be equal
to that sub-
and timet
We
or
the equations (2) and (3). If the forces are functions of either s, only one of the integrations can be immediately effected.
We
use the equations (2) or (3) according as the forces depend on the time or on the position of the particle.
76.
When
their
to
the
system
actions
mutual
may have
be taken into
Suppose, for
particles
consideration.
P, P', whose masses are m, m', are constrained to slide on the straight lines Ox, Ox, and are
acted on by the forces F, F' in these directions.
Let these be
of energy are
= JFds -fT cos 6ds, \m' iv'^ - V,'') = JF'ds -JT cos d'ds'
where 6, 6' are the angles the two portions of the string make with Ox, Ox. To use these equations we must eliminate the
unknown
tension T.
is
We
in equilibrium
;
of the tensions at
extremities P, P'
hence,
30
[CHAP.
zero.
I.
moment
or
work
0.
is
We
have
therefore
tension therefore
informing
the equation of
when
77.
momenta
m m
The
tension
(v
{v
-Vo)=JFdt- jT cose dt
T measures the whole momentum transferred per from one particle to the other along the string. time unit of The components transferred are respectively Tcosd, Tcosd', and
these are not equal.
The
the pulley
is
of the rods, 6
and
to one
equal velocities,
we
have
v' = v.
.
Eliminating
have
{m + m') {v -
= jFdt - jF'dt
by combining the two equations of momentum when the reaction makes equal angles
can thus eliminate the reaction
We
s'
at the time
t.
from
becomes
(1), J (mw2+mV2)=Jm(7 sin ads + \m'g sin ads'=g sin a {m (s a) + m' (s' a')} The length of the string s = a to s and s'a' to s'.
Differentiating (2)
we have
sv
(2). (3).
* Most of these examples are taken from the examination papers and minor scholarships in the several colleges.
ART. 78.]
EXAMPLES.
31
to rest,
The equations (1) and (3) give v and v'. ^Vhen the particles again come v=0, v'=0. Substituting in (1) and using (2) we find, besides the initial g=a, s = a', 2mni'a' + {w? - m"^) a _ 2mm' a - {m? )'") a'
,
solution
m^ + m^
m^+ m-
Let
2/o
be the initial depth of the centre of gravity of the particles below the
t.
The equation
(1)
then gives
(4).
\{mv^ + m'v'^)=g(m+vi'){y-yQ)
The
centre of gravity
cannot therefore
rise
AB
through the
initial position
H,
for if
is
it
(4)
drawn would be
essentially positive.
M=m+m', we
see
from
(2)
the ellipse
AB in two points H, K. If both these points lie between the rods the centre of gravity continually oscillates in the elliptic arc having H, for the extreme points. If either or Hes outside the rods, one particle
This conic cuts the straight line
momentum.
We then have
v=jmg
sin adt
(m -t- m')
t.
The equation
it
same as
v'= -v and
s'
- a' =a - Sy
("i
-f
m')
and
We notice
that
if
m>m',
the
and
finally
draws P' up to 0.
Ex. 2. Two small rings of masses m, m' are moving on a smooth circular wre which is fixed with its plane vertical. They are connected by a straight weightless
inextensible string.
m+m'
-.
where 2a
when
[Pemb.
Coll. 1897.]
particles.
32
Ex.
3.
[CHAP.
I.
is raised from the bottom of a shaft of depth which is wound on a wheel of mass m lbs. The wheel is driven by a constant force which is applied tangentially at its rim for a certain time and then ceases. Prove that if the bucket just comes to rest at the top of the shaft, t seconds after the beginning of the motion, the greatest rate of working
mass
M lbs.
h feet by
means
of a light cord
kt",
^-fv
The mass
of the wheel
[Coll.
may
be
considered to be condensed in
its
rim.
Ex. 1896.]
on the rim for a time t'. This force commimicates a niomentum Ft to the system, which (since the system comes to rest after a time t) is equal to that removed by gravity in the whole ascent, therefore Ft' = Mgt. If s' is the space ascended in the time t', the force F communicates a work Fs', which is equal to that removed by gravity in the whole ascent h, therefore Fs'=Mgh. Since the mass moved is + m and F - Mg is the acting force we have also the two equations (1/+ m) v' = {F- Mg) t', {M + m) s'=^{F- Mg) t'^ where v' is the velocity at the time t' (Art. 25). These four equations determine F, t', v', s'. The rate of adding work to the system is Fv (Art. 72), and this is greatest when v is greatest,
Let the force
act
i.e.
when
Ex.
4.
v = v'.
The
train of
full
mass
distance
rails
I,
The
speed
is
is
m runs from rest at one station to stop at the next at a V and the average speed is v. The resistance at the
is
when
is
the brake
it is
not applied
The pull of the engine has one constant value when the train is starting and another when it runs at full speed. Prove that the average rate at which the engine works in starting the train is
brake
applied
u'Vjlg of the weight of the train.
i=?-
|.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.1
During the
first
uniform and equal to V, the pull F' of the During the third the engine stops working,
is applied and the acceleration is -u'Vjl. Using the formulae of Art. 25, and remembering that the sum of the spaces in the three stages is I, while the average velocity is I divided by the sum of the times, we deduce F. The average rate of working is the quotient "work by time," Art. 72; during the first stage
this
is Fsj/?i
= ^i?'F.
of a coal-pit is lowered for the first third of the shaft with a
Ex.
6.
The cage
it descends with uniform velocity, and then a constant retarding force just brings it to rest as it reaches the bottom of the shaft. If the time of descent is equal to that taken by a particle in falling four times the whole depth, prove that the pressure of the man inside on the bottom of the cage was at the beginning 23/48ths of his weight. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
The
initial acceleration
is
found to be 25^/48.
is
If
man
nifmg - R.
starting from rest generates in two minutes in a train a hour while it passes over a distance of 1 mile on the level. Another engine B of equal weight can pull the same train up an incline of sin~^ 1/80 at a fuU speed of 20 miles per hour. Assuming that the resistance due to friction, &c.
6.
Ex.
One engine A
is
lbs.
ART. 78.]
the horse-power at which
EXAMPLES.
33
is 1'52...
works
for the
two minutes
power
of
B.
Ex.
7.
A window
is
work
of the
window (which
with acceleration/.
the framework
is -7
-
and is connected with counterpoises each One cord breaks, and the window descends Prove that the coefficient of friction between the window and
loosely
fits)
~V,
,
where a
is
Ex. 1896.]
Let the pressures of the window against the framework on one side at the bottom, on the other at the top, be E, R'. Since the window does not move sideways or turn round, we have the statical conditions R = R', Tb 2Ra. Considering the
vertical
motion
for
These determine
Ex.
8.
/x.
two-wheeled vehicle
c)
them and
the weight
W, and
its
if
centre of gravity is
axle.
Prove that
is
is
bearings.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
The
pull
motion,
is
and the
F of the horse, the reaction E of the axle The equations of friction R tan X.
is
acting at
some angle
6 to the vertical
Statics give F, R,
and
6,
and the
Fv.
Ex.
h.
9.
particle of
711
mass
is
is
,'"^
:
m' (a
+ b)
1.
Ex. 1895.] *
describes a
i.
Since
whose centre
is
is v~ja,
hence
= T-
T' - mg.
The
motion.
Relatively to
it
therefore
v'^jb,
Hence
Ex. 10. In the system of pulleys in which the string, passing round each pulley, has one end attached to a fixed beam and the other to the pulley next above, there is no "power" and no "weight." The n moveable pulleys are all of equal weight,
they are smooth, and can
all
be treated as particles in calculating their motions. Prove that the acceleration of the lowest puiley
[Coll.
is
The
string
is
without mass.
3<//(2"-^l).
Ex. 1896.]
34
The equation
of
[CHAP.
is
I.
downwards
where T^ and T^^^ being the power and weight, are zero. Also the velocity of each puUey is half that of the one just above. Multiplying these equations by 1, 2, 2^ ... 2"~i beginning at the lowest and adding the results the tensions disappear.
,
Ex.
11.
is
there are two pulleys, the weight of the moveable puUey being w, the power
and
W.
is
3P + W g-^r^ ^^ 9P + W +
W W
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.1
Ex.
face
12.
dicular to
AB
prism with axis horizontal and whose section by a plane perpena regular polygon ABGD... of 4n sides is fixed with the uppermost horizontal, and n equal particles are placed at the middle points of AB,
it is
C, &c.
These are connected by a continuous string which passes over smooth Assuming that the faces are smooth, prove that
is
|-
(isot
t'~^)'
[^^^-
^^- 1897.]
Ex. 13. Two equal particles are connected by a string one point of which is fixed and the particles are describing circles of radii a and 6 about this point with the same angular velocity so that the string is always straight. The string is suddenly
released, prove that the tensions of the
(a
+ b)
2a and
(a
+ b)
26.
Before the release the tensions are mv-^fa and mv^jb, where
After the release the relative space velocity
either is a circle of radius
these, the tension is mv^l2r.
is
vja=vjb = u.
v=Di + z>2.
2r/m.
The
acceleration of each
r=a + b,
The
v^jr.
Equating
result follows.
friction is n,
slides down a rough inclined plane, whose coeflSicient of two sides of the base being horizontal. If the box contain suiBcient water just to cover the base of the vessel, prove that the volume of the water is [Coll. Ex. 1897.] J/u times the internal volume of the vessel.
Ex.
14.
A cubical box
The
relative acceleration of
to the surface.
momentum mv of any and magnitude (Art. 54) by a Since velocities obey the parallelogram law, we may proceed as straight line PP'. in Statics and replace the momentum PP' by three linear momenta at any assumed origin in the directions of the axes, and three couple momenta.
79.
Let the
particle
The
Let the coordinates of the particle be x, y, z and the direction cosines be X, n, p. three linear momenta being the resolved parts of viv are mv\, mv/i, mvv
respectively.
are the
moments
These are often called linear momenta. The three couple momenta We know by the correof the momentum mv about the axes.
X
X
mv
X
X
y
/i
These are called the angular momenta about the axes. The linear momentum of a particle in any direction is the resolved part of the momentum in that direction. The angular momentum about a straight line is the
moment of
the
momentum about
ART. 81.]
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
35
Impulsive Forces.
80.
Impulsive forces.
for a very short time, yet, being of great magnitude, produce Let a force F act on a particle of mass wt perceptible effects. for
a time T.
let V,
and
V be the
We
dv
at
Let v be the velocity at any time t less than T, velocities at the beginning and end of the
have
interval T.
= F,
.-.
m(V'-V)=l^ Fdt
Jo JO
(1).
Let the force F increase without limit while the duration T The integral may have a finite limit, decreases without limit.
say P.
m(V'-V) = P
If
Vi, Va
(2).
and least velocities during the impact, between ViT and V2T, and both these are zero in the limit. The particle therefore has not had time to move, This sudden but its velocity has been changed from V to V. of an characteristic distinguishing velocity is the change of,
are the greatest
lies
impulse.
when from
is
that measure
we can deduce
all
the effects of
the
force.
velocity
we may measure
When P
is
given by
(2).
is infinitely
finite
force
F is measured by the momentum, generated per unit of time. impulse P is measured by the whole momentum generated An
is,
P=JFdt.
remains fixed in space
When^ the
during
is also
its
in
any direction
the direction
When
of
F is not
The
integrals of these,
36
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
Strictly speaking, there are
[CHAP.
I.
there are some forces which are very great and which act only for
a short time.
The blow
of a
hammer
Such
when
82.
components of
we have, by
Art. 73,
vk^here
X,
Let
{u, v),
Let Xj=JXdt, Yi=fYdt be the components of the impulse, Art. 81. We then have by inte-
any impulse.
gration,
Ees.
Mom.
Res.
Mom.
/Resolved\
"
\after impulse/
Vbefore impulse/
impulse
Elastic smooth bodies. When two spheres of any 83. hard material impinge on each other they appear to separate almost immediately and a finite change of velocity is generated
in each
by the mutual action. Let the centres of gravity of the spheres be moving before impact in the same straight line with
velocities u,
v.
move
of
in the
same straight
masses,
be their
velocities.
The equations
m'
{v
motion are
(1).
{'u'
-u) = R,
v) = R
These equations are not sufficient to determine the three quantiTo obtain a third equation we must consider ties u', v' and jR.
Each
The
ART. 83.]
period of impact
37
Firstly,
may
increasing.
The
period terminates
same instantaneous
when the
bodies separate.
The
ratio of the
during the period of restitution to that during compression is If the found to be different for bodies of different materials.
bodies regain their original
may
take place before this occurs and then the action during
In some cases the force of restitution may be neglected, and the bodies are then said to be inelastic. In this case we have just
after the
impact
-r.
u'
= v.
This gives
,
,
.'.
+ u= ??ra m-\-m
,
m'v
,-,.
(2).
be the
Rq the action up to the moment The magnitude of R can be found by compression. of greatest This may be done by observing the values of u' experiment. and v' and thus determining R by means of the equations (1). Such experiments were made in the first instance by Newton and led to the result that RJRq is a constant ratio which depends on the materials of which the balls are made. Let this constant The quantity e is never greater than unity; ratio be called 1 + e.
in the limiting case
elastic.
when
=1
The value
impact
of e being supposed to be
may
if
be easily found.
1
lated as
R may then be
deduced by multiplying by
+e.
This gives
^^ mm^ m+m
38
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
in (1)
and
whole
(1),
we have
,
-.
w
\
= mu +
-
mfv
,
me
m+m
m+m
(u
,
y)
.
.(3).
84.
We
u' = e{v u)
impact hears
(4).
The
to 1.
By
is
momentum
the whole
momentum
Hence
mu' + m'v' = mu + m'v
(5).
The equations (4) and (5) may be used when the impulse i2 is not required.
85.
When two
R = m{u v)
aiid the equations (1)
u'
= v,
= u.
Conversely
we may show
velocities their
same way that if the spheres exchange masses are equal and the elasticity is perfect.
in the
86.
When
Putting
m
v'
infinite,
R = mu (1 +
the velocity
e),
u'
= eu,
= 0,
of
magnitude
Ex.
is
multiplied by
If the plane
-eu + V
{1
+ e).
87. If one sphere of mass m impinge directly on another of mass m' which is at rest and if m = m!e, the equation (3) gives R = mu. The impinging sphere therefore loses its whole momentum and is reduced to rest.
and
let their
let n spheres be placed in a row at rest masses form a geometrical progression of ratio Ije.
ART. 89.]
39
If any velocity is given to the first, it will strike the next in order and be reduced to rest. The second will strike the third and remain at rest and so on. Finally the last sphere will proceed onwards with the whole momentum communicated to the first. If the spheres are perfectly elastic, e
=1
equal.
only in
and each impact will still be concluded before the next begins. Each ball transfers the momentum to the next in order and remains in apparent rest, the last ball moving onwards with the whole momentum communicated to the first.
apparent contact
;
This may partly explain why, in some cases when blows have been given by the wind or sea to masses of masonry, the stones to leeward have been more disturbed than those exposed to the
blows.
88.
line,
^
Ex.
prove that
if
their
masses form a geometrical progression of which the common ratio is velocities after impact will form a geometrical progression of which the
ratio is 2/3.
2,
their
common
89.
spheres
and
B
f
impinge
the subse-
quent motion.
_/--^'^
y^
^,!^^^?f-^-
v^
f^'
\yK
J
The spheres being smooth the mutual impulse acts along the axis* of
\/
y
two
Let
Let
Fi, Vz
be the
velocities of the
be the components of the velocities Vj, Fg, and let the same letters, when accented, represent the components of F/, V^'. Let m, mf be the masses.
Since the impulse has no components parallel to the axes of
o)
and
y,
we have
u/ =
Ui,
Vi
= Vi
Uo
= U2,
V2
= V2.
40
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
= mm'
(qju
Wi
iVi =
R
,
w.,
Wo=-,.
-R
When
common
normal.
When two
each
always
First,
let
We
X /-f
e),
u=u R m
/
v=v-\
R m
[
)
,.
2(v-u) +
R mm r- R
= mu^ {mv^
The
m + m,
7 (u
vf(\ e^).
vis viva is decreased
obliquely.
Let IT be the
Then, as in Art. 69
v,
Hence
e^).
If
,
.
V is
lost IS
j^ m + m KMi
,
mm'
,.
e-).
The vis viva after impact when e = l, that is, when the
evident that
lu^
is
cannot be equal to m, or
= 1.
ART. 92.]
91.
41
Ex.
from a given point A in all directions and Prove that after reflexion the e.
right angles in
motion diverge from a point B, where some point 31, and BN=e AM.
.
AB
Let AP be the path of a particle before impact, PQ that after. Let QP produced in some point B. The comproduced intersect the perpendicular
AM
viz. V,
ponent of velocity, u, along MP is unchanged by the impact, while that perpendicular, becomes ev and is reversed in direction,
..
tan
It
MB = e
same
perpendicular from
in the
point.
By
we can
reflexions
fixed planes.
To
it
be
a particle should be horizontally projected from a given point A on the floor, that after reflexion at two vertical walls Ox, Oij, it may pass through another given point A'. We draw a perpendicular AB to the first wall
required to find
how
and take
MB = eAM. A
CN= e through B
perpendicular
.
is
drawn from
and
is
taken so that
BN. Then,
and C
to A.
reflexions pass
path
AQPA'
joining A' to C,
Qto B and P
Ex. 2. A particle of elasticity e is projected along a horizontal plane from the middle point of one of the sides of an isosceles right-angled triangle so as after reflexion at the hypothenuse and remaining side to return to the same point
prove that the cotangents of the angles~of reflexion are
e
+ 1 and e + 2
respectively.
92.
A free system
is
in motion.
Prove (1) that the centre of gravity moves in a straight line with uniform velocity, and (2) that the motion of the centre of gravity
is not affected
The mutual
;
particles is
measured
by the momentum transferred from one to the other per unit of time the mutual impulse is measured by the whole momentum transferred. In either case it follows by the third law of motion that the whole momentum of the two particles and the components in any directions, are unaltered by their mutual
action.
42
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
Let
(a^i, 2/1), (ooo, y.2),
[CHAP.
I.
(Wj, Vi),
(ti2, v^),
Since
we have by It has just been shown that the components Xmu, Xmv are unaltered by the mutual attraction or impact of any two particles. Hence the components of the velocity of the centre of gravity, viz. u, v, are constant throughout the motion. The path of the centre of gravity is therefore the straight line x = ut + A, y = vt + B, and
the velocity
is
the resultant of
u, v.
its
momentum
unaltered
and magnitude, the momentum of the collected mass would be the resultant of the transferred momenta. The
direction
equations
assert
that
the
centre of
mass
The
effect of the
particles (whether
transfer a
momentum
Hence the moment of the momentum about any straight line is unaltered by the transference. The moment of the momentum of the whole system (that is, its angular momentum, Art. 79), about any straight line is unaltered by the
mutual actions of the
particles.
In a system of mutually attracting or impinging particles, the components of its linear momentum along, and the angular momenta about, any fixed straight lines are constant, except so far as they may
be altered by the action of external forces.
This
is
fully explained.
Examples*.
Ex.
rest.
1.
If a
suddenly to become rigidly connected together, determine the conditions that the
body should be at
rigid
same momenta as the system but differently momenta of all the particles are in equilibrium, the rigid body has no component of momentum in any direction and no moment of momentum
body
will possess the
The
distributed.
If the
Many
of
these examples are taken from the examination papers for the
ART. 94.]
about any straight
line.
EXAMPLES.
It is therefore
43
By
the rules of Statics the
at rest.
necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium are (1) the whole linear momentum along each axis of coordinates is zero, (2) the angular momentum
is
zero.
mass travel round the sides of a closed skew polygon one starting from each corner and the velocity of each is proportional to the side along which it moves. Prove that their centre of gravity is at rest and that it coincides with the centre of gravity of the sides of the polygon supposing the masses of the sides to be equal. Prove also that if one particle be removed, the centre of gravity of the remaining particles describes a polygon whose
Ex.
2.
Particles of equal
direction,
in the
same
and proportional
Since the sides exert no pressures on the particles the centre of gravity moves in a straight line with uniform velocity whatever the momenta of the particles may be. When, as in the problem, the momenta are parallel and proportional to
the sides of a closed figure, the components Switi and Sniv of Art. 92 are zero, and the centre of gravity is therefore at rest. The other parts of the question then
follow at once.
Ex.
3.
An
off
in
any subsequent positions they were suddenly connected together, prove that the rigid body thus formed would be at rest.
different directions.
Ex. 4. A number of particles originally in a straight line fall from rest, and rebound from a partially elastic horizontal plane. Prove that, at any time, the [Coll. Ex. 1897.] particles which have rebounded once lie in a parabola.
Ex.
rest.
5.
Two
move inside a rough endless One sphere impinges with velocity v on the other at
produce a retardation
in either sphere
[Coll.
and
if
after
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 6. Four equal baUs of the same material are projected simultaneously with equal velocities from the corners of a square towards its centre, and meet in the neighbourhood of the centre. Show that they return to the corners with
velocities
Ex. 1892.]
smooth horizontal table, a third equal sphere of mass m' impinges symmetrically on them. Prove that this sphere is reduced to rest by the impact if 2m'=3me, and find the
Ex.
7.
Two
are in contact on a
by the impact.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex. 8. Two equal balls lie in contact on a table. A third equal ball impinges on them, its centre moving along a line nearly coinciding with a horizontal common tangent. Assuming that the periods of the two impacts do not overlap, prove that the ratio of the velocities which either ball will receive according as it is struck 3 - e, where e is the coefficient of restitution. first or second is 4
:
Ex.
with a
lost
A heavy particle tied to a string of length is projected horizontally Show that the energy velocity V from the point to which it is attached.
9.
I
by the impulse
is
minimum when
Ex. 1896.]
44
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
Ex. 10. A particle of mass m lies at the middle point C of a straight tube AB mass and length 2a, both of whose ends are closed. It is shot along the tube with velocity V. Prove that it will pass the middle point of the tube in the same
of
+am
and
either
and that
|
moved forward a
The
and
distance
rr^
+-
1\^
.
QA = a
a\V and
after
impact has a
AB 2a
is
in a time 2a/eF,
impact at
length
times.
BG=a
The
in the time
It traverses the
remaining
the
sum
of these three
particle is
now
same point G
is
V ^nd
zeroj
is
v mVj{M+m).
The
distance traversed
Ex. 11.
is
equal to that
the tube has
and
Ex. 1895.]
mass m is at rest in a rectangular box of mass free to move down a smooth plane inclined at an angle a to the horizon, the lowest edge of the box being horizontal, and the particle at its middle
smooth
point.
if
is
started
down
Prove that
the coefficient of restitution be unity, the particle will strike the top and
bottom of the box after equal successive intervals of time; and that the spaces travelled by the box in the first and second of these intervals are as
V^ + ql sin a
where
21 is the length of the box.
13.
vt
it/
+m
F''
+ 3flt sm a,
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
v-,^,
Ex.
with velocity
show,
from a
ball is
when
its
velocity is v^
v-^
;
an equal
(1)
same point
that the
that the
is v-^jg, (2)
- v^
{v^
+ v^jQg. and
[Zv-^
+ v^}
{v^
- v^)l8g,
(3) that the velocities of the balls at the impacts are equal and opposite and [Math. Tripos, 1896.] alternately \ (vj - ^2) and \ (^1 + ^2)-
Since the balls exchange velocities at each impact, we may suppose that they pass through each other, one ball following the other at an interval T = (v^-v^jg.
Ex. 14.
rest
weight of mass
m and
inelastic string
These bodies are released from whose mass is p and coefficient of elasticity e falls with Prove that a second collision will occur between vertical velocity V upon the bucket. the particle and bucket after a time e (m + in') Vjmg and find the condition that the
when a
particle
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
ART. 94.]
Ex.
15.
EXAMPLES.
45
A particle
is
move on a
horizontal plane.
Prove that
if
the particle
must
make with
Ex.
+ e + e^)Y.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
balls of masses M, m (centres A and B), are tied together by a on a smooth table with the string straight. A ball of mass m' (centre G) moving on the table with velocity V parallel to the string strikes the Prove that starts ball of mass m, so that the angle ABC is acute and equal to o.
16.
Two
string,
and
lie
with a velocity
""
-;
r^
7;
e b';ing
between
m and m'.
M,
Ex. 1895.]
Let U' be the velocity of m' after impact in the direction CB,
velocity of
the
common
in the direction
AB,
v^'
the velocity of
perpendicular to
AB
Since
cos a has to
move both
and m, while
R sin a
affects
only,
{M + m)v^' = Re,osa,
At the moment
mv.2=Rsi.Ta.a.
along
CB
are equal
o.
e
Ex.
17.
-a.
,
...
li
Three particles A, B, C whose masses are m, m', m", connected by on a smooth table, and the obtuse angle ABC is receive a blow F parallel to CB prove that C will begin to move with a
.
Let T,
T be
AB, BC.
Since A,
a)lm'.
velocities along
BA
(F cos a - T)/m = (T - T' cos
equal velocities along
Since B,
G have
BC
result required is T'lm".
{T cos a -T')lm'-T'lm".
These tiquations determine
Ex. a
circle
T and
T',
and the
18.
Two smooth
v,
spheres whose
by inextensible
rest.
One
of them,
whose mass
is
is
m, describing
is at
with velocity
makes an angle
"*'y
and
the strings at that instant cross each other at right angles, then m' begins to
describe a curcle with velocity
,
.,
-XT-
-J.
+ e)
Let A,
DA
with
intersect
EB
v',
in C.
The
force
AD.
Let
Let let the strings be attached to D, E. on m acts along BA and makes an angle Then of m, m' along EG and CD.
'
0=-T + iJcos^)
m(v'-v}=-Rsm0\
At the moment
.-.
'
AB
are equal,
is
i7'sin^
= w'cos0.
Ojvi'.
jR (1
+ e)
cos
46
Ex.
19.
IMPULSIVE FOKCES.
[CHAP.
I.
smooth
and mass
is
suspended by a
r' and mass m' is moving on the table; prove that the cotangent of the angle throui^h which the direction of motion of the second sphere is deflected by a collision, is
mb
{(r
>
where a and
+ r'f-a^-b^}^
first
Ex. 1892.]
We
notice that the vertical motion of one sphere is stopped by the reaction, of
is
Ex. 20. Four equal particles are connected by three equal strings AB, BC, CD and lie on a horizontal plane with the strings taut in the form of half a regukir
hexagon.
tension of
An
impulse
is
applied at
in the direction
DA.
iuitiid
BC is
Ex. 1897.]
v^
Ex. 21. If three inelastic particles, Wj jjij, m.^, moving with velocities v^, v^, making angles a, /3, y, with each other, impinge and coalesce, prove that the loss
energy
is
of
'
^'
1-^J.J
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
22.
shot whose
that, if
mass
is
mass M, prove
is free to
+ -
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
uritil
M with
velocity
a velocity
v^,
and continues
If
to
move inwards
Vi^mvJ^M+m).
0"),
constant, x
M and m,
3Ivi^= 2Fx.
is infinite, 2Fs-=v^i. Eliminating x, we find 2F(t =:^Vi^Mml(M +m). When The ratio fffs follows. This problem may also be easily solved by considering
where
CHAPTER
II.
RECTILINEAR MOTION.
Let us
mass
is
m
F.
is
constrained
cc,
to
move
we may
call
the axis of
under
Let
F= mX.
We
IS
-T-
dr
F ^ = - = A. m
when
a;
is
a.
known
function of
t,
the motion,
what
is the
we
X (Art.
To
deter-
mine
this,
we must
motion as a differential
solution.
X may be a
We
is
shall
Let us suppose
thai:
a function of
only, say
X =f{t).
By
integration
we have
cv=f{t)
+ At + B,
where
suffixes
t.
regard to
48
[CHAP.
II.
the constants
In this way x has been expressed as a function of t, leaving A and B undetermined. As this value of x satisfies
and
B may
have,
nothing in that equation to help us in finding these two constants. We must have recourse to some other data. These
are the initial conditions of the motion.
= a, from
hy x = h with a velocity
= c.
= dx/dt,
we have
c=f,{a)
Solving these,
+ A, h=f{a) + Aa + B.
and B. The motion
(a)}
t
we
find
is
therefore given
by
^ =ff, (t)
97.
[o-f,
+ {b-ac +
af, (a)
-f
(a)j.
Let
m-
Multiply by
|,
|'J=/W|.
(~J
t.
Integrate
= 2f,(cc) + A
(2),
= ^ = 12/;(^) + ^)4
of
(3).
radical
we use
and
= a, x = b,
= c.
We
then have
=A
(4),
(5).
c, i.e.
= 12/,(6) + ^}*
have the same sign as
ls
the
makes x increase
or decrease.
however
= 0,
we
in
move
in the direction
which the force acts; the radical therefore follows the sign
Since
if
obvious that
motion.
X X
is
a function of x only,
will
it is
is
be no
We
now have
"^JL^ =t + B
{2f,{x)
+ A]^
(6).
ART. 99.]
49
Representing the left-hand side of this equation, after the integration has been effected, by
c}>{a;)
^ (x), we have
=t+B
(7).
viz.
To
a;
find
we
that
= h when t = a,
98.
hence
B=^(b) a.
(7)
The equation
determines
when x
If
is
known,
i.e. it
gives the time at which the particle passes over any given point
of the straight line along which
it
moves.
may
lead to different
&c.
We
have
We
by x h,
= a,
All
the others must then be excluded as not agreeing with the given'
initial conditions.
If
= a + B,
^' (x)
roots.
Hence
=
it
when x = b.
Since
<f>{x)
+^
is
infinite.
99.
when
at
Subject of integration infinite. Other points requiring attention arise the integrals which occur are such that the subject of integration is infinite
some point
of the path.
for if /j (x)
were infinite
In the integral
the subject
of integration is infinite
when the
velocity is zero.
we
please to*B
on the same
If
is finite
we have
to find
As the
particle approaches
B the velocity
is
has the opposite sign to the velocity. Supposing X not also to vanish at B, the particle after arriving at B must begin to retrace its steps. Considering J? as a new initial position, the subsequent motion may be deduced from (3) by putting c=0. If X=0 also at B, the particle, as explained
50
lOO.
Ex.
[CHAE.
II.
particle
moves in a
to the origin
and equal
to
n^/ar*.
Webave
The minus sign
is
-='%
and the
(^^-
We
then find
l-f-}*
distance from the origin
;
'^'-
Let us suppose that the particle starts from rest at a very great or infinite then when x is infinite, dxldt=0. Hence ^=0, and the
equation becomes
^=^ at X
Since the particle begins to
initially negative.
(3). ^
is
We therefore
x^=B-2nt
Initially
infinite
(4).
when t = 0, the particle is infinitely distant from the origin, i.e. x is and therefore is infinite. It follows that the particle does not get within
we may obtain a
finite result.
finite
Let
us suppose the particle to be initially projected at a distance x=b (b being positive) with a velocity njb towards the centre of force. Proceeding as before we find A=0,
and as
has
still
it is
given that the initial velocity of the particle is negative, the radical
We thus
and
(4).
Since x = b
when t=0, we
Since x
5=6^
x=
is initially positive
(5).
As
increases
we
see that
moment
is
found by putting
a;=0 in
(3)
and
is easily
seen to be infinite.
If
we construct a
Cases in which either the velocity or the force is infinite do not occur in nature. central force by placing some attracting matter at the origin
there would be an impact before the particle reached the origin and the whole
motion would be changed. But as a matter of curiosity we may enquire what would be the subsequent motion if our equations held true for infinite velocities and forces.
In this case the particle arrives at the origin with a negative velocity, we must when the quantity
therefore suppose that the radical in (2) does not change sign
passes through infinity at the origin. Hence since x now becomes negative, we positive sign in (3) instead of the negative one hitherto used. This
x-B + 2nt,
where
B we
x0
To and
= b^l2n; we
is
B=
a;=:
-b^.
The motion
- b"^)-.
has passed
the origin
therefore given
by
(2nt
ART. 101.]
FORCE,
51
Ex.
2.
If x=at'^
we have ^=At'"'^=:A
-) "
>
where A=:an{n-1).
Let us
A particle is
motion
is
3.
Show
if
that
if
acted on by X=At'^~^
w-2
acted on by
X=A(xla)^
the
given by a;=0.
Ex.
A particle
is
with a velocity
fip*
under the
X= -^ij?(p-x)^.
by x=p.
101.
be
a function of
say
X =f(v).
The equation
of motion
now
s=/w
Integrating
this,
.--w-
we have
'""
-t + A
(2);
/.
writing
(f>
(v) for
=t+A
is initially
a.
(3).
projected at a
= a,
with a velocity
c,
we have A=<j>(c)
The
Two
rule requires us to
and find and as already explained that solution is to be chosen which makes v = c when t=a. Remembering that v = dx/dt we then obtain x by integration.
v = 'slr(t),
v,
we use
the second
(1),
eliminating dt by
= dxjdt, we
vdv
have
/ ;2vT
Thus
after integration both
= + -S
t
v.
(4).
x and
We
viz.
the velocity
52
102.
Ex.
[CHAP.
II.
in a mediuvi whose
of motion
is
a positive quantity.
The equation
then
l=-
.-.
")
= -Kdt;
dv
, '
v^~^
:.
-^
1-n
=-Kt^A
,
,_.
(2). '
^
Measuring
A=
y\-n
;;
1-n
We
vi--V^-''=-(l-n)Kt
If
(3).
after
n < 1 the velocity decreases continually from yi~n The particle a finite time, viz. t=-
its initial
will
then remain at
X=0.
If ra>l, writing (3) in the
form
J=i-v^i=i^--^)'<t
we
(4),
see that the velocity decreases continually and vanishes after an infinite time.
If
tion (2)
logv=-Kt + A;
time.
.:
v^Ve'"*
and vanishes
after
(5).
an
infinite
In
that v = dxjdt,
/
any time
t.
Eemembering
x= {Fi-- (1 I
n) Kt)'~''
dt=
yA
-1
nj K
Determining
x=0 when
278
-{2-w)/cx = {Fi--(l-n)/ct}i'^-F2-
any space
x.
V
.:
^^=
dx
.:
-Kv":
v^-''dv=-Kdx;
v^-"'=V^-''-(2-n) kx
(7).
n<I, we have
x=-;r(2
- n) K
and t=7-
comes
If
w>l and
is infinite;
comes
an
infinite time.
that v vanishes
infinite
when x
it
is infinite
and the
particle deg"ribes
an
infinite space in
n > 2, we find an
time before
2.
comes
to rest.
Ex.
particle
comes
to
rest
after
ART. 104.]
Ex.
3.
53
infinite
103. Ex. 1. If X=(p(v) .fix) or X=^{v)f(t), prove that the equation of motion can be solved by separating the variables.
In the former case we use vdvjdx=X, in the
latter
dvldtX.
Ex. 2. If X=f {x)v'^ + F(x)v'^ show that the equation of motion becomes linear by writing v^~^=y.
Ex.
3.
If X=:f(v^lx)
Motion of a heavy
104.
particle.
A
to
straight line
heavy particle starting from rest slides down a rough which is inclined to the veHical at. an angle 6. It is
required
Let
be the
the particle,
OV
the vertical,
The
gravity
is
g cos
6.
straight
is
line
being
mg sin
fi
d,
fig sin 0,
where
is
is
The whole
.
accelerating force
therefore
cos {6
e),
= tan
e.
Writing
d^s
OQ = s,
is
/, ^
X ^'
dv
//IN
'^^^
dt'^^^ds^^^^^^'^^^^
Integrating,
we
find
V-
2gs sec
cos (^
+ e) + A.
and
s
rest, v
vanish together.
We
(2).
= 0,
and
V'
2gs sec
cos (^
+ e)
To
NVQ
VON = e ON cutting
and
the
54
vertical
[chap.
II.
line along
e).
travels in Q.
Then
ON = s cos (d +
OQ
independent of 6 and
If the chord
as
OQ
is
OV
N, the angle
Since
the friction varies as the pressure taken positively, it must now be represented by /xg sin 6. The theorem therefore only applies to the chords on the side of the vertical opposite to ON.
If
line
I^TT
vertical
OV, the
straight
OV
having
OV
and
is
for
The
to the
velocity
acquired in
from
rest at
equal
to that
105.
By
t,
and
re-
when t = 0, we
find
(3).
1^ sec
6 cos (^ -H e)t^
We may
interpret
this formula
struction.
Making
VON=, we
is
see that,
when
t is
situated on
ON.
We
have therefore the following theorem. Describe any circle passing through and having its centre on ON, and let it cut the vertical through in some point V. The time of descent from rest at
chord
the
same as
that
F remote
is
if
the circle
down VO.
ART. 108.]
106.
TIMES.
55
When
down which the particle slides is smooth ON The cone in Art. 104 becomes a horizontal plane, and
a diameter.
OV for
all
We
thus
fall
theorems
(1)
zontal plane
chords,
(2)
is
chords.
107.
If the
allowance for
the velocity,
motion take place in the air we must make Supposing the resistance to vary as the equation of motion is
its resistance.
1^=/
where /= ^r.sec e cos {6 by integration
>
that v
+ e).
Remembering
ds/dt we
find
1=/*
the constant being omitted because
s
<2>-
Transposing
ks,
We
when t=
0,
we have
= 1/ac.
s=^^secCos{e
+ ){Kt-l +
e-''*}
(3).
When
on ON.
particle
velocity.
is is
constant and (^ + e) is regarded as variable we again the equation of a circle having its centre
slides
The theorem of Art. 105 is therefore also true when the on a rough chord in a medium resisting as the The times of descent from rest at down all chords of
108.
(1) of Art.
There
is
another method of proof by which the solution of the diffeWe notice that if we write s = (r cos (^ + e), the equation
107 becomes
- = gsece-K-,
from which the angle d has disappeared. The initial conditions now become <r=0 and dffldt=0 when t = 0; these also are independent of 6. Hence the time of describing any given length tr is independent of 0. But if any value is given to a-,
the equation s = a- cos (6 + e)
is
56
109.
[CHAP.
II.
is immersed in a fluid it is partly supported by the be the volume of the body, D its density, p that of the fluid. If the body were removed, a mass Vp of fluid would just fill the vacant place and be supported by the pressures of the surrounding fluid. The apparent
surrounding
fluid.
Let
is
therefore
.=.(1-^)
in.
This value of g' should properly replace g when the moving body is immersed a resisting medium. It is sometimes called the relative acceleration.
no.
This
Ex.
1.
thfe
formula for
= Ut^
k.
may
2.
The plane of a circle is inclined to the vertical, prove that the times descent down all smooth chords from rest at the highest point are equal.
Ex.
Ex.
3.
of
Two
tangents AB,
vertical circle at
its
cuts
AB,
CD
in P,
Prove that the velocity acquired in descending from rest at P to iJ under gravity is the same for all positions of the tangent. Prove also that the time of descent from P to i? is proportional to the length PR and the
circle at Q.
time from
circle.
to
is
Ex. 4. If the resistance per unit of mass is kv~ and the particle slide on a smooth straight wire inclined at an angle d to the vertical, prove that the space s
described in time
t
from
rest is given
by
e"*=: J
(e
+e~
111.
vertically
nth.
Iiimiting Velocity.
When
a particle
projected
downwards
in a
medium whose
dv
power of the
velocity, the
equation of motion
where g
that
is
downwards with a
is
velocity
such
is
KL^ = g
it
is
initially zero.
There
and the
by the
resistance.
The
with a uniform velocity equal to L. If the particle is projected downwards with a velocity less than L, gravity exceeds the resistance
velocity of projection
If the and the velocity of the particle is increased. is greater than L, the resistance exceeds
is
decreased.
If the particle
is
projected
which
it
ART. 113.]
LIMITING VELOCITY.
cases the velocity tends to
57
In
all
This velocity
is
called
and some-
velocity.
The
latter
Huygens. Other names are given under other cii'cumstances. the body considered is a ship, the constant g may represent the force of the engine and ?;" the resistances. The ship is said
When
to be at full speed
when
112.
When
is fall
the body
much
smaller than
g.
The body
first
begins to
increases rapidly.
is
small,
many
applications in nature.
is
In a shower of
little
is
began to fall. The drops, being observed some motion has begun, move with a velocity which uniform and independent of the height of the cloud.
since
after the
time
sensibly
113.
The magnitude
size
body as well as on
an
To
power of
its velocity,
and
(3) as the
density p of the
fluid.
If
The
accelerating force
where 7
of the
is
falling
some constant depending on the form and position body. Equating / to zero, it follows that the
1
as {la-jpY.
We
smaller the size of the body the less is the limiting velocity. For example, large drops of rain fall with greater velocity than small
ones.
The
and their
limiting-
seem
to have no motion.
58
[CHAP.
II,
We
is
so far symmetrical
not
made
'
to rotate
by the
re-
114.
in
/3
Ex.
1.
from
rest in
X,
seconds.
Show
medium
in
which the
and the terminal velocity is L, will acquire half its terminal velocity in about /^ /3 seconds and two-thirds of that velocity in \\ 8 seconds.
To prove
this
L = gJK when
that
Ex. 2. Show that the effect of the resistance of a medium on the motion of a heavy body is less the greater the size and density of the body.
115.
velocity
Be8i8tance=KV^.
particle
is
F in
medium
During the ascending motion the resistance acts downwards and the equation
of motion is
dv
dv
v^
where
is
the limiting
v, the
changed
to
dv dv v^ ''Ts'-Tt = -3^^i7^'
where in both equations s and v are measured positively upwards. This discontinuity occurs whenever the power of v in the law of resistance is even.
Following the second rule given in Art. 101 we express both
V.
and
in terms of
We have
motion
gt
-_ -_ [ ~ J L^Tv^~
f
Ldv ^^^
X
'
-1^
,^,^
2gs
1,2
f2vdv
L2 + t;2
v=V when
The time T
of ascent
We thus
find
T=-tan--,
The time
gravity
^,)
(3).
of ascent and the space ascended are less than in a vacuum, and the resistance join in bringing the particle to rest.
for both
%fc-')=:ji^,=,,^
the constants being determined from the condition that
p).
when v 0,t=T,s = h.
'
ART. 116.]
The
velocities at
RESISTING MEDIUM.
which the
particle passes
59
given point of space are connected by a simple relation. as the point of projection upwards,
let
upwards and downwards through any Taking the given point the two velocities be V and V. Putting
/,
s=0
in
(5)
we
find
2gh
F'2\
(3)
we
arrive
iat
If
ff
we
find
by eliminating v
^''I^'=l(^'l^ + e-^''^)
See Art. 110, Ex.
4.
116.
velocity
Besi8tanee=Kt'".
particle
is
in a
medium
power of the
velocity.
It is required
for the
dv
''Ts
It will be convenient to
dv
= di=-'-'[L)
Proceeding
ias
fv\^
'
put
v=xL.
/"
in the case
when =2, we
find
for the
whole time
T and
space h of ascent
gT _
where the
initial
dx
gh
Zr~jol+^'
upward
velocity is
VaL.
from aL to hL we
To
velocity
can find superior limits to the values of t and h by making the initial V infinitely great. In this case a = ao and both the integrals are given in the Integral Calculus. We then have
,
We
gT _
the former requiring .>1
limits are finite,
please.
IT
'
gh
X-^
L ~ n sin tt/ti
_
n
IT
sin
27r/ji
and the latter n>2. It is remarkable that both thege though the upward velocity of projection may be as great as we
it is
downwards from
We
dv
dv
/^'\"
'ds=rr'-^[L)
Putting
v=xL
as before,
we
to acquire a
velocity aL,
gT r'_
L
dx
gh'
xdx
when n
result
is
difficulty
an integer by using
its
the method of partial fractions, see Greenhill's Differential and Integral Calculus,
Roberts' Integral Calculus, Art. 35.
is
The
when n has
general
integral value
60
117. Ex.
1.
[CHAP.
II.
medium
is
heavy particle is projected upwards with a velocity L in a power of the velocity. Prove that the whole space
when
is
is
equal to
LT when L
and
is
medium
Ex.
2.
A particle
is
in a
medium
resisting
Show
s
+ LT=--.A^o
The linear
118.
differential equation.
The Linear
equation.
the linear
The
d^+^^=^-where
h
<!>'
and
6
c are
When
solution
is
x^\ct' + At-\-B
When
h is not zero,
we can
by putting
(3),
x = c/b + ^
we then have
+*?=
explained in Art. 97.
But a simpler
We
assume
(5).
as a possible solution
= Ae^f
The equation
which give a
is
is
Substituting
satisfied if
we
find
A (X" + b) e^^ = 0.
If b
\, either of
therefore
X = + V(~ b).
clearly satisfied
b', we
The
solution.
by
(6),
a;=l+Ae*^^-\-Be-'^^'
ART. 119.]
HARMONIC OSCILLATION.
6l
contains the two
and
arbitrary constants
If h is positive,
A
\
and B.
is
imaginary;
imaginary exponential
the assumption (5) by
is
|=^sin(X + 5)
Substituting
is
we
find
A (
by
A,
therefore satisfied
+ = + \/6.
\^
b) sin {\t
+ B) = 0.
The equation
efifect
\ being
and B.
The complete
a;
integral
is
therefore
(8).
It
may
also
x = c/b
(9),
(10).
Harmonic
is positive.
Oscillation.
is
of
important.
n^,
the case in
which b
Putting b =
we have
(i>-
5*^
a;
+ "''^ =
sin (nt
= c/tv' + A
t
+ B)
(2).
sc
First,
we
notice that as
cjn^A.
We
is constant.
The semi-arc
of oscillation
and
its
initial conditions.
The
semi-arc
is
Secondly.
of the
a;"c
is
determined by
= cjn^,
and
X,
independent of the
initial conditions.
If the particle
value of
d^x/dt^) is
the equation (1) shows that the accelerating force (viz. zero. The middle point of the ai'c of oscillation is
Thirdly.
in the
When
order,
is
increased
by
27r(n,
same
opposite signs.
oscillation is therefore
62
27r/w.
[CHAP.
II.
is
The
quantity n
The time
of a complete oscillation
from any point and returning finally to the same point again. When the period is independent of the length of the arc, the
motion
is
depends on the instant from which we write t + a for t, nothing is the time t is measured, thus changed except that B is increased by na.
Fourthly.
The constant
if
V at the time
a; and Writing the equation (2) in the form (9) of Art. 118 and equating the values of x and dw/dt to a;^ and v^ when t = t(vfe find the values of A' and B'. The solution there-
Fifthly.
Let
sc^ocq, dx/dt
= Vo
to.
fore
becomes
a;
=+
r?
ajo
r?)
~]cosn(t-to) + '
sin n(t
to).
Comparing
we
see that
A^\v\.B = Xo c/n^,
cosB = Vo/n.
by
The semi-arc
of oscillation
is
therefore given
A'
120.
h = n^,
= {Wo-c/nJ + (volny.
is
negative.
Writing
solution
become
^-n^^ =
x = --^
First,
c,
w + Ae''^ + Be-''*.
is
we
not oscillatory.
Secondly.
is
time to an infinite distance from the origin. If J. = the particle after an infinite time arrives at the point determined by a? = c/n^.
Thirdly.
The
position of equilibrium
particle can
is
given by
a?
= cjn^
Fourthly.
once.
The
change
its direction
of motion only
dt
ART. 121.]
63
if
t
imaginary
if
The
particle can
change
its direction
Fifthly,
If the values of
Xg
and
at
the time
= to,
n n?
v?
nj
is
l\
n-
n)
121.
When
^+2a- + 6^=c
we take
as the trial solution
(1).
^=|+^e**
It is easily
(2).
if
,
+ 2a\ + 6=0
(3).
If
d'-h
is
Representing these by
(4),
d'~h
is
negative, say
(4)
= -n^
By an
easy
becomes
a;=| + e"'^'BiSin(n4-2)
where B^
If a,
(5),
B.^
-6=0,
is
a:=| + (A + B)e""'
Considering the solution
(5)
(6).
as the
more important
is
of the three,
we
tt,
notice that
a multiple of
the particle
xc\h
.
Since
it
this
point
alternately in
opposite
This
is
is
between two consecutive passages in the same direction is called the time of a complete oscillation. The point defined by
x=c\h
To
to rest
we put
t
dxldt=0.
= nla. The
may
we
decreases
form
common
64
122.
(1)
[CHAP.
II.
dynamics.
Solve
j^ + irx = <t>{t).
dx
=- sin nt
+ A.
Multiplying by cos
nt,
dx
-ji
cos nt
+ nx
sin nt
f
j </>(t)
cos nt dt + B.
To
(2)
solve
^ - n-x = (p{t) we
<p {t)
When
is
trigonometrical another
Let the
equation be
x=M sin
{^\t
+ F)
as a trial solution,
we
is satisfied if ilf
(- X^ + ?.-) = E.
x= A sin.
This method
assumption.
fails
{nt
+ B)-\
In
^F
Et
-^sin (\t
+ F).
as a trial
when \=n.
this case
We
find
-2Mn = E. The
complete integral
therefore
Central force varying as the distance. A particle constrained to move on a smooth straight line A is acted on by a central force tending to a outside the straight line, whose fixed point magnitude x'aries as the distance of the particle
from
'
0.
Let
OG = h
straight line
P being
n^
CP =
is n'^x.
a;.
The
force
on
Supposing the
This
is
The
particle
ART. 125.]
therefore oscillates about
ROUGH PATH.
65
G as
To
known
at
Suppose that the force is equal to gravity at a distance a, then n^a = g, and the time of a complete oscillation is 27r ^/{a/g). If
g=
a must be measured in
feet
The extent
conditions.
with an
initial velocity Vq
is
subsequent motion
124.
tunnel.
measured positively from G, the whole expressed by the fifth result of Art. 119.
Ex.
Any two
particle
places on the surface of the earth are joined by a straight dropped from one falls towards the other under the sole
centre
and
varies as the distance therefrom, prove that the particle will arrive at the
second place after about 42 minutes, the radius of the earth being taken as 4000
miles.
125.
rough,
Ex.
Effect of friction.
If the
is
sensibly
it is
is
therefore
/.
also constant.
The
equation of motion
is
therefore
-^ + n-x=^f
motion, so that the sign must be negative or positive according as the particle
A'
moving in the
to be
D'
D
is
A
The equation
whenever friction has
direction in
which x
taken account
of.
where CA=a.
is
move.
.(
f\
The motion
therefore from
displaced a distance
also equal to fjn^
A towards C is the same as if the centre of force were CD fjn^ towards A The particle comes to rest at a point
.
where
DA'=AD.
and the
particle
On the return journey we take CD' moves as if D' were the centre of force. Thus moved at each oscillation a constant distance,
06
[CHAP.
II.
always opposite to the direction of motion. The friction reduces the extent of each successive semi-arc of oscillation by 2fln^. The particle comes finally to rest
when the
126.
is less
than fjn-.
the air
its
If the
for.
As a
tion of the general effects of this force, let us suppose that the
resistance varies .u the velocity.
Excluding
of motion
is
then
'=-""'
Assuming
-'4
w-
n> k
the solution
is
(Art. 121)
(2),
The constancy of the period of oscillation is the resistance of the medium, Art. 121. The hy therefore unaffected however longer than in a vacuum. time of oscillation is
The
after
an
infinite time.
In many cases the resistance of the medium is very slight The compared with the other forces acting on the particle. quantity k is then small, and we see that the period of any one oscillation differs from that in a vacuum" by the squares of small In using the equation (2) we must however remember quantities.
that
when
many
;
oscilla-
tions is
for
though
is
here
By making observations on the lengths of the arcs oscillation we may test the correctness of the assumed law
resistance.
of
of
is to
may be shown
2k dx/dt.
that
when
the
The measurements
show that the successive arcs do decrease in geometrical progression when the arcs are small, but the decrease follows another
law when not small. This, as Poisson remarks, is a justification of the statement that for small velocities the resistance varies nearly
as the velocity.
ART. 129.]
DISCONTINUITY OF RESISTANCE.
ratio of the geometrical progression is e"*'/^.
67
The common
By
Discontinuity of resistance.
When
the resistance
with
V.
due to the
re-
sisting
medium both
in sign
and magnitude.
If the resistance
velocity, the
analytical expression
only.
will
'2.kv^
Whenever the particle changes its direction of motion it then be necessary to change the sign of k. Thus a dis-
occurs
129.
when
Ex.
friction acts
1.
on the
particle, Arts.
C on
Supposing
medium
any two
1
is
moving
motion
is
vdvjdx = - n^x
+ kv^.
e
J
By
=C-\
a;
+ + 9-
li Xg, x^
he two successive
we have
(^1
'"''=(^0 + 9^ )^~
^''
We
To
notice that this relation is independent of the strength of the attractive force.
interpret this relation
we
lx + ^~\e
1 \
2kj?
.
If the particle
start
from
rest at
any place A
will
come
of
A and
a distance
CB' from C on the side of C opposite to A', the ordinates of B, B' being equal, and so on. Thus if the particle start from rest at an infinite distance from C it will ^rst come to rest at K, where CK=1I2k numerically.
at
first,
The general character of the motion is that the successive arcs decrease rapidly but afterwards become more and more nearly equal, the motion never
ceasing.
If
CI
is
Ex.
2.
all
rest at the
same point A under the action of a centre of force situated on the diameter through A and varying as the distance are equal. The chords are to be regarded as smooth and the motion to be in a vacuum.
68
Ex.
3.
[CHAP.
II.
heavy particle whose mass is m is suspended from a fixed point O by whose unstretched length is a. If the particle oscillate up and down in a vacuum, prove that the complete period of an oscillation is 2ir,J(inajE), where E is Young's modulus.
an
elastic string
Ex.
4.
medium whose
is
resistance
There
a centre of force
whose attraction is /a times the square of the distance from the centre of force. If a and b are the distances from the centre of force of two successive positions of instantaneous rest, and fi is not zero, prove that
situated in the straight line
{K%'^-Kh + \)e^''^ +
{K'^a?
+ Ka + l)e~'^''"'=l.
[Art. 135.]
130.
The
particle,
constrained to
move
in a straight line,
is
acted on by a central
Let
OC
be a perpendicular on the straight line, 00 =h. Let See fig. of Art. 123. Let the
The
accelerating force on
PO
is
found by multiplying by
of motion is
and
is
therefore
fjusj?-^.
The equation
dx
r^
Since
r^
= h^ + x^, we
have rdr
= xdx.
Hence
u at some point
distant a
from 0, we have
v^-v?=2f.(^--^^
If
(2).
the
particle
is
projected
from
along
OA
with
velocity
u greater than
f^{2fi/a), it is clear
The
move
of force.
When
the centre of force lies on the straight line of motion, the time
initial position
to
any point
difficulty.
We
.:
put
sin
x=b cos- 9,
The
eqiiation of
dxldt= - 26
cos 9 d9ldt.
motion
is
,dx\2
/I
1\
^^d9
/2fjL
ART. 133.]
69
We
notice that
i.e.
until dxjdt=0,
x begins at x = a with dxjdt initially positive x then increases until x = h. At this point the particle begins to return and
dxfdt becomes negative. To represent these changes we make d begin at 6= -p where cos j3= +i^(a/&) because this makes dxjdt positive when x = a. We then make 6 increase through zero and finally become ^ w when the particle arrives at the centre of force. Thus the two times at which the particle passes through anj point P are distinguished by the sign of 6. Since, according to this arrangement,
6 continually increases with the time
we
We
6= -^
VS
The time from
independently.
(^
+ ^sin2^ + |8 + 4sin2)3).
from the preceding or
2fji
rest at a distance
x=a follows
may
be found
We have
xa
to
a;
to x.
is
of
moving from x = a
The time
The
result
is
- y/o~
132.
Ex.
is
1.
particle falls
is
from
rest at a point
A whose
Show
the surface
that space under a constant force equal to g, where g represents gravity at the
surface of the earth.
Notice that
if ju/r^ is
Ex.
2.
If a particle fall
is
from an
infinite distance
Ex.
3.
If
velocity with
fall
any heavenly body were isolated in space, prove that the least which a particle must be projected from its surface that it may not
is
77
-^
feet
The
atmosphere
is
to be neglected.
Show
taking
earth,
moon
its
to be
^th and
one and a half miles per second, ^th of the mass and radius of the
to be 4000 miles.
to move along a rough straight line whose on by a force tending to O and varying as the inverse square. Prove that if the particle start from rest at any point A, it will is next come to rest at a point B such that OM bisects the angle AOB, where the point on the straight line at which the resolved attraction is balanced by the
133.
A particle, constrained
limiting friction.
70
[CHAP.
II.
Following the same notation as in Art. 130, the equation of motion takes the
form
V
dv uh = - + f dx
fix
r3
''
rs
a;
ft
tan 0, where
<f>
POC.
Inte-
we
find
(p-f sin
'
0^)
-r sec n
sin
0-00 "
^ 2
sin
(H*"-)
/=tane.
It is evident that v
/0 0. ^ + ^'
where 0o,
CO A, COM,
O
so that
when^(0-|-0(,) = e.
Ex.
2.
If the force to
A come
COA, Thus
COB are complements of each other when sin 2 (C0^) = (4/- 2)/(/+l). if /=4 a particle starting from rest at an infinite distance will just reach G. Ex. 3. A particle is constrained to move in a straight rough tube CA, and is
is
and
OCA
;
is
a right angle.
if it
with a velocity v
friction.
prove that
The come
particle is projected
from
is
A away from G
COP
is
the coefficient of
[Coll.
Ex. 1893.]
134.
Ex.
1.
V with which a
particle
The earth and moon being held at rest, find the least velocity must be projected from the moon to reach the earth.
Let a be the radius of the earth, b = ^^a that of the moon, 60a their distance Let E and -^^^ ^^ the masses of the earth and moon.
If X is the distance of the particle from the centre of the moon, the equation of motion is
d^x
dt^
E
{GOa-xf
IE
81 x2
(1).
There
is
moon where
the
point
is
equating the right-hand side of easily seen to be at a distance 6a from the centre of the
it
By
moon.
If
is
to be
is
would fall towards Supposing the initial distance to be equal to their present distance from each other show that they would meet after about four and a half days.
2.
Ex.
If the earth
at rest, they
If E,
M be the masses of
mass
is
Mfr^.
By
Art. 39
we apply
this,
The earth
is
thus reduced
moon
is
ART. 135.]
The whole
71
accelerating attraction
therefore (E + 3I)lr^.
We
must
on the moon cansing the relative motion is an initial velocity equal and
opposite to that of the earth (Art. 10), hut this, in our problem, is zero.
The
time
is
Ex.
Two mutually
and the
mean
vacuum, the distance between their surfaces being one quarter of an inch. Prove This problem is due to Newton, its that they will meet in less than 250 seconds. history is given in Todhunter's History of the Theory of Attractions, &c. Art. 72.5.
,
Ex. 4. Two particles A, B, mutually attracting eaoh other according to the Newtonian law, are placed at rest at a given distance a apart. The particle B is now constrained to move away from A along the straight line joining them with a is the mass uniform velocity m, show that A will catch B up if u^ < 2;tt/a where of B. Show also that the time will be ^ (tt -F 2/3 + sin 2/3) >/6^/2/i where 008^/3=: a/6 and 2^/& = 2/t/a - it^. [Reduce B to rest, see Art. 131.]
/j.
Ex.
5.
body of mass
is
moving in a straight line with velocity U, and is mass vi, moving in the same line with
attract each other with a force varying as
a smaller velocity u.
the inverse square of the distance and equal to k for two unit masses at unit
distance.
Prove that the smaller body will overtake the other after a time
(k
{M + m))
(1
+ w)
'^
'
'
where
[M+m) {I
-<j})
= [U -uf r.
Discontinuity of a centre of force. A particle move on a smooth straight line is acted on by a force tending to a point C situated on the line and varying as the wth power of the distance therefrom. It is required to find
135.
constrained to
the motion.
P start
is
from rest at A,
dv
CA = a, OP = x.
The
.^-
(Px
dT = ^rf^=-^^
.-.
^^>'
^2
= _JL
=1
((x+i
_ a;+i)
(2),
=
n
is
when
x^ a.
If
an odd integer
this equation
is
x= a.
The
particle
being equal.
"
72
[CHAP.
II.
x except x
on each side of
= a. Since the particle must obviously G through equal arcs, it follows that the
The reason
acts tovjards G.
is
taken with
its
power of the distance taken positively and always Now x is the distance of the particle from G proper sign. We must therefore write
X = -fix^
according as the particle
origin G.
or
+fj,(-xy
(3),
is on the positive or negative side of the These are identical if n is odd and in that case the equation (2) holds throughout the motion. If n is even, different equations of motion hold on each side of the origin.
The
a;
particle arrives at
with a velocity
if
Vq
obtained by putting
is
in (2).
This
is
a finite velocity
positive.
After
vdv/dx
since
= fii xY = fix^
(4),
is
even.
We
then find
?;2
(a"+i
+ '^+i)
(5),
and
the constant of integration being found by the condition that (2) The equation (5) shows that v is (5) must agree when a; = 0.
again zero
when
x= a,
on
its
return journey
integration
is
(1).
The
The
resulting value of
as that given by (2), so that the motion on the positive side of the
origin
is
(2),
The time
^
/
to
is
given by
V n+
To
integrate this in terms of
_ ~
da;
j v/(a"+i - a;"+i)
functions
gamma
we
ART. 137.]
according as n + 1
is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
positive or negative.
73
We then have
Vl + "
Ex.
1.
2/
+ n)
which
A particle
is d^jsjfi.
starts
from
rest at a distance a
from a centre
of force
Show
the centre
Ex.
2.
A particle
starts
from
rest at a distance
a from a centre of force which Prove that the time of arriving at the centre is
a(7r/2M)^.
Small Oscillations.
A particle,
constrained to describe
when the
Let
OG be a perpendicular on the straight line, P the particle, 00 = h, CP = X, OP = r. Let the accelerating force be rf{r).
The equation
of motion
is
therefore
l^-'-zw-F
Since
r'^
win
= }i--rx\ we
can expand
ixf{r)
powers of
w.
The
= AiX + A^^ +
(2),
where A^, A, &c. are known constants. Supposing the series to be convergent when x decreases without limit, we may ultimately omit all the terms after the first which does not vanish. Assuming X to be initially small we proceed to discuss the subsequent
motion.
When
J-i is
d~xldt''=A^x
(3).
been discussed in
the time of a
If A-^ is negative
is
27r/?z.
and equal
to
n\
complete oscillation
arc of oscillation
is
when
the
velocity of the particle are ultimately zero, but the limiting time
74
is finite.
[CHAP.
II.
we know by
not oscillatory.
small
we cannot continue
compared with the
(3).
is
The equilibrium
If
then unstable.
nth..
^1 =
0, let
is
the
first
The equation
then ultimately
d^cc/dt^
^ AnX""
If
(4).
An
is
negative
gamma
is
functions, with a
where a
is
is
The
limiting
time of oscillation
and greater than unity. If A^ is positive, the value of x becomes great and the higher powers of x cannot be neglected.
therefore infinite if n
positive 138.
Ex,
1.
If
position of Saturn placed at its centre would be one of unstable equilibrium for
planet were repulsion instead of attraction that position of Saturn would be stable
oscillation
the radius of
Show
is
measured in seconds
is 27r ^(2a^lnb'^g)
where n
is
the
ratio of the
mass
this,
and g
and
being measured in
,S'
feet.
To prove
the ring.
Let
the direction
CS
x be the distance of Saturn from the fixed centre C of be a point on the ring, PCS = 6, SP=p. The attraction on S in add a cos d
we
let
is
then
seen
to
be
F=~ 2air
^
p^
Substituting
p=a-x cos 0,
expanding in powers of xja and integrating, we find F=Mxl2a^. This force being positive, the ec^^uilibrium is unstable. Eeversing its sign the time of a complete oscillatibn follows by Art. 123. The time in seconds is found by
using the equation Elb'^=g, see Art. 134.
Ex.
2.
of the planet
is stable for
oscillation is 2-irsJ(a?lM).
Ex.
3.
particle is in equilibrium
AB
and that
is
2ir^(abjn{a +
b)
A and
B, and
F is the accelerating
ART. 139,]
139.
line
MAGNIFICATION.
75
Magnification. A particle, oscillating in a straight under the action of a centre of force whose acceleration is
acted on by the two accelerating forces
It is required to find the motion.
r^x, is also
X = E cos \t,
T = F cos
fjbt.
The equation
of motion
is
d^xldt"^
The
solution of this,
by
x
where
-^,
X^
F' =
^.
n^
fj?
when
= 0, we
have
0.
compounded of three
force,
while
and
27r/y[i,
as the
X and
Y.
is
This example
effects
important because
it
shows that
the
dynamical
of oscillatory forces are not necessarily in proportion to their magnitudes, hut depend also on their periods. Thus the ratio of
E' to F'
is
function of
\ and
/a
as well as of
is
E and F.
is
by the
central force, n^
for the force
X'
F, n^
small, while, if
is
fx^
not small.
than
F'.
If also
E a,nd F are nearly equal, E' is much greater E and F were so small that the effect of Y on
X might
X,
to
still
be very great.
The general
to
result
is,
Y, that
the period
the
central force.
On
reason
we
The
own
effect.
But the
and
F.
this is
more
or less altered
forces
X and
when
The
considerable
76
[CHAP.
II.
X X
or P"
is
If the period of
is
due
By
we
see that
= a cos nt + ^r-
zn
We may
is
an
oscillatory
on the
motion of the
140.
If
particle.
effects consider
little
As an example of these
is
how
when
properly timed.
motion
an
of the swing.
If
push and pull whose period is exactly equal to that however the alternations of push and pull follow each other at Such a
series of alternations of
an interval only nearly equal to that of the period of the swing, a time will come when the effects are reversed. The push will be given when the swing is approachThus, though a great oscillation ing us and the pull when the swing is receding. of the swing is at first produced, that osBillation will be presently des1;royed only to be again reproduced and so on continually.
141.
Second approximations.
it is
in Art. 137,
we know from
may
become perceptible
in
the value of x.
sometimes necessary to
Some examples
the reader will find the theory given at length in the Author's Rigid Dynamics,
vol.
11.
chap.
VII.
Ex. A heavy particle P is suspended at rest from a point A by an whose initial and unstretched length is a. The point A, at the time t d begins to oscillate up and down, so that its displacement (measured downwards)
142.
elastic string
t is
+^
n2
(1
cn\
n^~\^
T-^ sm nt +
(1)
cn^ -^ -5 n^- \^
is
sm \t.
(2)
^^
when X
when X
is
very great.
if
Notice that
ART. 143.]
77
from
is
of quickest and slowest descent a given curve. The straight line supposed to be smooth and the motion to be in vacuo.
143.
To find
rest at
a given point
The
the curve which possesses the property, that the times of descent
o_
(P
P^
Fig.
Fig. 1.
2.
down
all radii
are equal,
is
circle
having
and touching There are two cases, according as the circle touches the given curve on one side or the other. These are represented in figures (1) and (2).
Describe a circle having
its
highest point at
If
is
OQ
down OQ
be any chord cutting the circle in R, the time down OP down OR and is therefore less than the time Thus in fig. (1) and greater than that time in fig. (2).
OP
is
mode
If
equal.
circle,
the angles
GPO
and
GOP
are
Since
rest at
CO
from
of quickest or slowest descent meets the given curve at a point P such that OP
is
bisects the
and normal
at P.
is
on a given curve
required
is
P
is
to a given point
maximum
that
is
or
minimum, we
follow the
The
result
from a point
such that
PO
must between
78
144.
[CHAP.
II.
Let
PQ
Then
down
PQ
is
less
to
PQ
must
bisect
the
Similarly by fixing
see that
Q and
varying
we
PQ must
Q
vertical at P.
The
(1)
points P,
the normals at P,
are parallel,
145.
of descent
To
from
rest in
a medium whose
Art.
down
all
107.
If the resistance vary as the square of the velocity the curve
which possesses
is
not a circle
The
therefore inapplicable.
146.
the rule.
If the chords of quickest or slowest descent are rough we slightly modify To find the rough chord of quickest descent from to a given curve we
diameter through
Art. 105.
O makes an
The result is that the required chord meets the curve at a point P such that OP makes equal angles with the normal at P and a straight line inclined to the vertical
at the angle of friction.
plane.
and a straight line BG are given in the same vertical draw (when possible) a straight line from A to BC, so that the time of descent from rest under gravity may be equal to a given time t. When there are two such lines, intersecting PC in P and Q, prove that the radius
147.
Ex.
1.
A point A
to
Show how
APQ is
^gt-.
Ex.
2.
Two
parabolas are placed in the same vertical plane with their foci coin-
and
vertices
downwards.
descent from the outer to the inner parabola passes through the focus and makes
an angle equal
The normals at the extremities of the chords are similar. The chord therefore passes through the
focus S.
If
centre of similitude,
the
tri-
PG
angle
SPG
is equilateral, i.e.
each angle
is
equal to
^ir.
ART. 147.]
Ex.
'6.
EXAMPLES.
79
rest at
Find the smooth chord along which a particle must travel starting from some point on one given curve and ending at another given curve, so that The force acting on the paijiicle tends the velocity acquired may be a max-min. and varies as some function of the distance from 0. The result to a fixed centre
is
that
if
is
P be either extremity
this, let
or
OP
To prove
where
vary
r^, r^
We
Q.
Q from
0.
Fixing
(j-j)
let
us
i.e.
Hence /'
di\jdH
= Q,
the component of the central force along the tangent to the curve
is zero,
Ex.
4.
Prove that the smooth chord of quickest descent from rest at one when produced passes through the highest point
of the other.
Prove also that the smooth chord of longest descent between the same two circles is either a horizontal straight line or (when produced if necessary) passes
first circle
of the other.
Ex.
5.
Prove that the locus of the points from which the times of descent to same is a rectangular hyperbola. Prove also
that the locus of the points from which the times of shortest descent to three equal
spheres, given in position in space, are the
same
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
Ex. 6. Prove that the rough chord of quickest descent from rest at some point on a given straight line to some point on a given circle (not intersecting), (1) when produced passes through a point B on the circle such that a particle placed at B is in equilibrium with limiting friction, (2) bisects the angle between the diameter
through
B
7.
line.
is vertical
Ex.
starting
Heavy
particles slide
down chords
whose plane
from
in a
medium
the velocity.
Prove that the chords of slowest and quickest descent are the vertical
diameter and a chord making an infinitely small angle with the horizon.
These results
may
be deduced from the formulae given in Art. 115, but the Let AB = 2a be the vertical diameter, is worth noticing. with AB, then
is
AQ 2a cos d. We have
to find the
{dxjdt)^.
g cos d- k
g- k cosd (d^jdt)'^. In vacuo, where k=0, this is independent of d and therefore all chords are described in the same time. Also this time is increased by the presence of the resisting medium because the acceleration is thereby diminished. This increase of time is zero when cos^ = 0, i.e. 6=^ir, becomes
greater as cos
is
greater
and
is
greatest
when
cos
0=1,
i.e.
= 0. The
time of
passes from ^ ir to 0.
80
INFINITESIMAL IMPULSES.
[CHAP.
II.
Infinitesimal Impulses.
148.
required,
When
is
which act simultaneously with it. The duration T of the impulse being infinitesimal, Art. 80, a finite force F can generate only a momentum FT which vanishes in the limit when compared with
finite
we commonly
forces
the finite
momentum communicated by
is
the impulse.
If,
however,
in
the impulse
itself
may be comparable
magnitude and it will then be necessary forces in the same equation of motion*.
is
w be acted on
whose resolved velocity parallel Let a body of mass by a finite force X. Let this body lose a
small portion
is
It
The momentum
is
In this time the force increases the linear time dt is d{Mv). momentum by Xdt, while the momentum lost by diminution of
mass
is
mv.
Hence
.'.
M^=^
action.
'
(!)
common
velocity without
mutual
If
X = mg, the
parallel to
let
moves
Next,
it is
m = dM
is
in
the time dt and let the resolved velocity of this increment before
attached to
M be
v'.
The
total gain of
momentum
now,
Xdt due to the force and mv due to the impact produced by the and w with different velocities. sudden junction of the masses
Problems on infinitesimal impulses were solved in the lecture room of the as long ago as 1850. A problem of this kind was set in the Smith's Prize examination in 1853 by Prof. Challis, and a solution given in Tait and Steele's Dynamics. Another was proposed in 1869 by Prof. Cayley who published the solution in the Mathematical Messenger in 1871. Two problems were
*
late
Mr Hopkins
by Dr Besant.
ART. 150.]
EXAMPLES.
of motion
is
81
The equation
therefore
(2).
150. Ex. 1. A uniform chain of mass Mi and length I, is coiled up on a small horizontal ledge at the top of a plane, inclined at an angle a to the horizon,
il/g
fastened to
its
two ends.
it
If 31^ is gently
pushed
is v',
off
the
just
and
where
(
M, + 3I, + iM,ooBa
,,..,
Ex. 1897.]
[Coll.
Let x be the distance of the lowest point of the chain from the edge, m the mass of a unit of length of the chain. The momentum at the time ( is (M^ + mx) v. In the time dt a mass mdx without velocity is taken from the ledge and added to
the moving length.
g'^^g sin
(1).
o.
To make
radius
h.
more
be at a short
and
let
We here
b are zero.
As
is at first
The
momentum
To
ultimately
made
as small as
we
please.
v,
we
= dxjdt,
(2).
{}L,+
mxyH-'^{{M.,-\-mxf+C}^
C=
- 31^.
When
all
left
the
x = l, and
{31^
2g'l
(3).
At
v'
be the velocity of
an impact, the tension acts on 3/3 horizontally, hence and the chain just before il/g reaches the edge
{3l2
if
(4).
The mass
the chain
is
immediately reaches the edge with a horizontal velocity v', while moving along the plane with an equal velocity. There is therefore
J/j
momentum
^3 and
+ '0
il/gw'
3I.^v'
cos a
u be
left
the
common
3I2
velocity of
has
the ledge,
(ilfj
+ ml) % =
u"2
J/g
*-''
+ ^^^''cos a'
}
(5).
= u2 + (v'sina)2
The equations
(4)
and
(5)
82
Ex.
2.
THEORY OF DIMENSIONS.
A
is
[CHAP.
II.
chain of length
is
mass
other end
particle is
moving with
velocity ^s/(^gl)is
Ex.
length
3.
A mass
m.
is
The whole
is
is
MVI(M+mx).
[Cayley, Math. Messenger, 1871.]
Ex. 4. A uniform chain of length I and mass ml is coiled on the floor, and a mass mc is attached to one end and projected vertically upwards with velocity
ij2gh.
floor,
Prove that, according as the chain does or does not completely leave the
the velocity of the mass on finally reaching the floor again
fall
is
the velocity
{c
due to a
+ 3h).
Ex. 1896.]
When
Ex.
5.
as explained
in Art. 149.
chain brake
is
consisting of a coil of chain between the metals, having a hook at one end so
of the chain, less than the whole length, then the truck
running on the
will
V-jfig
Ex. 1897.]
connected with a coil of heavy chain by means of a fine Ex. 6. A weight weightless thread passing over a smooth peg above the coil which rests on a table if be allowed to fall a height A whereupon the thread becomes tight, find the motion, and show that if w BW then in setting the coil in motion energy to the [Coll. Ex. 1887.] amount hWwl{W+w) is dissipated.
is
Eain is falling vertically with a uniform velocity of 20 feet per second two inches depth per day on a cart with a cylindrical cover of semiProve that, if the cover of the cart is 10 feet circular section and horizontal axis. long and 6 feet in diameter, the resultant pressure on it due to the impact of the
Ex.
7.
at the rate of
rain
is
[Coll.
Ex, 1895.]
Theory of Dimensions.
some simple considerations on the dimensions of the quantities with which we Each side of an equation must be of the same are dealing.
151.
follow at once from
Many theorems
dimensions in space, for we could not have, for instance, an area Again one side of an equation could not be equal to a length.
the square of a time and the other side a cube, and so on.
In dynamics we are concerned with the four quantities space, but the dimensions of these quantities are
;
ART. 153.]
HO related that force
this relation
is
EXAMPLES.
83
mass
space/(time)-'.
we have the
152.
As an example
from
let
particle starts
rest at a distance
is /i.r".
whose acce-
To
of a of o
of force.
It is clear
that
dimensions.
and and
fj.,
fi.
we have
(1).
/t
r=S^iV
Now
1
of the
is
- n dimensions in space and - 2 in time. We also notice that a is one dimension in space and none in time, while T is one in time and none in space.
Considering the equation
space and secondly in time,
(1) and counting the dimensions we have
0^p + {l-n)q,
Hence ?= - 4 ^"^ P h(^~
")
l=-2q
viz.
(2).
-^^
one term,
r=^a5(l-)^-J
It follows that the
....(3).
varies as the
(1
- n)th power
a theorem by integi-ating the equation of motion. If the central force vary accoiding to the Newtonian law, jj = - 2 and the square of the time varies as the cube of the initial distance, a result in accordance with one of
is
the
same
Art, 136
Kepler's laws.
it
has no dimensions
its
magnitude
153.
Ex.
1.
A particle moves
s
with an acceleration
g,
varies as >J{gs),
from a centre of force whose attraction varies as the distance and moves in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity. Prove that the time of arriving at the centre of force is
2.
Ex.
particle starts
from
independent of the
initial distance.
moves from rest under the action of a constant accelerating force / and a centre of force whose attraction is times the distance, both tending to the same point O and the initial distance OP = a. Prove that
Ex.
3.
/j.
A particle P
where
is
CHAPTER
III.
MOTION OF PKOJECTILES.
Parabolic Motion.
154.
General principle.
The
particle
particle.
a point
Cartesian axes. Let the particle be projected from with an initial velocity F in a direction making an a with the horizon. Let v be the velocity at any point P angle of the path; v^;, Vy its horizontal and vertical components.
155.
and
is
equal
to
V cos a.
We
therefore have
(1).
Vx= Fcosa
This gives an obvious and useful rule to find the time of describing
g we
infer
25) that
y= Vsmat-^gt\ Vy^=V^sm^a-2gy
ART. 156.]
PARABOLIC MOTION.
is
85
t
The Cartesian equation of the path between (1) and (2) we have
;
found by eliminating
This
is
(3).
To find
We
consider only,
which
upwards.
If
is
we have V^ sin^a =
To find
We
be
V sin a = ^gT. To find the range on a horizontal plane. We consider the horizontal motion the constant horizontal velocity is V cos a,
we have
;
the direction
has just been found. The range is thereThe range is greatest for a given velocity when of projection makes an angle of 45 with the horizon,
flight
When
required,
it is
useful
axis of
y perpendicular
is not in the plane of wy, let be the components of the velocity in and perpendicular to that plane. The motion perpendicular to the plane of ocy is uniform and z Wt.
and
Turning our attention to the motion in the plane of xy, let 7 be the angle the direction of the velocity V makes with Occ and /3 the inclination of the plane to the horizon. The initial component
velocities
being
vi = ( Fcos 7)^ - Ig sin fix\ " ^' y =Vsmyt-lg cos /3t^\' Vy^ = {V sin jf - 2g cos ^y] '^ To find the time of flight T before reaching the plane, we
consider the motion perpendicular to the plane.
The descending
time
motion gives
Vsmy=gcos^ .T/2.
86
PARABOLIC MOTION.
to the point
[CHAP.
III.
is
we
is parallel
To find
for x.
Oy
expression
We
sec'* fi/g.
157.
Oblique axes.
Let the direction of motion of the particle at any point P of the path be PT
let
and
the velocity be V.
The
particle
being acted on by gravity in the direction Pi^, let Q be its position after a time t
Consider separately the motion in the
two directions PT and PJSf. The oblique components of V in these directions are T and zero, while those of gravity are zero and have PT=Vt, and TQ = yt' (5). We therefore g. Draw QN parallel to TP and let PN='n, Q^= ^ The equation
of the path
is
therefore
P=
2F^
17
(6).
This is the equation of a parabola referred to any diameter PJV and its oblique ordinates QN. If S be the focus, this equation We deduce the following must be the same as ^^=^.SP .rj. P of the path is that due any point at velocity The useful rule.
to the distance
directrix.
Since the velocity at the highest point of the path is equal to the horizontal velocity, it follows that one quarter of the lotus
rectum,
i.e.
AS,
is
equal to V^ co'aj2g.
have also another formula to find the time of transit along any arc PQ. Let the vertical at either end, say Q, intersect the tangent at the other end in T, then the time of describing the arc PQ is the sam as that of describing QT from rest under the action of gravity. It is also the same as that of describing PT with a
uniform
velocity equal to that at
We
P.
158. Ex. 1. If three heavy particles be projected simultaneously from the same point in any directions with any velocities, prove that the plane passing [Math. T. 1847.] through them will always remain parallel to itself.
If gravity did not act, the
fixed plane.
When
plane of the particles would be always parallel to a is pulled through the same vertical
ART. 159.]
Ex.
(1)
POINT TO POINT.
tangents
87
2.
Two
PR, QR
are
drawn
P and Q
and
PQ
Draw QT
velocities,
PR
in T.
RQ, TQ
represent in direction
at P, that at Q,
and that added on by gravity during the time of transit. Since R bisects the chord PQ, the results given above follow
balls A,
Ex.
3.
Two
is
equal in
all
respects are
v,
The
ball
projected towards
with velocity
whUe
let faU.
Prove that the balls will impinge and that after impact, the coefficient of
and
will describe
rectum
2v^lg.
Ex. 1895.]
The
Ex.
balls will
parallel to itself.
4.
impinge because the straight line joining their centres moves At impact they exchange their horizontal velocities.
projectile,
If V, v', v" are the velocities at three points P, Q, R of the path of a where the inclinations to the horizon are a, a - /S, a - 2/3, and if t, t' be
PQ, QR
v"t=vt',
4 = ^^^ V
[Math. T. 1847.]
Ex. 5. Three heavy particles P, Q, R are' projected at equal intervals of time from the same point to describe the same parabola. Prove that the locus of the intersection of the tangents at P, i2 is a parabola. Prove also (1) that at any
time time
t
is parallel to
PR,
(2)
these lines
2t.
to the position of
at the
To project a particle from a given point P with a given V so that it shall pass through another given point Q. The velocity at P being known the common directrix HK of all parabolic paths from P to Q is constructed
159.
velocity
by drawing a horizontal at an altitude V^/2g above P. With centres P, Q and radii PH, QK we describe two circles intersecting in S and 8'. Then 8, 8' are the foci of the parabolic trajectories which could be described from P to Q. There are therefore two parabolic paths.
The two
foci are at
The two
may be
directions
and HP8\ If <yi, y^ are the of projection make with the chord PQ, and
HP8
88
)8
PARABOLIC MOTION.
the angle
[CHAP.
it
III.
PQ
makes with
the horizon,
easily follows
that
71 + 72 = ^^^-/3.
We
viz.
P/Sf=FV2^,
and
PQ is the
known
from P.
It is clear that
when
PQ
is
PH, QK, the two trajectories are imaginary. The greatest possible distance of Q from P in any given direction PQ is found by making
the
foci S,
lie
on PQ.
In this case
PH+ QK = PQ.
This new para-
Drawing
it
a horizontal line
is
immediately follows
H'K' above HK so that HH' = PH, that QK' = QP. The locus of Q is therefore
P and
line.
directrix
H'K'.
HK at
its
vertex H.
It is represented in
lie
within the
from
V, so that
If the particle
to be projected from
P with
which
must
HPQ
is
the distance
PQ160.
Ex.
1.
particle is projected
from a point
with velocity V, so as to
Q whose
coordinates referred to
dii-ections of
ofy
being vertical.
quadratic
tan^a
2V^
gx
tana + l +
2V^u
gx^
^=0,
velocity
Prove that the product of the times of transit is independent of the initial V and is equal to the square of the time occupied by a particle falling from
through a distance equal to PQ.
rest vertically
Prove also that the polar equation of the bounding parabola is V^lgr=l-\-(iosd, where the origin is at P and 9 is the angle r makes with the vertical.
See Arts. 154 and 155.
Prove that every parabolic trajectory meets the bounding parabola in is x=2hcoia, and whose depth below the directrix of the trajectory is liGoi'^a, where h is the height of that directrix above the point of
Ex.
2.
trajectory
must touch for otherwise it would be possible to find a which would pass through a point beyond the boundaiy.
ART. 160.]
EXAMPLES.
89
Ex. 3. The point P being fixed and Q having any position, the tangents at P, Q one parabolic path from P to Q meet in T, those to the other in T', the velocity at P being given. Prove that the locus of the middle point of TT' is the directrix
to
of either paraboltif
and
Prove also that for either parabolic path, the velocities at P, Q are as PTto TQ, for the two paths the times of transit from P to Q are as PT to PT'.
t
Ex.
4.
on a plane
hill-side
which makes an
Prove that a gun which can fire with muzzle velocity V from the top of the fort commands a district whose shape is an ellipse of
angle a with the horizon.
eccentricity siu o,
is irsec
aV^{V^
sec^ a
+ 2kg) jg^.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
is
an
boundary of
Art. 159.
The paraboloid
is
on
a horizontal plane
circle.
The
Ex.
is
5.
greater than a
- ga^jv^
prove that
if
vertical
plane at right angles to that of the wall, there will be a distance on the
commanded by
is real.
the
gun equal
to
j-^
^2^
(''*
~ ^"'^9^ - 2hv^a)^,
Ex. 1893.]
[Coll.
Ex.
6.
I,
of length
inclined at
an angle a
:
to the horizontal,
its
and
it
prove that
V'^
a-\
cos
cos a sin a
-^1
/
(
2gl 1 + :jvj^.
\^]
)
>
where
Ex. 1893.]
F' 2
= F2 - 2f)fil sin a.
7.
[Coll.
Ex.
Two smooth
elastic
common
edge
from a point
rebounds.
vertically above
it
return to
its
Ex.
unity,
8.
Two
parabolas have their axes vertical and vertices downwards and the
is
on the
other.
particle,
whose
coefficient of restitution is
prove that
its
Ex. 1897.]
from the same point at the same instant with velocities v, i;', and in directions a, a'. Prove that the time which elapses between their transits through the other point which is common to both their paths
Ex.
9.
Two
"
.^
[Math. T. 1841.]
Ex. 10. A man travelling round a circle of radius a at speed v throws a ball from his hand at height h above the ground with a relative velocity V so that it alights at the centre of the circle. Prove that the least possible value of V is given [Coll. Ex. 1896.] hy V^- = v^ + g {^(a^ + h^)-h\. To find If the man wete stationary, the least value of V^ is given in Art. 159. the relative velocity we add to this ( - v)-.
90
161.
direction
PARABOLIC MOTION.
Ex.
1.
[chap.
III.
particle is projected
from a point A with a velocity F in a After rebounding from a vertical wall, elasticity e, it hits the ground, elasticity e'. Find the condition that after the second rekound the particle may pass through A. Problems of this kind are solved by considering the motion in two directions separately and equating some
element (usually the time)
Consider
vertical
first
common
to both motions.
C is
and does not affect the horizontal motion, but the blow at B must be taken account of. Let 0N= h, and let t^, t^he the times of transit along the arc AB and the broken are BCA. Then h=V cos at^, and the horizontal velocity of the rebound at B being eFcoso, we have also 7*= :eFcosato. The whole time is
Kcosa
that at
ej
B may now be
neglected while
for.
Let
t^, t^
ABC and
-k = V sin ats-igt/.
root of this quadratic is negative
indicates the time before leaving
level of the
at
and the other is positive. The former which the particle might have passed the
ground and
is
here inadmissible.
If
V be
thus found are positive, and give the times of transit from
to
journey.
A on the up or on the down Taking both these values we see that the required condition is found by
+ t2
to either of the values of
t^
equating
t^^
+ t^.
Ex. 2. A ball is projected from a point A on the floor of a room, so as to rebound from the waU (elasticity e) and hit a given point B on the floor. Let the intersection of the floor and wall be the axis of y and let A be on the axis of x.
If u, V,
w
3.
x,
of B, prove that
Ex.
particle is projected
particle passes
through
at
the nth
impact.
parallel
and
perpendicular to the plane separately. The motion parallel to the plane is not
affected
by the impacts.
If
represent
to
particle starts
with a velocity
we have F cos 7=^5 sin jST. The motion perpendicular to the plane is affected by each impact. The Fsin7, hits the plane at ^^ with the same normal
ART. 161.]
velocity after a time Tj,
EXAMPLES.
91
perpendicular velocity
before.
where Fsin7 = ^jf coSjSTi. The particle rebounds with a eF sin 7 and the time of transit from Aj^ to A.2 is found as
of transit
is
therefore
which we notice
is
Let Bi, B2, &c. be the points at which the tangents to the path are parallel to to B^ is obviously equal to ^Tj, the inclined plane. The time of transit from
while that from B^ to B^
tangent
is
is 4 (Ti + T^), and so on. If C^ be the point at which the perpendicular to the plane, the time from to C^ is clearly equal to | T.
Ex. 4. A ball whose elasticity is e is projected with a velocity V and rebounds from an inclined plane which passes through the point of projection. If Ri, R2, JR3 be any three consecutive ranges on the inclined plane, prove that
0.
[Math. T. 1842.]
At two points A,
If
B ot
right angles.
velocity at
the
or B, prove that
projected &om a point on a rough horizontal plane with a which would be acquired in falling freely through a height h, and in a direction making an angle a with the plane. The particle is inelastic and
Ex.
6.
A particle is
the coefficients of both the frictions are taken equal to unity, prove that the range
to
rest is equal to
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
a parabola with a range 2h sin 2a. On arriving at the plane, there is an impulsive friction which reduces the horizontal velocity from vcosa to v' =v cos a - V sin a. After describing a space s', when v'2=2^', the particle is reduced to rest by the finite friction. The whole range is 2h sin 2a +s'.
particle describes
The
Ex. 7. A perfectly elastic particle slides down a length i of a smooth fixed iuchned plane, and strikes a smooth rigid horizontal plane passing through the foot
of the inclined plane.
maximum
is varied, is
Ex.
angle
slope.
a, is free to
face of
slope.
of mass M, inclined to the horizon at an move parallel to a vertical plane through the line of greatest A particle, mass m, is projected from a point in the lowest edge, up the the plane with a velocity F making an angle /3 with the line of greatest
8.
is
''-
'"^'^
^sma
M+m
Ex.
9.
Two
and
it
j8; if
sin /3 [2(?a/{sin a
of projection
92
Ex.
vertical. 10.
[CHAP.
III.
heavy particle descende the outside of a circular arc whose plane is it leaves the circle at some point Q to describe a parathe circle of curvature at
of the parabola.
QR
:
of the- circle
Q make
QR
in the ratio 3
1. is
The
first
p,
therefore
The
rest follows
from conies.
of a circle
is vertical
C and
is
[Despeyrous, Cours de
Mec]
Ex. 12. A particle is projected so as to enter in the direction of its length a smooth straight tube of small bore fixed at an angle 45 to the horizon and to pass out at the other end of the tube; prove that the latera recta of its path before entering and after leaving the tube differ by ,^2 times the length of the tube.
[Math. Tripos, 1887.]
Ex.
velocity
iriterval
13.
A man
at
cliff
an
t he throws from the same spot another stone, with given velocity v at an
stone and in the same plane.
strike
maximum
is 2v^lgv},
sin 6 =vlu,
being
component.
Ex.
Jiigc).
14.
particle is projected
of a sphere of radius c
Prove that the velocity of projection cannot be less than [Math. Tripos, 1893.]
To determine
the motion
resistance of the
medium
The
dx
dy/dt
^y _
^y
'di^~~''~dt'
.' .
dt'~~^~''dt'
a,
+ Ky = gt + Vsin.a.
by
e"'
Ky =
-e-"*)]
^^^'
ART. 164]
93
where KL = g, so that L is the limiting velocity, Art. 111. horizontal and vertical velocities at any time t are
dxjdt = Fcos
163.
istics
ae-''^
The
dyjdt
= -L + ( Fsin a + L) e""'
.(2).
From
these equations
we deduce
of the
motion.
We
is
notice that
finite
when
in-
the ori-
VJk and F= OTa. Since any point P may be taken as the origin,
To,
OT,
it
any
point
P is proportional
to the length
FT of the
make
t
tangent at
cut
of
oo
we then
find
is
same
ratio.
both y/x and dy/dx have ultimately the Representing this ratio by tan/S, we have
than
t,
tan
13
= tan + L/Vcos a
a.
(3).
asympis
from the
by
this equation.
164.
y,
Art. 162,
we
find
y = x tan fi Lt
a linear equation which must hold throughout the motion.
(4),
Drawing a
this equation
straight line
OB
PB = Lt,
P from OB
is
P
at
from
OB
'perpendicular to the
P is
94
165.
[CHAP.
III.
any direction is proportional The general to the resolved velocity in the same direction principle proved in Art. 154 for motion in a vacuum will therefore apply to the motion with this law of resistance. The circiimstances of the rtiotion 'parallel to any fixed straight line are independent of those in any other direction.
velocity, the resolved resistance in
.
on only by the resistance, and the acceleration at any time is therefore - <m, where u is the oblique component of velocity parallel to the asymptote. In the latter motion the particle starting from rest is acted on by gravity as well as by the resistance and has thus acquired its limiting velocity L. This component is constant in direction and
particle is acted
166. Let the particle be projected from a branch with such a velocity that it describes the resolution of the motion in the direction of (1) and (2) the vertical. In the former motion the
distant point
trajectory.
on the obUque
is
zero.
see that in
is
any position
P of
If
the particle,
PT
the resultant of
L and
a velocity
responding velocities at
t
is
of the trajectory,
We
acceleration at
P is equal to
OB
reference
to the oblique
^=U{l-e~''^)lK,
(1),
where
|= OB, -q^BP.
we have
^'
If
we
q'
refer the
as axes,
= 0A,
= AP.
motion to the tangent at and the vertical We find by considering the motions in these
K7,'=^gt-L{l-e-'*)
(2).
directions separately
/cr=F(l-c'-),
167. Ex. 1. Particles are projected from a given point at the same instant with equal velocities in different directions prove that the loeus at any time is a
;
sphere.
Both
is
^,
7}
locus
whose radius
is
OA and the vertical as axes of which are independent of a. The f and whose centre is at a depth tj
O
at the
below 0.
Ex.
2.
same
direction
at
Ex.
3,
If the axis of
tion of projection
x is inclined at an angle i to the horizon and make an angle y with x, prove that KX= -^8init + (7coS7 + Iy sini)(l-e~''')^
the direc-
(1
- e ~ "0)
ART. 168.]
If
95
fj
reaching
of
= 1+ Fsinv
, -= ~
KU-.
i,
a-j
cos
Ji.
= -gcosiUL + ^^ V sin 7,
.
.
i'
(i'+7);
under gravity in a uniform medium whose resistance Prove that the hodograph of the trajectory is a straight line and that the velocity of the point on the hodograph is proportional to the Ex.
4.
A projectile moves
[Coll.
Ex.]
?i"'
power of
the velocity.
varies as the
To find the motion of a heavy particle, when ?i*'^ power of the velocity.
be the angle the tangent at any point
the resistance
Let
i|r
of the path
makes
iL
measured
velocity,
positively
downwards
so that p
= dsjd-^.
Let v be the
and
horizontally,
we thus have
I
= q cos xZr,
p
^
d'-''
-
at
Since v cos
i/r
m and
dt
/o
= vdt/d-^,
u
these become
dii
_
dt,
Ku'^
^
d^~~ g~co^'^'
We
du
^~~(cos^)"-^
^"
_K
g
is
'
d^
where a
Y'^'
-y^J
' '
l_l__/mr* /en [* 1 _ .1
'
d^
'
Vcos
tC^
Uo^
J a
(cos '^Y^^
To
except
have,
n 0,
- =- f(l+Oi<->'ci
the sign of the radical
(B),
when n
.
of integration is positive
i.e.
is even being such that the subject = ^tt, between the limits yfr = a and
\|r
p = po
und p
=^
cc
96
RESISTANCE VARIES AS
n^'
POWER OF VELOCITY.
ii
[CHAP.
III.
We
or
as the independent
variable,
and thus we
t---jucLpX
ir_ir ^j^
^^.yf(.-i)
= --ju'dp = - - j^_,
^^
^^.-)im-i,
(C).
= u'pdt.
to
u.
The
p^p^to p
all
or u
= Wo
In this manner
either
may be
or
u.
Putting
Wn = Kl+p'f^''-^^dp,
we
see that
when a =
2 or n
3,
w,=\\p{i+pi+\og{p-^{i-vpi%
w,=p+ip\
(D).
We may
+ 2) Wn^,= {n+1)
is
F,,+i?(l
+p^)^<'^+i)
When
the resistance
= 0,
and the
(uV _ /l+sin-v/ry
\a)
.
\1 sin-^/ry
particle is
where a
169.
is
the velocity
when the
moving
horizontally.
to the calculation
When
the angle of
fire,
elevation
1868, Treatise on the motion of projectiles, 1873; Proceedings of R.A. Institution, 1871 and 1885. W. D. Niven, On the calculation of the trajectories of shot. Proceedings of the Royal Society, An account of Siacei's method is given 1877. Ingall, Exterior Ballistics, 1885.
* Bashforth, Phil. Trans.
supplement, 1881.
by Greenhill
its
W. Lloyd and
A. G. Hadcock, 1893.
Greenhill,
On
the
ART. 171.]
97
we can
reject the
Taking
When
the path
is
more
for
we can
subsidiary arcs
each of which
p may
though of a different value in each arc. If the arcs were small enough the initial value of p in each arc might be taken as the proper value for that arc. For longer arcs it becomes necessary
to give
subsidiary arc.
170. In artillery practice the values of the integrals (C) are commonly inferred from tables especially constructed for that purpose, different tables being used to find t, X and y. Opinions differ as to the best methods of constructing and using these tables. Bashforth represents the law of resistance by kv'^ where k is a function of the velocity whose values are deduced from experiment. These values for a shot of given cross section and weight and for air of given density are
tabulated for every few feet of velocity.
quantity
k.
is
mean
tlie
This
difficulty
is
To
is
taken as
The
An
subject.
We
must
Artillery.
171.
Law
of resistance.
motion of
projectiles.
may mention
made by
as the
By
this
instrument the times taken by the same projectile in passing over a succession of equal spaces can be measured with great
Other experiments have also been made on the conexample by Mayevski in 1881. It appears from all these experiments that the resistance cannot be expressed by any one power of the velocity. The general result is that for
accuracy.
tinent, for
low and high velocities the resistance varies as the square of the velocity, and for intervening velocities as the cube and even a
higher power of the velocity.
98
RESISTANCE VARIES AS
n*'"
POWER OF VELOCITY.
[CHAP.
III.
To be more
particular, let v
per second, d the diameter of the ogival headed shot in inches, w the weight in pounds. Then taking the resistance to be
yS
TTwA
>
Bashforth's experiments
show that
yS= 61-3
/3= 74*4
/3= 79'2
n=2
w=3 w=6 n=S
w=2
?;>1040<1100
v>1100<1300
= 108-8 /3 = 141-5.
/8
= 5.
The values
of
yS
We may
When the
same general
law, yet
much
of sound in
we might
is
shown
To
when
In this case we can obtain two first integrals of the equations of motion. Resolving normally and horizontally as before, we find
= g COSl/',
p
-5-= -KV^C08\j/=
at
-KU
-t:
(1).
cit
logu=A-KS,
where m^ from 0.
is
.:
u^u^e'"^
of projection
(2),
and
s is
measured
Besides this we have the integral (B) already obtained in the general case by eliminating dt from the equations of motion. Writing p= - ds/dxp and v cos f =m,.
in
(1),
we
find as before
u dt _ ~ df~ gcos^^'
1
tt2
.
^ ''
_2.
#
coB^rl^
g J
^_2./g j\\
is to
be taken positively.
Integrating
ART. 174.]
99
Eliminating m between
and
(5)
we
find
KUq
(6)-
This
is
173.
To
it
will be
^ = 0.
We
J.Jl-e'-''') = Ps/(l
When
zero and
and
(7)
that
u tends to
to
minus
infinity.
Since by
(3)
or (C)
-v/'dp,
zero.
We
while
becomes ultimately
x tends to a finite limit. We therefore infer asymptote at a finite distance on the positive side of the
To prove
that l/2
is
this
we
refer to (5)
Putting U hjp
and retaining only the highest powers of p, we see when p is very great, we find
gx=
~ ju-dp = h^lp.
Taking these between the limits p = Pi to infinity where jjj is any large finite quantity, the first gives the time the particle takes to travel from the position defined hy p=p^ to that defined by 2?= - oo and the second gives the corresponding
,
horizontal space.
We see that
we
the
first is infinite
finite.
174.
by
(7)
When
'
the arc is
that
is
positive
and
infinite.
It also follows
tends to a limit
m given
by the equation
+ m^)) =
.'.(8).
Since the left-hand side passes from a negative quantity to positive infinity as
varies
root.
from zero
to infinity,
it is
2^{l + m^)
We
this
shall
now prove
that this
highest point.
To prove we have
we examine the limiting value of the intercept of the tangent on y-xp, when^ = 7. Remembering that gdx= -u-dp, dy=pdx,
9 {y - ^p) =
- jpu-dp +pju^dp,
the limits being p = to p. As we only wish to determine whether the limit is finite or not we shall integrate from p = m-^i to p=m, where f^ is some finite
quantity as small as
we
please.
The remaining
M and N.
u'^d^
g{y-xp)= |(m - ^)
the limits being |=^j to
refer to equation
(5).
- (m - D/u^dl - ill
is
pN,
of ^
when
since u=^u^
100
III.
g
finite constants.
Substituting
we find by an
easy integration
(j/
Taking
this
1=1^ to
175.
point
Ex.
1.
velocity, the
Prove that, when the resistance varies as the square of the infinite arc on the negative side of the highest
is finite.
p=m-^,
to
2>=m
p=Pi
MiJ{m-p^, where
;
is
quantity independent of | or p.
2.
This result
is finite
Ex.
When
-2=008^ d
^^
772
sinh~^ tan
tf
+ -==2-
is
is
the
horizontal and
a transformation of equation
(5)
6, tor v,
^.
Ex.
3.
When
the radius of curvature p at the point where the normal makes an angle vertical is given by
2/kp = c sin3 4>+2 sin^
with the
[Coll.
Ex.]
176.
Ex.
1.
When
prove that the curve has a vertical asymptote at a finite distance on the positive
side of the highest point.
(B). Now, by the action of p continually decreases from one end of the trajectory to the other. After the projectile has passed the summit p becomes negatively great and (B) then gives =L/p, where L is the limiting velocity. We thus have v=L when jp=ao. Substituting u=LIp in (C) and integrating from p=Pi to oo, where p^ is any large finite quantity, we find that t and y are infijiite and x finite.
gravity,
Ex.
2.
Prove that, when the resistance varies as the nth power of the velocity,
the arc of .the trajectory on the negative side of the highest point
being
> 2,
begins at a point at a finite distance from the origin. Prove also that the tangent at this point makes an angle tan~i m with the horizon given by
S\Hn-l)- d^_A. {i+p^)
/:
where Uq and p^ are any contemporaneous values of u and p. Art. 174, this equation has one positive root.
As
in
ART. 177.]
In the extreme
VARIOUS RESULTS.
initial position of
101
is infinite.
,
Since
v=uj(l+p-) we must
and
this
It
u orjp
infinite.
If |j=qo
(B) gives
u=Lfp
makes v finite. The equation giving vi is therefore obtained by putting To determine the position of the particle when this occurs we express u in terms of p and iise the equations (C). Let the initial position defined by P =Po ^^ such that p^ m - fj where fj is a finite quantity as small as we please. Substituting pvi-^ in (B) and using the equation given above to find m, we have M"=Zj'7f where 6 is a constant. Substituting in (C) and integrating from ^=^1 to ^ we find that t, x, and y are finite when ^=0.
= 00
in (B).
Ex.
3.
When
is
tangents
make
112
+
M"
-nr
which the
is
= -r
a"
where a
the
Ex.
i.
When
the resistance
is k'
+ kV";
dp
(1+2}-)-
where u
horizon.
gration.
is
is
x,
may
be reduced to inte-
Ex.
When
the resistance
is
being the origin and the velocity being a, prove that the horizontal velocity' u at
is
u = a {tan
6)"
t,
K<
at the
k>^, but is at an infinite distance if k<1. If K>1 the particle arrives at a point C at which the Plangent is vertical in the finite time Kajg {/c" - 1), the coordinates of C being 2/ca-/(jf (4k2 - 1) and - a^j4:g (k- - 1).
On
which
the negative side of the origin, the curve begins with a vertical asymptote
is infinitely
distant
177.
When
the resistance varies as the cube of the velocity, the equation (B)
form
1
{pK
m) (p-
mp + m^ + S),
the origin being taken at the point at which the velocity is infinite and
m being
the
corresponding value of p.
To
we
we
For by
Greenhill in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution, vol. xiv. 1886.
Ex. Show that for the cubic law of resistance the velocity is a minimum at the point given by the negative root of the quadratic p--m{m^ + S)p=l. Show
also that
when the
direction of
is
motion
is
given by
-=m + where L
102
*
RESISTANCE VARIES AS
Some
n^^
POWER OF VELOCITY.
Adams
[CHAP.
III.
178.
to determine
170.
it is
The equation of a
form cos^=/(/)COS
^),
We
is
^{i;cos^)= -jRcos^,
Eliminating dt
i2
-3-=
-R-g8m\f/
(1).
cos
^^
(u cos ^) (iZ
+ ^ sin ^)
(1).
" ^v^(co3i{/)=-gsmil/^(vcosip)
Remembering that the normal
found.
resolution gives v^lp=g gob ^,
we have
coB\]/=f(v^lg).
has been
of sin ^.
is
180.
Ex.
1.
of resistance
when
the trajectory
a cycloid with
/.
f=vliJ2ag.
We
R=z -2g(l- v^l2ag)^. Since the radical follows the sign of sin xp, R accelerates the Since particle on the ascending and retards it on the descending branch. V = COB \l/iJ2ag the particle comes to rest at the cusp. The resistance R is then acting upwards and is equal to 2g, the particle then moves vertically. See Art. 176, Ex.5.
Ex.
2.
of resistance
when the
tangential resolutions show that v is constant and a resistance therefore only on the descending branch.
3.
R= -gsmil/.
Ex.
^008^^= 2a.
The
if/.
Ex.
4.
p=a.
resistance is
= ag cos
CHAPTER
lY.
A
and
It
is
find the
and
the particle.
let its
Let the curve be referred to fixed Cartesian coordinates and equation be y=f(a;). Let (oe, y)
at the
its
mass, X,
the resolved
Let the tangent at P make an with the axis of x, and let p be the radius of curvature. Let R be the pressure of the curve on the particle
forces.
>/r
measured;
inwards.
When
p,
is
is
known the
to
relations
between
It
the arc s and the other lines of the curve are also known.
therefore
mv-T
(1),
A sm Y+
From
these two equations
I cos
ylr
+ Ji
all
.(2).
we may deduce
the circumstances of
the motion.
104
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
Considering the tangential resolution
cos
yfr
[CHAP. IV.
see that since
we
(3).
There are two eases to be considered according as the right-hand side of this equation is or is not a perfect differential of some function of x and y.
In the former case the forces are called
conservative.
Let
(4).
Xdx+7dy=dU
We therefore
Let
{xq, yo)
have hy integration
^v^ = U+C
be the coordinates of the
let
initial position
(5).
of the
particle,
and
U become
have
Uo
when we
values.
We therefore
is
^mv^ -^mvo^=
This equation
U-
Uo
(6).
The dynamical
is
prelected
from a
given point
hy constraining
move along an
of the
may
P is
When
Xdx + Ydy
is
not a
perfect differential of
be expressed as functions of x by the help Let the integral be F{x). We then have
X and Y can
value for
all paths.
ABT. 185.]
105
Let us next take into consideration the equation of the 183. normal resolution, viz.
= X sin
P
ylr
+ Fcos
yjr
+ R.
effective
is
another
name
is
The
on the
force
called the
is
particle,
and i2
on the curve.
the resolved part of the acting forces along the normal to the
curve and are together called the statical pressure of the forces
on the
particle.
statical pressure
184.
We
are
now
= work
of the forces.
way we
is
Secondly, the
position
particle
in
any
mv^ p
185. Work Function. The usual methods of finding the work of a system of forces are explained in books on Statics. As however the solution of our dynamical problems depends so much on our knowledge of these rules, it has been thought not improper to recall to mind those few which we shall here use. A more complete list applicable to a system of rigid bodies is to be found in the author's Rigid Dynamics.
* It is perhaps unnecessary to observe that the centrifugal force is not an
on the particle in addition to the impressed forces. It is merely a name for the quantity mv^fp, and measures the amount of force which
;
must act towards the concave side of the path to produce the curvature 1/p the mass of the particle being m and the velocity v. By the first law of motion the particle tends to move in a straight line and the force necessary to curve the path
is
force.
106
If
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
X, X
[CHAP. IV.
Y are
F the work
done when
to
+ dx, y + dy may
forms
(1),
is
^ makes
X,
Y is
we
proved in Statics.
It is also
then have
^T-dy ^ dx -^+Y X -f=Fcos(f),
ri
which
is
(1).
is
also
The
integral
form
is
function.
sometimes the force function and sometimes the work The definite integral JJUo is the work done by the force F as the particle moves from the position (x^, y^ to the position {x, y). Here ?7o represents the same function of Xq, y^
called
that
is
of X,
y.
186.
Work
>S^
of a central force.
Then since dr/ds is the cosine of the angle the distance r makes with the displacement ds of the particle, the part of the work function due to F is JFdr. The integration
from 8.
is
B of
S
is
the particle.
When
the force
under consideration
is
We
the upper or lower sign being taken according as y is measured downwards or upwards. Supposing the weight of the particle
to be
mg
is
and that y
is
weight
jmgdy = mg{y-y^):
This rule
is
is the
It should
be
ART. 188.]
107
ment.
187.
See Art.
70.
of an elastic string. The case in which the particle is attached to a fixed point S by an elastic string differs from that of a central force tending to the same point in a certain
discontinuity.
If
I
Work
and
E Young's modulus, the tension T is given by Hooke's law rl when r>l, but the tension T = E ~j when the string is tight,
i.e.
is
zero
when the
string
is slack, i.e.
<
I.
length
Let the work be required when the string is stretched from a If li to I2, and let Ti, T^ be the tensions at these lengths.
li
both
I,
the work
is
/,
arithmetic
The work done by the tension is therefore equal to minus the mean of the tensions multiplied by the extension. The
work done by the
is
the tension
which stretches the string in opposition to the same taken with the positive sign.
force
This rule
is
of considerable use
of the string
undergoes
It is
all
rule, as
is
and
final
we may
we suppose the
string to have
its
The equation of
constraint
when
the particle is
free
from
it
and
is
acted on by
forces.
suppose
be constrained,
like
motion, but,
The pressure is then zero throughout the what more immediately concerns us here, is that
vis
viva continues to
108
189.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
when
called
Such a
field is
is
when a
differs
single
moves
by a
from the
The
the
drawn
outivards, so
Prove that
given by
A heavy particle P describes a curve and in any position a normal PQ that PQ is equal to half the radius of curvature at P. the velocity v and the pressure E on the particle measured inwards are
v- = 2gz,
Rp 2v>gz',
straight line,
where which
z,
z'
be called the level of no velocity. Prove also that the particle leaves the curve when Q crosses the level of no velocity.
may
is
drawn
mg
{y
-y^),
mg cos ^ + E.
an altitude
y^,
we draw a horizontal
2
straight line at
we
see that
= 2/1-2/.
2'
= ?/i-?/ + ipcosi/'.^
If the particle is constrained to
it
The
results to
remain on the curve merely by the pressure changes sign. But this is what happens when
R
Q
when
no
velocity.
vertical plane.
is
swung round a fixed point at the end of a string in a Prove that the sum of the tensions of the string when the particle at opposite ends of a diameter is the same for all diameters.
Ex.
3.
particle is
[Coll.
Exam.
1896.]
whose plane is vertical and major axis inclined at an angle a to the horizon, is projected from the Find the velocity v^ upper extremity A of the major axis with a velocity Vq. with which it passes the upper extremity B of the minor axis and the pressure
Ex.
4.
heavy
particle, constrained
to describe
an
ellipse
at that point.
ART. 190.]
Since the altitude of
jB
EXAMPLES.
above
109
CA
is
and
CB
on the
pro-
from
A upwards
of
v^
or downwards.
If the values
The pressure B^
at
- =mg COS a +
Pi
Rj^,
where pi^a^jb.
Let us suppose that in addition to its weight the particle is acted on by a centre S such that the attraction at a distance r is jur". The equation of vis viva would then have on the right-hand side the additional term - j/ir"dr, the limits being the initial and the final values of r, i.e. r=a (1 + e) and
of force at the focus
r=a,
Art. 186.
The
by
a)-/i
z
Jwi (Vi^-V(,^)= -
mg {b COB a - aain
{1-
{l
+ e)'^+^}
is
determined by
natural length is
Pi
- = mg cos a + u.a^.-+B^. a
Let us next attach the particle to the centre C by an elastic string whose I. The effect of this is to add another term to each equation. li l<b and <a the string is stretched throughout and the term to be added to the equation of vis viva is -^{TQ + Tj)(b-a) where T^, and T^ are the tensions at ^ and B, see Art. 187. In our case TQ=E{a-l)jl and T^ = E(b-l)ll. If however l>b and -ca the string becomes slack at some position of the particle between A and B ; the term to be added is now -^(T^ + T^il-a) where T^=Q and Tq has the same value as before. Lastly if l>b and >a the string is slack throughout and no term is to be added.
an additional term on the right-hand where Tj has the same value as in the equation of vis viva. In this way the velocity of the particle and the pressure at any point may be found with ease no matter how complicated the forces may be.
of pressure will also have
side.
The equation
This term
is Tj,
Ex.
5.
small ring without weight can slide freely on a smooth wire bent
an
ellipse.
An
elastic string
is I
also passes
through the ring and has one end attached to the focus S and the other to the centre C. The ring being projected from the extremity A of the major axis, prove that the velocity v^, and the pressure B^ at the extremity B of the minor axis are given by m (Vj^ - V) = {Ti + To) (a + ae-b),
mv,^
-J^
where T(,=E (2o + ae1)11,
b = Ti + T,l+B
the string
is
stretched at the
110
Ex.
6.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
A
heavy bead
is initially at
[CHAP. IV.
is vertical. The system falls through a space equal to the radius. The circular wire is then suddenly fixed in space. Find the subsequent motion of the bead, and determine if it ever
from
rest
comes
,
finally to rest.
for
of the particle.
Ex.
fifth
7.
constant.
Ex. 8. A particle is constrained to describe an equiangular spiral and is acted on by a central force tending to the pole whose acceleration is /.?". The particle being projected with a velocity Vq at a distance from the pole, prove that the velocity and pressure are given by
R
7
f \
"
2/x
\ sin a
h
it
+l
+3 + 1'^
The
If
?j=-3 and
Vf^
iJ/ija,
the pressure
R 0.
may
given by
Ex.
jected,
9.
particle is constrained to
move
in
an
ellipse
along which
it is
pro-
law.
Newtonian Prove that the resultant attraction varies inversely as the normal and that
straight line joining the foci attracts according to the
is
and the
the velocity
constant.
Ex. 10. A particle of unit mass moves in a smooth circular tube of radius a, under the action of a centre of force which repels as the inverse square of the distance. If the centre of force be midway between the centre of the circle and the circumference, and the particle be projected from the end of the diameter
'
through the centre of force remote from that point, with a velocity whose square is 4(U (^3 - l)/3, the particle will oscillate through an arc 27ra/3 on either side of the
point of projection.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
11.
and
is
under the
action of two central forces tending to the foci and varying inversely as the cube of the distance.
Supposing the forces to be equal at equal distances from the foci, P varies as the distance of P from the centre
down a smooth curve in a vertical plane. If the always \ times the weight of the particle, prove that the [Math. Tripos, 1863.] differential equation to the curve is y + c=a (dx/rfs -X)*2.
Ex.
12.
particle slides
is
191.
Rough Curve.
is
fj,
When
to the direction
of motion and
its
magnitude
The
ART. 192.]
EOUGH CURVES.
Ill
mv
-r-
= X cos = Jl
yfr
+ Y sin
-ur
-ijr
^Ir
fiR,
sin
4-
1 cos
+ R.
p
It is important to
R before
found,
it
velocity being
direction of R.
R
to
will continue
it
The initial direction of the velocity being known, the friction jxR must be made to act in the first equation opposite to that direction. If the particle start from rest the friction /aJR must be made to act opposite to the direction of the tangential force. The sign of fx will then continue unmotion until
vanishes.
R or the
velocity v vanishes
and
To solve the equations of motion we in general eliminate R. Remembering that when s and increase together p = ds/d-\jr, we
-v/r
By
terms of yjr.
linear,
P in
The value
where v
I
is 2.
t,
/3
is
a constant.
Ex.
A small
is
constrained to
and
is
of friction is cot a, prove that the time of travelling from a distance c to a distance
b
is e* (6
of these points
and
is
is
first
112
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP, IV.
Ex. 3. A heavy particle moves on a rough cycloid placed with its convexity upwards and vertex uppermost. The particle is started with an indefinitely small velocity at the point at which the tangent makes with the horizon an angle e equal to the angle of limiting friction. Prove that the velocity at a point at which the tangent makes an angle <p with the horizon is 2^ag sin (ip- e) and that the particle will leave the curve at the point at which the velocity is >/2ar/ (cos J e - sin Je).
[Coll.
Ex. 1889.]
Ex.
4.
V along
the inside of a
it
rough
vertical circle
it
v^=V^e-^'^''-2ag{2ix^-l)(l-e-'^i^'^)l{4/jfi +
l).
[Coll.
Ex. 1887.]
193.
is
also free.
is
see
of free motion.
If
T and
are measured,
we may prove
is
2T=-r- (pN).
as
This
and
is
not sufficient to
it
make R = 0.
As no
notice
is
taken in
is
that
E = 0.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
194.
smooth under the action of two centres of force tending to fixed points S, S' on the same
diameter, the accelerating forces being
/jlJi-^
and
where r, r' are the distances of the If S and particle from the centres of force.
/J-'lr'^
and the
ft,
ft'
Since the
hh'a^.
The fundamental
'
-.
cos
SPC +
-,.
cos
S'PC+-
From
these
we
easily obtain
1
t^
m'
a?-V'
,(bY\
ART. 195.]
113
^=/(^y,
first
m v=i+4.
Since any point may be regarded as the point of projection the second condition gives the velocity at all
two
Since Vq
is
same as
if
attraction at
two centres of force are indefinitely near to each other the resultant any point P at a finite distance from them is the same as that of a
circle
theorem that a
cumference.
Hence we arrive at Newton's can be described freely under a single centre of force whose acceleration varies as the inverse fifth power, the centre of force being on the cir-
When
the particle comes indefinitely close to the two centres of force, they
The particle passes between the two centres The two centres of force attract the particle in opposite //(a - b)^ and fi'l(b' - a)^ both being infinite. The resultant
which
is
also
initial
Ex.
A particle describes
Show
that
if
the ordinate.
the pressure
Ex.
3.
Show
the focus varying as the distance and another force parallel to the axis always
three times the magnitude of the former.
describe the
if
motion
will
same parabola under the action of these forces, always intersect on a fixed confocal parabola.
Ex.]
Ex. 4. If a curve be described under the action of a force pole and a normal force N, prove that
tending to the
'''|.("'-|) +
195.
is
'
l(^'|)=-
[Math. Tripo.l
If the particle
is
obvious that
it
R may
have any
sign.
the particle must tend towards that side on which the particle
moves.
motion.
The pressure
must therefore have the sign which and must keep that sign throughout the
When
given
114
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV
Since the forces in nature cannot be infinite the points at which can change sign are found by putting R = in the normal
resolution.
Let
<f>
mf
be the resultant
force,
and
make an angle
Then
<f>
^ = mf
r
cos
+ K.
by
The
v^=fpco8<l>.
Now
force
2/3
cos
^ is
mf.
Representing
v^
chord
by
c,
the
equation becomes
= 2/b. Hence
the particle
is that
due
Art. 25.
196. Examples. Ex. 1. A heavy particle is suspended from a fixed point G by a string of length a. A horizontal velocity Vq is suddenly communicated to the
particle so that
it
circle.
It is required to
determine
become
slack.
The equation
of vis viva
is
given by
i;2=V-25j/
(1).
The
tension
R is given by
v^
-=^ga
y-a
a
+ -;
(2).
R m
.^=v,^ + ag^-dgy
from
If the particle oscillate the velocity is zero at the extremities of th<e arc of
oscillation.
that the altitude of this point above the lowest becomes slack the tension vanishes at the point of separation. It follows from (2) that this occurs at an altitude {v^+ag)l3g above the lowest point. Tiiese points cannot be real points unless their altitudes are less than the diameter.
It follows
(1)
point
is
v^fig.
If the string
We
If
also notice that the altitude of the first of these points is greater or less
v,,' is
v^>5ag
v^<2ag
The
must
-describe the
whole
circle
and the
If
become
slack.
tension vanishes.
slack.
The
and the
become
v^<.6ag but >2ag the string becomes slack before the velocity vanishes. and describes a parabola freely in space. If the particle, instead of being suspended by a string, were constrained to move like a bead on a vertical smooth circle of radius a the particle could not separate from the circle. It therefore oscillates or describes the whole circle
If
The
according as v^ < or
> ^ag.
ART. 197.]
MOVING CURVES.
115
Ex. 2. A bead can slide on a horizontal circle of radius a and is acted on only by the tension of an elastic string, the natural length of which is a, fixed to a point in the plane of the circle at a distance 2a from its centre find the condition that the bead may just go round. Prove that in this case the pressures at the extremities of the diameter through the fixed point will be twice and four times the weight of the bead if that weight be such as to stretch the string to double its
;
natural length.
heavy particle is allowed to slide down a smooth vertical circle of radius 27a from rest at the highest point. Show that on leaving the circle it moves in a parabola whose latus rectum is 16a. [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
3.
Ex.
axis
is
4.
particle
horizontal.
moves on the outside of a smooth elliptic cylinder whose The major axis of the principal elliptic section is vertical and
is e.
from
rest
and move in a
<f>,
eccentric angle is
where
= 3 cos <p-2.
Ex.
concave
5.
A particle is projected
whose major axis 2a
elliptic arc,
Prove that it will quit the curve at some point if the velocity of projection V is such that V- lies between 2^a and ga (5 - e^), where e is the eccentricity; and if the velocity have the latter value, prove that the particle will continue to move round the ellipse in the periodic time
side.
a smooth circular tube, moves under an from a point within the rim of the tube and in its plane. Prove that the pressure cannot vanish at any point if the particle is performing complete revolutions. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
particle, projected inside
197.
To
moving in
own
Let
be any point of the plane of the curve which it will be Let f be the acceleration of this point, then the motion relative to will be unchanged if we apply to every point of the curve and to the particle an acceleraconvenient to take as origin.
tion equal
and opposite
to that of 0.
If
we
we
may
regard
as a fixed point.
to rest.
The point
is then
said to have
been reduced
We shall
where 6
is
now take
r, 0,
measured from a straight line 0^ fixed relatively to the curve. Let a> be the angular velocity of Of referred to a straight line Ox fixed in space. Let ^ be the angle the radius .82
116
vector r
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
of motion are
The equations
y
\ J
P
Q
E M R m
A
Y,
Id
r dt
.
'
^
forces,
andfi,/^
of/
foi^ms
d^
1
(dOy
(
P
Q
[R
^dd\
d<o
^{R
= v cos
since
rdOJdt = v sin
(f>,
drjdt
<^.
These are the equations of motion we would have obtained if we had supposed the curve to be fixed in space and the particle to be acted on (in addition to the impressed forces) by three fictitious forces. The introduction of these forces is said to reduce the curve
to rest.
These
is
reduced
to rest
(3) Fs
= mr -^
acting
We
R 2ma)V
The
Here
velocity in space
By
and the
fictitious forces
along the
may
be found.
This equation
dv
ds
is
By
we have
= N + R- 2mo)V,
where
forces.
P
is
ART. 199.]
117
If
an
become
Ydrj)
^m {v^
Tnv^
Vo^)
+ J(Xd^ + = ^mod^r- + U + C,
=Jma)^rdr
yfr
X sin
The
^fr)
R 2m(ov.
circular wire.
P
198.
Examples.
bead
is
Ex.
1.
A bead
can
slide freely
circle
on a smooth
Initially the
at rest at a point A.
that
uniform angular velocity about a point O when the bead is at a distance r from O, the pressure on the curve
= mw2(3r2-4ar)/2a,
where a
is
m the mass
of the bead.
To reduce the cir/ile to rest we apply the fictitious accelerating force F^ = u-r. Hence \v^=^byh^+C. Since the bead is initially at rest in space, it has a velocity relatively to the curve ?;= - w 2a when r=2a. Hence C = and v= -ur throughout the motion. To find the pressure, we have
.
=
a
-err.
jr- 4
2a
2wv.
Ex. 2. A bead is at rest on an equiangular spiral of angle a at a distance a from the pole. The spiral begins to turn round its pole with an angular velocity . Prove that the bead comes to a position of relative rest when ?'=acosa, and that the pressure is then \mu)'^asm2a.. Prove also that when the bead is again at its original distance from the pole, the pressure is mw^a sin a (3 + sin'-^ a).
199.
Time
of describing an arc.
heavy particle
is
in
Find
the time
of a small
oscillation.
P near A
makes
the arc
AP,
sjp.
,
Then ^
is
ultimately equal to
d^s
.
when
of
s.
sin
is
expanded in powers of
sufficiently small
we may
first
powers
The time
The
time of oscillation is therefore the same as if the constraining curve were replaced by the circle of curvature at A.
When
motion by
it
is
of the order /,
more convenient
as in Art. 200.
118
Ex.
1.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
particle
makes small
^ of a smooth curve under the attraction of a centre of C on the normal OAC to the curve, the magnitude of the
Prove that the time of oscillation
is 27r <7
force
force
r=CP.
i{a
^r-=>
p)F)
where
F=f(a),
a=AC
taken positively
when C
is
on the convex
is
and
p=OA
Ex.
is
angular velocity
u about a
fixed
point in
small oscillation
the apse and
is
/ w V a-p
/
a
where p
'^
is
is less
than
a.
Ex. 1887.]
rest,
199.
200.
Time of
By
using the
The equation
where V'=
point
<f>{bs,
y)
is
is
The constant G
coordinates {x,
is
y\
given at some
We
use the
known equations
of the curve to express any two of the variables x, y, s in terms of = '>^ (s). Hence the third. Choosing s as this variable we have
^2.t=j
ds
the integration being taken from one extremity of the arc described to the other.
aoi.
Ex.
1.
from a point A of a vertical circle, would come to rest at the highest point B.
to
is
Ex. 2. Prove that the curve such that the time of descent of a heavy particle from rest at a given point A down any arc AP is equal to the time down the chord is a lemniscate. Taking
for origin
= 2
Diff erentiatmg
find that
is
r^=4sin20.
The
be
found on
trial to
ART. 202.]
satisfied
TIME IN AN ARC.
is
119
axis inclined at
J.
1,
the differential
equation would be
(F-l)(
+2ft2tan^r^ + (ft2tan2^-l)r2=0.
is
reduced to integration.
The
was
xii.
first
(&c.
1847.
on by a centre of force varying as the distance. If A is equal to the time of describing the chord, prove that the curve is a lemniscate. Ossian Bonnet,
Ex.
3.
particle is acted
Ex.
4.
If the
down any
prove
2
s
arc
AP
time of descent of a heavy particle from rest at a given point A bears to the time of descent down the chord a ratio equal to
the ratio that the length of the arc bears to k times the length of the chord,
= Cy,
where y
is
P and C is a constant.
202.
difficulty
finite arc
some-
AB if
B
from a point
is zero.
in such a
manner
AB.
determined by s = a, s h. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have C= "^(b). The time of describing the arc AB or BA is therefore given by
Bhe
V2.(=f
the limits ot integration being
a, h.
^^
,,
The
= h,
but
may
a
bp
finite.
;
If
we
write s
=6+
o-,
we can
[7 in
seriv.:*
let
where n
is
in the expansion.
(cr
The part
+
I
=ha
to h
being small)
is
v^j
j-
o-
if
7i< 2 but
is infinite if
= 2 or > 2.
we have
= l.
The time
to
120
MOTION IN A CYCLOID.
[CHAP. IV.
we have d TJjds =
that
when
to
cr
= 0.
It follows
n = 2.
The time
infinite.
If Taylor's
between
and 2 and
Another
role,
useful
when
gravity
is
is
horizontal.
point
Let p be the radius of curvature at B, 6 the angle the normal at any near B makes with the vertical. The equation of vis viva is then
(^P~y=2gp{i-oose).
The time
by
/2g\i
de
[o-d
The time of
at
transit
from
to
radius of curvature p
is zero.
203.
curve
Szamples.
Ex.
1.
heavy particle
is
x^+y^=a^,
Show
Show
with a velocity {2ga)^ will arrive at the next cusp in a time which
three times
that of falling freely from rest at the origin to the lowest cusp. [Despeyrous' problem.]
Ex.
cycloid.
2.
The axes
small ring can slide freely on a smooth wire bent into the form of a of x and y being the tangent and normal at the vertex B, the
by
U=My'^ where m
is positi\K is
and <1.
Prove that
if
the
from a point
is t
P whose ordinate
^
i-t i
time of arrival at
where
Mi (1 - m) = 2a* h
Ex.
3.
is
gravity U=:gy.
Iiy=Ms^+ ...
prove that p = Ns^-^ +... where N-^ = Mn (n-1), provided n > 1. Hence n < 2 when p=0 and n=2 or is >2 when p is finite or infinite at the position of equilibrium.
PW-=fs=\^-{fJ\
Motion in a
204.
cycloid.
heavy particle
is
is vertical
and
vertex downwards.
It is
the vertex,
OQD
a circle equal
ART. 204.]
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES.
Let
121
its centre.
PQN
on the
The
following geometrical
(1)
The tangent
is
at
is
OQ
and the
arc
OP
(2)
is
The radius
P is parallel to
'
the chord
QD
and
(3)
The
distance
PQ is QDO =
(f),
and
let
The
give
d^s
dt
-=-gsm(f} = -g
4a
.(1).
V''
= q cos ^ + R m
a>
The
first
is oscillatory.
Art. 118.
The time
is 47r
/- and
is
Let
semi-arc
OB
of oscillation.
The
equation gives
It follows that if
two
motion of a particle
oscillating
oscillating in
122
205.
If b
is
MOTION IN A CYCLOID.
[CHAP. IV.
of
v'=2g{2a-b-ON).
It follows at once
that
The
first
term
is
the normal at
the second
is
velocity
B
1.
from
cusp to cusp.
(1)
The
velocity v at
any point
P is
i.e.
= Vcos<ji.
ODQ,
i.e.
The time
of describing an arc
OP is
(3)
V 4a
The
particle
moves
as
if it
circle,
that circle being supposed to roll with a uniform angular velocity on the base AA'.
constant.
of the
The
2.
centrifugal force at
any point P is equal to the resolved part P, and the pi'fessure is twice either of these.
Ex.
the time
of transit from
heavy particle starts from rest at a point ^ of a cycloid, prove that any point P to any point Q is given by
(*VI)
where p,
q,
I
Q and
is
Ex. 3. A particle slides down a smooth cycloid starting from rest at the cusp. Prove that the whole acceleration at any instant is in magnitude equal to g and [Coll. Ex.] that its direction is towards the centre of the generating circle.
The required
Ex.
smooth cycloid
;
placed with
its
axis
AB
and
its
convexity upwards
down the
cuts at
arc from A,
and
as diameter, and
P QR
P on AB
the circle on
horizontal.
AB
is
PR
is
[Math. T. 1888.]
207.
When
n,
a pendulum
is
to another
the number,
is
ART. 209.]
of the length
I
123
pendulum due
to a change of temperature.
Since the
number
we have
n^
= Ggjl
where
find
G is
some constant.
differential,
we
Bg
Bl
I
n
This formula
of Bn.
is
a very ccJnvenient
first
a08. Ex. 1. Prove that a seconds pendulum brought to the summit of a mountain x miles high loses about 22a; seconds per day if the attraction of the mountain can be neglected. If the mountain is of the form of table-land, the loss The length of the pendulum is supposed is only five-eighths of the above amount.
to be unaltered.
By Dr Young's
where a
Ex.
is
{l--r-\
nearly
2.
railway train
is
Show
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
3.
If the
moon
The moon
pendulum and
its
disturbing effect is
its attractions' at
and
at the
is
-=-
r?
where M=-^j;E
r=60a
the
distance of the
moon.
1.
a09.
Ex.
heavy particle
oscillates
on a smooth
fixed curve,
is
and the
a cycloid.
curve and
the time
Let the axis. of y be measured vertically upwards from the lowest point of the Let the equation of the curve be let T/ = /t be the initial value of y.
Since
s=f(y), where s is the arc measured from the lowest point. t of reaching the lowest point is .given by
'
v^=2g{h-y)
(y)
dy
y)
^201 = h^
to be the
T
J
^ ^V/f v(i-'S)
same
we have
dtldli0.
Hence
/:,v(fe)<?Af*'/'(*^)i=-
This equation requires that the second factor under the integral sign should be zero. If this were not true we could, by taking h small enough, make that factor keep the same sign, while hz varies from ^2=0 to hz = h. Every term of the integral
would then have the same sign and the sum could not be
zero.
Hence h^f
{hz) is
124
independent of
of h and
z.
MOTION IN A CYCLOID.
h,
[CHAP. IV.
(hz)
thus find by an easy integration that the &rcf{y) = 2My^. the equation of a cycloid having the line joining the cusps horizontal.
We
Ex. 2. A body of mass can slide on a perfectly smooth horizontal plane and has attached to it a thin tube in the vertical plane containing the centre of gravity. The form of the tube is such that the periods of the oscUlations of a particle of mass m placed in it are the same for all arcs. Prove that the form of
the tube
may
^{M+m)IJM.
This problem
is
210.
Resisting medium.
If the particle
velocity,
oscillate
on a
the tangential
ds
where n^ = gj4ia. This problem has been discussed in Arts. 121 and 126. The interval between two successive passages through the lowest point is always the same and the successive arcs of descent and ascent are in geometrical progression.
If
is
of the
velocity,
the motion
Tautochronous curves.
When
a particle oscillates
on a given smooth curve either in a vacuum or in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity, we know that the oscillation is tautochronous about the position of equilibrium if the tangential force F=m^s where s is the length of the arc measured from the position of equilibrium and m is a constant. Art. 118. If therefore any rectifiable curve is given a proper force to produce a tautochronous motion can at once be assigned.
catenary
is
the ordinate equal to m^y because the resolved part along the tangent is obviously m^s.
spiral is tautochronous for a central force tending to the pole, because the resolved part along the tangent being m^s where m^ = fi cos^ a, the time of arrival at the
The equiangular
fir
pole
is
all arcs.
chronous curves
In the same way the epicycloid and hypocycloid are tautofor a central force tending from or to the centre
ART. 212.]
of the fixed circle
TAUTOCHRONOUS CURVES.
and varying as the
r2
125
= As^ + B,
viz.
firdr/ds, varies as
s.
In
is
all
= n//c
(Art. 121),
where 2kv
is
+ K^ = m^.
momentary
The
Rigid Dynamics.
A historical summary
cycloid.
luith
its
is
212.
Rough
particle slides
from
rest
on a
axis vertical in a
medium whose
is tauto-
is
given by
2kv,
- =Rgcos(f>
P
(1),
where v
is
really negative.
Eliminating
R
'
^ dt
where tan e = /*.
f!lv^
p
This
2KV
= 0, + -^sm(<b-) ^^
cos e
may be
written
(<^
- e) = 0,
e^
= fidhu
that
^
is
u=
g
fjL<f).
Put
/,
ds=dw;
\
dw
..x
Now
{(f>
e).
The equation
d^w
dt^
dw
dt
qiu
4acos2
This
is
We infer that at
placed at rest,
is
<f>
what-
it
arrives
determined by
is
w = 0,
that
= ,
in the
same
time.
clearly
Such a motion
called tautochronous.
The point
is
126
MOTION IN A CIKCLE.
[chap. IV.
of
The time
of arrival at
= u/k
particle
e.
The whole
is tt/w.
So long as the
constant
//.
is
moving
retains
e-A**
direction the
is
therefore
given by
sin (^
e) = Ae^"*
sin {nt
+ B).
^
When
at that point
is
Motion in a
213.
circle.
heavy particle
is vertical.
is
whose plane
It is 7^equired
an
arc.
Let
C be
the centre,
and
the
B the
circle,
its radius.
Let
be the ^
^*the angle
CBP.
The equation
2fY-r^ =
2ga
(1
cos 2^).
a height h; we
the lowest point
also
is
put h = 2a.K\ If /c> 1, the velocity at more than sufficient to carry the particle
continually round the circle in the same direction. If < 1 the velocity at the lowest point is insufficient to carry the particle
round the
circle,
If
/c
=l
the
particle arrives at the highest point with a velocity zero, but only
we have
(^)-
-A^J-'-^^'^
ART. 214]
If
t
127
AP
which subtends an
^JlH
where one d^ldt
If
/e
'o \/{ic^
sin^i^)
.(3),
radical is positive
= 1,
the integral
is
a known form.
We
have
when ^ = \ir,
If /c> 1,
is
an
infi^nite
we
'"
^"*''^"7FI^"
This
elliptic
subtends an angle
The time
upper
limit.
214.
When k<1, we
put
/c
= sin a.
We
is
sm (^
zero
when
sin
<j>
k',
through an arc
highest point.
to
^TT.
AD
or
AE
We
Let sin ^ = /c sin yjr, so that i/r varies from zero then find after an easy substitution in (3)
V
This
JoOos<f>
Jo\/(l-K'sm^ir)
^^'
(f>
elliptic integral
yjr
where ^ and
= K sin
i|r.
We
Describe a circle
this circle in
with centre
chord
*
to touch
BD, and
i/r.
let
BP intersect
BQG =
AT'
AP, then
the angle
GBP' =y\r.
The reader
on the applications of
elliptic functions.
He
128
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
In obtaining (6) we supposed the sign of cos
[CHAP. IV.
Since cos
<f)
is
positive, it
dyff/dt is positive.
The point Q
being the lower or upper intersection of BP with the ing as P is moving from A to D or from to A.
215.
We may approxi-
mate very
series.
If
time of a complete vibration by using a be this time, the formula (6) gives \T when the
upper limit
is ^tt.
We
By
*'(sin,^)d^
/.
= l-5--<2-l) 2.4.6... 2w
"2'
where k
= sin a and
is
is
The
first
term of
time of an
infinitely
small oscillation.
tions to this time,
and are sometimes called the "reduction to The second term is usually a sufficient correction. Thus suppose the arc of oscillation on each side of the vertical to subtend an angle of 36 at the point of suspension, then a= 18 and k = -^. The second term is only about ^th and
infinitely small arcs."
first.
Relation between continuous and oscillatory motions. Comparing (5) and (6) we see that the integrals are the same except that the moduli K and 1/k are reciprocals. This leads to a theorem by which we connect a motion all round the circle with an oscillatory motion.
the formulae
Let two particles P, P' be projected from the lowest points A, A', of two circles a', and let these be acted on by unequal gravitational forces g and g'. be such that the moduli are reciprocals. Let the velocities of projection F, Then k being less than unity, we have V^=iagK\ V'^=ia'g'lK^. It then follows from
of radii a,
'
ART. 218.]
129
arc equal to
what precedes that the particle P' travels round the circle and AD, where the angle DBA = a and K=siu a.
P oscillates in a semi-
Let P, P* be the positions of the particles when the angles ABP=<t>, A'B'P'=\j/, where sin = k sin ^. If t, t' be the times of describing the arcs AP, A'P* we have
\/
a'
"jo V(l-f'sin2^)'
V
*
^/(1-K^sin^^)'
therefore corre-
\/
,t'=''
\/
spond
to
is
chord
AP _Ka _
a'
chord
AD
chord A'P'
It is obviously
diavu A'B'
at the
t=t'.
so that
/a'/c^ dxl/
where the
If
circle.
coefficients
on the
left
hand
are equal.
particles to describe the same
we make the
radii equal
We
then have
a'=a,
g'=K^g,
V'=-V, A'P'=-.AP.
217. Ex. 1. If the circle described by P' has AM for its diameter, prove that move 60 as to be always on the same horizontal line, the gravitational forces being g and git^ respectively.
P, P'
Ex,
that
2.
is
Q moves on
"of
the circle as
if it
tational force
g"=gK.
The
velocity of
at
(and at
equal to the
mean
goes
the velocities of
P and P'.
all
round.
318.
theorem
The
investigation
of
these relations is properly a part of the theory of elliptic integrals, but the following
an example.
130
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
[CHAP. IV.
two semi-arcs which
subtend angles
a,
a'
The half
the angle
<p
of describing
is
given by
\a
where sin^ = /csin^.
shall
/g
f'l'
#
\J/,
['l'_dl_
Jocos^'
is
Eliminating
<p
we
find tan;^=
,26
'
^^
\j/
now change
d.
^ to 6. The simplest (though not df by differentiation and sin^ by The substitution is then obvious and we have*
v'(l-K2sin2^)
~r+Kjos/(l- X^ 8in2 6)
'
where
write
X= 2^^/(1 + f)' Kemembering that /c=sina and sin^ = K8in^, we now \=sina' and sin(^'=Xsin ^.
particles P, P' oscillate in the circle
a, a' at
Let two
times
t,
t',
APB
(p',
subtend angles
the highest point , then the last equation shows that the
are connected by the relation
= 2t'l{l + K).
To compare the changes of the values of these corresponding angles we refer to As P moves from ^ to D and back to A, Q travels round
to v,
to
o'.
Thus the
of P'.
oscillation
i.e.
from
to
D and
back to
to D' only,
a complete oscillation of P corresponds to half a complete oscillation If T, T' be the times of a complete oscillation of P, P*, we have therefore
T=T'1{1 + k).
a, a'
.-.
Jk= ^
lco8a' 1sma'
-.
a'
<^'7r
we
Hence
= (tan ^ a')^.
If a^, Og,
Ex,
and
T^ be the time of a complete revolution in an arc subtending 4ai at the point of suspension, prove that
if
ri=(sec4oi sec^oj
.
...
toaD)^.2wiJ(alg).
[sang.]
219. Co-azial Circles. Two heavy particles, constrained to describe the same vertical circle, are projected from any two points with velocities due to their depths below the same horizontal line. It is required to prove that the straight
line joining the particles always touches a co-axial circle.
ART. 219.]
'
CO-AXIAL CIRCLES.
131
Let Oy be the radical axis of two co-axial circles whose centres are G, C. Let a tangent at any point T of one circle intersect the other in two points P, Q.
Let PM,
QN
By
known property
of
FT,
QT drawn
.
circle satisfy
PT^=2.
cc PM, gr2= 2 CC
QN.
In the time dt let the tangent move into the position P'TQ'. Then since the elementary arcs QQ', PP', make equal angles with the chord P'Q', the triangles
hence
arc
QQ'la.TGPP'=QTIPT.
It follows
P)^= QNjPM.
.
If
move with a
.
PMy,
the point
Q must
move with
It follows that the points P, Q are the a velocity equal to {2g QN)^. positions of two particles moving with velocities due to their depths below Oy.
H
points
particles go
is external to the circle described by the particles, the round the circle. If the radical axis intersects the circle in the two and E, the particles oscillate in the same arc DAE.
In the figures the particles have been supposed to move the same way round the circle. If their directions are opposite the chord PQ envelopes a circle or a part of a co-axial circle situated above Oy.
*
The
methods
The
property
PT^=2.GG'. PM.
be the distances of the centres G, C" from Oy, d the length of a tangent
to
Let
c, c'
drawn from
any
co-axial circle.
The equations
x^-2c'x + y^ + 8^ =
x^-2cx+if + d^=0
If X,
(2).
y be any point
P external to
the
first circle,
PT
a tangent
P lie on the
This
(c
equation.
is
132
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
of contact
is
[CHAP. IV.
the ratio of the velocities at
The point
P, Q.
PQ in
That point
The ordinary
formulae for
down the
Q.
distance of
heloio
geometrical
mean of
the deptlis of
P and
and therefore of T, being known from the initial conditions, the circle enveloped by the chord touches PQ in T and has its centre in OA. The distance between the centres C, C may also be found from the
Some
positions of P, Q,
equation
chord,
it
PT^=2 CC PM.
. .
the initial
follows that
take the positions P', Q' after the lapse of any finite
time
time
*.
It follows that
a third particle
moving on the
circle
Oy
will describe
each of the
By
adding or subtracting the time of describing the arc P'Q, we see that
i.e.
a co-axiat
When
L,
is
each side of Oy which are the positions of the two co-axial circles whose radii are zero. Since L is an evanescent circle the distance OX, is equal to
the tangent drawn from
straight line
U one on
to
any
co-axial circle.
drawn through
APB
220.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
circle is
drawn
the chord and arc of oscillation of a particle which is moving on a vertical circle under the action of gravity. Prove that a point on the first circle in the same
horizontal line with the particle moves with a velocity equal to 2i^{gr) sin^Ja cosj^
where r is the radius of the circle on which the particle moves and a, are the angles which the radius drawn to the particle makes with the vertical at the instant [Math. Tripos.] when it is stationary and at the instant considered. Ex.
its
2.
A particle
circle
enveloped
by the chord joining any two positions of the particle at a constant time interval T Prove also that the depth of the point of contact of the chord is alcosh.^{TJgla). and its envelope below B is 2a/cosh ^^ cosh I, where ^isjafg and ^^s/^ls ^^e the
times from the lowest point of the extremities of the chord.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
pro-
Ex.
inside
3.
Prove that
outside,
if
its velocity is
and one
any
circle
parts which are described in equal times. points are both inside, or both outside.
when the
the points P, P' and Q, Q'; we shall prove that the times of describing the elementary arcs PP', QQ' are equal.
AP BP
.
where
is
the point of
ART. 220.]
contact of either.
to the time from
If
EXAMPLES.
then PR,
133
QS
are
B and
S, the time of
APQB
inter-
to ii is equal
to S.
circle
and the
circle
^P^Qare
make equal angles with the normals PR, QS; the lengths PP', QQ' are therefore proportional to PR, QS.
arcs PP', QQ', therefore, are also described in equal times.
The
Then PP' in the larger arc CD has a corresponding elementary arc QQ' in the smaller arc CD, and these are described in equal times. The times therefore of describing the smaller and larger
Let
be any one co-axial circle cutting the given circle in C, D.
describing all the co-axial circles, each elementary arc
arcs
ABCD
CD
are equal.
B may
be, let
It follows
two of the co-axial circles cut the given circle in from what precedes that the times of describing the
CC, DD'
4. is
are equal.
particle oscillates in
Ex.
tangent
a circular arc
BAD,
see
fig.
of Art. 219.
drawn from
from
to
i&
twice that
from
to Y.
is
where
sin^'=2sin^cos^(l-K2gin2^)4 (l-K2gin4^j-i_
[Cayley's Ellwtic Functions, Art. 249.]
CHAPTER
V.
The components
some other directions have been already considered in Chapter I. The solution of the more difficult problems in dynamics requires however that we should have at our command a greater power of resolution than is given by these. We shall now investigate the general components for any moving axes in one plane.
222.
we
sideration,
repetition of the same argument, term vector to represent the subject under conwhether it be a velocity or an acceleration.
of a point
is
a vector and
y.
its
resolved
Again the
a vector and
if
is
a vector, and
its
are dxjdt
and
dy/dt.
The
acceleration of
d'^y/dt^.
'\lr
P is also
Lastly
be any
x, its
makes an angle
components along the axes, supposed to be rectangular, are R cos y{r and R sin i/r.
223.
Fundamental theorem.
vector
having
been
it is
required
to
find
the rates at which these components are increasing with the time.
Let
t.
Draw a
straight line
PQ
ART. 223.]
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM.
Let
u, v
135
V'\
"^
Avill occupy a position P', the and may be represented by the vector M will become will turn round through a The axes Orj straight line P'Q'. Of, small angle d(f> and will take the positions Of, Otj'. The resolved parts of R + dR along these new axes will he u + du, and v + dv.
After a time
dt,
the point
R + dR
At
is
the time
Of
u.
At the time
(u
+ dt
(i.e.
in the direction
Of not Of)
d^.
u in the direction Of is found by subcomponent at the time t from that at the time t + dt and dividing by dt.
The
rate of increase of
tracting the
If
we represent the
Of by
Ui,
we have
M,
[{u
When we
rf<^
we
d<b
We
therefore have
du
In the same way be Vi, we have
'"^
if
d<^-\-{v
dv) cos
d(f>
dt
_ d^ dv '""dt^df
136
324.
This theorem
is
MOVING AXES.
of great
[CHAP. V.
The
rate of increase of
is
^at
and which
.
-v
-7-
It is the latter
which
is
required in dynamics.
To make
velocity of a point P.
Then
0|'\
"~\
OA
/'
When
it is
may
relative rate
225.
There
is
theorem which
into a
is another method of establishing the fundamental very generally used and which puts the argument
direction
Let the moving axis 0^ make an angle <}> with an arbitrary Ox fixed in space. Then if U be the component of the
<}> ;
dU
dt
(du
dd)\ d<f>\
'
dtp a<p
dv\ av\
This gives the rate of increase in the direction of the fixed Let Ox coincide with 0^ and be left behind when 0| axis Ox.
moves into the position 0|', then <^ = By definition dU/dt = ih, and therefore
though
d(}>/dt is
not zero.
du
d(b
'"^^dt-'^tAgain moves
let
Ox
Or)'.
it
be
left
to
Since
(f>
is
the angle
0|
makes with
^ij,
from Ox round
value of
d<f>{dt.
the instantaneous
^ By
is
- ^-rr though
dU/dt
as before
is
it is
definition
now
v^,
and hence
dv
deb
ART. 227.]
226.
Ex.
1.
COMPONENTS OF ACCELERATION.
To deduce
the components of velocity
137
We
Regarding ^=r,
the velocity are
take the arbitrary axis of | to coincide with the radius vector, then (p = 0. i; = as the components of the vector r, the space components of
d?
dt
'
dd
dt
dr
dt
d-n
^dd
dt
dd
dt
dt
Taking the velocity as a second vector, the components are u = drldt, v=rdOldt, and the space components of the acceleration are
du
Vr,=-z dt
do
v-Tdt
= dh
dt^
do ''^=di+''di
dv
dt\
dtj'
and normal,
Ex.
Art. 36.
2.
To deduce
dv
d\p
^^^"'dt^'"'Tt-'''dt'
regard
to
velocity
and
acceleration with
be given by
its co-
with regard to two rectangular axes 0^, Or} which {^, turn round a fixed origin with an angular velocity d<}>/dt. Let (u, v) be the components of the velocity of P parallel to the
Let (X, Y) be the components between (f, tj), (u, v), (X,Y) We have follow at once from the general theorem.
instantaneous positions of 0^,
Orj.
of the acceleration of P.
The
relations
"=*-"*
d(f>
d^
dr)
d4>
"-"di+^s
-IT-
^^>'
,,-,.
....
du
d(b
dv
d<b
^^dt-'Tf
by the former, we have
^=s+"a
(^^-
dt'
^\dt)
ndtV.dtJ
.(C).
dP
If
the origin
is also
jp,
some
modification.
Let
138
MOVING AXES.
[CHAP. V.
of the origin in the directions of the axes. Let u, v continue to represent the components of the space velocity of the point P.
To
find u, v
we add
component
thus have
velocities the
component
d(l>
We
d^
dn
^d6
,.,.
;'=^+sf-'&'
''=+J+fi
P
(^)-
referred to a system of
moving axes having any fixed origin but always remaining parallel to the original moving axes. With these values of u, v, the accelerations X, Y will continue to be expressed by the
formulse (B).
228.
We may deduce
X,Y
to
relative
The motion
of
in space is
made up
;
see
of Art. 223.
Now
OM
velocities in
the directions
OM,
MP
are |'
r-W'
and
j^^(rf)
where accents represent differentiations with regard to the time. Again regarding as fixed, MP is the radius vector of P, hence the component velocities of P along and parallel to MO (not OM) are tj' and tj^', while the accelerations in the same directions
MP
are t]"
ijcf)'^
and -
-^
{rj^
<f)').
of w, v;
X,
already given in
229. Relative and actual patb. When the motion of a point is referred to moving axes 0|, Orj it is necessary to distinguish between the path in space and the
path
relative to the
moving axes.
to the
moving axes and to turn round the fixed point with them. The point P traces out on this sheet the relative path which is not the same as that traced out on a
sheet fixed in space.
The coordinates
of
in the relative
motion are
(^,
ij)
and
dr^.
The
path and the radius of curvature of that path are therefore found by the ordinary rules of the differential calculus. The coordinates of P in the path in space are
also
(^, 7j),
dri
+ ^dip.
ART. 231.]
139
The formulae of
may
he adapted to
v=:r}'
Ui = u' -Vip',
u,
Thus,
if
TJ/,
X be
make
p,
R be
we have
tan^=p,
tanx =
(u2
j.,
^,
-V<P
{u-
1J
P
-7}^
+ i;2)*
R
t
=uv' -vu' +
+ v^)
<f>'.
When we
absent,
we regard
as
If
we
write t=s.
The
effect of
these changes
may
be exhibited in a figure.
at
moving point
the times
t,
+ dt, and
same
times.
PM, P'N
we have
(A).
PH
be perpendiculars on 0^
and P'M'
respectively.
The coordinates of
Or) fixed in
MP =
ri,
(B).
These values of 3IM', P'H follow at once from Art. 223, but they may be obtained by projecting the broken line ON, NP' on Of, 0-q. If x ^^ t^G angle the tangent PP' makes with Of and dtr the arc PP', we have tan x^P'HjPff and
(da-)'^
same
results
as before.
230.
may
be inferred
For example, the formul for the radius of curvature in polar coordinates may be written down by simply resolving the polar accelerations of Art. 35 along the tangent and equating the result to V'-^jR. The expressions for R in Cartesian moving and fixed axes may be obtained in the same way.
by resolving the accelerations in different directions.
231.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
The
position of a point
is
referred to rectan-
gular axes Q^, Qri which move so that Q describes a given curve AQ while Q^ is always a tangent to
the curve.
velocities
X=u'- V(p',
Y=v'-\- u<f>',
,
where ^' is the angular velocity of f and (p' = s'jp. Deduce an expression for the radius of curvature of the space locus of P.
140
Ex.
is 2.
MOVING AXES.
A
particle
[CHAP. V.
I
P is attached
which
being
wound on
mannei^ of an involute.
Prove that
P along
and perpendicular
where ^'
is
|.
Ex. 3. Assuming the earth to be uniformly describing a circle of radius a about the sun with velocity U, and the sun to be moving in a straight line in the
plane of the earth's orbit with a uniform velocity V, prove, that the radius of
. **v. , *v.. u-*curvature at any point of the earth s orbit ""^
.
m space
'^
is
{V^ + 2VUsme+U^)^a
^v^-rrf
U^(U+V smd)
77.
7:7^
where
direction of the
[Coll.
sun's motion.
Ex. 1892.]
its
Ex.
4.
fine string
wound round a
circle
has a particle
its
attached to
is
centre in its
own plane
with a uniform angular velocity w. The particle is initially in contact with the If | be the length of string circle and has a velocity V normal to the circle. unwound at the time t, prove that ^=a^<aH^ + 2aVt.
Ex.
5.
particle
P is
attached by a rod
PA
another rod AB, n times as long, which revolves about the other extremity B, the
rods,
whole motion taking place in a horizontal plane. If 6 be the inclination of the w the angular velocity of ^B at the time t, prove that
^ + ^+n(^cose +
dt^
dt
\dt
ux'sine\=0. J
232. Oblique axes. The general method of finding the resolved velocities and accelerations of a point referred to moving axes may be extended to oblique axes. These extensions however are not of any great importance because oblique
axes are seldom used in mechanics.
Let 0|, Or) be any two axes which make angles 6, <p with an axis Ox fixed in These angles we shall suppose to be perfectly arbitrary so that the angle ^Ot) between the axes is not necessarily constant. See figure of Art. 223.
space.
Let
PQ
u, v its
components
Let us resolve the vector in a direction perpendicular to Of. The resolved parts of Uj and v^ are clearly zero and Vj sin {<p-d). Since ^0^'=d6, 17O1;' = d^, the
resolution gives
. ,
Uj sin (^
/,
^)
{d>- 6)]
dd
dv
dd>
By
, -V sm (4> - e)=
.
dd>
du
,
sin
{<p-d)-
cos
{^-d)j-.
..
d&
ART. 234.]
If f ,
77
HYPER-ACCELERATIONS.
141
are
similarly
usm{<t>-e)=
-7]
~ + ^ain{(f>-0)-^cos{tf>-d)
and
The advantage
of resolving perpendicularly to 0^
Orj is that
only one of
thus obtain each indepenthe components Ui, v^, enters into the resolution. dently of the other. If we resolve in the directions 0^, Or) we obtain the values
of
2*1
We
+ ^1 cos
((f)
- d) and
v^
+ ti^ cos
were
{<p
- d) and, from
these, j
and
u^
can be obtained
given by H.
W. Watson
233.
coefficients
Hyper-accelerations. It is seldom that we use higher differential with regard to the time than the second, Art. 21. When these are
required the general theorem on vectors (Art. 223) gives the components for differential coefficients of
any
order.
y be the coordinates of a moving point referred to fixed axes, then X^^d^xjdt'"', Y^=d^yldt^ are the components of the space hyper-acceleration of the n^^ order, Art. 21. Let 0|, O17 be any set of moving axes, the relations between the space components of two successive orders of acceleration are
Let
X,
"+^~ dT "
^'*
dt
'
-^"+1- dt "*'^" dt
The reader may consult a Note Sur Us Principes de la Mecanique by Abel Transon, Liouville's Journal, vol. x. 1845, for another mode of treatment.
Ex. 1. A point moves along a curve with velocity u, prove that the components along the tangent and normal of the adceleration of the third order are, respectively
d^M
dt2
u^
d /u^\
Ex.
tan
2.
point
P
5,
velocity.
Prove that
make with
5.
the normal at P.
Show
D'Alembert's Principle.
234.
When
motion may in general be found by resome convenient directions. In the case of a system of particles the mutual reactions must also be taken into the account; these are in general unknown and will have
forces the equations of
It is important to be able
down some
Various
142
d'alembert's principle.
to
effect
[chap. v.
this
either completely or
When
in a statical problem,
we wish
we
treat the
two as one system. We resolve and take moments for the two We may adopt the same method in bodies as if they were one.
dynamics.
235.
it
will
be found
defined
may be
moving as part of a system, it is acted on by the external forces and the reactions of the other
a particle
is
When
we
all
particles.
If
S3fstem
and
is
some one
force
make
it
move
in
the same
way
as before.
This force
is
the particle.
It follows that the effective force is statically equivalent to
the impressed forces which act on the particle and the reactions
of the rest of the system, but
is
differently expressed.
Let
particle, {x, y)
components of the force which must act to produce any given motion have been proved to be 7rid^x/dt^ and md^y/dt^, these then In the same way if v are the components of the effective force. be the velocity and 1/p the curvature of the path, the tangential and normal components ,of the effective force are mdv/dt and mv^/p.
See Art. 68.
236.
we know
and the
on each
reactions.
with the
Making
then
any
effective forces
ART. 238.]
1.43
Some
(1)
by
equating the
sum
any convenient directions to the sum of the resolved parts of the external forces, (2) by equating the sum of the moments of the effective forces about any point to the sum of the moments of
the external forces.
The
effective
moments
may
statics.
The components
of the
in various directions
preceding
articles.
(a?!, 2/1),
{x2,
2/2)
m^
m^
are
&c.,
and
moments
and moments
it is
equilibrium
together.
we must remember
may
Now
particles distant r
is
It is
is
invariable.
This point
impor-
The most convenient way of applying the principle of Virtual Velocities to Dynamical problems is to use Lagrange's equations.
238.
When
is
it
a rigid body,
are invariable.
coordinates of
For example, these might be the Cartesian some point and the angle which some straight line fixed in the body makes with some straight line fixed in space. Three independent equations of motion, free from mutual
144
d'alembert's principle.
[chap. v.
and sufficient to determine the any time t. These three are supplied by the two resolutions and the equation of moments above
reactions, are therefore necessary
described.
It
is
to a single force
and a
couple G.
The components
of the components of all the forces of the system, and the couple
is
equal to the
sum
of their of
moments about
This
is
usually
called Poinsot's
method
compounding
forces.
We
shall
now
239.
of two dimensions.
(^, y),
system of particles, rigidly connected, moves in space The coordinates of the centre of gravity are
and the whole mass is M. with a straight line fixed in space is It is required to prove that the effective forces of the whole system
are equivalent
to
two
effective
forces
M^-^, -^ lin
^c**''5'
* ^^^
centre of gravity,
and an
effective
couple MT{?
-~
where Ml?
is
form and
Let m be the mass of any particle of the body, x = x + ^, y = y + r} be its coordinates. Then since Xm^/'Em, Xmrj/lm are
the coordinates of the centre of gravity referred to the centre of
gravity as origin,
it is clear
that
1m^ = 0,
2m?;
= 0.
The sum
the axis of cc
The resolved part parallel to the axis of y may be found in the same way. These two effective forces are the same a^ the effective placed at the centre of gravity forces of a particle whose mass is and moving with that point in space.
240.
To
ART. 241.]
of the particle
145
when
couple
is
Since
term.
^m^ = 0,
Let
is
first
p^
coupl^
therefore
We
shall
now
is
introduce
When
d<f>/dt,
every particle
equal to
makes with the straight line fixed in Though o may be different for every
JaJL
da/dt =
0,
The
241.
The constant
moment
of inertia of
To find we multiply
from
the
moment of inertia of any system about any aans, mass of every particle by the square of its distance axis and add the results together.
the the
When
the particles are so close together that they form a sum is an integral. Thus for a circular
is
pdddp;
hence the
moment
of inertia
Xmp^==JJDpd0dp
.p'
= D [Ip*]
[d],
where the square brackets imply that the quantity is to be taken between the limits of integration. These limits being p = to a, and ^ = to 27r, the moment of inertia about the centre is ^Ma\ In the same way the moment of inertia of a rectangle whose 2a and 26 about an axis drawn through the centre of
is
sides are
^M{a^ + ).
146
d'alembert's principle.
[chap. V,
The moment
is
a about a diameter
^Ma\
The moment
of inertia of a triangular area about any axis
its
is
the same as that of three particles each one-third of placed at the middle points of the sides.
243.
for,
mass
The moment
in a certain sense,
structure of the
moving body.
measures the dynamical significance of the form and Thus all free bodies having equal moments of
The
when acted on by equal couples. on the mass and the position of the centre of
The equations
of
motion of a
particle
dt^~
'
Y are
that
We
shall
values of x, y, dxjdt, dyldt are also given, these equations are sufficient to find x, y as functions of t.
initial
now prove
when the
we
To prove
this
limit-
is
Let x = <l>
may
where X,
and ^
initial values
(2)
;
0(r)-0(O),
^f'(r)-^f^{0)
<ft
are given.
Patting
t=0
in (1)
t=T
vfe
obtain
(3t),
^{3t),
ij/
of,
^ (nr),
we deduce the values of (2t), ^ (2t) again putting and so on. Thus by a continual repetition of the (nr) and therefore of <p (t), {t) can be found.
yj/
That the solution of the two equations of motion of the second order leads to results which contain four arbitrary constants (to be determined by the initial conditions) is also proved in treatises on differential equations; see Forsyth's
Differential Equations, Art. 173.
244. On general and particular integrals. motion of a free particle are x"=X, y" = Y
of
where accents denote differential coefficients with regard to the time. These are usually solved by. combining them together so as to obtain a perfect differential. We then have by integration
F(x,
y, x', y',
t)
=G
(2),
where C is a constant. When an integral is obtained in this manner there is nothing to limit the initial conditions. However the particle may be projected the
ART. 246.]
equation
is
(2),
ON GENERAL INTEGRALS.
after determining the proper value of C,
147
whole motion.
Such an integral
is
a particular
246.
equation
is
If
(2)
be arbitrarily written
down
containing one
arbitrary constant
we may enquire
integral.
which that
a general
this
To answer
we
differentiate (2)
(1).
We then have
(3).
dF
dF
rf^"+d^2/'
motion the quantities
fore be such as to
+ ^,^+^,l^+^ =
t
dF ^ dF^^ dF
may
The
forces X,
Y must
there-
make
an
identity.
To determine X, Y we
Supposing that X,
are
intended to be functions of
tiations, several equations
x,
y only, they are constants when we differentiate In this way we may obtain, by successive differen-
each containing
X,Y in
the
first
degree.
infer that the given
Y we Y
may
also
happen that
all
Y are
form
(4).
(xy'-x'yY+f{^^ = C
This therefore, when X,
integral
dynamical problems.
Limiville's
Journal, 1852.
Ex.
1.
=C
Xdffdx, Y=d/ldy.
Ex.
2.
This
is
Prove that
xy'^x'y=C with
when
To
for a system of
re-
Let
let
X,
be the mass of any one particle x, y its coordinates be the components of all the forces which act on that
;
148
particle.
[CHAP. V.
The equations
^rf^ = ^'
we have
/dos
"^dh^
^^>-
d^x
dy d^y\
dx
^^
dy\
,_.
Summing
we have
{'^\
(dx d'x
dy d'y\
^"^[didt^-^drtdf^j-^v^dt^^^t)
_v(x^'^4.V^A
^^>-
The right-hand side of this equation, after multiplication by dt, is the work done by the forces as the system makes a small displacement, Art. 185.
Amongst the
on the several
forces
X,
Y are
it is
included the
clear that
unknown
r'eactions
particles,
but
the
the
When
where
(4),
a conservative system.
Art. 181.
^tmv^^=U+G
(5).
Let Uo be the same function of the initial coordinates that ?7 is of the coordinates at the time t, and let Vq be the initial value of V. The equation of vis viva may also be written in the form
^Xmv^-^tmvo''==U-Uo
247.
reasons.
(1)
(6).
The The
principle
of
vis
viva
is
important
for
several
principle
is
of general application.
is
The
forces in
When
there
is
is
only one
way
in
ART. 249.]
(3)
149
The
of the motion in
between the circumstances any stated position of the system and those at When the intermediate motion is not required
248.
effected.
The
force fanetion.
The equation
em-
ployed only
when the
It is also
may
The acting
(1)
forces
may
be
classified thus,
the external forces which act on the particles, the mutual actions of such of the particles as are rigidly connected
(2)
together,
(3)
(4)
the pressures due to any fixed curve or surface on which some of the
move.
The external
It follows
some function of the distance the contribution of each to the work function can be
force is
when each
Let
apart
It is
is r,
R be the mutual action between two particles whose instantaneous distance and let R be measured positively when the action tends to increase r.
statics that the
proved in
is
Rdr.
between any two particles which keep an invariable distance from each other throughout the motion disappears' from the equation of vis viva, for in such a case dr=0.
It follows
from
If
particles repel
which
is
known function
If
is
work
if is
bent by passing
over smooth pulleys, fixed or moveable, the work of the tension the whole length of the string.
is zero.
- Tdl, where
work
an inextensible string may therefore be omitted in the string is extensible and the tension obeys Hooke's law, the corresponding work can be found by integrating -Tdl, see
The action
of
If
249.
If
one
is
whose equation
R cos
<l>
ds
is f{x, y)=0, let R be the n6rmal pressure. The work of this is zero because <f>, being the angle between the direction of 22 and
the arc of the path, is | tt. If however the curve is itself constrained to move, the angle tf> is not necessarily a right angle and the work may not be zero. Since the
t,
by saying
that the geometrical relations must not contain the time explicitly, if the reactions
If the curve or surface is rough, the friction acts along the tangent to the path,
is
zero only
when
is
not in motion.
150
[CHAP. V.
Energy. Selecting some geometrically poasible ar250. rangement of the particles as a standard position, the work done by the forces as the particles move or are moved from any other given arrangement to the standard position is called the potential
energy in the given position.
Let the standard position be called S let the system move from some given initial position \4 and at the time < let its position be P. It has already been proved (Arts. 69, 246) that
;
Kin. En. at
But
:.
Kin. En.
follows
A = work A to P. Pot. En. at P = work P to S, Pot. En. at J. = work A to S. at P + Pot. En. at P = Kin. En. at ^ + Pot. En. at A.
P - Kin. En.
at
It
therefore that
the
sum of
th0> kinetic
and
potential
This
sum
is called
the
it
of the system
chosen, but
is constant
and equal to
This theorem
it will
is true whatever standard position may be be found convenient to so choose this position
may
When
this choice is
made
final
251.
As a simple example,
of a room
let
a heavy particle
;
fall
from rest
at the ceiling
to the floor
Let us take the floor (i.e. z = h) as the standard position, because the particle cannot descend any lower; the potential energy at the depth z is
falling a distance z is
^iv^ = mgz.
mg (h z).
The whole energy is therefore mgh, which is constant At the ceiling the energy is wholly
;
on arriving at the
the
energy
is
wholly kinetic,
all
to
contain n particles
position can only
be defined by the use of the 2n coordinates of the particles. There are evidently just 2n different ways in which the particles can be moved,
all
ART. 253.]
VIS VIVA OF
is
A BODY.
If
151
The system
some
move on k given
are
curves, or
more generally
if
coordinates, only
2n
coordinates
necessary to
fix
the
degrees of
freedom.
the
may
be defined to be
When some
or all of the
particles of a
Let
(x, y)
be
and
M the mass.
imw'
The
vis viva is
then
=^{(D'-(l)V^Kf)'x = x -\-
where MJc^ is the constant called the moment of inertia of the body about the centre of gravity, see Art. 241.
To prove
particle
this, lei
^,
= y \-
r)
m, then
Since
2m^ =
Hence
This equation expresses the proposition that the whole vis viva
of a moving system, whether rigid or not, is equal to that of a particle moving with the 'centre of gravity together with the of mass
vis viva
to the centre
of gravity.
is
to polar coordinates
rigid
we change
and
is zero,
we
find
-^(f;-(t)i=(W)(f)'='(r
152
354.
in the
[CHAP. V.
21,
An
M and
same horizontal
AB
and then
one bead lying in each of the The lighter bead m is raised Show that the beads will just meet if
[Math. Tripos, 1897.]
tl"':= 2
(~)
We
notice that only two positions of the system are contemplated in the
(1) the initial position in which the bead' vi lies in AB, and (2) the which the beads are in contact. In both these cases the kinetic energy
problem, viz.
position in
is zero. to
The
principle of vis viva asserts that the change of kinetic energy is equal
It immediately follows that the work done when the system passes from the first to the second position is zero. Let x be the depth below AB at which the beads meet. Then omitting the tension, Art. 248, we have
the wm-k.
mgx + M{x->^(P-al)} = 0.
below
AB
are at any depths motion when the beads m, may also be deduced from the principle. We have
i{mv^- + Mv'^)=mgy
y,
rf
Since the
equation
sum
of lengths joining
Wthe geometrical
(2).
we have
"
17 ^
of v, v'
when y and
(2).
Ex.
2.
particle of
has attached to
it
same horizontal
if
line
Prove that
when
it
has
through a space ^
,^,_
[Coll.
Exam.]
is coiled
which round the perfectly rough rim of a uniform circular disc of radius a supported in a vertical plane on a smooth horizontal axis, and the pails can descend into a well so that when one comes up the other goes down. If the pails be allowed to move freely under gravity, and, when the- heavier has descended a distance h from rest, a drop of water be thrown off from the highest point of the rim of the disc, prove that this drop will strike the ground at a horizontal distance
Ex.
3.
Two
pails of weights
W, w,
x^[lW'+W+w)=4.hb{W-xo),
where
is
is
rim o! the
disc.
The equation
ART. 254.]
EXAMPLES.
153
Putting w=i;/a and
The theory of parabolic motion gives x=vt, and h=\gt^. W=\a?, we obtain the required value of x.
Ex.
4.
Two
small holes A,
are
made
mass
in a
smooth horizontal
table, the
particle of
A and B and
;
a particle of mass two equal weightless and inextensible strings, passing through the two holes. in a direction The length of each string is a (1 + sec a). A blow J is applied to will oscillate to and fro perpendicular to AB; show that if J^>2Mmag i&n a, through a distance 2a tan a. But if J^ is less than this quantity and equal to oscillates will be 2Mmag (tan a - tan /3), the distance through which
M rests on the table midway between m hangs beneath the table, suspended from M by M M
i)
= sec a - sec
/3.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
to the
initial velocity
V=JIM
Two
particles
M,
mass
hangs
and
M rests on
^^ ^^^
Prove that
distance
position of
^cosa
vi is greater
(-^-J") - M^ COS"' a m^
^^^^^ ^
than
.^
^^^
^^^^^
M,
Moos
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
tube.
6.
Two
In the circumference
if v, v'
equal particles connected by a string are placed in a circular is a centre of force varying as the inverse distance.
One
prove that
from the centre of force, be the velocities with which they pass through a point 90 from
e
[Coll.
Exam.]
Ex.
7.
mass
M is
internal explosion.
Prove that
if
when
Exam.]
The
if
on an element
of itself is the
same
as
half the
mass of the
shell
Ex. 8. Three equal and similar particles repelling each other with forces varying as the distance are connected by equal inextensible strings and are at rest if one string be cut, the subsequent angular velocity of either of the other strings
will vary as
a
/ -^
^-
[Christ's Coll.]
Ex. 9. form of a
its
An
elastic string of
mass
circle of radius a.
It is
now
is fi (distance)"^.
circle
when
is
- armfj.jETT.
[Coll.
Exam.]
rigidly attached to
h, without mass, has a heavy particle from its centre, and its inner surface is constrained to roll on the outer surface of a fixed circle of radius a {h being greater than a), under the action of a repelling force from the centre of the fixed circle equal to ii times the distance. Prove that the period of small oscillations of the
Ex.
circular
it
hoop
radius
at a point distant c
hoop
will be 2tr
c/i
154
Prove that when
c
[CHAP. V.
and prove
continue to
or small have the same period; hoop may be started so that it will
The following is a simple (but not necessarily the shortest) method of writing down the equation of vis viva in problems of this kind. Having selected some
independent variable to
fix
we
find the
vertical
coordinates x, y of the particle in terms of 6 by projecting OC, and horizontal. The vis viva, being the sum of (dxjdtY and
CP
on the
.
m {dyjdt)^,
follows
Equating the half of this sum to the force function Jm/* CO^ + C we have an equation giving ddldt in terms of d.
immediately.
It is
if
the constant
we
and
When c=a,
field of force. When a particle moves in with a uniform which rotates round the origin angular velocity n, an integral of the equations of motion can be
255.
Rotating
field of force
0.
Let Of,
Or}
field of force,
be two rectangular axes which rotate with the and let X, Y be the component accelerating forces.
We then have
by Art. 227
^^1^
^V
of.
xr^
(1).
we
find
d^ d'^
H(iy^-f^p^'''^=/^^'^^^*'^
We
introduce the condition that the field of force rotates by = dUld^ and such functions of f, t] only that making Z,
Y=dU/dv.
Then
is
&.
function of
f,
t.
The
= [7-+(7
(3),
where v is the velocity of the particle relatively to the moving axes and r is the radius vector.
ART. 256.]
ROTATING FIELD.
notice that if
155
cot
We may
ordinates X,
also,
except
when the
and tends to
0.
is
The
equation,
when written
a slight ex-
Tome
III.
If
momentum about
be the space velocity of the particle, A the anguiar referred to a unit of mass, then
V^-2nA=v^-r^^
The equation of Jacobi then becomes
(4).
^V^-nA = U+C
To prove the
and
relation (4), let
(5).
on
V
r),
is
the resultant of v
being perpendicular to
-j^
we have
moments about
V^ v^ + wV
rvp,
Avp-^r nr^,
0.
The equation
An
astronomy.
example of a rotating field of force is met mth'in If the components of a binary star describe circles
about their
common
is
always the
same at the same point of the rotating plane. Jacobi's integral will therefore apply to the motion of a satellite moving in that plane, provided it is of such insignificant mass that the motions of the primaries are undisturbed by its attraction.
266.
When
force rotates about a perpendicular axis with a variable angular velocity 0'
we mayof the
We know
forces divided
that \dY-\dt
is
equal to the
sum
of the virtual
moments
by
hence
IdV^ldt^Xu^Yv
But dA\dt=^Y - 7]X by taking moments about the
1
origin,
hence
..
dV^
dA
dU
^,
?;,
2"dr~^'dF=dF
where
f7 is
^^''
z.
When
</>'
is
constant, this
consideration,
a system of particles moving in a given rotating field of force is under we have for each an equation similar to (6). Multiplying these by the masses of the particles and adding the products, we have an extended equation
When
156
of vis viva.
If
[CHAP. V.
of the system, TJ the
the angular
momentum
.;
T-<p'A =
where
<f>'
U+C
(7),
is
In this form
U all
257.
Coriolls'
viva.
system of particles
is
referred to
moving axes 0^, Or]. Supposing the system at any instant to become fixed to the moving axes, let us calculate what would then be the effective forces on the system. If we apply these as additional impressed forces on the system, but reversed in direction, we may use the equation of vis viva to determine the relative
motion as
if
Let %, wij, &c. be the masses of the particles; (Xj, Y^), {X^, Y2), &c. the components of the impressed forces. Let also p, q be the resolved velocities of the origin, then, including these as explained in Art. 227, the equations of motion of any representative particle
are
-il'^">+t-'"l
,^,^
where w=d<f>ldt.
The
forces
on the
particle of the
same mass
(
These are
dp
(2).
Transposing these terms to the other sides of the equations of motion, we have
(i-4:) -(-f)--4
.1
These equations
Art. 197.
may
we have, as in Art.
dv
255,
d:^r,)_
^
y.d^_^
'"{didT^+diM
Sununing
'^di'-^^-^o^Tf
and integrating
(4).
4Sm|(|)V(gyj=:Sj{(z-^Zo)d|+(r-r)d,}
If the axes rotate
round a
uniform angular
velocity,
is
The equation
^2/ni;2=
[7-1-1
(5),
ART. 260.]
where r
is
157
is its velocity rela-
For a
same as
Jacobi's integral.
is
is
cannot be
The equation
(1)
is
however
still
must be
to eliminate the
unknown
reactions, if
any such
exist.
Now
the equation
(4) is free
from
all
the reactions
which would disappear in the principle of vertical work, and that equation therefore supplies us at once with one result at least of the elimination.
the forces of
For the purposes of this proposition the forces measured by Xg F are called moving space. When the origin of coordinates is fixed, these take the simple form
,
^.=
This theoren*
is
_^{_,^.
;
y.^-^^i"^
(6).
due to Coriolis
258.
Xiaisant's tbeorem.
Ex.
A particle
of a force
Y=v^-,
the velocity.
v'^~'^={2
-n)U+C.
vol. xxi.
Moments and
Resolutions.
The equation of Moments. If P, Q are the com259. ponents of the force on a single particle resolved along and transverse to the radius vector, it is clear that Qr is equal to
the moment of the forces about the origin. Representing this moment by M, the transverse polar equation of motion becomes
srs)=*
260.
^^)-
When
2l(4f)=^^^
If
w.
be the attraction of mi on m^, the reaction of m^ on mi is and the sum of the moments of these two must disappear from the right-hand side. If then the external forces are such
R,
we have 2ilf=0,
^^nr^~ =
(3),
158
[CHAP. V.
where If
a constant.
that when a system of mutually attracting particles moves under the action of eocternal forces such that the sum of the moments about a fixed point is zero, the sum of the angular momenta of all
the particles about that point is constant.
For example,
if
any
number
sum
of their
influence
constant.
93.
(Art. 7),
moments
when
H^t-y^y^
261.
is
w-
useful
Rigid system. When a system of particles is rigid it to have an expression for 'the resultant angular mothe origin.
mentum about
centre of gravity,
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the the angle a straight line fixed in the body
makes with a straight line fixed in space, and angular momentum of the whole mass is then
M the
mass.
The
^-^Vdt
where
ydtj^^^dt'
inertia about the centre of gravity.
Mk^
is the
moment of
To prove
then x = x +
y = y + v- Remembering
as in Art. 239,
we
find
by substitution that
H4-y^hM-fryf:)-H^t-'>t
Since dxjdt, dyjdt are the components of the velocity of the
centre of gravity, the
of a particle
first
term
is
the
moment
of the velocity
of mass
it.
moving with
The equation
is
of the whole mass collected at the centre of gravity together with the angular momentum round the centre of gravity of the relative motion.
equal
to that
To introduce the
to polar coordinates
is
rigid
by
writing ^drj
7)d^= p^dd.
dO
.
the
ART. 263.]
159
same
for
becomes Mk^
^ at
when a
rigid
is
It follows that,
body
is
G, the equation of
moments
is
262.
Ex.
1.
A particle moves in
U=mf{r) +
Show how
The
to find the coordinates
r,
^.
Q=dUlrd6.
The equation of
r^de/dt, the inte-
moments
therefore becomes jI
y^ dt) ~ ~i ~^
'
^^^^V^J^^S by
we
find
('"Sy=2i^(^)+^
where A is an arbitrary constant. both Jacobi and Bertrand.
(1).
The equation
of vis viva is
(1) we arrive at an equation giving dtjdr as a The determination of t in terms of r has thus been reduced to an The relation between 6 and t may then be found from (1) by another
integration.
Ex.
2.
x=0, r=a
in
a-
field
defined by
3U=m d^X
Show by
writing
of vis viva
path
is
circle.
263. The equation of resolution. If a system of particles moves under the action of external forces, we have by resolving
parallel to the axis of x, (Art. 236)j
where
is
this equation
the tj^ical accelerating force on the particle m. In we may omit the mutual attractions of the particles,
160
{CHAP. V.
We
then have
where
is
a constant.
This result
is
more
Summary
of methods of integration.
field of force
When
the
the equation
When
another integral
is
required, there
if
is is
of proceeding.
We
usually search
there
sum
any fixed point about which the sum of the moments i^ In either of these cases an additional integral is supplied zero. The first case usually by the methods of Arts. 263 and 260.
occurs
when the
acting force
is
when the
force is central.
fail we have recourse to some artifice Suppose that we have some reason for believing that a particle describes a certain path, we constrain If the pressure can be made the particle by a smooth curve. zero by the proper initial conditions, the constraint may be
When
these methods
Examples.
Ex.
1.
Two
particles, of
connected by a string of length a + b, which passes through a fine ring fixed at a point on thie table. The particles are projected with velocities U and V perpendicularly to the portions of the string attached to them, and the initial
lengths are respectively a and
6.
Let
principles of angular
momentum and
vis viva,
m and we have
M at
the time
t.
By
the
r'g=U,
p=FI,
(1),
m
We have
<^'-
r+p=a + 6
Eliminating
p, 0,
<t>,
(3).
we
find
ART. 265.]
EXAMPLES.
161
Id this differential egaation, the variables 030* be separated and thus t can be The integration cannot be generally
If the
We thus
system have
oscillate,
'^^,i^.-<-^---'>=
Since the left-hand side
is
positive
;=a there is a second positive root less than + 6. This second root may be proved to be greater or less than a according as mTJ^fa is greater or less than MV^fb. These values of r determine the extreme positions of the system. We notice that if F be very small, the second root is very nearly equal to a+ 6.
If
F=0 the
particle
M arrives
In fact
when r=a+fe
(4) is
of the singular
its
equatiolji (5) is
if
To
of the string,
we use the
one of the
This gives
dt^
'^\dt)~
m'
and
r^b'^
Differentiating (4)
we
after
some
slight reductions
j,_
Mm
fV^a^
r^
~M+m\
become
(a
+ b-rf)'
The
slack.
Ex.
horizontal table,
the table :
particles whose masses are in the ratio 1:2 lie on a smooth and are connected by a string that passes through a small ring in the string is stretched and the particles are equidistant from the ring
Two
its
Prove that the other particle will strike the ring with half the
the
first particle.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 3. One A of two particles of equal mass, without weight, and connected by an inelastic string moves in a straight groove. The other B is projected parallel Prove that the greatest tension is four to the groove, the string being stretched.
times the least.
[Coll.
Ex.]
Beduce
to rest, then
is
acted on by
T and T cos d,
to the groove,
where 6
describes a circle,
velocity
The particle B now is the angle AB makes with the groove. and the normal and tangential resolutions give the angular
Ex.
Two
particles
the hole,
V from
the table,
M just rise to
oscillates,
(MhnVYa-
What
is
the motion if
'
162
Ex,
5,
[CHAP.
fixed at the
;
V.
and 2m are
its
ends of a
the heavier
AB
which
is free to
turn about
middle point
it. If a sphere with velocity u strike the lighter sphere directly, prove that the impulse which the heavier sphere ultimately gives to the table is
mass
falling vertically
e is
Ex. 1893.]
impact we take moments for the two particles m, 2m about O to avoid the reaction at 0. We therefore have Smv'a = Ra cos a,m{u'-u)=-R where a =30. At the moment of greatest compression the velocity of approach of the
centres is zero,
u'=v'coBa, and R=^mu. Since the complete value of jR is found by multiplying this by 1 + e, the velocity of either end of the rod after impact
.".
is
^ u cos a
(1
+ ).
The
balls
angle,
and 2m
v'.
of
moments
R'=^mu
(l
+ e),
Ex. 6. One end of a string of length { is attached to a small ring of mass m which can slide freely on a smooth horizontal wire, and the other end supports a heavy particle of mass m'. If this particle be held displaced in the vertical plane containing the groove, the string being straight and then let go, prove that the path of m' is part of an ellipse whose semi-axes are I, lml{m+m'), the major axis [Coll. Ex. 1896.] being vertical.
Only the horizontal resolution and the geometrical equation are required.
is free to slide between two Ex. 7. A rectangular block of wood of mass smooth horizontal planes, and in it is inserted a smooth tube in the shape of a quadrant of a circle of radius a, one of the bounding radii lying along the lower plane, and the other being vertical. A particle of mass m is shot into the tube horizontally with velocity V, rebounds from the lower plane, and leaves the tube
V,
prove that
(1
V'^=e^V^ - 2ga
where
e
is.
- e^) (M + vi)IM,
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
8.
If in the case of three equal particles the units are so chosen that the
is
energy integral
\-
-\
where
r^g
is
the distance
''12
,
''
between the particles whose velocities are v^ and v^ and if r is a positive constant, the greatest possible value of the angular momentum of the system about its
centre of inertia
is -|v/(2r).
Ex.
9.
Two
Ex.]
Ex.
rest
Three mutually attracting particles, of masses mj, wig, wij, are placed at within three fixed smooth tubes Ox, Oy, Oz at right angles to each other. The
10.
attraction between
%,
vi^, is
ixm-^m^r^
where
r^ is
the distance.
If
its initial
form, prove
m^ + nig - Ml
m,j
+ tj - m^
m^ + m^- m^
ART. 267.]
aee.
through
line
EXAMPLES.
answers.
163
mass M, constrained
to slide
DouUe
Ex.
cube, of
on
ACB
cut through
it
the extremities A,
horizontal.
being on the
same horizontal
is
&t A,
particle, of
mass m,
projected into
the tube at
momentum
with velocity F, deduce analytically from the equations of linear and vis viva that the velocity of emergence at B is also V.
The
principles
MuJrmv = mV,
These give two solutions, where
viz. (1)
Mu^+mv^mV^.
(2)
u=Q,v = V, and
we
linear
S=m + M.
To
interpret these
same
momentum and
determined by the values of u, v just written down. solved two problems and have thus obtained two results.
We
To distinguish the solutions, we investigate the intermediate motion. Let P be any point in the tube and let p be the tangent of the angle the tangent makes with the horizon. If u, v now represent the horizontal velocities at P, the same two
principles give
Mu + 7nv = mV,
where x'=v-uis the
relative velocity.
M+m
initially when p = 0, hence the radical must have the positive sign and must keep that sign until it vanishes. On emergence therefore, when p is again zero, v=V. The negative sign of the radical evidently gives the initial conditions
Now v = V
267.
the
Ex.
1.
heavy bead
is free
;
to shde along a
when mass of the rod is negligible compared with that of the bead, the bead will, when started, continue to shde along the rod with an acceleration varying inversely
prove that
its
as the cube of
The
mass.
and the
has no
is
be the reaction,
of the circle,
M the
mass of the
the
Hence
R = when M= 0.
on by any horizontal force, describes a straight uniform velocity b. If x be the distance of P from the middle on the path and on the rod, we point C of the rod a, c, the perpendiculars from have x2 + c = 0JP2 = a2 + bHl
The
This gives
O^xldt^
rigid wire without
= b^ (a^ - c^)lxK
mass is formed into an arc of an equiangular spiral heavy particle fixed in the pole. If the convexity of the wire be placed in contact with a perfectly rough horizontal plane prove that the point of contact will move with a uniform acceleration equal to g cot o, where a is the
Ex.
2.
and
carries a
164
268.
Let
[CHAP. V.
and perpendicular
P be
The equations
of
motion are
dt-^
\dt)t.
^'
rdt\ dt)-^
^^'
To
i^dOjdt
we eliminate
The second
U'^y=W + 2\QT^de
For the sake of brevity we represent the right-hand u = 1/r, we find dOjdt = Hu^. We then have
dr _
1 side
(2).
by H^.
Putting also
du dd_
di~~u^dedt~~
d2
^du d0\
d9\
dej
Substituting in the
first
equation of motion
Beplacing
/d^w
du
dm
Q du
given in
(2),
\ /^
[Q
^\
P
(^)-
(d^+)r+^j3'^^)+Sd^=^^
This
P,
The forces is Laplaeeh differential equation of the path of the particle. being given in terms of the coordinates u, 6, of the moving particle, this
equation,
when
as a function
t
of
6,
To
we use equation
(2).
in terms of 6
we
find
by integration the
time
at
which the
particle occupies
The
special
If
Q=0,
d%
This can be integrated when
_ P
is
d^"*""~/i22
Wconsidered
P is
method
shown in
When P=u^F{0)
equation
tuting
is
If one solution of the differential known, say u=(f>(d), the general integral may be determined by substi-
u=z^ (0).
After integration
we
find
269.
path takes
2/(fl)K/'(^)g--P'()=0
(5).
The various
in treatises
on
Differential Equations.
AET. 270.]
165
multiplying the equation by the proper factor we can make the left-hand a perfect differential. Conversely choosing any factor, we can find the relation between P and Q that this may be the proper integrating factor. If we wish the relation between P, Q to be independent of the initial conditions, the terms containing h^ as a factor must be made a perfect differential independei^tly of the
By
side
remaining terms.
differential
The
dhi
coefficient of
h^ ia
ad
jT5+ and
this is
made a
perfect
therefore also
by either of the factors sin 6 or cob 6. The remaining terms must become a perfect differential by the same factor. The condition that
yT:;
dd^'
+M
-l^
dd
+ Nuia&
do
perfect differential is
m.
N--yrr +
dd
-jt
dff^
known
to be I, -7-
M- do
(5)
-5-r-
J
is
Multiplying equation
a perfect
d^
differential if
d {2f(d)-F{e)}8ine-^{Binef'{e)}
which reduces at once to
-i
+ 2^{Bin0f(d)}=O,
(6).
= -T^ -^ + 3cot0-5
becomes
The
= Q/w^
-^sin du=C
(7),
where
is
a constant.
This
is
when Q/u^
when
6,
if
we multiply
(5)
by cos
we
'
l=^%-it&Ta.d%
and the
which
is
integral is
linear
(h^ + 2
\%^)
^)'
Another case in which the integration of from Art. 262. The equation (3) is
may
be deduced
d^L
If then
\\d0
(J-w^
dd
+3-
-5=/ (m) + 2
|^' + 2
Jl^^^j-
(10).
270.
Ex.
1.
If
that u=Aand is a parThence obtain the general int^ral a function of d which is determined by solving
order.
A particle
motion
fli
is
jfl
sin ^
- tt cos
+ /*
-{^
(sin ^
sin 8^)
-^
"
166
SUPERPOSITION OF MOTIONS.
if
[CHAP, V.
P = fm^ cos nd
T,
/.
^ Q=fM^Bmn0.
/.
[Coll.
Exam.
1892.]
Ex.
3.
where
is
initial conditions.
Prove also that the determination of y as a function of x can be reduced to integration when both X, Y are functions of x only.
Ex.
path
4.
If
is linear.
integral is
(A
+ 2jXdx)^-Xy = C.
= - +
y
ax
first
integral is
(A
+ 2JXdx)x^-(A + 2JXdx+xX)y = C.
Ex.
5.
integrated
when
dx^
dy^
dxdy
<f>
To prove
this
we
notice that
U=
(y
where a, a' are the roots of a^-Ka=l. We then change the variables to ^=y + ax and rj=y + a'x. The new coordinates f, rj are also rectangular. The equations of motion become d^^fdt^^tjJ (^), d^jdt^zzij/' (t)), which may be solved as in
Art. 122.
Ex.
line.
6.
a straight
Ex.
Superposition of Motions.
A particle is constrained to describe a fixed curve. When A with a velocity Mi under the action of any forces the velocity and pressure at any point P are Vi and Ri. When projected with a velocity u^ from the same point A under a second system of forces the velocity and pressure at P are
271.
v.^
ART. 274.]
167
and R2.
When
u^
the particle
u such that
systems of
= u^'\-u^,
forces,
is projected from A with a velocity and moves under the action of both the velocity and pressure at P are v and R.
It is required to
prove that
To prove
this
we
write
for
each of
+ N^,
we have
v,^
V.}
v^
Y,)dy],
to P.
follow
at
equation the
272.
sum
The
A
A
some point
now
at
being changed to
is
is
Cjp, where p
is
the
constant
m {u^ u^).
this
To prove
velocity at
we
notice that
when the
velocity at
is
is u^
and
Pi = 0.
If the
pressure at
were u' and no forces acted on the particle, the would be mu'^/p. Superimposing these two states and putting u'^ = n2Ui^,the theorem follows at once.
particle
We may also deduce the following theorem due to Ossian Bonnet. If a can freely describe the same curve under two different systems of forces, the velocities at some point A being respectively Uj and M21 then the particle can describe the same path under both systems of forces provided the velocity at A is u, where u^^u^^+u^^. Since any point may be taken as the point of projection this Liouville's relation between the velocities holds at all points of the curve. Journal, Tome ix. page 113.
273.
will be
It
P will describe an
is
ellipse freely
168
fhl^i^t
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
A
is
[CHAP.
V.
given by
The same
ifg
ellipse
value.
can also be described about a centre of force in the other focus is /^Jr^ provided the velocity v^ hap the corresponding immediately follows that the particle can describe the ellipse freely about
(1)
is
given by
and
(2)
between the
focal distances.
attractive,
an
ellipse could
But the law of continuity shows that and fj^ to have arbitrary positive values, it has been proved that the equations of motion of a particle moving freely under both centres of force become satisfied when this value of v^ is substituted in them. The equations contain only the first powers of ^t^ and /^ (see Art. 271) and can be satisfied only by the vanishing of the coefficients of these quantities. They wiU therefore still be satisfied if we change the signs of either yuj or /ag
Supposing
fi-^
may
275.
Ex.
1.
under the
action of three centres of force ; one in each focus attracting as the inverse square
Find
Ex. 2. Particles of masses wt,, m^, &c. projected from the same point in the same direction with velocities %, 2 *- under the action of given forces Fj, F^, projected in the &c. describe the same curve. Show that a particle of mass same direction with a velocity V under the simultaneous action of all the forces Fi, F^, &c. will also describe the same curve, provided
MV^=mjU^+m2U2^+....
Ossian Bonnet, Note
iv.
to Lagrange's Mecanique.
Ex. 3. A bead is projected along a smooth elliptical wire under the action of two centres of force, one in each focus, and attracting inversely as the square of the distance. If TP, TQ be any two tangents to the ellipse, prove that the pressure when the bead is at P pressure when the bead is at Q TQ^ TP^.
:
: : :
Initial Tensions
Particles, of given masses, are connected together by inrods or strings of given lengths and are projected in any given manner consistent with these constraints. It is required to find the initial valuss of the tensions and the radii of curvatures of
276.
elastic
the paths.
ART. 277.]
INITIAL TENSIONS.
is
169
that the
The
velocities
and
differential equations
particles,
we
geometrical equations
may be
formed, let
us suppose that two particles mi, mj are connected by a rod or The component velocities of the straight string of length I.
two
component
If
velocities
^ be
the angle
line,
the geometrical
-^ = Fg
Fi.
The
simplest
method
motion is perhaps to reduce Wi to rest. To effect this we apply to both particles (1) an acceleration equal and opposite to that of Wj, and (2) an initial velocity equal and opposite to that of wii. The
path of
radius
TO2
I,
being
is
now a circle whose centre is at mi and whose the relative accelerations are those for a circular
motion.
(Art. 39.)
Let Xi, Xa be the components along the rod of junction of all the forces and tensions which act on m^, m^ respectively. We
then have (Art. 35)
j^(d<f>V^
(F,-Fi)^^X,
I
\dt)
In this way we
actions.
mg
Zi mi'"
may form as many equations as there are reBy solving these the initial values of the reactions become
known.
If the angular accelerations of the rods are also required, let
Fi, F2
act on
Then
;^ = Z?_Zi mi
dt^
TTiz
(2).
277.
tions of
To find
the curvatures
to the
equa-
motion in space.
The
170
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
[CHAP. V.
we may
and normal
resolutions.
We
the form
m- = N,
p
m-jat
=T
forces
(3),
we
substitute in
(3).
The
first
radius of curvature p of the path of m, and the second the tangential acceleration, if that be required.
When any
reactions.
is
same
278.
of relative
If some
the
Since however the direction of motion of a not given, the tangential and normal resolu-
We
Since
= 0,
We
must
however bear in mind that if we require to differentiate the equations of motion this simplification must not be introduced We until all the differentiations have been effected, Art. 281. may also use Lagrange's equations, when the curvatures and not
the tensions are required.
These modifications of the general Dynamics and are volume of the author's treatise on that
Sxamples. Ex. 1. Particles are attached to a string at unequal and placed in the form of an unclosed polygon on a smooth table. The It particles are then set in motion without impacts and are acted on by any forces. is required to find the initial tensions and curvatures. Let ABCD &c. bp any consecutive particles, and let the tensions of AB, BC, &c.
279.
distances,
be T-^,T^, &c.
making angles
the
a,
Let the given forces be F-^^, F^, &c. and let them act in directions Let lidtpjdt, l^d(pjdt, &c. stand for /3, &c. with AB, BC, &c.
known
ART. 279.]
The
particle
EXAMPLES.
171
B being
reduced to
rest,
is
along CB,
parallel to
AB.
-FJm^
T-
Since
describes a
circle
we have
m^
7
\dt J
\m2
sin
m^J
+ ^cosB + cos
[C
+ i) +
/S,
C03/5,
^=^
if
C- ^
The second
resolution
may be omitted
not required.
An
of the
equation, corresponding
t<)
the
first
We
To
we
particles
any particle C normal to the path. Let the directions of motion of the be AA', BB', &c. and let v^, Vg. *c. be the velocities of the particles. Then
V^= T
Ps
sin
mine
pj.
The
initial tensions
may
still
equation.
The
initial direction
of
motion of the
particle
resultant force
and is therefore known when the initial tensions have been found. The tangential acceleration is also known for the same reason. The determination
Ex.
2.
Heavy
particles,
whose masses beginning at the lowest are m^, tk^, &q., on a smooth curve in a vertical plane.
Find the
initial tensions.
In this problem the arc between any two particles remains constant, so that the tangential accelerations of all the strings are equal. Let this common acceleration be /. Taking all the particles as one system, the tensions do not appear in the
resulting equation,
we have
therefore
?ifif
(wtj
+ m2 + &c. )/= -
sin ^^
- m^ sin ^2 - &c.,
where
\pi,
\j/^,
horizon.
172
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATCTRE.
[CHAP. V.
and so on.
If
Thus
all
any tension
is negative,
We
also
notice that the initial tensions are independent of the velocities of the particles.
To
resolutions.
xp
If
v be the
initial
we thus
= -mg
cos
+ R.
Ex. 3. Three equal particles are connected by a string of length + 6 so that one of them is at distances a, b from the other two. This one is held fixed and the others are describing circles about it with the same angular velocity so that the string is straight. Prove that if the particle that was held fixed is set free tht tensions in the two parts of the string are altered in the ratios 2a + 6 3a and 2b + a:3b. [CoU. Ex. 1897.]
:
Ex.
i.
Three equal particles tied together by three equal threads are rotating Prove that if one of the threads break, the curva-
become
3/5,
former
common
5.
value.
particles are fastened at
[Coll.
Ex. 1892.]
two adjacent points of a closed loop of string without weight which hangs in equilibrium over two smooth horizontal parallel rails. Pro^fe that when the short piece of string between the particles is
cut the product of the tensions before and after the cutting is equal to the product of the weights of the particles.
[Coll.
Ex.
Two
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 6. Two particles of equal weight are connected by a string of length I which becomes straight just when it is vertical. Immediately before this instant the upper particle is moving horizontally with velocity ,Jgl, and the lower is moving vertically downwards with the same velocity. Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve which the upper particle begins to describe is -^i^i^/Sl. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
Just after the impulse the upper particle begins to tan~^ 1/2 to the horizon.
move
in a direction inclined
Ex.
7.
middle point
describe the
Two equal particles A, B, are connected by a string of length I, the G of which is held at rest on a smooth horizontal table. The particles
same circle on the table with the same velocity in the same direction, and the angle ACB is right. The point C being released, prove that the radii of curvature of their paths just after the string jbecomes tight are 5,^5i/4 and infinity.
Ex.
radius
8.
to a string,
is
Four small smooth rings of equal mass are attached at equal intervals and rest on a smooth circular wire whose plane is vertical and whose
equal to one-third of the length of the string, so that the string joining is horizontal, and the line joining the other two is the horizontal
If the string is cut
of the middle ones, prove that the tension in the horizontal part of the string is
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Six equal rings are attached at equal intervals to points of a uniform weightless string, and the extreme rings are free to slide on a smooth horizontal
Ex.
9.
rod.
If
the extreme rings are initially held so that the parts of the siring
'
ART. 280.]
attached to them
EXAMPLES.
make
angles a with the vertical, and then
let go,
173
the tension in
the horizontal part of the string will be instantaneously diminished in the ratio of
cos^a to l + sin^a.
[Coll.
Ex. 1889.]
Ex. 10. Three particles A, B, C are in a straight line attached to points on a and are moving in a plane with equal velocities at right angles to this line, their masses being m, vi', m respectively. If B come in contact with a perfectly elastic fixed obstacle, prove that the initial radius of curvature of the paths which A and C begin to describe is ^a, where AB=BC=a. [Coll. Ex. 1892.]
string
The
particle
v.
By
A and B we have
By
Ex. 11. A tight string without mass passes through two smooth rings A, B, on a horizontal table. Particles of masses p, q respectively are attached to the between A and B. If m be projected ends and a particle of mass m to a point
horizontally perpendicularly to the string, the initial radius of curvature p of its
path
is
0B= b.
[Coll.
Ex. 1893.]
Ex. 12. A circular wire of mass is held at rest in a vertical plane, on a smooth horizontal table, a smooth ring of mass m being supported on it by a string which passes round the wire to its highest point and from there horizontally to a fixed point to which it is attached. If the wire be set free, show that the pressure
of the ring
on
it is
-^-z
where
is
the angular distance of the ring from the highest point of the wire.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex. 13. Two particles P, P' of masses m, m' respectively are attached to the ends of a string passing over a pulley A and are held respectively on two inclined planes each of angle a placed back to back with their highest edge vertically
under the pulley.
If each string
makes an angle
-
/3
heavier particle will at once pull the other off the plane
/3
1.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
string
14.
Two
particles of
masses m,
M are
oi &
The two portions AB, BG rest on a smooth horizontal table, the angle at B being o. The particle has a velocity communicated to it in a direction perpendicular to BC. Prove that if the strings remain
ABC,
the end
being fixed.
the locus of 31
is
n=Mlm
and BC=a.
280.
starts
To find
rest.
from
In this problem
of curvature when the particle it may be necessary to use than the second.
Let
y be the Cartesian coordinates of a particle, then representing differential coefficients with regard to the time by accents
P
y'
174
are zero.
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
,
[CHAP. V.
Putting u = w'y"
y'x" we
.'
u
u"
It,'"
=xy y X
''/
_
suffix zero,
thus
x"
y'=
0,
we have
a^'y"
Similarly
therefore zero.
such that
Xo'y"' x^"y^' = 0,
given by
T"'>i"r'"'n"
This
is
of x,
y have any
positions.
= 0,
and
if
we then
also
have
x^l"
= 0,
X the transwritten
verse force,
Xq = 0, X^ =
may be
= ^x7
coordinates
The corresponding formula for p in polar We have when obtained in the same way.
initially,
may be
r(r"d'" -r'"0")
=O
(7^0"'
+ r"^) ^ g^,^3
_j_
Q^,0
^ ^v^iv _ ^^/yv^
initial values.
If the
value of r"
0,
^[p
r)~
?^r^
ART. 283.]
281.
175
Let n particles Pi, P^, &c. at rest, be acted on by given and be connected by k geometrical relations. To find the initial radius of curvature of the patn of any one particle P we proceed in the following manner, though in special cases a simpler
forces
process
may
he tbsed.
We
{x^,
differentiate the
dynamical equations
Avriting for all the
by
y^, &c.
their
initial
values,
and
for
We
differentiate the
geometrical equations
four times
We
then have
c^^^
&c.,
is
any
reaction.
we
This process
may sometimes be
We
coefficients
into the
Sborter Methods. We can sometimes simplify the geometrical relaby introducing subsidiary quantities, say 6, tj>, &g. In this way we can express all the coordinates (x^, yi), &g. in terms of $, <p, cfeo. by equations of the form
aaa.
tions
x=f(0,
where
d,
<p,
</>,
&c.),
y=F(d,
4>,
&c.)
(1),
we have 2n-K
t.
&o. in terms of
These eliminations
equations.
may
be avoided
and
the
is
Lagrange's method
described in chap.
vii.
differentiation
These equations, however obtained, contain 6, 6', 6"; <t>, (f>', </>", &c. and by* we can find as many higher differential equations as are required.
Since
6','tp',
we
find
by differentiation
where
sufiixes as usual
There are similar expressions for the differential coefficients of y. Substituting in the standard form for p, we obtain the required radius of curvature.
283.
d,
We notice that if
x'"
does not depend on any higher differential coefficients of &c., than the second, and these are given at once by the equations of motion.
Since p=3y"^lx^'', when the axis of y is taken parallel to the resultant force on the particle, the radius of curvature can then be found without differentiating the equations of motion.
176
. ^'""^^
INITIAL TENSIONS
dx
f
AND CURVATURE.
j^
[CHAP. \
do
dtp
drrHt'''^^Tt^the equations /j = 0, /^ = 0,
required,
&. clearly
is
that
dxldt=0
whose
The
point,
curvature
is
must begin
to
move
is displaced.
284.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
and
is
t
acted on by forces X,
Y parallel
to the axes.
If X,
Y are expanded
in powers of
and the lowest powers are X=ft, Z^gr, .show that the path near the origin is y^=:mx^ and that the radius of curvature is zero. If Z=|/2, Y=g, the path is a parabola whose radius of curvature is '6g^lf. We notice that in the first of these
cases X'
is finite,
A particle
If these forces are functions of the cbordinates x, y only, prove that the
initial radius of
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
This result follows from Art. 280. Ex. 3. Two heavy particles are attached to two points B, C of & string, one end A being fixed. Prove that if the string ABC is initially horizontal, the initial radii of curvature of the paths of B and G are equal.
Prove also that
if
there are
B, and having A
unequal.
fixed,
on the horizontal string, all the initial were two equal heavy rods, hinged at prove that the initial radii of curvature at B and G are
particles
If
AB,
BG
it
6,
<p,
ABG as
Ex. 4. Two heavy particles P, Q, are connected by a string which passes through a smooth fixed ring 0, the portions OP, OQ of the string making angles If the masses m, of P, Q, satisfy the condition 0, ^, with the vertical.
m cos ^=Mcos
<^,
P is given by
M+m
sin2^_sin2d
p
r~"
sin2<^
l-r
'
where
/= OP and
is
and
differentiate
We
5.
r"; since
r"=0
much
Ex.
A uniform
rod,
which
is fixed, is
held in a
released
horizontal position by being passed through a small ring of equal weight; show
that if the ring is initially at the middle point of the rod,
when
it is
its
path
is
Taking
as origin, the polar equation of motion of the particle shows that the
Taking moments
ART. 285.]
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
j[(Mk^+mj^)
The length
e']
177
This gives the
= (Ma + mr)geoBe.
value of ff'=Qgpa.
by the
Ex. 6. Three particles whose masses are m^, m^, tr, are placed at rest at the comers of a triangle ABC, and mutually attract each other with forofis which vary according to some power of the distance. If mim^cF^, m^w^aFi, m^mjbF^ are theforces,
initial
C is
given by
= - m^
+mjb sin
where
0,
tf>
CB make
Fj;=dFJda,
F,'=dFJdb,
P={m2+m^) aFi+rn^ (F3C cosB + F^b cos C7), Q={mi+m^ bF^+m^ (F^ cos A +Fjaooa C7),
and
C.
initial radii of
when
Small
285.
of freedom. been
dis-
cussed in the chapter on Rectilinear Motion so far as systems with one degree of freedom are concerned. In this section a
series of
in cases
examples will be found showing the method of proceeding somewhat more extended.
particle, or
The
in
system of
particles, is
supposed to be either
slight
we
If required,
afterwards introduced
thus caused.
form the equations of motion either by resolving and taking moments or by Lagrange's method. By neglecting the squares of the displacements these equations are made linear in
x,.y,z,SQi.
We
They
tween the several particles. Eliminating the latter we obtain linear equations which can in general be completely solved. The solution when obtained will enable us to determine whether the
178
system
from
it
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
oscillates
[CHAP. V.
about
its
The
advantage of being free from the unknown reactions, but it has the disadvantage that its terms contain the squares of the veloBeing cities, that is, the terms may be of the order we neglect.
an accurate equation, it may sometimes be restored to the first order by differentiating it with regard to t and dividing by some small quantity. Generally the solution is more easily arrived at by using the equations of motion which contain the second
differential coefficients
with regard to
1.
t.
286.
Examples.
Ex.
Two
particles
nected by a string which passes through a small hole in a smooth horizontal table. The particle w! hangs vertically, while m is projected on the table perpendicularly
to the string with such a velocity that m' is stationary.
If
a small disturbance
is
is
given to the system so that m! makes vertical oscillations, prove that the period
2ir ^
/
r,
where c
T the
tension.
is
the
mean
Let
string
and
The equations
\dtj
^_fdey__T_
dt^
idfde\
r
m'
dt\
dtj
'
dh
The second equation gives lepends on the disturbance.
T
r^ddldt
= h,
,,
where ^
is
<fr
mh?
Let
r=e+^
where
c is
its
a constant which
is
^ is so small that
then mh^=m'c^g.
Let us now choose c to be such that the right-hand side of the equation Substituting for h we find
is
zero
P=A8in(nt + a),
bince I
that
is
is
..
n^=
3m'
,
m + m'.c
-.
when taken
r=c
is
wholly periodic and has no constant term, its mean value is zero, any long time or for the period of oscillation. It follows the mean radius vector of the path of m after the disturbance. This
either for
not necessarily the same as the radius of the circle described before disturbance whether it is so or not depends on the nature of the disturbance given to the
system.
ART. 286.]
179
vertical
momentnm
m
O
is
mVa.
by a
blow
ap-
on
m by an impulsive
momentum
of
If-
moment
In this
of this about
is unaltered.
case
we have h Va and we
= a.
this case
B applied at m, the velocity of m is changed to V where V - V=Bfm. In A= V'a and c is not equal to a. Ex. 2. A particle of mass m is attached to two points A, B hy two elastic strings each having the same modulus E and natural length If the particle be
blow
I.
is
2ir^J{mll2E),
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex. 3. A heavy particle hangs in equilibrium suspended by an elastic string whose modulus is three times the weight of the particle. The particle is slightly displaced in a direction making an angle cot~^4 with the horizontal and is then released. Prove that the particle will oscillate in an arc of a small parabola
tenninated by the ends of the latus rectum.
[Math. Tripos, 1897.]
is
A
A
straight rod
AB
without weight
To
are attached three similar elastic strings equally stretched to a length k times
Show
that,
is
when
the strings obey Hooke's law, the condition for stabUity of equilibrium
that the
cause an increase of length equal to #(2 - 1/A;) AB. Show that, when this condition is fulfilled, the system can perform small vibrations parallel to any vertical plane.
Ex. 5. A smooth ring P can slide freely on a string which is suspended from two fixed points A and B not in the same horizontal line. If P be disturbed, find
the time of a small oscillation in the vertical plane passing through
A and
B.
If
T be
AP,
r, r'
Ex.
Prove that
if
the rod
(-%f)*.
[00...
E.
1897.]
Ex. 7. A particle of mass m is attached to an elastic string stretched between two points fixed in a smooth board of mass 31, and the board is free to slide on a smooth table. Prove that the period in which the particle oscillates is less than it would be if the board were fixed in the ratio 1 [Coll. Ex. 1895.] ^{1 + mjM). Reduce the board to rest.
:
Ex.
8.
ring of mass
it
nm
is free
to slide
string tied to
and supports a particle of mass m. Prove that if the first mass be released when the upper part of the string makes an angle a with the vertical, and if d be the inclination after a time t, the equation of motion is
h{n + sin2 d) (ddjdtf - 2g
cos'' ^ (sec
o - sec 6).
Prove hence that the small oscillations about the position of equilibrium will be synchronous with a simple pendulum of length nh. [Coll. Ex. 1896.]
180
Ex. 9. A crane aniform velocity V.
determined by
is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
lowering a heavy body and the chain is paid out with a Prove that the small lateral oscillations of the body are
d^0
dr^
(W
dr
gd
V^
d its inclination to the vertical,
where r
Also
is
This equation can be solved by the use of Bessel's functions. See Gray and Mathews' [Coll. Ex. 1895.] Treatise on Bessel's Functiom.
Ex.
10.
the axis.
a plane perpendicular to
I
its
is slightly
pendulum, prove that the time T of a small oscillation is given by l(2irlT)^=R + ^IR*^ where R is the force exerted by the solid on a unit mass at O and R' is the space variation of the force at 0, taken outside the solid, along the axis. [Coll. Ex. 1892.J
Small
287.
oscillations with
particle is in
equilibrium under the action of forces X, Y which are given funcslight disturbance being given, it is tions of the coordinates.
required
to
of the motion. Let a, b be the coordinates of the position of equilibrium, a + oc, b + y, the coordinates at any time t. We shall assume as
the standard case that x and y are small throughout the motion. Solving the equations of motion we shall express c, y in terms
of
t.
By examining
shall
the results
we
shall
how
We
can be expanded in
integer powers of
X = Ax-^By, Y = B'x + Gy
where we have rejected the higher powers in our There are no constant terms because X, tion. Taking the mass of the position of equilibrium. the equations of motion are
first
(1),
approxima-
vanish in the
particle as unity^
^^^Ax^By,
^, = B'x + Cy
(2).
ART. 287.]
181
To
solve these
.'.
represent d/dt,
0,
{B^~A)a;-By =
y,
- B'x + {B'-C)y =
...(S),
Eliminating
B'-A,
-B',
-B
h^-C
is
a!
0,
By = {h''-A)x
(4).
The
first
of these
efficients.
four arbitrary constants, and the value of y follows from that of x, without the introduction of any new constants.
Substituting
is
to
assume as a
trial solution
x = Le''^*.
at the biquadratic
.'.
(5);
m
m
m, n;
then
X
where
.(6),
may be
where r
of time.
It is at once obvious, if
is positive,
m be positive
or of the form r
p^/
-^1,
and
sum of the four roots of (5) is zero, some of the real must be positive unless the four roots are of the form p\/ ~1. It is therefore necessary for an oscillatory motion that both the roots of the quadratic (5) should be real and negative. The algebraical conditions for this are, that both (A Cy + 455' and AG BB' should be positive and A + G negative.
Since the
parts
As our
only
when x and y
remain small,
except that in which the roots of (5) take the forms m^ = p^, The motion is then given by n^ = q^.
^^^'
182
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
BM' = -{q- + A) M.
The
quantities
p\
q^
+ A){p^ + C)-BB'=0
(8).
288. If B, B' have the same sign, the roots of the quadratic (8) are separated by each of the values p^= -A, i)^ - C. To prove this, it is sufficient to notice that the left-hand side of that equation is positive when p'^= cd and is negative when p^ has
It is also
p^=
-A
sometimes useful to notice that the roots cannot be equal unless the A and C are equal and that the equal roots are then -C. If AG -BB' = the biquadratic (5) has two equal zero roots,
though the roots of the same equation regarded as a quadratic are unequal.
289.
ioith
To find
M,
a,
/S,
equations (7)
regard
We thus
find
By + (q^- + A) x= - (p^ - q^) L sin (pt + a)\ By + {p^- + A)x= {p^~q^) ilf sin(gt+/3)\
Putting *=0, we at once have the values of Lsina,
initial values of the coordinates.
^^''
M sin/3 in
t
terms of the
t=0, we find
L cos a,
ilf
which the equation (5) has equal roots has (A-C)^ + 4:BB' = or AC -BB'=0. When B, B' have the same sign the first alternative requires A C and either B or B' equal to zero. In the second alternative the equation has two zero roots.
290.
Equal
roots.
The
case in
been
excepted.
This
occurs
when
either
known
e'.
If
is positive
or zero
t.
(or
If
has
its real
however the
and not
mum value
this
of Lte-'^ is Ljre.
will
Since
is
The
existence of equal roots in the deterviinantal equation (5) does not therefore
291.
equations
P was
(1)
given by
When AC=BB',
These
the
lie
X=0, r=0
line
on the straight
Ax + By = 0.
The dynamical
AC=BB'
is therefm-e that there are other positions of equilibrium in the immediate neighbourhood of the origin. The roots of equation (8) being p- = Q, q^= -A-Gy the values of x, y take the form
By= -A
The
first
(L^t + L^)-
terms represent a uniform motion along the line of equilibrium, while the trigonometrical terms represent an oscillation in the direction By= - Cx.
Whether the particle will travel far or not along the on the nature of the forces when x, y become large.
depend
ART. 293.]
292.
PRINCIPAL OSCILLATIONS.
183
Principal oscillations.
it
may
be
by the following
partial solutions
cc
(H).
Each
singleness
trial
Practically
and
finally
we then begin
solution
(7).
The paths
lations are the
of the particle
when
two straight
lines
Ly^L'x,
In each
My = M'x
...(12).
being equal to
L'fL or M'/M, is constant throughout the motion. We have, by (7), using the values of p^ + q^, p^q^, given by the coefficients of
the quadratic
(8),
LM~
R
;
R
B
oscillation,
^
'*^'
It follows that
M'jM
have opposite
In one principal
in the other,
the co-
ordinates X,
increase together
when one
increases
We
The
The
lines
must be
so placed that
The
Xy-Yx = 0;
:.
These lines are real when {A-C)^+iBB' is positive. This condition is satisfied when the roots of the determinantal equation (5) are real or of the form
293.
each principal
184
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
(9),
[CHAP. V.
we
see that if
we put
f,
17
will
coordinates
be the principal coordinates. This transformation of is always possible, so long as p^ and q^ are real and
discover the principal coordinates without previously finding the
unequal.
We may also
values of p^,
q^.
We
(2)
dt^
(.+
X,)
= (^ + XB')(. + |^,).
by using an indeterminate multiplier X. If now we write {B+\C)I{A+XB')=\ we see that x + \y will be a trigonometrical function with one period. We have a
quadratic to find X; representing the roots by Xj, Xg, the principal coordinates are
Conservative forces.
When
Let TJhe the force function, then, since dUjdx and dUjdy we have by Taylor's theorem,
U=
f7o
+ i(^a;2 + 25;2/+CyO+
(1).
(2).
we
see
that
B'^B.
If
we turn the
we know by
conies that
the equation (1) can be always cleared of the term containing the product xy. Representing the new coordinates by |, 97, let the
expression for
U become U=Uo + kU'^' + G'v') + 0' = A + G, A'C = AG-B^. The where A' +
=^'f- s^^^'"
The motion
is
(3),
equations of motion
are then
wIf -4'
is
oscillatory
for
all
according as A',
axis of ^
oscillatory for
other
ART. 296.]
TEST or STABILITY.
185
The
by equating
to a constant
Aa^
+ 2Bxy +
Gy-"
= N,
or
^'f +
Crj^
= N.
and the periods
The
The
to
first sight.
system, consisting of several particles connected together by geometrical relations, has two degrees of freedom. Let the position of this system be defined by the two coordinates x, y- The equations giving the small oscillations, after the elimi-
because the squares of x and y are neglected. If B=B' these are the equations of motion of a single particle moving in the field of force defined by
and
To
an
we take
its coordi-
nates X, y to be also the Cartesian coordinates of an imaginary particle which moves freely in the field of force TJ. We represent by a figure the level conies, the
particle,
The
and sketch the positions of the principal motion will then become apparent in
the figure.
296.
Test of
stability*.
Let the
field
of force in which
dU/dy vanish
point a
maximum
minimum.
a
UIf
Uo
= h{^^ + ^Bxy +
CT is
...
maximum or a minimum for all displacements according as the common sign of A and G is negative or positive, and ii AG - B' is negative, f/" is a maximum for
is positive, *
AC B^
The energy
a position of equilibrium
is
given by
He gives both this proof and that in Lagrange in the Micanique Analytique. Art. 297. The demonstration for the general case of a system of bodies has been much simplified by Lejeune-Dirichlet in Crelle's Journal, 1846, and Liouville's Journal, 1847. See the author's Bigid Dynamics, vol. i. the corresponding test for the stability of a state of motion is in vol. ii.
;
186
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
for other displacements.
[CHAP. V.
It follows from
maximum at that point. The particle will oscillate for some displacements and not for others if has a stationary value, and will not oscillate for any displacement if U is a real minimwm.
all the coefficients A, B, G are happens the cubic terms in the expression for U govern the series. The equations of motion (2) of Art. 295 will then have terms of the second order of small quantities on
We
not zero.
When
this
Besides this
pression for
if AG B^ = 0, the quadratic terms of the exU take the form of a perfect square, viz. (Ax + ByY/A.
X dTJjdx
so
and
Y=dU/dy
contain the
common
factor
Ax + By
other positions of
To
necessary to take
of
it is
maximum
or
minimum.
The
extends.
how
Let a particle be in equilibrium at a point Po whose coordinates are a^o, 2/0, and let U=f{x,y) be the work function. Let the particle be projected with a small velocity Vi from a point Pi, whose coordinates are Xj, y-^, very near to Pq. The equation of
297.
vis viva gives (Art.
246)
where
Let
?7
(1),
(2),
"
(3).
be a
displacement, then
maximum at the point Po for all directions of C/j < Uq and Vq^ is a small positive quantity.
As the
(2)
U increases, but
so far that
the equation
U^
becomes
ART. 299.]
BARRIER CURVES.
^Vq".
187
is
The equilibrium
therefore
Let
Z7
be a
minimum
at
Pq
Uq increases.
is-
So
nothing
Let C be a maximum for some directions of displacement and a minimum for others. The particle cannot recede far from Pq in the directions for which U is a, maximum, but there is
nothing to restrict the motion in the other directions.
208.
Ex.
particle
is
Prove that,
If k
one plane, the law of attraction being the if /c> 1, the equilibrium of P cannot
it
be stable for
all
may
< 1,
To prove
let X,
U-i_=
particle of the attracting mass, coordinates /, g ; be the coordinates of P. The potential of v\ at is by definition
this let
m^ be any
where
i\ is
the distance of
m-,
from P.
differentiation
^3
dx"^
^U^ _ dy^ ~
(k
- 1) m^ K+x
'
Sunmiing
find
d^U _
m
k<1.
Taking the equilibrium position of P for the origin and the principal directions of motions for the axes, Art. 294, we see by Taylor's Theorem
where A' = dWldx^, C'=d^Uldy^.
all
It is evident that U cannot be a maximum for displacements in the plane of xy if .4' + is positive and cannot be a minimum for all displacements in the plane if this sum is negative. The result also follows
Barrier curves. It is clear that this line of argument be extended to apply to cases in which there is no given position of equilibrium in the neighbourhood of the point of projection. Let the particle be projected from any point Pi with
299.
may
any velocity
v^
in
any
direction.
motion we have
188
where
Z7 is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
a given function of
x,
[CHAP. V.
is its
y and Ui
value at the
point of projection.
If
we
particle, if it
arrive
there, is
zero.
a harrier
to the motion,
cannot pass.
If the barrier curve be closed as in Art. 297, the particle
is,
as
it
will
beyond the limits of the curve. Some applications of this theorem be given in the chapter on ceijtral forces.
The right-hand
side
of the
When
this
is
if it
must
cannot be negative.
same sign on U must be a minimum at all points of the barrier. The particle is therefore approaching a position of equilibrium and arrives there with velocity equal to zero. The particle therefore will remain
If the right-hand side of the equation have the
on the
The
barrier
is
normal to the
barrier.
component of the velocity must be zero, for this component cannot be destroyed by the force. The path cannot therefore touch the barrier, but must meet it perpendicularly or at a cusp.
position of zero velocity, the tangential
300.
the string
Examples.
Ex.
1.
Two heavy
particles of
masses
vi, vi',
are attached
is
to the points A,
is
fixed
and
i'
below 0;
a, b the
AB,
The equations
of
motion reduce to
...
^"
^
ART. 300.]
To
solve these
189
-k = 3I sin{pt + a)
(2),
the constants h, k being introduced to cancel the right-hand sides of the equations of motion. Since x=h, y = k make cPxldt^=0, cPyjdt^=0, these constants are the
equilibrium values of x, y.
We then find
,
E E\/
E\
E^
m'b
,.
and the other by using instead of p\ one oscillation the two particles are always moving in the same directions, that is both are moving upwards or both downwards. In the other when one moves upwards the other moves downwards.
One
It follows that in
Ex.
2.
of masses m,
M,
being fixed.
periods of the small lateral oscillations are 2irlp and 2a-/g where
roots of
1
p and
q are the
a+h 1
p*
yp
M+m
^_n ~
g'^
'
and OA = a,
(g
AB = h.
Show
Prove also that the magnitudes of the principal oscillations and lower strings to the vertical are in the ratio
- bp^)/ap^.
on the
same
through
sides.
Ex.
is
Two
particles
M, m,
to a fixed point,
and the
strings,
hang
vertically
(1)
held slightly pulled aside a distance h from the position of equilibrium, and, is held slightly pulled being let go, the system performs small oscillations (2)
;
aside a distance
small oscillations.
case will
go the system performs Prove that the angular motion of the lower string in the first be the same as that of the upper string in the second if Mk = {M+m) h. [Math. Tripos, 1888.]
A;,
let
Three beads, the masses of which are m, m', m", can slide along the smooth triangle ABC and attract each other with forces which vary as the distance. Find the positions of equilibrium and prove that if slightly disturbed the periods 2irlp of oscillation are given by
Ex.
4.
sides of a
(jp2
a) (2>2
- (3)
(2>2
- 7) - m'm" - mm'
(p^
[p'^
- a) cos^^ - m"m (p^ - /3) coa^B - 7) cos^ C - 2mm' m" cos A cos B cos C = 0,
m' + m respectively.
where
o,
j3,
m + m",
Ex.
5.
A particle P of
unit mass
is
smooth pulleys A, B, C masses tjij, jjig, wig; the pulleys being so placed that the particle
Three strings, attached to the particle, pass over at the edge of the table and support three particles of
P is
in equilibrium.
small disturbance being given, prove that the periods of the oscillations are
2t/p, where
\p^ + glaj
p^+gla
im^m^nis
'
190
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
Ex. 6. A heavy particle P is suspended by a string of length i to a point A which describes a horizontal circle of radius a with a slow angular velocity n. Prove that the two periods of the oscillatory motion are 27r/ra and 2iri^ljg.
301. Partiele on a surface. Ex. 1. A heavy particle rests in equilibrium on the inside of a fixed smooth surface at a point 0, at which the surface has only one tangent plane. The particle being slightly disturbed, it is required to find the
oscillations.
as origin
may
be written
z
y are the tangents to the principal sections and 1/a, 1/6 are the radii of curvature of those sections. By the principles of solid geometry the direction cosines of the normal at any point P become (ax, by, 1) when the squares of X, y are neglected. The equations of motion are therefore
x,
r>^ji^,=
-Iiax,
m^,= -Rby,
m-,= -mg+R.
Since z
is of
the second order of small quantities the third equation shows that
^.^-agx,
is if
dhi
J=-b9y.
oscillations are
it
Ivj^ag
its
and
27rlJbg.
The
x = 0,
partiele,
by
when
y=
Bin (Jbgt+p),
The
Ex. 2. A particle rests on a smooth surface which is made to revolve with uniform angular velocity w about the vertical normal which passes through the
particle.
Show
is
the curvature
is anti-
and the downward principal radius is greater than the upward principal Find the limits of w in each case. radius, and w exceeds a certain limit.
[Math. Tripos, 1888.]
motion
= -gax, ^^-o,^x-2./^
^
d^x
dy
d^y
J- u,^+2u,-= -gby.
then obtain a
dx
To
solve these
we put
The path
(j) +
fj)
^^
The two
aoa. The insufficiency of tbe first approzlmation. In forming the equations of motion in Arts. 287, 294, we have rejected the squares of x and y.
ART. 304.]
191
But unless the extent of the oscillation is indefinitely small, the rejected terms have some values, and it may be, that they sensibly affect the resnlts of the first approximation. See Art. 141.
303. To find a second approximation we include in the equations 287 the terms of the second order. We write these in the form
(2)
of Art.
''
approximation
''
{d\- A)
+ fi)f )l
^^''
p^q
M,
L', M'.
To
we con-
and assume
x=L
We find by
(4).
an easy substitution
PB'-Q(\^ + A)
(\^+A)(\^+C)-BB''
It
appears that R, R' are very small quantities of the second order, except
when
X is such that the common denominator is small, and in this case R, R' may become very great. The roots of the denominator are X"=p^, \^=q\ and the denominator is small when X is nearly equal to either p or q. This requires either that one of the two frequencies p, q should be small or that one should be nearly
double the other.
If for
example p
is
and X=2g will considerably inno perceptible effect. If jp=2g' exactly the denominator is zero and both R, R' take infinite values. The dynamical meaning of the infinite term is that the expressions (2) do not represent the motion with
thereby
small, the terms defined
made
by
\=p-q
first
approximation.
The
corrections
become
infinite
and
if
we
desire a solution
we
first
approximation.
304.
Ex.
1.
The
constituents of a
with a uniform angular velocity n, the several bodies always keeping at the same distances from
ach other. A planet P, of insignificant mass, freely describes a circle of radius a, centre 0, with the same angular velocity, under the attraction of the other bodies. It is required to find the oscillations of P when disturbed from this state 'of
motion.
time
Let r=a(l + x), 6=:nt + y be the polar coordinates of the planet t. Let the work function in the revolving field of force be
at
any
(1),
192
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
Since that motion is
and
is
equal to
clear that
dt^
^\dt) ~adx'
rdt\dt)~rdy
''
we
{a?S^-ahi^-A)x-{2ahiS+B)y=Q\
{2aHB-B)x+{a^S^-C)y=(^
'*
A principal oscillation
is
therefore given
by
a;=Lcos2>* + I<'sinpt,
(4),
^= aV + C
The path
its
2ahipL'-BL
(a^p^+A +ahi^)
^-
,>,
^')' (6).
of the particle
is
when
undisturbed path
the conic
(7).
In the
n=0 the
star has two constituents A, B, whose masses are M, M', the can describe a circular orbit only when Mp-* ain APO = M'p''" Bin BPO, where p=AP, p'=BP and the law of force is the inverse Kth power of the distance.
planet
Since
O is
M'
APO is
when
*c=
1.
The planet
P niust
AB
or at the corner
C of
ABC.
When
about
the planet
the attractions of
P is in the straight line AB &t a point C such that the sum of A and B on it is equal to n^ OC, the planet can describe a circle
.
When
P is at
the third
^.^,, MM'
A and B. comer C of
This motion
is
unstable.
ABC,
the
circular motion
stable
when
>3
\B - kJ
distances of
These two results may be obtained in several ways. P from the two primaries the work function is
Putting
p, p'
for the
Expressing this in terms of r, 6, and expanding in powers of x, y, including the terms of the second order, the values of A, B,C in equation (1) become known.
The
(6).
we may determine
dXJjrdy by resolving the attractions of the primaries along and perpendicular to This method has the advantage that the task of calculating the radius vector of P.
the terms of the second order becomes unnecessary.
Lastly,
rotate round
Art. 227.
OC
ART. 305.]
In
all
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
mass of the planet
193
P is
insignifi-
cant compared with that of either of the attracting bodies greatly simplifies the
analysis.
seem necessary to examine these cases more fully here, as when this assumption is not made will be
example the attracting primaries either coincide or are is represented by U-UQ^Af^ + i^Az^; prove that other circular orbits in the immediate neighbourhood of the given one are possible paths for the particle P, Art. 291. Prove also that after disturbance the oscillation of P about the mean circular path is given by
2.
Ex.
If in the last
x=Lcos(pt + a),
where p^^Ztfi-Aja^, the
Ex.
3.
oscillation
Two
whose attraction
is up",
rotate round
particle in equilibrium at
small oscillation are given by (p^ + v?-^) {p^ + v?-Kp) = 4:n^p^ where /3=2/i6*~-'^ and SS'=2b. Thence deduce the conditions that the equilibrium should be stable.
and
coefficient of elasticity
I
is
along
it
begin-
hung up by the other extremity, prove that the will be given by the formula
i
/Im
""s/e'
above,
cosec
2^ -J
where
= 0,
1,
. . .
n-
1 *.
Let x^ be the distance of the xth particle from the fixed end
the tension
r^+i
We then have
(1),
mar;'=m^ + T^^j-r...
2'.=^(^^^^r^-i)
The equation
of
(2).
motion
is therefore
x;'-5=c2(^,+l-2x^-Hx^_l)
where c^^Ejlm.
(3),
We assume
(4),
t,
and p,
are
Substituting
we
find
'^
(5).
The
may
arise.
194
To
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
we
[CHAP. V.
follow the usual rules.
Taking
X ^Aa"
A and
1
substitution
and reduction
-2 + -=-S
2
(6).
V--y^(l-g)+|v/-l
/3.
(7)-
Then
(8).
X^
= Ja" + BjS"
(6)
We
or
notice that
1.
has equal roots, viz. a=l The theory of linear equations shows that the terms depending on these
when
either
p=0
or 2c the equation
X^={A+BK){^ir
The complete
a;^=
(9).
value of x
/i^
may
+ 2 (^ptt" + BpP")
where
implies
formula
that Xq
"We have yet to examine the conditions at the extremities of the string. The (2) does not express the tension of the highest string unless we suppose
= 0.
Again the tension below the lowest particle must be zero and this =0. The equation (3) will therefore express the motion of every
from k =1 to
K=n
only
if
we make
^n+l-^n = ^
(11)-
^0 = 0.
Since
Xf,
t, it
Since a;+i-a;=?,
K+i-K + Bo =
-620=0,
(13).
,.
(14).
by (7) that both a and /3 are real negative quantities. The equation (14) has then one side positive and the other negative, since the integers n, n + 1 cannot be both even or both odd. Hence p must be less than 2c, let 2> = 2c sin ^, (15). hence a = cos2& + sin2^^-l, ;3 = cos2(?- sin20^- 1
^>2c we
see
The equation
(14)
now
j)
= we
have
2i
+l
IT
'=2nTi2'
where ihas any integer value.
t
+1 TT 2^ = '^^2 + 12
p
.
2t
^^^^'
to
i=n-l.
The values
is
The value i = n
of.
however only necessary to include the values i i' and 2n-i' are supplementary, indicated by i=i' and i' + 2n + l are equal with opposite excluded because the value p = 2c has been already taken
It is
of
indicated by
account
The
by
(17),
X^= H^ + '2Cp
where
=h +Aq + BqK,
and Cp=2^p,^-1.
ART. 305.]
The value
it is
EXAMPLES.
of
195
differences (5), using the rules of linear equations adapted to that equation.
when
there
is
But no
oscillation, every
is
determined by
x^=H^,
H^ from
T^mg, T^_^=2mg,
&c.,
T^ = {n+1-K)mg.
values of k from
k=1
to
Hq=Q
(')
.=f^'f^-|.'
The equation
(17)
principal or simple
shows that the motion of every particle is compounded of n harmonic oscillations. The periods of these are unequal and are represented by 2-irlp where p has the values given in (16).
value of 6=irl2y.
particle, those
Suppose the system to be performing the principal oscillation defined by the By considering the signs of sin2K0 in (17) we see that all the particles determined hj K<.y are moving in the same direction as the highest
those given hj so on.
determined by /c> 7 but < 27 are moving in the opposite direction, K>2y but <37 are moving at any time in the same direction, and
Ex. 2. A smooth circular cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal at a height h above the edge of a table. A light string has a series of particles attached to it over a part of its length, the particles being each of mass m and distant a apart. The portion of the string to which the particles are attached is coiled up on the
table,
and the
and a mass
attached to the
just in contact
is
further end of
The system
prove that
is
fixst particle is
with the
to
then allowed
move from
rest
is
if
{n-l)ga
3
'
Supposing the string of particles to be replaced by a uniform chain deduce from x of the chain has been dragged into motion. If I be the length of the chain and fi the mass, then, if I he, less than h, the amount of energy that will have been dissipated by the time the
^ -^
o
[Coll.
M+/JI,
we deduce from
vis viva
and
linear
momentum
{M+{n + l)m}^v\+j^-{M+nm}^v\=2ga{M^-rfim^).
^ (n + 1) - (n) we find ^ (ra + 1) - (1) by summing from n=lto n. Remembering that Vi=0, this gives v. The energy dissipated is found by subtracting the semi vis viva, viz. 4 {M+iJi)v^, from the work done by
Writing the left-hand side
,
l9-
196
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
[CHAP. V.
Ex. 3. A train of an engine and n carriages running with a velocity u, is brought to rest by applying the brakes to the engine alone, the steam being cut off. There is a succession of impacts between the buffers of each carriage and the next
following.
is
rth.
impact
given by
{2M+m (r-l)},
engine, a the distance between
whei-e
m is the mass of
any
carriage,
M that of the
are tight,
Ex.]
Ex. 4. A heavy particle falls from rest at a given altitude h in a medium whose resistance varies as the square of the velocity. On arriving at the ground Show that it is immediately reflected upwards with a coefficient of elasticity ^. the whole space described from the initial position to the ground at the nth impact
is^log\l + \-f-^Je^'-l)]-h.
If M be the height described just after the nth rebound,
we show
To
takes
a standard form with constant coefficients. The whole space described taking the logarithm of the product WoWiM2...m_i.
found by
first
i.
^=1.
An
page 247.
CHAPTER
VI.
CENTRAL FORCES.
Elementary Theorems.
306.
describing
particle
Let the plane of the motion be the plane of reference and let Let F be the accelerating
Then
by
Art. 35,
dt'
[dtj
'
rdt\ dtj
^^
The
by integration
t^de/dt
=h
(2),
where h
is
initial conditions.
much
use
is
made.
particle, J9 the
which
it
Then
(Art. 7)
Remembering that
equation (2)
may be
= -,
p\
^=
dt
P... ^
(3). ^
^
The
first
is inversely
proportional
to the
on the tangent.
t
The
second,
the
limits
= toto
t,
shows that
198
is
CENTRAL FORCES.
to the
[CHAP. VI.
proportional
time of describing
it.
We
from
The
Conversely,
we may show
that
if
a particle so
move that
the radius vector drawn from the origin describes areas proportional to the time the resultant force always tends to the origin
and
is
To prove
this let
and
be
resolution,
we have
rdt\
As
ratio to the time, say
dt)
if
the area
A bear a constant
= 2a
and
A = at,
we have
at once r^dd/dt
therefore
G = 0.
is
If m is the mass of the particle, its linear momentum 308. mv and this being directed along the tangent to the path, the moment of the momentum about the centre of force is mv.p. The moment of the momentum is called the angular momentum
(Art, 79)
in
is
a central
constant
orbit the
angular momentum
polar equation of the orbit we must eliminate from the equations (1), Let r=lju, then, as in Art, 268,
309.
To find
dr
dt~'
ART. 310.]
ELEMENTARY THEOREMS.
the polar equation of the path
is
199
given in the form
When
u=f(6)
in terms of u and 0. the equation (4) determines Since the attractive forces of the bodies which form the solar
eliminate 6
system are in general functions of the distance only we should by using the known polar equation of the path. We
thus find
F as
a,
function of u only.
points situated on
the given path, but if the initial conditions are arbitrary, the path may be varied and the law of force may be extended to hold for
other parts of space.
When
the force
is
is
equation (4)
when
is positive,
force, and when F is negative the must be convex. By looking at equation (4) we immediately verify the theorem in the differential calculus that a curve is
+w
is
positive or
310.
To apply
the tangential
and normal
resolutions
to
central orbit.
Referring to Art. 36
equations
v-^ = F cos
as
= Fsin6
p
(5),
where <^ is the angle behind the radius vector when the particle moves in the direction in which s is measured. Writing dr/ds for cos <^ and integrating we have
v^^C-2JFdr
where
ditions.
(7 is
(6),
initial con-
This equation
integral has a minus sign because the central force measured positively towards the origin, while the radius vector is measured positively from the origin. Art. 246.
is,
The
as usual,
200
If
CENTRAL FORCES.
[CHAP. VI.
we
by
(3)
and
differentiate
we deduce
^=-**^l
This expression for the central force
orbit is given in the form
(')
is
very useful
when
the
p =f{r).
(5),
311.
we have an
ex-
useful
It has the
or
h.
If
is
may
= Fp sin = 2Fx
<f>
(8). is that
This
is
usually read
the velocity at
any point
due
to one-
When
^ = 1 and p is the radius r. The velocity given by the normal resolution, viz. v'^/r = F, is often called the velocity in a circle at a distance rfrom the centre of force,
in the centre sin
312.
rest at
The
an
velocity acquired
infinite distance
by a particle which travels from from the centre of force to any given
position
from
infinity.
Referring to the
(6), let
Now
have
(7
if
is
we
is
=R
therefore given *
If
by
-^
v^
= n1
2xt
~ R^-^
1
t^
,
is
less
is infinite.
Instead
we use
from
to the
;
origin
In this case
.
when
= R;
hence (since
n<V)
is
(7
2it
..
R^~^
The
velocity to the
origin (where r
= 0)
then given by
v^
2u.
.,
R^~^\
ART. 314.]
ELEMENTARY THEOREMS.
201
When
i.e.
F=fifr^,
we
When
jP=/z.r,
When
F=
fj,/r,
both
the velocity from infinity and the velocity to the origin are infinite.
313.
The
constants.
initial
The two constants h and C may be conditions when these are known.
Let the particle be projected from a point P at an initial distance from the origin with a velocity V, let /S be the angle the
direction of projection
The
tangent at
tively equal to
it is
^. When
made
the
usual to take
when
angle
(i.e.
direction
variable increase).
The
of projection.
h = vp=
VR sin
if
If
P= /i/r", we
w>l
=
F=^
have
v'^
= G-\
-^_^
It follows that, if
C=V''-V-,^;
origin.
w<
1, (7
and the velocity from infinity is V^, + Fo= where V^ is the velocity to the
constant G.
We may
distance r
is
J r
'^
n
(n-l)a''-^
2
v^
w-lW-i
r"-V
^
2'
n-1
..
---r is
a"-^
equal to the ^
we may make
314.
^G equal
to the
whole energy.
is
When
is
a point
on the orbit
vector
OP
is
called
an
apse.
When OP
apocentre,
is
maximum
the apse
is
sometimes called an
pericentre.
202
315.
CENTRAL FORCES.
[CHAP.
VI.
Summary.
a short
As the
formulaB
we have
arrived at are
it is
useful
make
summary
There are
the
equations of the path, (3) the velocity and time of describing an arc. Any one of these elements being given, the other two
equations (4) and (7) connect the force and path, so that either being known the other can be
;
deduced
and velocity
and
in that path.
The equations
be found from
it
formations of each other, any one being given the others can
by reasoning which
is
purely mathematical.
But an equation
dynamical
316.
facts.
Dimensions.
i.e.
The
one dimension in space and 2 in time. We or g, say see this by examining any formula which contains s = ^gf^ or Fcos^ = dPs/dt-. The force F will in general vary
as
some power
of the
ytt
distance
force,
say
F=/j,/r^ where
is
The quantity
= Fr'^
The
is
and
in time.
velocity v
= ds/dt
is
one
is
1 in time. 1 in time.
orbit.
Ex.
1.
a particle
45.
is
is
to the
same distance as
by Ar'
09,
ART. 318.]
VARIOUS ORBITS.
the conditions of the question give v'^=^FIc and
When u=c,
reduces to
We
therefore have
C=0,
h^=ii.
\de) ~c2'
''
Jv^~
initial radius
OA
in such a direction
r=a (1 + ^).
from a distance a to r
is
From
Ex.
we
2,
particle
Prove and the angle of projection sin~^f [Coll. Ex. 1892.] 3a2= (4r2 - a?) (0 + Cf.
Ex.
3.
When
Ex. 1897.]
projected
Ex. 4. The central force being F2iJM^{].-ahi?), the particle from an apse at a distance a with a velocity sliija. Prove that it
distance r after a time
is
will be at a
^+'^<^~"^)
-ja^
log
+ ^^(r^ ~aP)\
[Math. Tripos.]
Ex.
5.
A particle,
respectively
F= mm'
velocity equal to
acted on by two centres of force both situated at the origin and F'=jj,'u^, is projected from an initial distance a with a that from infinity, the angle of projection being tan~^^2. If
is
ad = {r-
a) iJ2.
Ex. 6. A particle, acted on by the central force F=u^f {6), is initially projected in any manner. Prove that the radius vector can be expressed as a function of d if the integrals of cos 6/ (6) and sin 0f (6) can be found. [Use the method of
Art. 122,]
Orbit given, find the force. Ex. 1. A particle describes a given a centre of force on the circumference. It is required to find the law of force and the motion. Newton's problem.
318.
circle about
be the centre of force, G the centre of the circle, P the particle at the Let a be the radius of the circle, OP=r. li p = OT he the perpendicular on the tangent, we have (since the angles OPY, OAP are equal) p=r^j2a. Hence using (7) of Art. 310, we have
Let
t.
time
^=-1''!}.=^'
If
we suppose
we
F=^,
where ^
is
known constant
is
force.
The constant h
then
8ftV=M
The
velocity at
(2).
any point
310,
(3). ^
v=
./^.\ \
2
r^
204
To
CENTRAL FORCES.
find the time of describing
[CHAP. VI
is
A = ^ht,
Art. 306.
made up
of the triangle
sector
ACP, we have
4 OP.
Substituting for
ft
=2a3
It
^-(2e + Biti2d)
(4).
finite
appears from this that the particle will arrive at the centre of force after time obtained by writing d=\ir. The particle arrives with an infinite
points of space act towards the point
all
and vary
as the
and
a particle projected from a given point P in a given direction PT toith a given velocity V may describe a circle passing through 0. It is obvious from (3) that it is necessary that F2 = J/t/r* where r:=OP; we shall now prove that
this is also sufficient.
and touches
PT
at P.
The
particle
which describes
projected from
If then the
particles
P in the
same
on by the same
which
is
We
Ex.
the
PT
the circle described, but not the fact that the path
2.
a circle.
particle
moves
medium
Ex.
and equal to /*". Prove that the resistance moves is J/u (w + 5) r"sin 6, where cos ^=r/2a.
resolutions.
circle
of
[Coll.
Ex.]
A particle
^
of unit
mass describes a
If the particle at
impulse 2v cos
Pl',
in a direction
is is
show that the new orbit cos 2^ + sin 2<f> cot d, where
Ex.
4.
making an angle ir -4> with the direction of motion also a circle and prove that the ratio of the radii is
the angle
OPT.
The
force being
F=/m^, a
particle
when
^irojected
from a
pr^int
>
P with
;
an
its
initial velocity V,
2a cos $
when the
Ai-t.
is so
small that
Proceeding as in
317,
we
find
'duy J M ..h-^[('^\+u^\='lu^+C.
The conditions
of the question give
where
= l/2a
ij
squares of
Putting u = c sec
+ cr] and
7
cos^g
neglecting
the
cos" g
- 2 cos
^
-*>
sing d0
sin^
" sin^
cos'*
a sin^
'
ART. 320.]
Each
VARIOUS ORBITS.
we
find
205
sin
~
cos* o
(cote
+ isin^cos^), +f ^
tf
-!
and K
is
7;
= when 6= a;
K= -vcotaH
'
CDS'*
Putting
:. rr-
la
It
= cosd-Ksia.d-ycose+-'''x
is
cos* a
P must
therefore not be
It easily follows
when
is
Ex.
point
5.
Any number
being F=/jlu^.
OP)
+ c2-2crcos^)^
sin* d
is
(r2
r'^
where
OP=c and ^
Ex.
1.
319.
the
P=4,
J""
h=sinajfi,
= --?
2 cos at y/iJ.=r^^-rQ^,
r^, 7\.
where
is
Con-
from any point in any direction will describe aa equiangular spiral about a centre of force whose law is F=fili^, provided the velocity of projection is Jfifr, i.e. is equal to that from infinity.
versely, a particle being projected
line
of reasoning as in Ex.
1 of
Ex.
2.
A particle
is
medium
in which the
resistance
^(vel.)^,
spiral,
centre of force.
e-2<'*seca^
where a
is
the
320.
Ex.
curve
i-"*
= a cos 0 + &
^
Prove that
J.2TO+3
1^
fll
+1
J'*"*+2
,.2
We notice
(1)
(2) that,
when
m+1
is
any point
is
Art. 312.
Supposing the law of force and the velocity of projection to be given by these be projected from any point P in any direction PT. The
206
four constants
h^, n, a, b
CENTRAL FORCES.
are determined by
[CHAP. VI.
We
4>
find that n^
and
^
is
<*
sign,
E = OP and
is
where
4a'&'
= a"-b^
and b"
the limit of bn
when
b is infinite
and n
zero.
It is useful to notice
If
tan0=
m cot
^
71^,
a^
+ b^
"I
m^-n^
2
1
2-
2t4-2
many
interesting cases.
that the lemniscate of Bernoulli could be described about a centre of force in the
node varying as the inverse seventh power of the distance. Putting j?i=, we have the path when the force varies as the inverse (2m + 3)th power and the velocity Writing m=\, n=\, we find the path is a cardioid when is that from infinity. the central force varies as the inverse fourth power and the velocity is that from Writing m1, n=l, the path is a circle described about a centre of force infinity.
on the circumference.
321.
its
Ex.
I.
plane.
and
the motion.
Let
G
v^
CO = c.
v=-,
par
h
^
=F-,
.:
^= F
h^ r
:..
a p^
and v
in
terms of r alone.
We have
-(i)' r2 + B'
F=[r^
'''*
+ Bf
where 8a^h^=fi and B = a^-c'^. When B = 0, the law of force reduces to the inverse fifth power, and the velocity becomes the same as that found in Art. 318.
law of force be supposed to hold throughout the plane of the circle, the and B are given. In order that the orbit may be a circle it is necessary that the velocity of projection should satisfy the above value of v, i.e. should be equal to the velocity from infinity. The direction of projection being also given, the angular momentum h (Art. 313) is also known. The values of a and c follow at once from the equations given above and must be real.
If this
values of
fi
Newton, when discussing this problem, supposes that the centre of force lies It follows that B is positive, and at no point of space can either
outside the circle, one portion of the orbit
is
When
is
We
must
therefore suppose
ART. 322.]
that the force
is attractive
VARIOUS ORBITS.
in the
first
207
part.
Writing
B= -b^,
infinity
therefore b
and the
when
attraction of a
fifth
.,,., where a
[r^
the
mass
circle
b^^'^
and
described by
be constrained to
the action
from the plane, the law of The component of force in the plane is
b'
C distant
F=r-s
r is the distance of
of the centre of
Putting
B = b'^,
plane is a circle.
all
the circles
it appears from what precedes that, if the from infinity, the path of the particle on the the chord bisected by the point is constant for
Ex.
2.
of a centre of force
F=im^.
Prove
that all the circles which can be described either pass through a fixed point or have
322.
Ex.
1.
A
fir
of force whose
attraction is
P=-p2
r\2 ^^^
any point
is
The equation
v^-=C-2lFdr =
Since this formula
is infinite is
C^^^
it is
(1).
given that v
is
zero
when
we
see that
C=0.
path becomes
+ B = ip\
ih^=fi.
(2).
p'^
r-.
and There are several species of curves which possess this property distinguished from each other by the values of B and i.
is
One such curve is known to be an epicycloid. Supposing the radii of the fixed and rolling circles to be a and b, we have at the cusp r=a, p = and at the vertex p and r are each equal to a + 2b. We thus find
'
f.
(a
h^-'-
(a
+ 2bf-a^ + 26)2
^^^
The law of force and the conditions of projection being given both B and h'^ are known. If the force is attractive, B negative, and fijh^ less than unity, the path is an epicycloid, the values of a and b being given by (3).
we
Changing the sign of b the epicycloid becomes a hypocycloid and in this case When therefore the force is repulsive, (3) that i and fi are negative. and B negative, the path is a hypocycloid.
learn from
208
The remaining
CENTRAL FORCES.
species are
[chap. VI.
by putting the equation
(2)
more
easily separated
into the form p = ip, a result which follows at once from the identity p=rdrjdp.
differential equation
becomes
.(4).
d2p
dy{/'
.-{i-l)p=0.
When
above.
i is
less
than unity or
find
is
negative
we
easily
li
^=l-i, we
J)
If the axis of
when
p=0
when
^=0
and
p=a+2b
'
i?=Le"''' + ilfe"'"'',
p=Lyl,+M
i
(5),
where 0^^=1-1 and the second form occurs when projection of the radius vector on the tangent is geometry
= l.
dpjdxf/s
we
find
by elementary
-^'-(1)'
where
<(>
tan0 ~
_pd\lf
dp
.(6),
is
Since
<p=^-0, we can
and
in this
way
^.
Substituting in
we
find that
4a^LM=B,
by
(6),
so that
is positive
tf>
When
is
JS=0, either
or
is zero,
and
since,
tan
is
an equiangular
spiral.
it is
To
of
(5)
may assume
a symmetrical form.
We then have
^=4c(c'"^c-*)
where the upper or lower sign
is to
(7),
be taken according as
B is
positive or negative.
When B is positive there is an apse whose position is found by putting jj=r in (2), whence {i -l)r^=B. When B is negative there is a cusp at the point determined by p = 0, i.e. at r^= -B. These spirals were first discussed by Puisseux (with a
different object in view) in Liouville's Journal, 1844.
By
of
of the
may
&
thin circular ring, whose elements attract according to the law of the inverse
cube, at
any point
its
where
fi
is
the mass of
(r2-c2)2'
the ring, c
The
plus or minus
ART. 323.]
PARALLEL FORCES.
209
is
The path
Again,
when a particle
is
constrained to
component of
(r^+cy
where r
plane.
is
the distance of
that s(i-
P
i
AP of any path measured from a fixed point A, show from the projection of the radius vector OP on the tangent at by a constant quantity which is zero when A is an apse.
x.
2.
If 8 be the arc
l)/i differs
Ex.
3.
Show
any arc
OP is
equal to
describing
given by ht=i\p^dyj/.
323.
Parallel forces.
Ex.
1.
particle describes
direction.
the
action of a force
It is required to find F.
Let the conic be referred to conjugate diameters OA, OB; the force acting
parallel to
BO.
Let
ON=x, PN=y
be
the coordinates of P.
Then
d2a;/dt2
d^ldt^ =-F.
the oblique
The
to X.
first
component of
velocity parallel
Hence A
We then have
b'*A^ 1
dh)
The component of
this
Representing
velocity at
is
^,
we
find
V=Aamu.
the semi-axes of the conic the expression for the force becomes
If a, b are
~ a'^ sin^ u
It follows that the force tending in
y'^
a%'^ y^'
a given direction by which a conic can be described varies inversely as the cube of the chord along which the force acts. This result may also be obtained without difficulty by taking the normal resolution of
force.
Ex. 2. If the tangent to the conic at P intersect the conjugate diameters in and U, prove that the velocity at P is v=Ax. TUfa'^.
210
Ex.
force
3.
DISTANCE.
freely
[CHAP. VI.
y=f{x)
ij;
F whose direction is
4.
Ex.
Show
action of a force tending towards the straight line joining the cusps inversely as the square of the distance.
varies inversely as the distance.
and varying
324.
Ex.
Two masses M,
m are connected
(-S) d2 + "-iif ftau2 (g + h^u^). Prove also that the tension of the string
is
mg
[Coll.
Exam.]
Law
325.
the
particle is acted on by
F = fir
where r
is the
radius
vector.
Taking any Cartesian axes, we notice that the resolved parts and fxy. The equations of motion are therefore
of the force in these directions are fix
d^a;/dt^
= - fix,
d^'y/dt^
= - fiy
(1).
We
the equations (1) are independent; one containing only x, the other only y. We infer that the general principle enunciated for
parabolic motion
may
The circumstances any fixed, direction are independent of and may be deduced from the corresponding
also
to
be applied here.
is
positive
x=
y=
As
of
there
us take the
y be
and
be the
initial distance
and
velocity,
0',
we have when t=
x = R,
These give
dx/dt =
R = A,
= A',
y = 0, dy/dt=V. = B, V=B's/fi.
ART. 326.]
211
The motion
therefore determined
by
x=
where V=R'\/fi.
R cos
\/iJbt,
y
t,
Eliminating
its
the
If fi is positive, the centre of force is attractive and the orbit must be at every point concave to the origin. The orbit is thereis negative, the central force repels, and the fore an ellipse. If orbit, being convex to the origin, is a hyperbola. Since the centre
/j,
of the conic
is
parabola only
when the
is
If the
zero.
then
finite,
the coefficient
must be
The
changes of r as the particle moves about do not affect the value of fir. The force on the particle is then constant in
finite
direction.
When
fi
is
negative,
we put
fi
= fi.
The
solution of the
differential equations
then becomes
where
\.
It
is
is real.
326.
may
of projection,
velocity v at
any point
of the
ellipse is
given by v
\JfiR'
where
R'
is
semi-conjugate of OP.
of the
moving particle this equation may also be written where a and b are the semi-axes.
Since vp
= fjL{a^-\-b^ r^)
constant h is h=>^fiab.
we have x = a
the
that
particle.
<f>
y = b sin
<ji
^,
where ^
is
y//j,t.
When
circuit
made
The
a complete
and returned to
2-71 //^/m.
former position.
It appears
periodic time
is
and
fi
is the
same for
independent of all the conditions of projection all ellipses. It depends solely on the strength
is
the difference
by
\/fi.
212
DISTANCE.
[CHAP. VI.
When
where
^'
the orbit
is
a hyperbola
we have
<^'
= \/fit
327.
is an auxiliary angle. It immediately follows that where /a' is positive and equal to fi.
When
the velocity
V and angle ^ of projection as well R are given, the semi-axes a, h of the conic
the equations
a2
described
a%^= =
These give
axis
real values to a^
^,
and b\
+ &2 = i22+_.
which the major
The angle
given by
initial distance is
sin2^_
2/i_^'
a^-R^
Since
V= '^fiR', it is evident that the problem of finding the when R and V are given is the same
is
given in
328.
ellipse
(1)
of Art. 325
we
motion in an
about a centre of force F= fir is the resultant of two rectilinear harmonic oscillations along two arbitrary directions Ox, Oy represented by
Z= The
resultant of any
fJi^,
Y=
-fiy-
number
may
be found by resolving
the displacements of each along two arbitrary axes and compounding the
sums of
The
resulting
motion
is
O for
Ex,
0,
should be
(1)
a circular motion. Prove that in the first case their angles or phases must be equal; in the second their amplitudes must be equal and their
rectilinear,
(2)
phases differ by
tt
0.
The radius
OP,
is
a sin
$.
329.
time from
Ex.
1. is
If
OQ
an
ellipse,
P to Q
from the
POQ
is
Ex. 2. Prove that in a hyperbolic orbit the time from the extremity of the major axis to a point whose distance from that axis is equal to the minor axis is
the same for all hyperbolas.
ART. 330.]
Ex.
3.
POINT TO POINT.
any point
213
of
an
again in Q, and A is the extremity of the major axis nearest to P, prove that the time from Q to A is three times the time from A to P.
Since <p=,Jfit, Art. 326, the theorems in conies which, like this one, are conmay at once be translated into dynamics.
at
Ex. 4. Two tangents TP, TQ are drawn to an ellipse, prove that the velocities and Q are proportional to the lengths of the tangents. [For these tangents
are
known
330.
projected
P icith
To find the directions in which a particle must be a given velocity V, so as to pass through another
given point Q.
Let rj, r^ be the distances of P, Q from the centre of force 0. Let OP be produced to D where D is such that the velocity V of projection at P is equal to
Let
the ^^^
sum
of the squares of
Bisect
ellipse,
PQ
in
and
let
ON=x, NP = NQ = y.
X--
From
-.=1;
fe2-a'
(1).
.-.
Since
x,
showing that
there are two directions of projection which satisfy the given conditions.
OT
P intersect ON produced in OT, the quadratic gives the positions of 1' and I". OT'=k\ and NT NT' = tf.
a^=ON
.
.
T and
2",
We also
Produce PO to P' if x + y>k. where OP'=OP, the roots of the quadratic are imaginary unless Q lie within the ellipse whose foci are P, P' and semi-major axis a'=k. This ellipse is tlie boundary of all the positions of Q lohich can be reached by a particle projected from P loith the
The
given velocity.
two circles be described having their centres at and and their and y respectively, prove (1) that their radical axis will intersect radii equal to ON produced in the middle point R of TT' (2) that RT- is equal to the product of the segments of any chord drawn from R to either circle. Ex.
1.
If
/<;
214
Ex.
2.
DISTANCE.
[CHAP. VI.
r=PQ
(k^
OP=ri
is
determined by
PQ making
Show
the
OT=k, and
common
is
tangent at
Q to
the trajectory
of projection from
P at
k.
right angles in
NT=NP = NQ. Thence deduce that and the envelope intersects the direction a point T which lies on the circle whose
ellipse
centre
and radius
The first part follows from the focal polar equation of the from known geometrical properties of the ellipse.
331. Examples. Ex. 1. number of fragments, uniformly
If
the sun were broken up into an indefinite the sphere of which the earth's orbit
[Coll.
is
filling
Ex.]
it
The
attractions of a
homogeneous
solid sphere
on the
particles
composing
Ex.
2.
A particle
velocity
[Math. Tripos.]
;
an ellipse, the force tending to the centre prove any point P cut the ellipse in Q, the times of transit from Q to P through A and P to Q through B are in the same ratio as the titles of transit from ^ to P and P to B,. where A and B are the extremities of the major and minor axes and P lies between A and B.
3.
Ex.
if
particle describes
that
a,t
Ex. i. A particle is attracted to a fixed point with a force fi times its distance from the point and moves in a medium in which the resistance is k times the velocity prove that, if the particle is projected with velocity v at a distance a from the fixed point, the equation of the path when referred to axes along the initial radius and parallel to the direction of projection is
;
{x'^ja^
+ it.y"lv- - kxyjav) = 0,
[Coll.
where it?=h-
fc2/4.
Ex. 1887.]
Ex.
5.
corner of a triangle
ABC
and
particle
moving under
their
of the triangle
ABC.
the sides, and that the velocities at these points are proportional to the sides.
Ex.
centre,
If any number of particles be moving in an 6. and the force suddenly cease to act, show that
all
ellipse
Ex.
7.
particle
moves in an
ellipse
When
it
the particle arrives at the extremity of the major axis the force ceases to
moved through a distance equal to the semi-minor axis then acts for a quarter of the periodic time in the ellipse. Prove that if it again ceases to act for the same time as before, the particle will have arrived at the other [Math. Tripos, I860.] end of the major axis. [Art. 325.]
ART. 331.]
Ex.
is
EXAMPLES.
string passes through a
It is
its
215
8.
An elastic
by J2 times
Two
equal perfectly
and projected with equal velocities at right angles to the string, and so as to impinge on each other. Prove that the time of impact is independent of the velocity of projection, and that after impact each ball will move in a straight line, assuming that the tension of the string is
elastic balls are attached to the extremities
Ex.
9.
point
is
moving in an equiangular
;
spiral,
acceleration always
is
when
it
arrives at a point
changed to that of the direct distance, the actual acceleration being unaltered. Prove that the point P will now move in an ellipse whose axes make equal angles with SP and the tangent to the spiral at P, and that the ratio of these axes
is
tan I a
where a
is
Ex.
10.
directly as the
which attract one another with forces varying masses and distance are under the attraction of a fixed centre of
series of particles
prove that
if
from points lying on a radius vector passing through the centre of force with velocities inversely proportional to their distances from the centre of [Math. Tripos, 1888.] force, they will at any subsequent time lie on a hyperbola.
Ex.
11.
particle starting
from
rest at a point
A moves
to
is
fi
.
after
without altering
its
magnitude.
and
AB bisect
each other.
its S'.
end of a
ceased to act, the particle will describe a path which passes through
position A.
Ex.
12.
and proportional to u^I(cu + cob0)^, one of the conies given by the equation [Coll. Ex. 1896.] (cu + cos e)^=a + b cos2 {0 + a).
Putting cti+coa0=U, the differential equation of the path becomes the same
as that for a central force varying as the distance 1/ U.
The
solution is therefore
known
Ex.
Ex.
to be the
Id.
particle
force
jF=M^(l + &*sin2tf)~5.
Find
the orbit
and
[Math. Tripos.]
vertical axis
smooth horizontal plane revolves with angular velocity ta about a a point of which is attached the end of a weightless string, extensible according to Hooke's law and of natural length d just sufficient to reach the plane. The string is stretched and after passing through a small ring at the point where the axis meets the plane is attached to a particle of mass m which moves on the plane. Show that, if the mass be initially at rest relative to the plane, it wiU describe on the plane a hypocycloid generated by the rolling of a
14.
to
circle of radius
^a {1- w(mdX-i)*} on a
circle of radius a,
where a
is
the initial
216
The
an
[CHAP. VI.
ellipse
rotating plane
we apply
ur,
we have by
taking
{t)2
we
find
52(a2-r2) = p'2(a2-62).
This
if
is
and
p'^
will be
an epicycloid
the fixed
c of
we put ^' = 0; this gives the radius we put p'=r, and r=a + 2c; this
curve
is
of
c.
If c is negative the
a hypocycloid.
Law
332.
particle is acted on by
centre
of force situated
is the
in the
F=
fjju?
where u
reciprocal of the
radius vector.
We
have the
de^'^'^'h^u^'h^
'
^^'
'^)'
~ p + -^
^^^ (^
where
Comparing
this
lu=
where
I
+ ecos(^-a)
is
(2),
is
the semi-latus
conic
We
also have h^
= fd.
To prove
one
this,
focus, the
be the given equation of the orbit; substituting in the left-hand side of equation (1) we find F=/j,u% where fi has been written for the constant h^/l.
let (2)
we
333.
The
velocity.
easily
The
relations
dr p'
r^
ART. 333.]
217
where
an
G is
of
ellipse
having a focus
at the origin is
p^
a'
where I = Jfja is the semi-latus rectum. Comparing these equations, we have the standard formulae
2
1
\r
...(A).
change from the ellipse to the hyperbola by making the centre C pass through infinity to the other side of the origin 8, we therefore put a' for a also b^ becomes 6'^, the semi-latus rectum remaining positive and equal to b'^ja'. We now have
;
We
"^
\r
.(B).
J
is
concave
Before
we should
write
r'
is
have
.(C).
218
[CHAP.
VI.
may
of the ellipse if
we understand
be included in the standard form (A) that on the concave branch of the
hyperbola the major axis is by interpretation negative; on the convex branch, the radius vector being made positive, the major
axis
is
rectum
fi
are negative.
334. Construction of the orbit. When the and the distance R are known at any point P of the
velocity
orbit (say,
the
initial position),
manner.
in the following
is
now concave
and /x is positive. Comparing the formulae (A), (B) and (D) and remembering that the velocity Fj from infinity to the initial position is given by V^ = 2fjijR^ (Art. 312), we see that the orbit is an ellipse, parabola or the concave branch of a hyperbola according as the velocity is less than, equal to, or
to the centre of force
from
infinity.
We
is
is
branch of a hyperbola.
orbit
335.
we have
next to determine the lengths of the major axis and latus rectum.
Supposing the
=P
F^
.
We
independent of the
angle of projection.
If
same
point with equal velocities the major axes of the orbits described are
equal.
If
y8
and
h=
be th6 angle of projection (Art. 313) we have p = Rsin^ Vp. The constant h and the semi-latus rectum I are
h
= VR sin ^,
h^
= fil.
various ways.
and
A We may find
is
The position in space of the major axis may be found in Let S be the focus occupied by the centre of force the extremity of the major axis nearest to S.
6 from the analytical equation of the curve
_l/r=l+e cos
where
6,
SP
ART. 337.]
219
We may
The
focus
and the tangent PT at P being known, we can draw a straight make equal angles with PT, the direction line PiTsothat SP, of depending on whether the curve is an ellipse or hyperbola. is then determined so that SP + PH=2a, where If the^oint is the empty focus. a has been already found, it is clear that
PH
PH
must have
is
The position of the major, axis then found by joining S and H, and a being known the
their proper signs.
eccentricity e is equal to
SHj^a.
337.
being
r,
The
initial distance of a
initial radial
particle from the centre of force and transverse velocities being F^ and V^, prove and the angle d which the radius vector r makes
I
-s
2 Y ----
tan
YY = ^^^ ^,
Ex. 2. Prove that there are two directions in which a particle can be projected from a given point P with a given velocity V, so that the line of apses may have a given direction Sx in space, and find a geometrical construction for these
directions.
Since
is given,
circle cutting
Sx
in
a is known. With centre P and radius 2a -r describe a H, H'. The required directions bisect externally the angles
SPH, SPH'.
Let
jS
P makes
with SP,
Art. 313.
The quadratic
/3
is
cot2
where 6
is
+ /3) = [ - - 1
tan
/3.
Ex. 3. Three focal radii SP, SQ, SR of an elliptic orbit and the angles between them are given. Show that the elliptieity may be found from the equation 6A=aA', where A is the area PQR, A' the area of a triangle whose sides are
2SQ-
similar expressions.
Let
We first
R' be the points on the auxiliary circle which correspond to P, Q, R. find by elementary conies the length of the side Q'R' in terms of SQ, SR
angle.
The
result
is
equal to the
PQR,
P'Q'R' are
known
at once.
Ex.
4.
Two
particles P,
describe the
same
Prove that throughout the motion the area contained by the radii vectores OP,
is constant.
OQ
-220
Thence deduce that
if
[CHAP. VI.
i
closed orbit, the angular distance between consecutive meteors varies inversely &i
Ex,
5.
Two
particles P,
Q describe
in direction.
and the major axes coincident Supposing the particles to be simultaneously at corresponding apses, prove that the angle xp which PQ makes with the line of apses is given by is a maximum. cot ^= - 3 cosec 2nt + cot2nt, and find when
i/-
338.
Elements of an
orbit.
To
fix
we must know
the
These are (1) the angle which the radius vector from the
given focus to the nearer extremity of the major axis makes with
some determinate line in the plane of the orbit, the angle being measured in the positive direction; (2) the length of the major
axis
;
(4)
time
= 0.
This con-
of the orbit
we
origin, let
be given in position.
line of nodes,
N'8N.
This line
is
called the
and that node at which the particle passes to the We positive side of the plane of xy is called the ascending node. require (5) the angle the radius vector to the ascending node
axis of x,
and
particle with
it
a given
Let
7\, To
also
/u.
ART, 341.]
POINT TO POINT.
221
With
centres
P and Q,
r,,
2a rg;
the
H, H'.
Either of these
may be
empty
PQH, PQH'
of the angles at
/3
SPH, SPH'.
Let
/3, /S'
P
+
(measured behind the radius vector SP, see Art. 313), then /8' is equal to the supplement of SPQ, and /3 /3' is equal to
the
PQ
is the
greatest possible
when H, H'
have
coincide and
We
then
PQ = PH+QH=4<a-n-r,.
This equation requires that the semi-major axis should be onequarter of the perimeter of the triangle
SPQ.
bourhood of
turns round
PQ
as the range
PQ
P is
a given point
P
P
Since
foci at
the enveloping ellipse in the point where the straight line joining
to the
empty
Ex.
1.
I'
340.
the eccentricity
e'
and the
semi-latus rectum
by
2a'
= 4a-i\,
e'=-Ji
is
r^=2a{2a-r.).
Ex.
2.
If
the air neglected, prove that the least velocity with which a shot could be projected
from the pole so as to meet the earth's surface at the equator second, and that the angle of elevation is 22J.
Ex.
3.
Ex. 1892.]
If a particle
when
is
A = r-^A-^ + rn,A<2,
-\-
f.^A^
= 2rj7-2r^ sin Oj
where
A^^,
triangles P^SP^, P-^SP^, P^.SP,; Oj, a^, 03 the angles at the focus
S and A
is
the
is
given by
2(2^)2=2 [A
341.
seca)--2S(^i/J2 secttisecagcosaj).
Time
The time
of describing
the whole
ellipse,
222
[CHAP. VI.
A = ^ht,
(Art. 306).
Putting
A = m-ah
.--
and
h^
= fib^ja,
(Art. 332),
we
a*.
It appears
independent of the
/t
minor axis and depends only on the strength force and on the length of the major axis.
If
of the centre of
mean being
27r/w.
It follows that
342.
orbit.
To find
the time
AP of an elliptic
AQA'
the
Let
S be
auxiliary circle
and
QPN
an ordinate.
If
anomaly and
angle
is
the
ASP = v.
u,
i.e.
The angle
the angle
ACQ
is
P and
sented by
ACQ =
force,
anomaly it is usually repreu. Thus the true anomaly v is thq eccentric anomaly u at the
When
is
the particle
is
the perihelion
particle
moon
They
AP by
we
let
t,
and the
is
i.e.
particle
is
by
n,
the product nt
generally represented
by m,
m = nt.
ellipse.
n.
To represent
a second
The
and
is
therefore
If
angle
ASQ' = nt. The true and mean anomalies are the important The eccentric anomaly theory of elliptic motion.
as
introduced
an auxiliary angle because, by its help, very simple expressions can be found for the other two anomalies and for the radius vector.
ART. 343.]
223
The difference between the true and the mean anomaly, or m, IS called the equation of the centre, and is positive from the
nearer apse to the farther and negative from the farther to the
nearer.
ASP
is
corresponding area
ASQ
of the circle
b/a,
constant for
all
positions of
and equal to
we have,
if
A = area ASP,
Since
A = ^ht,
h^
= fib^ja,
v?
= /i/<i^,
this gives
nt = u e sin u
(A). Taking
between u and
for origin,
we have
x'= -ae+acosu,
y'
= bsiiiu,
u by an easy
integration.
we obtain
in terms of
To anomalies we
343.
.'.
cos w
^^
a ex
r
at once
cos
V(l
) cos 2,
/l + e. V u *^^2=\/r^e*^^2
.^, ^^)-
we have
''
The expression
integration.
may
also be
found by
Since r^deidt = h,
we have
t=-r
l^
-, where /=l/e.
But
it
2 24
[CHAP. VI.
is
known
J^_^^
du
==^_2_^^ tan-i
(
(^^-^ tan^)
By
differentiating
follows at once.
-^
Ex.
344. Ex. 1. Prove that the mean distance of a planet from the sun is a oi a(l + ^e2) according as the mean is taken with reference to the longitude or the time. [These means are respectively jrd6j2ir and ^rdtjT, where T is the periodic
time.]
Ex.
2.
mean
is
ZkJO)
Ex.
3.
-(rf{n^^-df^i(f'-^^~"''
where/=l/eandL(n) = 1.2.3....
circle,
The
earth's
orhit
being regarded as a
describing a parabolic orbit in the same plane, cannot remain within the circumference of the earth's orbit longer than the (2/37r)th part of a year.
Ex.
4.
particle is projected
from the
make an
is 1^ times the earth's radius. If the angle of 30 with the vertical, prove that the time
is
Ex. 1895.]
345. Orbits of small eccentricity. The equations (A) and (B) of Arts. 342, 343 determine the time of describing any given angle v in an elliptic orbit of any
eccentricity, the equation (B) giving
determines
u when v is known while the equation (A) then The converse problem of finding the polar coordinates r and v when t is given is usually called Kepler's problem. One solution by which u and v are expressed in terms of t by series arranged in ascending powers ofc will be
t.
presently considered.
e is small,
the value of
of
tion.
The value
To
enough here to notice that in a planetary orbit, where u when t is given can be found by successive approximav then follows from (B) by using the trigonometrical tables.
It is
i^
346.
given.
solve
(m)
= w- e sin w~m=0
by Newton's
rule,
when m,
i.e. nt, is
Supposing
rule gives
Mj
M, to be
u, that
M, ^
.
, = -
0(zfi) ^
,
m-m-, i
(u^)
1-e cos Ui
To find a first approximation we notice that u lies where wii = Mj - e sin m^ between m and me, the upper or lower sign being taken according as m is <7r or >. We choose some value of u, lying between these limits, which is an integer number of minutes so that its trigonometrical functions can be foimd from the tables without interpolation. By Fourier's addition to Newton's rule this first approximation should be such that <p {u) and <p" {u) have the same sign.
Substituting this
first
approximation for
first
u^
mation.
we obtain a
third,
is
When
e is
See Encke,
H. Davis.
ART. 347.]
Ex.
Prove that
is
1.
226
we choose Uj^=m+e
e^.
the value of u^
of the order
847.
prove
Ex.
Leverrier's rule.
If
e*
can be neglected,
1-e cos m
Glaisher remarks that if
the formula
series for
is
correct
we replace the third term by - J (e sin m)^ (1-e cos m)~ when terms of the order e are neglected. He also gives a
to
e^.
correct
T.
up
.,
.
Monthly Notices of
,
Ex.
2.
ecosecTO
f(u-m)
-t^r
where
Putting u=m + e on the right-hand side of the first equation we obtain an approximation for cot u whose error is of the order e*. This is Zenger's solution
of Kepler's problem.
planets.
He
Some improvements
to be
has tabulated the values of /(e) for the eight principal of the method have been suggested by J. G; Adams.
the curve of sines y = smx, measure a distance draw making the angle PMx equal to cot~^ e.
Prove the following graphical solution of Kepler's problem. Construct along the axis of x and
MP
in P, the
abscissa of
P is the value of
u.
in 1849.
This method was described by J. G. Adams at the meeting of the B. Association It is also given by See in the Astronomical Notices, 1895, who also refers to Klinkerfues and Dubois. Another graphical solution, using a trochoid, is given by Plummer, Astronomical Notices, 1895, 1896.
Ex.
4.
real value of
u when
is given.
If the ordinate
MP could
cut
move
PQ
should then have a tangent to the curve making an angle tan~^ 1/e with the axis of x. But if e < 1 this is impossible, for in the curve of
and
coincide.
We
45*^.
Ex.
5.
By
in
a series of
ascending powers of the eccentricity, the coefficients being functions of m. that if the form of the function / (u) be so chosen that the coefficient of e*
Prove
is zero,
we
cot u = cot m - e cosec m + J e^ sin m + &c. which takes a very simple form, when the cubes of e can be neglected. equation is due to Bob. Bryant, Astronomical Notices, 1886.
This
Ex.
6.
e*
can be neglected
= ^ e sin
[R. Bryant.]
Ex. 7. If 6' be the longitude of a planet seen from the empty focus and measured from an apse, prove that
0'
e*.
empty focus
is
226
[CHAP. VI.
348. We may apply the method of Art. 342 to find the time of describing an arc of the concave branch of the hyperbola. Taking the focus as origin the
equation of a hyperbola
may
be written
x'=ae-^(r+f--),
y'=|(/"-r").
where u is an auxiliary quantity and / a constant which will be immediately chosen to be the base of the Napierian logarithms
.-.
hdt=2dA=x'dy'-y'dx'=ab
]|
(/"+/-")- l[
du.
nt= -M + csinh
Again, as in Art. 343,
(A).
ae-x C08tJ=ex -a
where
**I=\/^-^**'^I
u,
^^^'
v= l ASP.
If
we eliminate
we have
...
sing
^'l + ecost;-
To
describe a rectangular hyperbola having the same major axis and produce the Then tan QCN =tanh. u. ordinate to cut the rectangular hyperbola in Q.
NP
Ex.
negative.
A particle
Prove
and
n= -/*' is
nt=+sinh,
where
tan5 = ^/-^tanh^,
v=ASP,
fi^la?=v!'
349.
The time
Z/r
in a parabolic orbit
may be more
easily found
by
= hdt
where
I
Putting
h^ = fil, we
= 1 + cos v
^'
is
have
=Ktan K + q
This formula gives the time
t
tan^
v=-ASP.
If c be the radius of the earth's orbit,
and
the perihelion
distance of the particle expressed as a fraction of c, we have To eliminate fi, let T = 27rVc^/A* be the length of a year. I = 2pc.
Then
-|-.=/|tan2+3tan3^j
If
we
write
in days.
ART. 350.]
euler's theorem.
a formula like this has to be frequently used
227
When
we
same
Let the values of {tan ^v + ^ tan^l^v} be to 180", with differences for When p is known for any comet moving in a interpolation. parabolic orbit, the table can be used with equal ease to find the time when the true anomaly is given or the true anomaly when
the time
350.
is
known.
Euler's theorem.
particle
describes
a parabola
under the action of a centre of force in the focus S. It is required to prove that the time of describing an arc PP' is given by
6 V/A^
where
P, P'.
chord joining
Let
X, y\ x', y'
k^
(^)]
As we wish
we put
(1).
suppose that in the standard case y is positive and y' numerically less than y then 6 and ^ are positive,
shall
;
We
.'.
=
A;
4a tan ^ sec ^
a;'
(2).
Also
+ r' = 2a + a; + = 2a (sec^ B + tan<^) r + r' 4- = 2a (sec 6 + tan ^J r \-r k = ^a (sec 6 tan ^y]
.-.
.-.
{r-^r'^-kf-{r^-r'-kf
= (2a)* {(sec + tan <^)3 - (sec 6 - tan <^)} = 2 (2a)* {3 + 3 tan"^ + tan<^} tan
<^.
Pi^T,
P'N',
we
see that
= fa* tan
Since the area
follows at once.
<f>
{3 tan"^
+ tan<^ + 3}.
the result to be proved
PSP'=^ht = ^is/{2afi)t
228
[CHAP. VI.
when To determine whether the radical changes sign we notic^ that this can happen only when it We can therefore without loss of generality so move vanishes. the points P, P\ that, when the chord crosses the focus, PP' is a
the apse.
decreases and vanishes
as P'
double ordinate.
6
\/fit
We then
have
{(2a
+ yf (2a - yfWaf.
ASP it is evident that the last term should change sign where y increases past 2a and that the double sign should be a minus. The second radical in Eulers equation must he taken positively when the angle PSP' is greater than 180.
the area
351.
d, <p
Ex.
1.
If the ordinate
P'N'
Q\xt
Ex.
Show
that there are two parabolas which can pass through the given
Show
theorem
P to P',
To find the parabolas we describe two circles, centres P, P' and radii SP, SP'. These circles intersect in S and the two real common tangents are the directrices. These tangents intersect on PP' and make equal angles with it on opposite sides. The concavities of the parabolas are in opposite directions, and the angles described are PSP' and 360 -PSP'. If then one angle is greater than 180, the
other
must be
3.
less.
Ex.
parabolic path
is
Show
ellipse,
where
-1^1 sini(t>=h
u, u'
/s^
/r+r' + k a
'
^^"
Let
fc2
a^ (cos
u - cos
m')2
+ a^(l-e^)
(sin
u - sin u')^
(1),
=4a^sin^li{u-u'){l-e^cos^^{u + u')}
is
due to
J. C.
He
In the Astronomical Notices, vol. xxix., The theorem for <f>, <f>'.
t. vii.),
ART. 354.]
Lambert's theorem.
r + r'=2a-ae
229
GOsu-aeeoBu'
(2),
(3).
and
and
are
u - u', and
e cos
\ (u+u')*
^^^
(4). (5),
(6), (7),
u-u'=2a,
.".
ecos^(u+u')=cos/3
A;
= 2a sin a sin
j8
r+r'-A:=2a{l-cos03-o)}
nt=2a-28inacosj9
If
(8).
we put
j3
+ a=0, j8-a=0',
p'
the equations
(8)
(6)
and
(7)
when put
{/S
into the
(/3
form
nt= {j8 + a - sin (/3 + a)} gives at once the required value of nt,
- a - sin
- a)}
353.
from
4j>,
+ u'.
The positive sign has been given to the square root k. Since k can vanish only when P coincides with P', and a begins positively, we see that both a and /3 lie between and t for all positions of P. The latter is also restricted to lie between cos-^ e and ir - cos~^ e.
We have by differentiating
d<p
(4)
=d^ + da=
+ l-e^, and
If
/Sq
e'^<.l,
it
which
satisfies
cos/3 = eco8u',
^
Tr,
to 2ir-Pg
and
decreases from
Po to -/3o.
When
focus H.
=
Let
the chord
it
It follows that
is less
or greater than
ir
according as
P lies in the arc T'Q or QP'. When ^' = 0, r+r' -k=0, and the chord
Let
it
force S.
Then
<p'
negative according as
P lies in
The values of ^, (p' are determined by the radicals (A). Each of these gives more than one value of the angle, thus ^ may be greater or less than ir and <f>' may be positive or negative. This ambiguity disappears (as explained above) when the position of P on the ellipse is known. Thus sin ^ and sin ^' have the same sign when the two foci are on the same side of the chord PP' and opposite signs when the chord passes between the foci.
354.
given by
t
Ex.
1.
of describing an arc
P'P of a hyperbola
is
v/4= -'P +
<P'
+ sinh
<f>
sinh <p',
230
where
,
.
THE INVERSE
sinh J
is ,<f>
n*'^
POWER.
a /
[CHAP. VI.
/r + r' + k
.
. ,
sinn
.<f>'
^=
/r+r'-k
-.
and k
[Adams.]
Ex. 2. The length of the major axis being given, two ellipses can be drawn through the given points P, P' and having one focus at the centre of force. Prove that the times of describing these arcs, as given by Lambert's theorem, ar&
in general unequal.
To
of
radii equal to
which may
we describe two circles with the centres at P, P* and the 2a - SP, and 2a - SP". These intersect ia two points H, H', either be the empty focus, and these lie on opposite sides of the chord PP'^
centres of force.
355.
Two
Ex.
1.
An
I^
ellipse
is
and
^2
(^2)'
prove that -^
^ (rj^Fi)=^
-r-
('2^^2)'
must do These results follow from the normal and tangential resolutions.
so also.
2. A particle describes an elliptic orbit under the influence of two equal one directed to each focus. Show that the force varies inversely as the [Coll. Ex.}; product of the distances of the particle from the foci.
Ex.
forces,
an ellipse under two forces tending to the foci, any point inversely as the focal distances ; prove that the velocity varies as the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent, and that the periodic time is ir (a^ + W)jkab, ka, kb being the velocities at the extremities of
particle describes to another at
the axes.
[Coll. Ex.],
Ex.
4.
particle describes
an
ellipse
and each varying as (distance)"^. that the relation between the time and the Eccentric anomaly is
centres of force situated in the two foci
3 \dtj ~a^
(1
- e cos m)2
a^ (1
+ e cos u)^
[Cayley, Math. Messenger, 1871.1
powers of
the distance.
The law
describes
of the inverse cube. A particle projected an orbit about a centre offeree whose
of the distance.
It is required
* The orbits when the force F=nU^ were first completely discussed by Cotes in the Harmonia Mensurarum (1722) and the curves have consequently been called Cotes' spirals. The motion for F=ixu^ when the velocity is equal to that from
infinity is generally given in treatises
on
this subject.
The paths
laws of force are considered by Legendre (Theorie des Fonctions Elliptiqties, 1825), and by Stader {Crelle, 1852) see also Cayley's Report to the British Associatioriy
;
F=fjLu", for integer values of n from n=4 to=9, are discussed by Greenhill (Proceedings of the Mathematical Society, 1888),. one case when 71= 5, being given in Tait and Steele's Dynamics.
1863.
Some
special paths
when
rn
ART. 357.]
231
the
Let attraction be taken as the standard case and We have accelerating force be i''=/xw'.
The solution depends on the sign of the coefficient of u. Let V be the velocity of the particle at any point of its path (say the point of projection), /3 the angle and R the distance of projection, then h = VRsm^; (Art. 313). Let Fj be the velocity from inIt follows that k" is > or <fji, according anity, then Y^ = ij.lR\ as Fsin/3 is > or <Fi; i.e. the coefficient of u is positive or negative according as the transverse velocity at any point is
greater or less than the velocity from infinity.
repulsive the coefficient
is
If the force
is
always positive.
Case
the path
1.
n<l
or
>1
of
attractive or repulsive.
The equation
(Art. 119)
The curve
When
the curve
is
the
w^
"^
\ln^
^, i.e.
J
1/6,
we
r, is
find that
r = 6 to
given by
tanw(^-a) = -^,
Case
r^-h^ =
-^ fi/h^ = n\
The
values
be positive and > h^, we put 1 The equation of the path is then u = Ae'^ + Be-^^.
357.
2.
Let
fi
of the constants
A,
B are to be
initial
values of
u and du/dd.
Two
and
In the former case, u cannot vanish and therefore the orbit has no branches which go to inIf we write finity; in the latter case there is an asymptote. = 6i + a and choose a so that J.e"" = + Be~^, we may reduce
have the same or opposite
232
THE INVERSE
W*^
POWER.
[CHAP. VI.
where 2wa = log(+ BjA), a= 2\/( AB), the upper or lower signs being taken according a& A, B have the same or opposite signs.
The
when
B = 0;
the orbit
is
When
the curve
is
the
following relations
where
is
determined by making
vanish
when r has
its initial
value and
at
in
h = 1/a. When A and B have the same sign the two branches beginning the point ^i = 0, i.e. d = a, wind symmetrically round the origin opposite directions. When A and B have opposite signs the
two branches begin at opposite ends of an asymptote, whose distance from the origin is y= 1/an, and then wind round the
origin.
As the
become more and more nearly those of an equiangular spiral whose angle is given by cot <f)= n, the The upper or lower sign being taken according as ^ = 00. particle arrives at the pole with an infinite velocity at the end
lutions of either branch
Case
3.
Let
fi
be positive and
= h\ The
orbit is
u = a{0 a).
When
where
h
the path
is
is
given by
t^Jii.
h^
t is
fi,
v^=iJb{u' + a%
= hr,
constant.
= 1/a. We
ART. 360.]
233
Beginning at the opposite extremities of an asymptote the two branches wind round the origin and ultimately when ^ = + ao cut the radius vector at right angles. If OZ is drawn perpendicular to the radius vector
OP
to
at
in Z,
we may show
359.
Ex.
that
OZ is
F=/(u)
how
to deduce
[Newton.]
The
These
may
when F=f(u) by
is
writing c6 =
d',
ch = h', where c^ = 1 -
To
(c6),
together with the latter curve revolve round the centre of force with an angular
velocity dwjdt,
according as c
is less
where c$ = d-u. The axis of x therefore advances or regredes or greater than unity.
find the path of a
particle
360. Xaw of tlie inverse ntb. power. It when the central force F=fiu'^. See Art.
d^u
is
required
to
320.
^_^
We have
_ F
_fi
-^=^i(S^4=^i"-^+^
except
^'y
when n=l,
a logarithmic form.
The
C=0;
n>l
for otherwise r^
would be negative.
is
be the velocity,
JR
and
/S
we have
(2).
^^=,^^1""
Representmg ^,7 '^
2u
^,
^=y^^-^
we have
-^^dS..
W^n-l)
iJ^-s
, ^ sm^/S
by
-
c^-s,
^"^
wV{M-3-l}'
where the upper or lower sign
or positive,
i.e.
(3),
is
is
acute or obtuse.
To
we
Kdx
find
^dd.
xJ{oi^^'^-^'l-l)
'
234
"We
THE INVERSE
now
see that if
is
W*^
POWER.
[CHAP. VI.
effected at once,
we put
/c
(n
impossible
if
3-ix=(^-a),
Conversely,
.-.
'
=eos^(-a).
when
the path
is
given,
we have
-1
n-1
c"~^
r**"!
It appears that the orbit takes different forms according as n> or <3. In the former case the curve has a series of loops with the origin for the common node and r=c for the maximum radius vector. In the latter case the curve has infinite
branches, and
r=c
for the
minimum
radius vector.
361.
we
write F=:
- /*'m".
We
then have
If
The
from
362.
Ex.
c\
3-7l,
The law
is
of attraction being
of
describing a loop
9=0
to 7r/(n-3)
and 2(-3)2)=n + l, (ra - 3) g = (-!). The when n - 3= 4/i and q -p= i where i is any integer.
1.
363.
Bxamples.
Ex.
p=
m
,
(^-j
=cos^^^.
r', 9'
where
</>
is
the angle the radius vector makes with the tangent, and
are the
Since equation
(1)
of Art.
(n
-
5-^
1) h^
r"-^
when C=0,
the
second of these geometrical results enables us to write down the equation of the
required path and thus to avoid the integration of
(3).
Ex.
2.
perpendicular
07
is
to the lemniscate
r^=a^ cob
99.
If the locus of
the action of a central force tending to 0, prove that this force varies inversely as [Coll. Ex.] OY'3/3.
Ex.
3.
= cos m^
if
m=i(n-3).
Prove that,
ART. 365.]
point
235
small, the
$=a
sabseqnent path
cos
witf {
1+ (cosm^)
iBiamd)
"*
cotwtg
^""^
to a.
"^
^/
*
fjcosmd)
2+ "*de
'
(sinm^)^
^=0
Substitute r/c = (cos m0)"+|, in the differential equation of the path, Art. 309,
of ^.
fiftb
364.
Tbe inverse
power.
The equation
(1),
form
<"
(S)'=5s'-'4.
This can be reduced to
elliptic integrals
The
(1)
when
velocity of projection is
when the
such that
A*=2/aC.
a perfect square.
leads
to
Ex.
c=ijfilh.
when
h*=2fjLC
the
curves
tanh(^/,^2) =r/c or
circle
r=c where
V of
projection
is
sin*j8)},
is to
is
the velocity from rest at infinity, and the upper or lower sign
is
be
the central force F=fiu^, the inverse of any path with another possible path provided the total energy of the motion exceed the potential energy at infinity by a positive constant E reckoned
Ex.
2.
Prove that,
if
is
per unit mass and also that for the two paths Eh'*=E'h\
is
of the
p-
2E = C.
The equation
(1)
369.
Tbe
of Art. 360 is
(sr=i=(-f'-s)
This cubic can always be written in the form
<
(y =<"+> <'+^"+''
and the integration can be reduced to forms similar to those in
Art. 364
by writing
u+a-f.
The
integration can be effected
when
W=^IJ?C.
Ex.
In this case the right-hand side has the factor (u - ^Vm)^that the integration leads to the curves
Show
m=
fj.
cosn
^r
^ 9^1
the upper
signs being taken together and the lower together. These curves have a asymptotic circle r=ulh^, one curve being within and the other outside.
common
236
360.
THE INVERSE
Otber powers.
Ex.
n}^
POWER.
F=fiv7, and the
[CHAP. VI.
initial conditions
If the force
are snch that 2h?=ZCsJn, prove that the equation (1) of Art. 360 takes the form
(S)' =
where b^=zhju,. ^
'
^^<"'-^^)^^"^-^2^^)'
.
,,
asymptotic
circle.
t-tt^ s liaving a common cosh 2a : 2 The Lemniscate can also be described under this law of force, if
=.
tt
rs
0'*
cosh2^Tl
,.
367.
mately,
Nearly circular
when
orbits.
F = fiiC^
circular.
dS5+
we put u = c{\-\-x) where
chosen but subject to
fraction.
d-'x
F = S"^
II
,-.
(1).
to be presently to
be a small
We thus find
^
,
..
'-^
We
see
now
tha,t
we choose c so that the constant term = put h^ fic^~^ The equation th^n becomes
simplified if
we
^+x = (n-2)x+Un-2)(n-S)x^+&}c.
As a
where
first
......(3).
approximation,
we assume
(4),
ilf
is
a small quantity.
squares of
M we find
{1 -p'')
The difierential equation is therefore satisfied to the first order, In this case we have as the equation of the if we put p^ = S n.
path
u = c{l+Mcos(pd + a)]
(6).
If n<S, the equation (6) represents a real first approximate We notice that the solution of the differential equation (1).
particle
between the two circles u = c(l+M) and w = c (1 M). The meaning of the constant c is now apparent geometrically, 1/c is the harmonic mean of the radii of the bounding circles; dynamically, 1/c is the radius of that circle which
oscillates
ART. 369.]
NEARLY CIRCULAR
ORBITS.
force
237
with the given
momentum
h.
The
zero.
by equating dujdd to
This gives
p6 + a vjr,
is
> 3,
the value of
is
The quantity
X therefore becomes large when 6 increases, and the particle, instead of remaining in the immediate neighbourhood of the
circumference of the
or the other.
circle,
it
on one side
x has been neglected the exponential form of (6) only gives the initial stage of the motion and ceases to be correct when x has become so large that its square
cannot be neglected.
particle in
It follows from this that the motion of
is
As the square
circle
unstable
ifn>3.
368.
Ex.
If the
law of force
is
prove that a
first
M=c{l+ifcos(^^ + a)},
Thence
radius, viz.
distance.
it c,
P^=l-^^. f(c)
is
only
when F=im^,
i.e.,
when
power of
the
first
second approsimation. The solution (6) is in any case only a approximation to the motion, and it may happen that, when we proceed to a second or third approximation, the value of p is altered by terms which contain
369.
have x expressed in a metrical terms whose general form is ^cos {qO-\-^), where
as a factor.
Besides this,
we
shall
cube of
M as
some
increases
of^ by p + A, the error xa.pd-'ra, i.e. ^A, by 27rA after each successive revolution of the particle round the centre of force. The expression (6) will therefore cease to be even a first approximation as soon as ^A has become too large to be neglected. On the other hand the additional term to the value of u may be comparatively unimportant. The magnitude of the specimen term is never greater than N and, unless k is also
Representing the corrected .value
small,
we can
In proceeding to a higher approximation we should first seek for those terms in the differential equation which contain cos {pd+a.) ; these being added to the terms of the same form in equation (5) will modify the first approximate value of p.
We
if any term in the differential equation acquires by and thus becomes comparatively large in the solution.
238
370.
(6)
[OHAP. VI
Writing
(3),
for brevity,
in the form
(7),
=^ (n - 2), y=i
(n
-2){n- 4),
&c.,
we
(8),
for
pO + a
x=M(iospd + M^(G-\-A(ios2pe)
where G and A p has the same value as before.
are two constants whose values
(9),
may
To obtain a
third approximation,
we
and assume
(10).
x=
To
order M*.
Equating the
on each
side,
we
find
- Jlfjj2= (n - 3)
- iMY^ = (n - 3)
Q=M^G-\-\M^p.
Solving these equations, and remembering that p^ differs from 3 - n by terms
of the order
M^, we find
G=-J(n-2),
The
three
first
A=^{n-2),
B=^\{n-2)(n-^),
when
2j3=(3-n){l-^(7i-2)(n + l)Jlf2}
are correct
to
(11).
when
^ is
* is
neglected.
We notice that up
small enough
very nearly by
all
M. be
may
be neglected.
The motion
is
then represented'
(12),
(13),
cannot be neglected.
when
the law
an orbit
Impulsive disturbance. When a particle is describing about a centre of force it may happen that at some
particle
receives
orbit.
We
ART. 372.]
IMPULSIVE DISTURBANCE.
orbit differs from the old, for
239
major axis has been changed in position and magnitude, and in general to express the elements of the new orbit in terms of those of the undisturbed orbit.
letters a,
e, I,
V &c.
,
We
first
express
the velocity v and the angle yS at the given point of the orbit in terms of the undisturbed elements. Thus v and /9 are given by
"(^-s)'
when the undisturbed
orbit
is
sm p = =
r
-^^-^
vr
(1),
an
ellipse described
about the
focus.
next consider the circumstances of the blow. Let be the mass of the particle, mB the blow. The particle, afber the impulse is concluded, is animated with the velocity B in the
given direction of the blow, together with the velocity v along the tangent to the original path. Compounding these the particle
has a resultant velocity
v'
We
and
is
moving
is
in a
known
direction.
blow we
line.
If P,
may Q
conveniently refer the changes of motion to that are the components of along and perpendicular
and
is
vector,
we have
cos ^'
t>
cos ^
v',
+ P,
y8',
v'sin^-vsin^ + Q
(1),
(2).
the formulas
writing accented
a'
The
We may
of the
by another formula.
We
notice that
mh is
is
the
moment
momentum
offeree.
the
resultant of v
with the
v' is
= h + Bq
.-.
(3),
where q
is
Newtonian
law.
240
[CHAP. VI.
^V = ^l + Bq/^pL
Thus the change
in the latus
.'
(4).
rectum
is
As a
corollary,
we may
notice that
when
angular momentum
mh and
therefore the
We
its
unaltered.
force,
373. Ex. 1. Two particles, describing orbits about the same centre of impinge on each other. Prove
where
rnrji^, vi^2'i
^iV>
^^2^2'
momenta
before
and
after impact.
mass is describing an ellipse about the focus S. 2. A circle is described to touch the normal to the conic at P whose radius PC represents the velocity at P in direction and magnitude. Prove that if the particle is acted on by an impulse represented in direction and magnitude by any chord MP of the circle, the length of the major axis is unaltered by the blow.
Ex.
particle
P of
unit
Since
P=2vco8
6,
is
simply reversed.
374.
changed.
blow does not lie in the plane of motion, the For the sake of the perspective, let the
let
SP be
/3,
then v cos
X and y. Let the components of the blow be mX, mY, mZ ; then just after the blow is concluded the components of velocity parallel to the axes are vcos/S+Z, vsin/S+r, and Z. The inclination i of the planes of the two orbits, is therefore
given by "
tant=
vsm/3+r
ttl
11.
The
particle begins to
/3'
move
in its
new
orbit with
making an angle
(v'
SP given by
v'cos/3'=t;cos/3 + X,
sin
The problem
is
now reduced to
0,
momentum
i,
new
h' sin
axes of X, y, z are
- mh' sin
h'
mh' cos
Hence
i=Zr^
C06i=h+YT,
where r=SP.
Ex. 1. A particle is describing a given ellipse about a and when at the farther apse A', its velocity is suddenly increased in the ratio 1 n. Find the changes in the elements.
375.
Sxamples.
The
by the blow and since this direction is at from the centre of force, the point A' is one of the
orbits.
apses of the
;
new
orbit.
Let a, e a', e' be the semi-major axes and eccentricities of the since SA' is unaltered in length r=a'(l + e') = a{l + e)
Then
(1).
ART. 375.]
EXAMPLES.
241
We have here chosen as the standard figure for the new orbit an ellipse having A' for the further apse. A negative value of the eccentricity e' therefore means that
A'
is
"(^-i^-K?-^)
where
<^).
if
the
new
2-rv'{l-e)
'
is
- e)
<
or
>1
2.
if
new
1,
a parabola.
The new
Ex.
orbit is
an
ellipse or
> 2.
an ellipse under a force tending to a focus. On arriving at the extremity of the minor axis, the force has its law changed, so that it varies as the distance, the magnitude at that point remaining the same. Prove that the periodic time is unaltered and that the sum of the new axes is to their
describes
difference as the
A particle
sum
foci.
centre.
new orbit is an ellipse having the centre of force S in the Let the new law of force be ix,'r. Then when r=a, the forces are equal, hence
Art. 325 the
fifa^fija?
(1).
By
Measure a length SD parallel to the direction of motion at B, such that the Then SD is velocity v at 5 is ^/ SD.
.
the semi-conjugate of
SB
in the
new
orbit.
Equating the
velocities at
new
orbits,
we have
B in when r=a
^(?-i)='.5Z.=,
SD=a
(2).
The conjugates SB, SD are equal diameters, the major and minor axes are and external bisectors of the angle BSD. Representing the semi-axes by a', b', we have
a'2-t-6'2=SJ52-fSD2=2a2,
a'b'
= SB SD sin BSD = ab
.
(3).
The
BSD
is clearly
change in the velocity had been made at any point of the ellipse, we By drawing SD parallel to the direction of motion we arrive at the known problem in conies, given two conjugate diameters in position and magnitude, construct the ellipse.
If the
The periodic times in the two orbits are respectively 2irlsjfjf and ^ir^a^jii. The equality of these follows from the equation (1). The rest of the question
follows from
(3).
Ex.
3.
A particle
is at
is
iifr^
to a focus
when
the particle
of force is
the extremity of the latus rectum through the focus this centre
is
removed and
if
Prove that
Exam.
1895,]
242
Ex.
4.
[CHAP. VI.
its
same
and
if it
parabola will
make with
an angle whose
[Coll.
sine is equal
to the eccentricity.
Exam.
1892.]
Ex.
5.
At the end of this time the centre of force is transferred without altering its intensity from S to the other focus H, and the particle moves for a second interval T equal to the former under the influence of the central force in H. Find the position of the particle, and show that, if the centre of force were then transferred back to its original position, the particle would begin to describe an ellipse whose [Math. Tripos, 1893.] eccentricity is (3e - e^)l(l + e).
Ex.
6.
body
is
describing
an
ellipse
round a force in
its
focus S, and
HZ is
Ex,]
the perpendicular on the tangent to the path from the other focus H. When the body is at its mean distance the intensity of the force is doubled, show that SZ is
the
new
Ex.
line of apses.
7.
[Coll.
a centre of force situated on the circumference. When P is at the distance of a quadrant from at a point 0, the force without altering its instantaneous magnitude begins to vary as the
inverse square.
Prove that the semi-axes of the new orbit are ^Cy/2 and ic^3.
inelastic particles of
Ex.
Oj,
Zj;
8.
Two
masses
Tn^, tBj,
at a distance r
If
(mi+TO2)(^2r-Z--j =wii(^2r-Z,--J
+m^\^r-\--^
directions of
Ex. 9. A planet, mass M, revolving in a circular by a comet, mass m, approaching its perihelion the comet and planet being inchned at an angle of 60.
; .
.
The
bodies coalesce
..
is
..._
if
{M+m)^a
r.
Prove
to
ilf
parabola; and
orbit is (7^
the ratio of
is
eccentricity of the
new
- 4;^2)* (m/M).
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
376.
irt.
Continuous forces.
We may
371 to find the effects of continuous forces on the particle. Let/, g be the tangential and normal accelerating components of
any disturbing
force,
the
first
when acting
inwards.
We divide
ART. 378.]
243
the effect of the forces on the elements of the ellipse at the end
of each interval.
We
Newton's manner, as
is
small impulses generating velocities /Si and gSt along the tangent
and normal
respectively.
The
effect of
any point P from v to v + 8v, where Bv =fBt, the direction of motion not being altered. To find the effect of the normal force we observe that after the interval St
to increase the velocity at
the particle has a velocity gBt along the normal, while the velocity
V along the tangent is not alteted.
The
= gBt/v.
If the disturbing force were now to cease to act, the particle would move in a conic whose elements could be deduced from these two facts, (1) the velocity at P is changed to -y + Bv, (2) the
angle of projection
describe if at
is
is ;8+ B^. The conic which the particle would any instant the disturbing forces were to cease to act
377.
To find
the effect
on the major
axis,
we
""=''('-5)
Since v
is
differentiation
increased to v
+ Bv, we
see
by simple
2vBv
= f^^Ba,
.-.
Ba = ^"''~fBt
(2).
In differentiating the formula for v^ we are not to suppose that 5v represents the whole change of the velocity in the time 5^ The particle moves along the ellipse and experiences a change of velocity dv in the time dt given by
vdv= -^^dr
(3).
Taking dt=5t, the change of velocity in the time dt is dv + dv, the part dv being due to the disturbing forces and the part dv to the action of the central force.
378.
To find
and
line
of apses.
We may
effect this
by
l=a(l-e%
Since
= fil,
-=l + ecos^
(4).
mh
is
the angular
mBh,
is
equal to the
viz.
the
Let
^
Bl
^\/fi-Tj=Bh=fr sin ^ + gr
cos ^.
244
[CHAP. VI.
We deduce from equations (4) U = {l e^)Ba 2aeBe, = cos 6Be e sin 6 B6,
and the values of
379.
Be
the eccentricity and the line of apses in his Outlines of Astronomy *. He considers the effect of the disturbing forces/, g on the position of the empty focus.
The
alter a.
St,
effect of
is to alter
Since
SP + PH=2a,
empty focus
PH a distance HH'=2da,
The effect of the normal force g is to turn the tangent at P through an angle make equal angles with the tangent, the empty focus Sp=gdtlv. Since SP, .S^. is moved perpendicularly to PH, a distance
HP
HH"=2PH
_x
Consider
projecting
first
we have
SH= 2ae,
x + ae
= HH'
is
cos
PHS = 25a
5e
2a{l-e'^) xv
z=
fi
...
i-tot.
HS
fixed line
2a yv
fi
..^
We have
SH=2ae,
.:
25 (ae) =
2ac5Br=
.:
x + ae
2r'5|3
r 1 V de= -- -gdt,
a V
c5cr=
x + ae
V
gSt.
* See also some remarks by the author in the Quarterly Journal, 1861, vol. iv. should be noticed that Herschel measures the eccentricity by half the distance between the foci, a change from the ordinary definition which has not been followed
It
245
The expressions for Se, 5nr should be put into different forms according we intend to make of them. Let ^ be the angle the tangent at P makes
.
.ay
b ^{rr')
Also
\ v^=ul - - ] =
1
/2
\r
aJ
2&
ar
ur'
.
It
TtV
8e=
J-,
-ocosvt'St,
eS-s:=-
0/7* 7-
CC \- Ci&
gsm^pdt.
and
381.
Draw two
shown
straight lines
OX,
OY
situated as
in the figure.
Since /cos
/sin
\f/
are the
components of the
see that lohen the
we
OX
OY
the apse
advanced
when the
force tends
from these
The same
is
concerned.
lies
normal disturbing force so far as the eccentricity motion of the apse except when the particle between the minor axis and the latus rectum through the empty focus, and the
rule applies to the
It applies also to the
is
rule
then reversed.
When
the eccentricity
is
smaU,
= -^
very nearly
when the
may
1.
minor axis; so that the effects of the tangential be neglected and the rule applied generally.
382.
Examples.
it
Ex.
is
is
Jupiter, approaching
at the aphelion.
Show
advanced.
This theorem
The comet being near the aphelion and Jupiter just beyond, both the normal and tangential disturbing forces act towards OY; the apse therefore advances.
Ex.
2.
particle is describing
is
an
elliptic
increased by 1/nth,
orbit about the focus and at a n being large. Prove that, if the the point must be at an apse, and the
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
3.
An
ellipse
of eccentricity e
is
described freely
about the focus by a particle of mass m, the angular momentum being nih. A small impulse mu is given to the particle, when at P, in the direction of its motion; prove that the apsidal Jine is turned through an angle which is proportional to the intercept made by the auxiliary circle of the ellipse on the tangent at P, and which
cannot exceed
Zw/e/i.
Ex.
4.
body describes an
in the focus.
If
A be the nearer apse, P the body, and a small impulse T act on the body at right angles to SP, prove that the
246
apse line
is
[CHAP. VI.
where
the
/2
(
- + cos
4SP) iSPsin^SP,
e is
[Math. Tripos.]
Ex.
5.
particle describes
an
ellipse
moved
P through
sin
sin (^
^)
where
is
the point at
at
P meets
SGP
and
4>
the
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
6.
particle describes
an
ellipse
/cr"
jn/r^
and
eccentricity
when
k is very small.
383.
resisting
medium.
We may also
medium
ellipse
about a centre
The velocity of the particle being v, let the resistance be kv. Then g = and/= Kcls/dt, and the equations of motion become
de
dt
2bK
dy
'
dnr
dt
26/c
^/i/J-a)
dx
'
VCf-^) dt
dt
Now
and
Usually /and g are so small that their squares can be neglected. the changes of the elements a, e, &c. are of the order of /
g,
forces.
Hence
ellipse,
in using
these
equations we
when multiplied
by the
coefficient
k of resistance, as constants.
reject the squares of k,
we have by
2bK
J.
where A,
B are
both the eccentricity and the position of the line of, apses must There can therefore be no permanent also be the same as before. change in either. The greatest change of the eccentricity from
ART. 385.]
its
encke's comet.
247
mean value is 2K/na^, while the apse oscillates about its mean position through an angle 2Kb/nea, where /m = 7^^a^ Art. 341.
384.
Ex.
(
comet
moves in a
resisting
medium whose
resistance
is
/=
kVp
where
is
positive quantities.
When
t
is
taken as
the
independent
variable (instead of
-^ = ^r^,(l + 2ecos +
de
(l
+ eco8e)5-2,
S=l
-^
(1
+ e cos
61)9-2,
where
A = kuP-^ a^-i
(1
e2)
"
and
/*
n^a?.
When
it is
the right-hand sides of these equations are expanded in series of the form
^ + cos^ + Ccos2^+...
obvious that the only permanent changes are derived from the non-periodical
terms.
(2)
is
Prove
(1)
no permanent changes,
a - 2Aant.
the semi-major axis These results are given by Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, 1896.
is 1), (3)
e- Aent (p-\-q-
When
p and
is
such that
p + q = l,
it
q not satisfying this relation the eccentricity will gradually change and continue to change in the same direction. When the changes of any of the
elements have become so great that their products by the coefficient k of resistance
can no longer be neglected, the equations given above must be integrated in a different way.
of a resisting medium on the and therefore also the major axis of its orbit, Art. 377. The ellipse which the comet describes is therefore continually growing smaller and the periodic time, which varies as a"2, continually decreases.
386.
Encke's Comet.
is
The general
effect
motion of a comet
investigated the effect of a resisting This comet has since then been called after his name. After making allowance for the disturbance due to the attraction of the sun and the planets, he found by observation that its period, viz. 1200 days, was diminished by about two hours and a half in each revolution. This he ascribed to the presence of a medium whose resistance varied as (vjr)^ where v is the velocity
first
who thoroughly
medium on
of the
comet and r
its
The importance and interest of Encke's result caused much attention to be given to this comet. The astronomers Yon Asten of Pulkowa and afterwards Backlund* studied its motions at each successive appearance with the greatest
* In the Bulletin Astronomique, 1894, page 473, there is a short account of the
work
of
tion, the
Backlund by himself. He speaks of the continued decrease of the acceleralaw of resistance, and gives references to his memoirs and particularly to
248
attention.
[CHAP, VI.
appears to have been
mean motion
took up the subject, to 1858. It then began 1871 when its to decrease and continufed to decrease until the revolution of 1868 magnitude was about half its former value. From 1871 to 1891 the acceleration
Backlund found
This would make the density of the resisting medium increase according to a positive power of the distance from the sun; a result which he considered very improbable. He afterwards arrived at the conclusion that we must replace 1/r" by some function / () having maxima and
essentially negative.
minima
at
definite distances
formation
all
might
they
It is suggested that
resistance
observed acceleration.
that comets contract on approaching the sun, sometimes to a very Tisserand remarks that when the size of the comet decreases the resistance should also decrease, and that this may help us to understand how the resistance to any comet might vary as a positive power of the distance from the
It is
known
great extent.
sun.
The
size of Encke's
effect
again
may have an
comet also is not the same at every appearance and on the law of resistance.
this
It is clear that if
short period which approaches closely to the sun must show the effect of the same In 1880 Oppolzer thought he had discovered an acceleration in the influence.
motion of another comet. This was the comet Winnecke having a period of 2052 days. Further investigation showed that this was illusory, so that at present the evidence for the existence of a resisting medium rests on Encke's comet alone.
Does the evidence afforded by Encke's comet prove a resisting medium? on the luminiferous medium says he asked the highest
Prof.
386.
Adams
replied that
there might be attracting matter within the orbit of Mercury which would account Sir G. Stokes then goes on to say that the comet throws for it in a different way.
out a
tail
is
the eighth volume of his Calculs et Becherches sur la comete d'Encke. In the Comptes Eendus, 1894, page 545, Callandreau gives a summary of the results^of
Backlund. In the Trait4 de Mecanique Celeste, vol. iv. 1896, Tisserand discusses the influence of a resisting medium. In the History of Astronomy by A. M. Gierke, M. Valz in 1885, examples of the contraction of comets near the sun are given. a letter to M. Arago quoted in the Comptes Rendus, vol. viii. 1838, speaks of the
He remarks that as it was it approached the sun. approaching the earth at that time, it should have appeared larger. See also Newcombe's Popular Astronomy, 1883. * Presidential address at the anniversary meeting of the Victoria Institute,
great contraction of a comet as
June
29, 1893
ART. 388.]
the sun.
this
Kepler's laws.
249
There is therefore an additional force towards the sun. The effect of would be to shorten the period even if there were no resisting medium. In the course of his lecture he discusses the question, " mttst the ether retard a cornet," and decides that we cannot with safety infer that the motion of a solid through it
necessarily implies resistance.
,
Kepler's
387.
Laws and
the
law of gravitation.
following
Kepler's laws.
The
The
one
focus.
(2)
As a
planet moves in
its orbit,
The squares
The last of these laws was published in 1619 in his Harmonice Mundi and the first two in 1609 in his work on the motions of
Mars.
388.
From
the
it
follows
that the
resultant force on each planet tends towards the sun; Aii. 307.
From
first
we deduce
/Jb/r^,
planet is equal to
where r is the instantaneous distance of that planet from the sun, and fi is a, constant Art. 332.
;
It is
is /mu^, is
T= 27ra^l^fjL,
follows that
where a
is
the the
semi-major axis.
planets T^
is
Now
all
proportional to a^;
the
same for
of Kepler have
satellites.
Each
satellite is
therefore acted on
force follows the
It has
by a
comets and
been possible to trace out the paths of some of the all these have been found to be conies having the sun in one focus. These bodies therefore move under the same
law of force as the planets.
250
389.
LAW OF GRAVITATION.
[CHAP. VI.
The laws of Kepler, being founded on observations, are They are approximations,
though small, are still perceptible. We learn from sun, planets and satellites are so constituted that the sun may be regarded as attracting the planets, and the planets the satellites, according to the law of the inverse square. We now extend this law and make the hypothesis that the planets and satellites also attract the sun and attract each other according to the same law. Let us consider how this hypothesis
whose
errors,
may be
Let
tested.
w-i,
on any
is
r^
is mijrj^,
fi
and
so on.
Let
Assuming these
tial
accelerations,
we can
write
down the
differen-
For example, the equations of motion of the particle mi may be obtained by equating d^oc/dt^, &c., to the resolved accelerating attractions of the other bodies. The equations thus formed can only be solved by the method of continued approximation. Kepler's
laws give us the
first
approximation
as a second approximation
we
that mi, mg, &c. are so small that the squares of their ratio to
may be
neglected.
This problem
is
The
may be compared
in so
truth to be
concerned.
The law
its
of gravitation
extension to other
systems of stars
may be
But we should
same sense that the truth of the law for the solar system is The constituents of some double stars move round established*.
* Villarceau, Connaissance des temps for the year 1852 published in 1849: A.
ART. 393.]
251
and angular
position.
We
may thus, partially at least, hope What we see, however, is not the
but
its
law of gravitation.
We
can deter-
mine
and can
verify approximately
the equable description of areas but since the focus of the true path does not in general project into the focus of the visible
path, an element of uncertainty as to the actual position of the
centre of force
is
introduced.
first
We
square.
391.
difficulties.
First, there
is
the
delicacy of the observations, because the errors of observations bear a larger ratio
Secondly, a considerable than in the solar system. on each double star is necessary. Five conditions are required to fix the position of a conic, and the mean motion and epoch of the particle are also unknown. Unless therefore more than seven distinct observations have been made, we cannot verify that the path is a conic. These difficulties are gradually disappearing as observations accumulate and instruments are improved.
to the quantities observed
number
of observations
392.
Besides the motions of the double stars we can only look to the proper
motions of the stars in space for information on the law of gravitation. Some of these velocities are comparable to that of a comet in close proximity to the sun
and
wait
yet there is
no
made
gravitation is generally deduced from and partly because the proof is at once simple and complete. It is however useful and interesting to enquire what we may learn about the law of gravitation by considering other observed facts.
Kepler's lawe, partly for historical reasons
393.
Otber reasons.
The law of
Ex.
1.
path of a particle
is
plane curve
is central.
Consider an orbit in a plane P, then at every point of that orbit the resultant
force
must
lie
in the plane.
A on
all directions in
that plane with arbitrary velocities, then since the plane of motion
initial
of each
A and
each particle moves in the plane P. It follows that at every point of the plane P traversed by these orbits the resultant force lies in the plane. If these orbits do
not cover the whole plane we take a new point
covered,
on the boundary
of the area
velocities.
By
we can
^ by
252
force is infinite.
THE HODOGRAPH.
It follows that at every point of the
[CHAP. VI.
plane
the force
lies in
that plane.
Next
direction
let ITS
and the
^C
of the
Then by the same reasoning as before the each plane must lie in that plane and must
force
AC.
Thus the
It follovrs
central.
all
An
on
Darboux's Notes
Ex.
central.
2.
If all the orbits in a given plane are conies, prove that the force is
If a particle
at A.
is infinite is
P is
the straight
and therefore the force at every point of this line. The lines of force are therefore straight
we could
the envelope past the point of contact so as to intersect other lines of force.
directions of the force
The
Ex. 3. If the orbits of all the double stars which have been observed are found to be closed curves, show that the Newtonian law of attraction may be extended to such bodies.
Bertrand has proved that
all initial
is
all
conditions within certain limits) cannot be closed unless the law of force
By examining many
and
if
cases of
double stars
we may
include
all varieties of
initial conditions,
all
these
may
See
vol. 77,
The Hodograph.
parallel drawn from the origin motion and its length is proporThe locus of tional to the velocity of a particle P, say OQ = kv. of the hodograph the Hamilton called Sir by W. R. been has Q
394.
straight line
OQ
is
path of P.
By
similar curves,
ART. 396.]
It follows
EXAMPLES.
from Art. 29 that, if
s'
253
of the hodograph,
he the arc
and ma^gnitude
the acceleration of P.
395.
the origin 0, it
central
If
is
OF
be a
h/OY; hence
OQ = kv, we see that the hodograph is then the polar reciprocal of the path with regard to the centre offorce, the radius of the auxiliary circle being \/{hk). If F be the central force at P, the
point
hodograph with a
velocity kF.
306.
Examples.
centre C, and
OQ
Ex. 1. The path being an ellipse described about the being drawn parallel to the tangent, prove that the hodographs
Let
velocity
CQ
.Jfi
be the semi-conjugate of CP, then v=^ii CQ, Art. 326. Hence if is the ellipse itself. The point Q then travels with a
CP.
Ex. 2. The path being an ellipse described about the focus S, prove that a hodograph is the auxiliary circle, the other focus being the origin and HQ drawn perpendicularly to the tangent at P.
Let SY,
also
HZ
SY.HZ=zh\
3.
HQ=HZ
if
k=b^lh.
is
the auxiliary
Ex.
that a hodograph
and SQ
Ex.
is
The path being a parabola described about the near focus S, prove is the circle described on AS as diameter, where A is the vertex drawn perpendicularly to the tangent.
4.
The hodograph
is
a vertical straight
line,
OQ
If the tangent at
make an angle
xp
is
kv cos ^. This is constant because the horizontal velocity of P is constant. point Q travels along this straight line with a uniform velocity kg.
The
Ex.
graph
5.
is
An equiangular spiral is described about the pole, show that a hodoan equiangular spiral having the same pole and a supplementary angle.
Ex.
6.
circle starting
equation of
bead moves under the action of gravity along a smooth vertical from rest indefinitely near to the highest point. Show that a polar a hodograph is r' = b sin^d', the origin being at the centre.
Ex. 7. The hodograph of the path of a particle P is given, show that if the path of P is a central orbit, the auxiliary point Q must travel along the hodograph with a velocity v' = \p'^p', where p' is the perpendicular from the centre of force on
the tangent to the hodograph and
p' is
Show
also that
momentum
h^ljXk^.
The condition that the path is a central and r=c^lp', we find F and thence v'.
orbit is v^lp
= Fplr.
Writing 27=0^//
254
Ex.
8.
THE HODOGRAPH.
The hodograph
of the path of
rotates with
is
[CHAP. VI.
OQ = r'
a circle
P is a parabola with its focus at 0, and an angular velocity proportional to r'. passing, through 0, described about a centre
OQ is nr', we find by resolving v' perpendicularly = nr'^lp'. In a parabola lr'=2p'\ and since p'=r'dr'ldp' we see that The path is therefore a central orbit. But the polar v' \p'^p' where \ = n/J. reciprocal of lr' 2p'^ (obtained by vfiiting p' = c^lr, and r'=c^lp) is r^=p (2c^ll),
Since the angular velocity of
v'
to 0<3 that
and
Ex.
a constant angle with the tangent to the path the motion takes place in a medium Show that the hodograph of the curve resisting as the nth power of the velocity. ""* ^* "^ = r"" - a-\ [Coll. Ex. is of the form 6-"e
described
Ex. 10. A particle, moving freely under the action of a force whose direction always parallel to a fixed plane, describes a curve which lies on a right circular cone and crosses the generating lines at a constant angle. Prove that the hodois
graph
is
a conic section.
[Coll.
Ex.]
397,
Elliptic velocity.
is
represented
in direction
convenient directions.
is
an
ellipse described
by HZjk, where
be the centre this may be resolved into the constant lengths HC, GZ, the former being a part of the major axis and the latter being parallel to the radius
h^fh
k=
and
is
If
vector SP.
Hence
the velocity in
an
focus
can be resolved into two constant velocities one equal to ae/k in a fixed direction, viz. perpendicular to the major axis, and the other equal to a/k in a direction perpendicidar to the radius vector
SP
= /h.
We have
[Frost's
seen that
Newton, 1854.]
the force
is
398.
The hodograpb an
orbit.
when
central
a hodograph of the path of P is a polar reciprocal. It follows that if the hodograph is the path of a second particle P', each curve is one hodograph of the other.
Ex.
1.
Let
its
r, r'
of
a curve and
If these
momenta
h, h',
prove that
are connected by
FF'= r/.
Ex. 2. Prove that the two particles will not continue to be at points which correspond geometrically in taking the polar reciprocal, unless the orbit of each is an ellipse described about the centre. [The necessary condition is that the velocity
v'
= kF
varies as r.]
ART. 401.]
TWO ATTRACTING
PARTICLES.
255
Particles.
particles.
This
is
the
problem of finding the motion of the sun and a single planet which mutually attract each other. To include the case of two
suns revolving round each other, as some double stars are seen to
do,
we
shall
two
particles.
cording as
make no restriction as to the relative masses of the The problem can be discussed in two ways acwe require the relative motion of the two particles or
Let M,
instantaneous distance.
be the masses of the sun and the planet, r their The accelerating attraction of the sun
Mjr^, that of the planet
on the planet
is
on the sun
mfr^.
sun and the planet have definite velocities. Let us apply to each an initial velocity (in addition to its own) equal and opposite to that of the sun let us also continually apply to each an acceleration equal and opposite to that produced in the The sun will then be placed sun by the planet's attraction. initially at rest, and will remain at rest, while the relative motion
Initially the
;
Mjr^ and
ellipse
whole force
is
(M + m)/r^.
The planet
therefore, as seen
The period
27r
^/{M
4-
m\
4 a'.
where a
is
way the
ellipse of
to
400.
We
masses.
total
mass of either constituent, but on the sum. of the The time in the same orbit is the same for the same
is
401.
particles.
Consider next the actual motion in space of the two We know by Art. 92 that the centre of gravity of the
is
two bodies
either
at
rest or
moves in a straight
line with
256
[CHAP. VI.
uniform velocity.
actual motion
sufficient
to
investigate
the
when
and
this is
may be
member
parallel to that of
Let
then
planet
and planet,
The
on the
M ^ M^ 1 _ M' SP^'iM+myGP^'GI^'
and follows the law of the inverse square.
therefore describes an ellipse in space with the centre
is
The
point
The planet
nrT?
where a
is
the
semi-major axis of
its
The
If
a,
a'
actual orbits of the planet and sun, a that of the relative orbit,
we have by
a/M =
402.
the
a'/m
= a/{M +m).
satellite.
To find
the
Since
mean
same as
ellipse,
Taking the
axis.
relative orbit to
be an
let a'
be
its
semi-major
If
we have
4.JJ-2
'
m+m
>
a'^
When
sum
of the masses.
have been found by observation, this formula gives the The masses in this equation are measured
i.e.
in astronomical units,
the bodies on a given supposititious particle placed at a given It is therefore necessary to discover this unit by finding distance. the attraction of some
known
body.
Consider the orbit described by the planet round the sun. Since we can neglect the disturbing attraction of the satellite.
ART. 404.]
MASS OF A PLANET.
if
257
we
have,
is
M
This formula contains only a ratio of masses, a ratio of times and
Whatever units these quantities are respec^ of lengths. measured in, the equation remains unaltered. Since m is of the suti, and m' small comsmall compared with the mass pared with the mass m of the primary, we may take as a near
a
riatio
tively
approximation -Tj=\7p}]
[}
^^
*-^^^
Tapis.s
The determination
due to that planet his study for many years. It was only after a laborious and intricate calculation that he arrived at a determination of the mass. After Asaph Hall had discovered Deimos and Phobos the calculation could be shortly and eflfectively made. According to Asaph Hall the mass of Mars is 1/3,093,5.00 of the
made it about one three-millionth. This agreement between two such different lines of investigation The minuteness of either satellite is very remarkable; see Art. 57. ratio nn'jm in A.rt. 402 and unknown enables us to neglect the
sun, while Leverrier
close
mean distances to be 385, find the ratio of the sum of the masses of moon to that of the sun. The actual ratio given in the Nautical
constituents of a double star describe circles about each other in a were deprived of velocity and allowed to drop into each other,
Almanac
Ex.
time T.
2:
The
If they
Ex.
radius
3.
b.
The
relative
if is
is
circle of
Prove that
3/4
258
Ex.
axis 2a
4.
[CHAP. VI.
masses m,
ni',
the Newtonian law, are describing relatively to each other elliptic orbits of major
and
eccentricity
suddenly
fixed.
e, and are at a distance r when one of them, viz. m, Prove that the other will describe a conic of eccentricity
such that
(?
am(l-e^)
\>-
aJ
It is
supposed that the centre of gravity had no velocity at the instant before the
particle
m became fixed.
5.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
Two
particles
influence of gravity
and
of their
each particle will describe relatively to that point areas proportional to the time.
[Math. Tripos, I860.]
Ex.
6.
The
are given
by the equations
x = aB - 2a sin
d,
y = a~a cos 0;
their
x^=: ad,
y-^=
~a + a cos 6.
[Math. Tripos.]
Prove that
if
they
move under
Ex. 7. Two homogeneous imperfectly elastic smooth spheres, which attract one another with a force in the line of their centres inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres, move under their mutual attraction, and a succession of oblique impacts takes place between them; prove that the
tangents of the halves of the angles through which the line of centres turns between successive impacts diminish in geometrical progression. [Math. T. 1895.]
The blow
at each
joining the centres, hence the latera recta of all the ellipses described between
the
same
at
The normal relative velocity is multiplied by the The radius vector of the relative ellipse is each impact, being the sum of the radii of the spheres. The result
each impact.
405.
Ex.
1.
is
then suddenly begins to diminish in splendour and in 3^ hours fourth magnitude, at which it continues for about 15 minutes.
increase again
then begins to
is
through
all its
d.
This
is
supposed to be due
of
off a portion of the light. Supposing the brilliancy of a star of the second magnitude to be to that of the fourth as 40 to 6-3 and that the relative
and has the earth in its plane, prove that the 92 and that the ratios of their are equal to '171 and -160. If the radius of
:
them
to be of equal densities)
The numbers
ART. 407.]
Ex.
2.
259
The brightness
years.
in a period of
gradually diminishes to
The brightness remains constant for mT years, then a minimum value, equal to 1 k^ of the maximum, at
remains constant for nT years and then gradually rises to the Show that these changes can be explained on the hypothesis that a dark satellite revolves round the star. Prove also that, if the relative orbit is circular, and the two stars are spherical, the ratio of the mean density of the double star to that of the sun is
which minimum
original
maximum.
T2
(1
+ k^) L
T
distance.
where
sun at
its
mean
[Math. T. 1893.]
406.
mining the relative motions of three or particles has not been generally solved. The various solutions in series which have as yet been obtained usually form the subjects of separate treatises, and are called the Lunar and Planetary theories. Laplace has however shown that there are some cases in which the problem can be accurately solved in finite terms*.
407.
of deter-
mon
centre of gravity
is
It is
if the proper common angular velocity be given system about 0, the centrifugal force on each particle may be made to balance the attraction on that particle. The particles
move
in circles round
particles
Let us next enquire what conditions are necessary that the may so move that the figure formed by them is always similar to its original shape, but of varying size. Let the distances
* Laplace's discussion
may
The proposition that the motion' when the particles are in a straight line is unstable was first established by Liouville, Academie des Sciences, 1842, and Connaissance des Temps for 1845 published in 1842. His proof is different from that given in the text. The motion when the particles are at the corners of an equilateral triangle is discussed in the Proceedings of the London
the Micanique Celeste.
i.
and vol. ii. Art. 108. There is also a paper by A. G. Wythoff, On Dynamical stability of a system of particles, Amsterdam Math. Soc. 1896.
the
260
[CHAP. VI.
&c.
r^, r^,
We
then have
for
df
Since the figure
is
\dtj
'
rdt\! dtJ
when
d6/dt
is
where
a^, 2, &c.,
are
some
quantities.
It
such that the ^'s are in the same positive ratios and also the
Since the mutual attractions of the
and
lyhG-i, mjjr^,
&c.
is
also in equilibrium.
The sum
of the
mo-
must
&c.)
is
they are
in
the ratios
oli,
is zero.
velocities
Wi,
the
assuming ri, r^, &c. to have the constant ratios a^, a^, &c. The motion of some one particle, say mj is determined by the two polar
,
The
result
is,
that
if
the particles,
move
so as to be always
common
from 0.
and are proportional to the distances the particles must be projected in directions making equal angles in the same sense with their
centre of gravity
initially,
408.
particles
To determine how
the
three
may pass
the
through the
inverse
icth
common
power of the
satisfied
line.
are
if
arranged in a straight
is
We
enquire
It is
possible.
of masses
in attraction that if
two given
them, with accelerating forces Mp, mr, the resultant passes through
ART. 409.]
261
m and therefore through that of all In order that the resultant of Mfp*^ and w/r* may also pass through the centre of gravity of M, m, it is. evident that the ratio of Mjp" to w/r" must be equal to the ratio Mp to mr.
the centre of gravity of M,
three.
/c
= 1)
that p
;
= r.
The three
particles
must therefore be
result
is
at equal distances
The
that
for
(1) that in
which the
particles,
may
It
may
also
the
inverse
/eth,
the
tHangle
is stable
when
^
l^iiim
>
'
\3
-^
409.
The
line
may remain
Let the law of attraction be the inverse /cth power of the Let M, m, be the two extreme particles, m' being between the other two. Let a, b, c be the distances Mm, Mm',
distance.
m'm then a b + c.
;
A
on
necessary condition
is
the, particles
must be proportional
(Art. 407).
centre of gravity
We
therefore have
.^.
Mja"
Ma-^m'c
particles
to the distances
from 0.
The equalities (1) are equivalent to only one equation, for if we multiply the numerators and denominators of the three fracrespectively, the sum of the numerators and tions by m, m',
denominators are
zero.
Putting a = b
{l->rp),
= bp, we
arrive at
The
left-hand side
is
negative
when p =
is
262
[CHAP. VI.
infinitely "large, the equation therefore has one real positive root,
M,
m',
may
;
have.
Putting
p = l,
the
becomes (M m) (2"+^ 1) since we may take as the greater of the two extreme particles we see that the real positive
p is less than unity, provided k + 1 is positive. were negative the root would be gi-eater than unity.
value of
If
/c
+1
of the particles
may be
it
follows that
they are so placed that their distances have the ratios given by
this value of p,
and their
their subsequent
line.
When
(2)
and
may be shown
in the general
positive integral value, the equation (2) has ^^k+i ^q pK+i being all the terms from
p'*
from p" to
are negative.
410.
When
is
between
when
Art. 135
cases
equation.
for each
We
one
arrangement.
411.
is
very
much
nt
p we infer that p is very small when m/M and m'jM small. The equation (3) therefore gives 3j9^ = (m + m')/M, using the numerical values of m, m and M, p = 1/100 nearly.
If the
when
and
are
or,
moon were
earth one hundredth part of that of the sun, the three bodies
might be projected
so that they
in a straight
ART. 412.]
line.
THREE PARTICLES IN A
LINE.
263
its light
full, but at that distance would be much diminished. This configuration of the sun, earth and moon however could not occur in nature because this state of steady motion is unstable. On the slightest disturbance the whole system would change and the particles would widely deviate from their former paths.
413.
circles
describe
round their common centre of gravity and are always in a straight line. Prove that if the force vary as any inverse power of the distance this state of motion
is
unstable.
those of m'.
The
particle
is
acted
on
by (lf+jn)/r* along the straight line mM, and The polar equations of the motion of m are
cPr
dt"^
m'M.
fde\'^
M+m
jjc
\dtj
m' cos /K
m'
(i>
COS
22'
(1).
1 r
d6\
m'
m'
jjK
r' sir
dt\
dtj
/K
R
formed by joining the particles
"where w,
<p
M,
of the triangle
and
is
of m' are
\dtj
-rr-
cos A')
\
r'"
}*
R*.
d f .dd'\
m
r^
m
E"
(2),
dt\
-it
'
where 0' is the external angle of the triangle at m'. the standard case is that in which 6'>6 and /</.
We
shall
now
r=a (l + x),
d=nt-\-y',
r'
= b (l + y),
|,
77.
reject all
first
Remembering that
sin 0/r'
= sin <f>'lr=Bixi. wjR we find after some reduction (Si-tfi-KE)x-2ndy + m'KB^ + 0.7i = 0,
2nSx +
(5^
+ m'B)y + 0.l-m'Br)=0,
0.x- mAy + 2nS^ + (S^+mA) ij=0, we have written 8 for djdt, and c=a-b,
M+m
deduced from the
constants.
m'
Jtf+m'
m
Art. 409, but
(1)
it
The steady motion has been already found in first and third of the equations
may
also be
and
(2)
by equating the
We thus
find n2=;^_j,i'^^
n^=F-mA.
264
[CHAP. VI.
is positive, it
We notice that the constants E, F are positive. been shown in Art. 409 that a>b>c, and therefore A Lastly whatever k may he E + F n"^ is positive
To
solve the four equations,
stituting
+1
has
positive.
ratios G,
coefficients of x, y, ^,
5.
This
before
To
we must
expansion make some necessary simplifications which we can only indicate here. We first add the | column to the x column and the ij column to the y column.
The second column may now be divided by X. Multiplying the second column by - (k - 3) n^ is another factor which 2n and subtracting from the first, we see that we divide out. Subtracting the first row from the third and the second from the The fourth, the first column acquires three zeros and the second column two. determinant is now easily expanded and we have
X''^
(\^-Ck -(k + 1)
n^)
+ 4)i2\2} =0,
where C=E + F-2it^. If k>S, this equation gives a real positive value of X and the motion is therefore unstable. If k have any positive value C is positive, and the third factor has the product of its roots negative one value of X'' is real and The motion is therefore unstable for all positive and the other real and negative.
;
positive values of k.
413.
Ex.
1.
straight line.
Show
Three mutually attracting particles are placed at rest in a that they will simultaneously impinge on each other if the
given by the value of
(2/c
+ l)th
Ex.
Acth
2.
at rest at the
corners of an equilateral triangle and attract each other according to the inverse
common
If the
/t
Prove that they will arrive simultaneously at the law of attraction is the inverse square, the time
is
of transit
tt
{a^l2/jL)^
where
the
sum
of the masses
and a the
side of the
swarm of particles. Let us suppose that a comet 414. an aggregation of particles whose centre of gravity describes an The question arises, what are the elliptic orbit round the sun. conditions that such a swarm could keep together*? Similar
is
conditions
*
must be
swarm consolidating
who proved
The
disintegration of comets
was
first
suggested by Schiaparelli
that the disturbing force of the sun on a particle might be greater than the He thus obtained as a necessary condition of stability attraction of the comet.
mlP>2Mla^.
The
subject
was dynamically treated by Charlier and Luc Picart on They arrived at the condition mlb'-' > BMja^ ;
Bulletin de VAcademie de S. Petersbourg, Annales de V Observatoire de Bordeaux, Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, iv. The condition of stability Avas extended to the case of
an
elliptic trajectory
by M. 0. Callandreau in the Bulletin Astronomique, 1896. The problems are simplifications of their methods.
ART. 414.]
A SWARM OF PARTICLES.
Nebular theory. method of proceeding.
265
The
following
example
We shall suppose the sun A to be fixed in space, Art. 399. B be the centre of the swarm, C any particle. Let r, 6 b6 the coordinates the polar coordinates of B referred to A, and ^, of C referred to B as origin, the axis of ^ being the prolongation
Let
77
of
AB.
Let
M be
Supposing, as a
first
homogeneous and spherical, its If m be attraction at an internal point C is fip, where p = BG. = the radius of the swarm, m/b\ the mass and b fib
approximation, that the swarm
The equations
of motion are,
by Art. 227,
...(1).
d^V
fde\"
{,
^^dO)
-Mr)
df-
dt dt
'^
dt'
^ [dtj
r'
^^
.^.
W^
the sun,
dtTt^^diF-'^Kdrt) ^--i^-f"^
we write
?'
= a,
ddjdt
= n.
.(3).
Putting
1^
= J.
cos {pt
4- a),
ob-
(p'-fi
+ Sn^)(p^-/x)-4!ifn^==0
(4).
The
is
the same as the condition that the roots of this quadratic should
The left-hand
fj,
side
positive
and p^ =
fjL
Sn^.
266
is
[CHAP. VI.
the
therefore
> Sw^,
Art. 288.
swarm
is
stable is therefore ^^
>3
swarm
swarm cannot
he stable.
If the
swarm
is
on the
swarm must be
The path
values of
^,
17
of the particle
G when
is
an ellipse with its centre at B. Substituting the in the equations of motion and using the quadratic, we find
B~^^2np'
Since
^43/^2
/i
B'^~
2?2
'
^^B^"
is
\/
/j.-3n^'
lies
It follows that
the major axis directed along B^, while in the other that axis is along 17. The particle also describes the ellipses in opposite directions, in the former case the
direction is the
same
as that of the
swarm round
opposite.
If the centre of gravity of the swarm describe an ellipse of small eccentricity, we may obtain an approximate solution of the equations of motion. Assuming the expansions d=nt + 2e sin nt + 1 e^ sin 2nt,
--^1;
r^
it is
'
.-.
at
f-
\r J
Y = 1 + 3e cos ni + f e2 +
.9
e2
cos 2nt,
,
evident that
aU the
expressed in terms of
that the equations
t,
e^.
It
It is
become
eX=
ieti
cos nt-^ at
en^ cos
Jit 17
+ &c.
(5)
(3)
As a first approximation we neglect eX, eY. Comparing the equations we see at once that we shall have the quadratic
{p^-,ji + n'^{3
and
+ 5e^)}{p^-fi + in^e^}-ip^n'^=0
stable is then fji>n^ (3
(6).
the
swarm
is
+ 5e^);
is
'
T3
when
it is
circular.
ART. 415.]
tisserand's criterion.
267
As a second approximation, we substitute ^ = A cos (pt + a), rj B sin (pt + a) in X and Y. By Art. 303 the only important terms are those which become magnified by the process of solution. These terms are of the form Pcos{\t + L) where \;=pn or p=i^2n. Unless therefore the roots p, p' of the quadratic (6) or (4) are such that p^p' is nearly equal to n or 2n, the terms
the expressions
derived from X,
Y remain
e'^.
when
415.
Tisserand^s criterion*.
is
When
it
a comet describing a
conic round the sun passes very near to a planet, such as Jupiter,
its
course
much
disturbed.
When
it
path
may be
Let
planet.
(tto, ^o),
(i,
^i)
Let %,
i^
let
the axis of ^ pass through the planet P. Let r, p be the distances respectively and c = OP. Let M, of the comet Q from and
111
be the masses of the sun and planet, then, reducing the sun
we
mj&
by
acting
PO.
The held
of force
is
therefore defined
c
orbit relatively
n^
n,
We
to
P describes a circular
where
= (M + m)/c^.
The Jacobian
\V^--nA
r
* Tisserand's criterion
-Sr-T^=C,
c-
may
Tome
vi.
Meeanique
Celeste,
Tome
iv.
1896.
,1a
M. 0. Callandreau's addition
Tome xx. There are also some by H. A. Newton on the capture of comets by planets, especially American Journal of Science, vol. xlii. pages 183 and 482, 1891.
268
PARTICLES.
[CHAP. VI.
its
where
is
angular
momentum
V^ = m(^-^,
the integral becomes
a = cos i^{Ml),
where
tively entering
We
the values of ^, p when the comet is respecand leaving the sphere of influence of the planet. obviously have po = pi, and since the comet does not stay long
^o,pol ^i>Pi. are
may
neglect
we
I'o
cos
\JIq
cos
I'l
\Jli
2ao
c\Jc
2^1
c\Jc
416.
known elements
If
it is satisfied it is
how much
attraction of Jupiter.
of the plapietary theory
and
is
This defect has been corrected by M. 0. CaUandreau. Taking account only of the first power of the eccentricity he adds a small term containing that eccentricity as a factor. This term, unlike those in Tisserand's
not
strictly correct.
criterion,
417.
The Jacobian
used by G. W. Hill* to determine whether the moon could be indefinitely pulled away from the earth by the disturbing attraction of the sun. In such a problem
as this,
it is
P and
the
rest,
moon Q
acted on by
for relative
QP and
(3),
* G.
W.
Journal of Mathematics,
1878.
ART. 418.]
where
269
p=PQ, r=OQ,
= OP and
is
the
sum
and moon.
Mlc^=n^.
We
that
tJie
vioving particle
can never cross the surface defined by equating the right-hand side to zero, and can only move in those parts of space in ivhich the right-hand side is positive. Art. 299.
If the initial circumstances of the
is
by
Hill.
When
a certain quantity the surface has in general three separate sheets. The inner of these is smaller than the other two and surrounds the earth. The
second
the
is
C exceeds
also closed but surrounds the sun, the third is not closed.
is
When
the
found to be within
distance from the
It
must
and
its
Thus
of the moon.
418.
if also
Ex.
1.
If the
moon Q move
in the plane of
and
left-
the sun
is
so remote that
we may put
^/c
+ hr-=^c^ (l + ^\ when
the
hand
side is
expanded in powers of
and
rjjc,
It is required to trace the forms of this curve for into the curve --\-^n^^'^=C". P different positive values of C".
infinite
If
the body S.
the
minimum value of m/I + f n-^ there is also an oval round particle Q is within the oval, it cannot escape thence and its
If the particle is
cannot cross them and the radius vector will have an inferior limit. The velocity at any point of the space between the oval and the infinite branches is imaginary. [Hill.]
A double star is formed by two equal constituents S, P whose orbits A third particle Q whose mass is infinitely small moves in the same plane and initially is at a distance from P on SP produced equal to half SP, starting with such velocity that it would have described a circular orbit about P if
Ex.
2.
are circles.
S had been
absent.
Show
P.
'
the particle being initially within that curve cannot recede indefinitely from the
attracting bodies
S and
is
This example
refers to a
He
also
M. de Haerdtl, 1890, where the revolution of Q round P is traced during two revolutions and it is shown that at the end of the third the
memoir
particle is receding
from
A *.
has received Darwin's memoir on Periodic which the motion of a planet about a binary star
270
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
Theory of Apses.
Wheii the law of force is a one-valued function of the distance, every apsidal radius vector must divide the orbit sym419.
metrically.
(Art. 314).
The
both perpendicularly to
two particles are projected from A with equal velocities, OA but in opposite directions, it is clear that (the force being always the same at the same distance from 0) the paths described must be symmetrical about OA.
If
(2)
If at
any point of
its
were reversed in direction (without changing its magnitude), the particle would describe the same path but in a reverse direction.
If then a particle describing an orbit arrive at
an apse A,
its
subsequent path when reversed must be the same as its previous Hence OA divides the whole orbit symmetrically. path.
We
first
may
say F=/jl{u
a-)|,
OA = a,
the
proposition
may
he
arrive at another
Then
since
OB
symmetrteally, there
must be a third apse C beyond B such that the angles AOB, BOG are equal and 00=0 A. Since 00 divides the orbit symmetrically, there is a fourth apse at D, where OD = OB and the
angles
BOG,
GOD
are equal.
The
is
he has
of the
Some
paths thus presented to the eye have such unexpected and remarkable forms that
the paper
is full of interest.
ART. 422.]
421.
one-valued
unless
that
271
Examples.
function
centre
ellipse
centre of force
the distance
situated on
is
principal diameter
evolute.
and
outside the
By drawing
arc
all
EF of
the evolute
we
ACB
of the ellipse.
It follows that
normal to the ellipse can be drawn through any point P situated in this quadrant, and this normal does not divide the between E and A or between F' and B.
Ex.
2.
lies
If the
path
is
an equiangular
spiral
and the
must be
situated in
the pole.
Ex.
fixed
3.
If
a particle of mass
lie
m
;
be attached to a
prove that,
if
string with velocity v, the string will just be doubled in length at its greatest
extension
2jnv^=Aa\.
[Coll.
Ex.]
Ex.
4.
particle is projected
v,
less or
same
distance.
422.
The
apsidal distances.
is
To find
an
integer.
The equation
v^=
C2 JFdi',
gives
'=*i(IJ+i=^+,T^i"-'
Let
w/S
initial
distance R,
the angle of
projection, then
^''
=^+
are
^1 (^7"'
known
h=VRsm^
an apse w
is
(2).
quantities, at
a-max-
= 0.
The
iy=Kr^j=^i''"--*--=
If an equation is arranged in descending powers of the
(^>-
unknown
of
quantity,
we know by
more
The arrangement
is
greater
272
or less than 2
;
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP.
is
VI.
clear
that in whatever order they are placed there cannot be more than
two variations of
sign.
roots.
therefore have
more
an analytical proof
that there
If
is
its
lowest terms,
we
write
u=w<;
the
and
w and
therefore
positive
It is
assumed that
if
424.
The
integrating
(A)
may have
In 420
it
is
proved that the actual branch described cannot have more than
In 422
it is
F=fiu^
all
some other one-valued function of the distance may have more than two unequal apsidal
^\
an
=A{u-a) (u-b)
{u-c) be the
differential equation of
orbit, prove that the central force is a one- valued function of the distance. Prove also that the curve has two branches and three unequal apsidal distances, and that either branch may be described if the initial conditions are suitable. See
Ex.
2.
where
n>3 and
lie
the velocity
is
greater
between p and
q,
where
2fi=:h^(n-l)p"~^ and h^=Cq^. [This follows from a theorem in the theory of equations applied to equation (A) of Art. 422.]
426.
The
where
apsidal angle.
To find
when
F=
fivP-,
w< 3,
and
The equation
Taking
we
see
by
referring
to
the
equation (6) of those articles that dujdd is zero only when p6 + a = i'ir, where i is any integer. These values of therefore determine the apses and the reciprocals of the two corresponding
apsidal
distances are
c{lM).
is
The
p^=2 n.
ART. 427.]
273
Taking the higher approximations, we use the equations (12) and (13) in the same way. The apsidal angle is therefore 7r/p, where
= V(3-n){l-^(^-2)(n +
l)Jf=}.
The
on a
+ M).
founded
437.
is
motion*.
Beginning with
we have,
as in Art. 422,
\dej
let
n-l
Since
u=a, u=& be
the right-hand side of the equation must vanish for each of these values of u,
we have
Eliminating h^ and
n-l C we
\du)
n-l
find
/dg\2_ a"-^-5-^
A=
'
n-i,
a-i,
u\
a\ 1 h^-\ h\ 1
d9 from
To
we have
u=& to
a.
To
we suppose
M to be small quantity.
we put a = c (l+Jf), 6=ic [l-M) and u=e iX+Mx); the then a;= - 1 to + 1. Also since the orbit is nearly circular,
It now becomes necessary to expand A in powers of M. This may be effected by using some simple properties of determinants. If we subtract the upper row from each of the other two, the determinant is practically reduced to a determinant of two rows. Noticing that
where C=i(n-2),
D = J(n-2) (n-3),
;=T^(n-2) (n-3)(ra-4), we
new determinant
is
Subtracting one row from the other and performing some evident simplifications,
we
find
- 1)
(n - 3).
We thence
deduce
The method
first used by Bertrand, C'omptes Rendm, vol. 77, 1873. An improved version was afterwards given by Darboux in his notes to the Cours de MScanique by Despeyrous, 1886.
274
'
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
1)}* {1
+ tV (" - 2)
(n
- 3) M^}.
-2,,
6
-2,
24
^
A
'J
V(3 - w)
- a;'*)
The
integrations
Taking the
limits to be
^= ^7r to make
we
J{H-n) t
428.
24
Closed orbits.
An
centre
of force whose attraction is Prove that if the orbit is closed, for all initial conditions within certain defined limits, the law of force must be the inverse square
or the direct distance.
If the path
is
closed
and re-entering
maximum and
minimum
radius vector.
has two apsidal distances and must lie which have these for radii and their centres at the centre of force. By varying the initial conditions we may widen or diminish
the space between the
circles,
must admit of both The orbit therefore between the two circles
it
is
remain
Representing the
radii
first
p can be powers of M. The orbit expressed in some series of ascending cannot be closed unless the apsidal angle is such that, after some multiple of it has been described, the particle is again at the same point of space and moving in the same way. Hence p must
by
c (1
M)
be
all values
The
of powers of
M whether rational or
must therefore be
not.
zero,
When F=fiu'^ the series hr p is (Art. 426) p = V(3 -n){l- ij (n - 2) (w + 1) M^ + &c.|. Since the coefficient of M^ must be zero we see that n = 2
1,
law of force must be the inverse square or the direct i.e. the In either case the condition that \/(S n) should be a distance.
rational fi:action is satisfied.
we take the most general form for the force, we have F=uy(u). We know by Art. 368 that the first term of the
If
ART, 430.]
series for
CLOSED ORBITS.
275
c, i.e.
is,
in general, a function of
of the reciprocal of
the
mean
radius.
unless this
first
term,
cf'{c)lf{c), is
independent of
case
c.
constant
m we find by an
The general
= fxc'^. Hence
F=fjiu^'^^.
429.
classify
Classification of orbits.
the
it
is
required
to
distances *.
We
suppose
fi
to be positive
and h not
to be zero.
Arranging the apsidal equation (A) (Art. 422) in descending powers of takes one or other of the three following forms
u,
it
(i:T=K^*T=^""-'-^'"^-''
n-l
'^'-
according as
n>3, n
lies
between 3 and
1,
and n<\.
The two constants \C and h determine the energy and angular momentum of the particle, Art. 313. When these are given, we arrive, by integrating (A), at an equation of the form d + a=^f{u). By varying the constant a we turn the curve round the origin without altering its form. It follows that when G and h are knoion, the orbit is detemined in fonn but not in position. The curve thus found
may have
on the
several branches
orbit
which are not connected with each other. One point must therefore also be given to determine the value of a and to distinguish
Any
velocity
We
thus have
G=v^-V-^
or
from
infinity,
origin.
be used
when Fj
is finite, i.e.
when w>l;
the second
n<l.
430.
infinity.
Case
X.
The right-hand
from zero to Hence, when n>3, G is negative or zero, i.e. the velocity v is less than or equal to that from infinity ; when n lies between 3 and 1, G must be positive or zero, i.e. the velocity v is greater than or equal to that from infinity. Lastly we see from the third form of the equation (A) that when n< 1 the curve cannot have only one apsidal distance.
sign once as
varies
must change
* Korteweg, Sur les trajectoires decrites sous Vinfiuence d'une force centrale,
Archives Neerlandaises, vol. xix. 1884, discusses the forms of the orbits, the conditions of stability
orbits, Proc.
circles.
Greenhill,
On
the stability of
276
These conditions being
distance, found
THEORY OF
satisfied, let
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
of the apsidal
(A).
(S)'=^'(3l)'=(-'')*()where (p (u) cannot change sign as u varies from the same sign as the highest power of u, its sign as n> or <3.
to oo
.
Since
<j>
(u)
must have
is positive
or negative according
We notice that if is a fraction, say n=plq, we replace the factor u -'o by w - & where tt=w3, a=6; Art. 423. As in most cases the force F varies as some integral power of the distance, it will be more convenientto retain the form given
above.
(2) is
must
lie inside
the circle
u=a
if
if
n<3.
have arrived at the apse. It will then begin to recede from the circle and must always continue to recede because dujdd is not again zero. The orbit has therefore two branches extending from the apse to the centre of force or to infinity according as n> or < 3. The apse is an apocentre in the first case and a pericentre (as in a hyperbola described about the inner focus) in the second case.
Suppose the
particle, as it
force, to
The motion in the neighbourhood of the apse may be found by writing and retaining only the lowest powers of x. We then have
{dxldef=iAx;
where 4:AW=(i>{a).
angle
.:
u=a + x
u-a=Ad\
while
it
The path is therefore such that the particle describes a Unite moves from u=u to u=a. Since ddjdt=liv? is finite, the- time of
is
also finite.
431.
none.
Cases
II.
and
III.
To find
may
be either two
The
apsidal equation
positive roots or
The condition for this is that the right-hand same sign when u=0 and u=co
First.
side of (A)
zero.
The
Let n>3, this condition requires that C should be positive and not velocity at every point must therefore be greater than that frcrni infinity.
To
we
find the
max-min value
M of
by equating to zero
We thus
find
--m^^'
Taking the second differential and a maximum when n<3.
coefficient
n-1
find that
we
is
We
notice that
of
M have
G
we can make
have any sign
either predominate
if
by giving h ox
small values.
M may
there-
fore have either two apsidal distances or none; there will be two if
is
negative
and none
if
is positive.
If
Secondly, let
3>n>l.
unless
The right-hand
same sign
is negative.
The
infinity.
ART. 433.]
Writing as before
CLASSIFICATION OF ORBITS.
277
we
M
M
is
necessarily positive
is
Then
negative
equal to
M for
some intermediate
M=0.
Since
we
notice that
is least
i.e.
occurs
when h=vr,
is greatest.
particle is
and
is
when
v^=ixlr^~^, that
is,
when
the velocity
infinity
is
(ra
equal to that in a
circle.
This value of v
value of
the path
is less
we
M
is
is zero.
The value
is
therefore positive
and
is
zero only
when
circle.
We, may
since the velocity is insufficient to carry the particle to infinity, the orbit
have either an apocentre or must approach an asymptotic circle. In either case the apsidal equation has one positive root and therefore has another.
Thirdly, let 1>tc.
Since
C=v^+
F^^
we
notice that
C must
be positive.
We
now have
we may prove
in the
is least
v^=iilr^~^
M=
^ri-"+Fo*=0 by
Art. 312.
is
always positive
circle.
and
We verify this
The
apsidal equation
must
therefore
432.
It follows
from what precedes that the curve defined by the apsidal when n>3. In that case the orbit
We arrive at
must be
satisfied (Art.
if
there is
no
sufficient to
312).
>1
this condition
evident that the second form of the apsidal equation has then a positive root.
It also follows that there
can be an asymptotic
For
if
must be
and
this cannot
433.
To find
the motion
when
the reciprocals of these distances, the apsidal equation (A) takes the form
h''(^^y={u-a)(u-b)^(u),
278
where
<f>(u)
THEORY OF
is
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
n> or <3. Since the left-hand u cannot lie between the limits a and b if The whole curve <p (u) is positive but must lie between them if ip (u) is negative. must therefore lie outside the annulus defined by the circles u=a, = & if m>3, and must lie within that annulus if n < 3.
positive or negative according as
side is necessarily positive
we
see that
It appears that
when n>3
the full curve defined by the differential equation (A) These, being point of pro-
contains two distinct branches, either of which can be described by the particle
^C
h.
when the
determined.
We
notice also that this branch has only one apsidal distance though the complete
When n<3
u=a,
force.
434. Case ZV. To find the motion when The apsidal equation now takes the form
The motion as the particle approaches the u=a+x and retaining only the lowest powers
h^(dxldef=^{a)x%
where m^=<p{a)lh^. asymptotic path and arrives at the
ultimately equal to ha^) is
finite,
h^(duld0f={u-a)^^(u).
circle
u=a may be
found by putting
of x.
We then have
an
.:
u-a=Ae-^,
ff
The
only when
= aa.
nnmber
of revo-
The conditions
may
have-
a square factor and be positive are (1) the coefficients of the highest and lowest powers must be positive, and (2) we must have M=0, Art. 431. If >3, C must be positive, i.e. the velocity at every point must be greater than that from infinity.
If
n<3'the
power of u
is
negative,
and
there can be no
asymptotic circle.
it is known that the path has an apse, we may prove a pericentre or apocentre according as the velocity of projection is greater or less than the velocity in a circle at the same distance. Let v be the velocity of the particle, V^ the velocity in a circle at the same distance r, F^ the velocity from infinity ; then (Art. 313)
435.
(1),
(2).
V^lri=F. At a pericentre the orbit lies outside the circle of radius r^, hence p>-ri and v^> V^. At an apocentre the orbit lies inside the circle and v^<. V^.
If at that apse v-jp=:F,
.-.
It follows
by inspection of
V-^
(2)
decreases
that at a pericentre both sides of that equation when r increases, both sides must continue to
The
become negative. In the same way at an apocentre the two sides of (2) are negative and must continue to be The conclusion is that the velocity negative as the particle approaches the origin.
ART. 438.]
at
CLASSIFICATION OF ORBITS.
is greater or less
279
any point
apocentre.
436. The following table sums up the possible orbits when F=:fiuV: >3, v^Fj {one apsidal distance, path inside the circle.
v>Vi
M negative
according as
is
<
or
> V^-
M positive
v>Vi
v>Vi
(no apsidal distance, the path extends from the centre of force
\
to infinity.
M=0
3>7i>l, v>Vi
according as v
is
<
or
> Fj.
circles. circles.
{one apsidal distance, path outside the circle. {two apsidal distances, path between the
< Fj
l>ra,
v<Fi
Here Fg
is
Ex. When the force F=:fm'^ is repulsive show that the path, has a pericentre with branches stretching to infinity.
not rectilinear,
437.
The motion in
by retaining the
We thus have
by
(iy=Ksy=^'""-'
according as
"
-*^^first
n>S
The
rP-roP=-^0,
describes a finite angle in a finite time
ri-roi=-Bqt,
where p=i{n-3), q=:^(n + l); showing that the particle (except when n=3) when the radial distance decreases from
to zero.
r=ro
The negative
when n<3,
the particle
is
a radius vector.
438.
The motion at an
infinite distance
from
the origin is
found by retaining
We
then have
2/.
/dry
according as
,^(duy ^
n>
is
or <1.
The negative
when ra<l
from
When C
when
is
infinity,
the
alternative leads to
h(u-UQ)= ~e^G,
r-rQ=tJG,
showing that when the particle travels from r=rf) to infinity it describes a finite angle d round the origin, and that the time is infinite. The path therefore tends to a rectilinear asymptote whose distance from the origin is -d6ldu=hls/C.
If
however C=0,
i.e.
is
We
280
then have
THEORY OF
(dry
^.
APSES,
[CHAP. VI.
2/*
/du^
>1.
according as
n>3
or n<:3 but
The
first
alternative
h=0)
The second
origin,
n<3,
from the
p= -^ (3-n),
q=\{n+\).
it
to a rectilinear asymptote at
an
infinite distance
from the
439.
we
see that
is
when n>3
when
the particle
approaching
an asymptotic
constants G, h
orbits
circle.
The
and a
slight
may
Such
When
71
< 3 and
the velocity of projection less than that from infinity, the path
is restricted to lie
u = a, u = b, and the values of a and 6 wUl alter the values of these constants, but the orbit will still be restricted to lie between two circles though the radii will not be exactly the same as before. Such orbits may be called
between the two
circles
C and
h.
Any
slight disturbance
stable.
440.
Ex.
is,
momentum
h or
moves; that
central line.
will
widen the annulus within which the particle increase the oscillation of the particle on each side of the
JC
will
441.
Apsidal boundaries wben F=f{u). When the law of force contains argument becomes more complicated. Let F='2Au^, then
is
<^''
where
<p (m)
a^, a^,
all
...
contains
u=0
u.
and m=oo
Let us divide the plane of motion into annular portions by circles whose
common
a^,
centre
is
and whose
&c.
Then
it is
since
these
boundaries,
by the
can
have branches only in the alternate annuli, the intervening ones being vacant. The space between u=aj and m = oo being occupied or vacant according as ^(w) is
positive or negative.
ART. 444.]
APSIDAL BOUNDARIES.
between any two contiguous
circles
281
circles,
is
restricted to lie
between these
If the initial position lie outside the greatest circle or inside the subsequent path must also lie outside or inside these circles and must
442.
Next,
let
some of the
(l)'='"(S)"=<"-'"'"-^<'*<"'where / (m) has been written for the remaining factors. To determine the motion in the neighbourhood of the circle u=a, we write u = a-\-x and retain only the lowest powers of x. We then have, supposing m>2,
where B^=f{a)
Art. 434.
(f>{a),
and K=4(m-2).
The case
in
which
m=2
is
discussed in
We
u=a
is
asymptotic.
The
an
infinite
number
of revolutions
and
at the
end of an
infinite time.
443. Let us trace the surface of revolution whose abscissa is r and ordinate z=Fr^, and let the ordinate z be perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle. We notice that this surface is independent of the initial conditions and
that
its
form depends
solely
easy to see that the ordinate z corresponding to any value of r represents the square of the angular momentum in a circular orbit described with radius r.
It is It will therefore be useful also to trace the plane
whose ordinate
is z
= h% where
is
the angular
momentum
By describing circles whose radii are the abscissae minimum ordinates of the surface, we may divide the
annular portions in which the function ing outwards from the centre of force.
scending portions of the surface.
z
of
the
maximum and
= Fr^ is
These we
may
444. If r represent any apsidal distance, we have at the corresponding apse v^Ip=F and v^hjr; hence h^=Fpr^. At a pericentre the orbit lies outside the circle of radius r, hence p>r, and the angular momentum h of the path must be In the same way, at an apocentre the greater than that in a circle of radius 7'. orbit lies inside the circle, and the angular momentum h is less than that in a
circle of radius r.
we
r=OA
must
have an ordinate
OB
than that of the plane z = h% and an apocentral distance must have an ordinate BB' greater than that of the plane. It immediately
A A'
less
follows that
i{
A,
are the pericentre and apocentre of the same path, both the
lie
This con-
B are the
pericentre
and apocentre
of different branches
We infer
from
of
motion
(Art.
443) in which Fr^ decreases outwards has this element of instability, viz. that a
path having both a pericentre and an apocentre cannot he described within the space. If the path have a pericentre the particle will leave the space on its outer margin ;
282
if
THEORY OF
it
APSES.
on
its
it
[CHAP.
VI.
an apoceutre
will
move out
has
left
it
of the space
inner boundary.
We see also
that
when the
particle
must proceed
to infinity or to
come
has increased sufficiently to exceed the K^ of space in which Fr^ has become less than h\
some other external annular space in which its own path or into some internal
445.
Wa-have
'
We may also
'^-^{Tf -^=^(^'-^^')and passes an apocentre r increases to a maximum and hence dridt changes sign from positive to negative and dh-fdt"^ is In the same way, when the particle passes a pericentre, dPrjdt^ is
immediately follows that at an apocentre Fr^>h^ and at a pericentre
As the
particle approaches
decreases,
negative.
positive.
It
446. If the orbit have an asymptotic circle r=:a, the angular momentum h must be equal to that in a circle of that radius. Hence the asymptotic circle must
he the projection of some one of the intersections of the surface z z
= Fi^ with
it
tlie
plane
= h^;
(Art. 443).
circle is itself
As the asymptotic
Art. 445, that
an apocentre or
is
pericentre,
follows, as in
when
negative
and ultimately
Hence Fi^
decreasing outwards.
is positive
it
When
the
and ultimately
which
lie
asymptotic circles.
the plane z = h% there cannot be more asymptotic circles than descending branches.
may
r=a
and
should
(2)
(1)
the angular
momentum must
circle,
the
constant
circle, i.e.
C must
r=a is
v^la=F.
As an example, consider the force Ftm^. If n>3, the surface z=Fr^ has only a descending portion, there can therefore be one and only one asymptotic circle. Also the path described cannot have both an apocentre and a pericentre, though different branches of the same curve may have one an apocentre and another a pericentre. See Arts. 444, 446, 436. If n<3, the surface z=Fr^ has only an ascending portion. Hence there cannot be an asymptotic circle, but the patlj can
447.
448.
of its
Ex.
Discuss
the
properties
of
the
surface
Z=Fr-v\
where the
velocity v is a
known function of r given in Art. 441. Prove that (1) the abscissae max-min ordinates are the same as those of the surface z=Fr^, so that the
portions of each correspond (Art. 443); (2) each asymptotic circle must be one of the intersections of the surface with the plane of motion; (3) conversely, if at any intersection we also have z=-h^, that intersection
is
an asymptotic
circle.
The
first
result follows
from
dr
,--,. dr
r^
To prove
we
ART. 450.]
notice that
LAW OF FORCE
IN
CONIC.
in a circle;
283
and vrhenz = h^, the
angular
when Z=0, the velocity is equal to that momentum is equal to that in a circle.
449. Examples. Ex. 1. Find the law of force with the lowest index of u such that an orbit can be described having two given asymptotic circles whose Find also the conditions of radii are the reciprocals of a and b, and find the path. projection that the path may be described.
,
Referring to Art. 441 we see that the right-hand must be m (w - )^ (" - ^^- We then find
.
momentum
must be
Jfjf.
Let F=/nfi {(u-a) {Su-a-b) + cu}, where F is the central force. If the conditions of projection are such that h^=nc and the velocity v when M=a is
v'^=na?,
is
= (tanh^)2, ^^ u b
Show
also
same asymptotic
circle
at a distance 1/&.
particle arrives at
force with a
But
must a path with an asymptotic circle. an apse in anj finite time (Art. 442).
If the particle
The
apsidal equation
and the apse is at the extremity of The particle therefore can never arrive at such
circle
with the
may
is indefinitely
Boussinesq, Comptes Rendtis, vol. 84, 1877, considers the circular motion to be a singular integral of the differential equation. Korteweg and Greenhill have also
discussed this problem.
On
450,
the
is described.
Newton's theorem^.
particle about
required to
An orbit is described by a a centre of force G whose law is known : it is find the law of force by which the same orbit can be
first
Temps
=
,
284
FORCE IN A CONIC.
[chap. VI
Let F, F' be the forces of attraction tending respectively 0. Let OF, OZ be the perpendiculars on the tangents at any point P,GP = r,OP = r\
to
G and
Then
have
since sin
CF7=CY/r, we
v
-=F
p
= h
CY'
F= p.GY''
Similarly
If
AV
F'
p.OZ''
parallel to
F~
h^r [OZJ
we draw CG
OPZ
and
'
CGY
OZ^_GY
.
r_hf^CG^
If then to
is
also
r'
CG
and
force F' tending known, when we have deduced from the geometrical properties of
the curve.
A = ^ht, we
is
described about
and and
h'.
By
we can make
the ratio
of the periodic
times have
any
ratio
we please.
time of describing any arc
tends
to G, the area
differs
We
known.
central
force
PQ PGQ
is
is
Now
the area
POQ
for 1852, using Cartesian coordinates, arrived at two possible laws of force. Afterwards Darboux and Halphen investigated two laws equivalent to these, and
is
its
Their results
to
may
be found in voL 84
The
investigations of
him
at
Despeyrous, 1884.
39 of the Monthly
who
Darboux uses
Halphen
employs f
Glaisher
beginning with the general differential equation of all conies simplifies the arguments by frequently using geometrical methods.
a paper by S. Hirayama of Tokyo in Gould's Astronomical Journal,
There
1889.
is also
ART. 453.]
figure
285
whose area can therefore be found. Hence the area POQ and therefore the time of describing the same arc.PQ when the
central force tends to
can be found.
Suppose the orbit is a conic, then the force tending to the centre G is F=[ir, and h = \Jfi.ah. It immediately follows
451.
is
F' =
-^
If,
for
example,
conic that
is
a focus,
it
is
of a
We
on the auxiliary circle and that therefore then have F' = /jb'/r'^, where h'^ = /juV/a.
lies
CG = a.
452.
Parallel forces.
To find
Let the point be at an infinite distance, then in Newton's PO and GG remain parallel to the given straight line throughout the motion. Also the length r' = OP is constant. The required law of force is therefore F' = fx. GG^, where /t is some constant.
formula
If the direction
PO
of the force at
jugate to
N, we have GG.PN=b'^, where b' is the semidiameter parallel to GG. The law of force may therefore also be written F' = AjPN\ where A = fxh'\
in
GG
To
fi,
we
hjp,
In our case when the force acts parallel to a given straight line this component is constant. Representing this transverse velocity by V, the Newtonian
formula of Art. 451 becomes F'
453.
= GG^. a^b^
r-
Hamilton's formula.
particle
describes
a conic
It is required to
find the law of force. Taking the same notation as in Newton's theorem, we let F, F' be the forces tending respectively to the
ce^tre
>
Then
(Art. 450)
F = CP[0'Z)'
P
^ = /^-^^'
and the centre
, / h^^f^.ab.
,
p and
ay
are the
'
'
286
of 0,
FORCE IN A CONIC.
OZ* ^ = Yrv
h"'
[CHAP. VI.
'
^^ follows that
tliie
to
is
f^-)
/, where
a, b
and
pomt
of the
curve and
If
h',
and
-bt
are constant.
we
as before
-zb-
is
orbit.
From this we easily deduce the periodic time in an elliptic Remembering that the whole area is Trah, the formula
as
complete
ellipse
time of describing any portion of the ellipse with Hamilton's law of force. The coordinates of any point
454.
To
'find the
referred to
force
0.
cos
<^
/,
= bsin^ g,
and
/,
where
<j>
is
g the coordinates of
Then,
if
= xdy ydx = {ab fbcos ^ ga sin <^) d<^, :. ht = ab<p fb sin ^+ga cos ^ ga,
where the time is measured from the passage through the apse from which <f) is measured. This, if required, can be expressed in terms of so and y,
ht
= ab(}} fy + gx ga.
This result can be deduced at once from the formula equating A to the excess of the area of the sector AGP
A = ^ht, by
(viz.
^ab^)
over the
*
let /,
sum
of the triangles
AGO, OGP.
The
following is a short analytical proof: Let the conic be Ax^-irBy^=l and and the tangent at P are g be the coordinates of 0. The polar line of
respectively
AM+Bgr) = l,
Ax^+By7i=l.
P and
0, viz.
p and OZ,
are therefore
_1-Afx-Bgy ^ - vPV^+Wl
The perpendiculars from the
numerators by unity.
centre, viz.
ztf
It follows that
plOZ=i3lCY.
ART. 457.]
287
The time of describing an arc of a hyperbola be found by proceeding as in Arts. 348, 349.
465.
may
Sxamples.
Ex.
1.
Deduce from Hamilton's expression (1) the and (2) that to the centre. [In the latter
case nj and
A particle describes an ellipse whose centre is C under the action of a F situated at a point R in the major axis. If the tangent at P cut the major axis in T, prove that the force F varies as RP {CTIRT)K
Ex.
2.
centre of force
456.
into
The Hamiltonian
different forms.
may be put
two
First,
we have
Secondly.
Let OA,
OB
from the centre of force 0, and let PL = a, PM=^, PN=y; on these being the three perpendiculars drawn from any point
OAB.
By
a^ = K^f, where
force
is
The
central
may
OP
OP
^=^pm=\PL.PMr
position of
at
It ^'^^"'^
r
Each of these expressions is a one-valued function of the P though their values are not necessarily equal except on the orbit. points
suppose either of these laws to be extended to all points of the plane of motion and enquire what would be the path for any given conditions of projection. These problems will be considered in turn.
467.
the
We may
axes, viz.,
The conic being given in its general form referred to any rectangular Ax^ + 2Cxy + By^ + 2Dx + 2Ey + G=0, ^ two HamUtonian expressions for the force to the origin may be put into
-^=7^;
the forms
{ax'' + 2yxy+py^)^' a=D^-AG, y=DE-CG, p=E^-BG, and A is the discriminant. To prove this we notice that the polar line of the origin is Dx+Ey + G=0, that the ratio of the perpendiculars from the centre x, y and &om the point P is
(Dx + Ey + Q)-^'
r,
tttj.
P=
so
where
_ Dx-^Ey-it-G
we
becomes
Aa^ + 2Cxy+Byz=
-D3!-Ey-G= - j^^Tci'
288
FORCE IN A CONIC.
let this
[CHAP. VI.
become
BY=-Dx-Ey-G,
A'B'=AB-C^ and
A' + B'=A
+ B.
jf^,
Since the
.
now
we have a^b^=
the expression
{Dx + Ey + Gf may be written in the form G(Ax^ + 2Cxy+Bif) + {Dx+Ey + Gf=(Dx + Ey)^ just obtained for the force F may be put by a simple
a%^\p)^~
substitution
The straight lines ax^ + 2yxy+py^=0, when real, pass through the origin and make Dx+Ey + G=0. They therefore meet the curve at the points where the polar
line of the origin cuts
it, i.e.
dravm from
the
X,
458. In the same way we may express F as a function of the coordinates y in a variety of different forms each of which gives the same magnitude for the force when the particle lies on the given conic. When these expressions for
the force are generalized and supposed to hold at
all
coordinates.
improbable.
For example, we might deduce from Hamilton's law an expression for F in To do this we find the distance p of any point P'on the orbit from the polar line of the origin O in terms of the distance r of P from 0. But there are four points on the conic at the same distance r from the origin and each The expression of these is, in general, at a different distance from the polar line. for the central force F as a function of r only will therefore have four values for
terms of r alone.
each value of
r.
459.
The
Supposing the
first
the
P from
a fixed
centre of force 0,
perpendicular
is positive
from Pon an arbitrary straight line fixed in space. It is supposed that p when P and the origin are on the same side of the given straight line.
We
straight
shall
now prove
that, if
direction
a particle be projected from any point P in any the path is a conic having O, and the given
It is
obvious that
we can
describe a
it
PT and
have such a radius of curvature that V^lp is equal to the normal force at P, (2) the two conditions that the polar line of shall be the given straight line. We may. also prove that this conic is a real conic. This being so, the conic mast be the
path.
'
ART. 461.]
289
however obtain a proof independent of Art. 453 by integrating the Let the origin be at the centre of force, and the given straight line be parallel to the axis of a; at a distance c, then p = c-rBiad.
equation of motion.
We may
We have
To
-s
+ u=
hhfi
ft2
(p)3
;j2
(cu - sin
Of
= sin + cu';
dht'
,
n
7i2c%'3*
This
is
force F=firl<^.
Thi? path
.'.
is
known
Art. 325;
chi'^
(1).
{cu
- sin ef=zA'
e+B' sin^ 6,
(c-y)^=A'aP+2C'xy+BY
Writing this equation in the form kj^^ol^ where
a, /3
(2).
hand
side, it is
When
To prove
the conic
is
(2), the
constant h
is
given by
^=A'B' - C'^.
We
this we notice that h represents the angular momentum of both orbits. have therefore by Art. 326 h^c^l/i=a'"b'^, where a', b' are the semi-axes of the conic (1). We know by the theory of conies that A'B' - C'^=(^ja'^b'^, the result
When
the conic
is
we
find
-^= A {
h^
\GJ
and the
it is
not conservative
460.
F=iirlp^.
To
classify the
paths according
to the sign
of
/i,
the
Let
II
be positive
the force
is attractive
and the
orbit concave to
aU points
on the side of the given straight line nearest to the centre of force and the contrary at all points on the far side. When a conic cuts the polar line of a point 0, the part of the curve nearest to is convex hence the orbit does not cut the polar line. It also follows that the orbit may be an ellipse or hyperbola on the side near 0, but must be a hyperbola on the far side.
;
an
ellipse or
a hyperbola.
and the orbit convex to on the near on the far side. The conic may be By drawing a figure we see that the polar line must cut
is
repulsive
may
461.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
de-
F=^ p*
tending to the
straight
where
p=c-yis
the^ven
Une
290
y = c.
2/=c.
(1)
FORCE IN A CONIC.
The conic must have the form given
Prove that
if
[CHAP. VI.
is
to be
{A{B + l)-C-}h^=t.c,
(2)
{4B-Cn^'=M^"-(y,
(5)
-Ch^=f,.y^{cpk)
when
the path
is
From
these equations,
of velocity
known, we can find the angular momentum conversely we can deduce the path when
;
proof
These equations follow from the preceding propositions. An independent may be obtained by differentiating the equation of the conic twice and
d^xldt"^, d'h/jdt^ their
writing for
We
equations which
may
Ex.
2.
according as
Prove that the conic described is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola /i {2p - c) I p^ - p'^ is positive, zero or negative, where p is the distance
line
and
Ex.
3.
If
show
is
T=-j- )rjw^c^\c\
Ac
5
'
j.n
Ex.
4.
particle is acted
tending to the
and p the distance from a fixed straight line. Prove that the equation of the path is c/r=sin^+/(^), where clr=f{6) is the polar equation of the path when the force tending to the origin is F=/j.r^~^lc^, both orbits being described with the same angular momentum h.
origin where r is the radius vector
462.
\
force. Supposing the second form of the Hamiltonian law of force to be extended to all
y^ P_^^
y^
lohere
we put
F=v^i,
{PL PM)^
.
^\
PL,
yw ^
459lines
pomt
through the centre of force 0; Art. 456. The form of the path may be obtained by
following either of the methods described in Art.
The
result is that the path is always a conic touching the given straight
OA,OB.
any point
it
If the force at
is to
be a function of the
(supposed to be
position of
P only,
OB
real),
be different in different triangles. In any triangle in which negative only the convex portions of the conic can be described, while
may
when
the sign
is positive.
The
force is
when the
OA,
OB and
the
ART. 464.]
291
sign being taken at pleasure, arcs of both parts of each conic could be described
by giving
463.
If the trilinear
is
a^ = Ky^,
prove that h^= - ivCK^ cosec^ $ v?here vhk^, triangle occupied by the central force, and c
of force
is
O on
AB.
from the
Ex.
tangent
The negative sign shows (what is indeed obvious repulsive on the side of the polar line nearest to
from the point P with a velocity V and the OA, OB in G and H. Prove that
negative.
particle is projected
GPH
OGH,
is
^(lx)+^{my)+^(^^z^ = 0,
where l=GP, m=^HP, A
of the path at
is
is
GPO.
is positive
or negative,
according as the
464.
OP P^'
OP
(PL.pmf
initial conditions.
,
which, being a one-valued function of the coordinates (except as regards sign), are
A B, C, D, from Hamilton's theorem that for points on any one conic the force to a given point O must be F=firlp^. Hence if the force is to be one-valued, i.e. the same at the same point of space for aU paths through that point, we must have at each of the four points A, B, C, D, ja^lfi = p'^I/m', where p, p' are the perpendiculars on the two polar lines of 0.
To prove
it is
which
convenient to take as
It follows
We now
If
and the
common
common law
fotm of F, in the
latter ease
ax^ + 2yxy+py'^--{Dx + Ey
a'x^ + 2y'xy
Since
Dx + Ey + G=0,
we
must have
ax^ + 2yxy
+fy^ = m
(a'x^
+ 2y'xy + j8'i/^)
This quadratic equation gives only two values of yjx for the same value of m. The equation cannot therefore be satisfied at four points unless either a, /3, y are respectively proportional to a', /3', y', or the four points lie on two straight lines
(say
0.
pair of
conies.
common tangents, in the latter the polar line of is common to the two This common polar line can be constructed by dividing OAB, OCD har-
monically in E,
F and then
joining
EF.
292
SINGULAR POINTS.
[CHAP. VI.
Singular Points.
It has already
which either the force, the velocity or both become Such infinite quantities do not occur in nature and if we limit ourselves to problems which have a direct application to natural phenomena these are only matters of curiosity. Nevercesses in
infinite.
theless
it is
useful to consider
call
our attention
which we might otherwise pass The utility of such a discussion is perhaps shown by the over. differences of opinion which exist regarding the subsequent path
to peculiarities in the analysis
particle
Points of infinite Force. Let us suppose that a P, describing an orbit about a centre of force 0, arrives at a point B where the tangent passes through the centre of force and therefore coincides with the radius vector. At first sight we
466.
might suppose that the particle would move along the straight But line BO and proceed in a direct line to the centre of force.
this is not necessarily the case.
Supposing
to
be
finite,
and the curvature be at a finite distance from (Art. equations we see from the 306)
to
p
that both V and
at
We
shall
also
its
suppose that when the particle passes on the force changes direction and reduces the velocity again to a finite quantity.
to
At the same time the component of the velocity perpendicular the radius vector OP, viz. rdO/dt, remains finite however near
Since there
is
must
OB
The
singularity of the
is
circle
Asaph Hall
Other There
are several papers also in the Bulletin de la Societe Mathematique de France, such
as Gascheau in vol. x, 1881,
and Lecornu in
vol. xxii.
ART. 468.]
467.
293
To
simplify
particle describes
circle
external to
the circumference.
are given
By
by
F=
where
to the circle.
^^
v'
= t^
h'=JL
OB, OB' drawn from
OB
at
on the opposite
side.
If a
circle, arrive
two particles
will
The
The
centre is
the next lie on a circle whose and radius OB = h, and the successive arcs are alternately concave and convex to the centre of force. The particle the same will thus continually move round the centre of force direction in an undulating orbit, but the curve will not be re-
from one
circle to
BOB'
is
a submultiple
will
When
as
ex-
made
it will
to
describe
either
arcs
contained
between the
On
Tbe
When
the particle
arrives at the centre of force in a finite time, the determination of the subsequent
peculiarities.
Taking
first
centre of force
on
its
circumference,
we
particle
can
294
have an
infinite velocity in
SINGULAR POINTS.
a direction perpendicular to what
is
[CHAP. VI.
ultimately a
is
2ap=r% the
When
its
the particle has passed through the origin, the central force, changing
direction,
to
a finite quantity.
Meantime the
transverse velocity carries the particle across the tangent to the circle.
By
the
same reasoning as
an equal
circle
On
and so on continually.
469.
One
while describing the second circle moves round the centre of force in the opposite
direction to that in the
first circle.
equidistant from the centre of force, just before and just after passing through
that point.
at
The transverse velocity being unaltered the moments of the velocity and P' taken in the same direction round O are equal and opposite. Since
is r^dOjdt, it follows
this
moment
its sign.
470.
force
When
whose law
it
describes
an
infinite
number
of continually
decreasing circuits and arrives at the centre of force at the end of a finite time,
Art. 319.
The subsequent path is another equiangular spiral, Art. 357, having To determine its position we consider the conditions of motion
Let us construct a second equiangular spiral obtained from the first by to an equal PO backwards through the origin distance OP'. If two particles P, P' describe these spirals so as to arrive simultaneously at the centre of force 0, the particles are always in the same straight
line with 0,
and
at equal distances
from
it.
to each.
subsequent path of P.
On
passing the centre of force the particle will recede from the origin and
We
first spiral.
471. Umiting Problems. We may sometimes simplify the discussion of some singularities by replacing the dynamical problem by another more general one of which the given problem is a limiting case. But the use of the method requires some discrimination. For example the motion of a particle attracted by whose law of force is the inverse cube, may in some a centre of force at a point cases be regarded as a limit of the motion when the particle is constrained to move in a smooth fixed plane and is attracted by an equal centre of force situated at a point C outside the plane, where CO is perpendicular to the plane and is equal The method requires that the limiting motion should to some small quantity c. be the same whether Ave put the radius vector r=0 first and then c = 0,or c first and then r=0. We know by the principles of the differential calculus that the order in which the variables r and c assume their limiting values is not always a
matter of indifference.
"
ART. 473.]
The component when the centre of
the particle
is
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
of force in the direction of the radius vector
295
PO is iirKr^ + c^)^
As long
as
force is at G,
and
is nji^
when the
centre is at 0.
components are substantially the same, but when the particle is in the immediate neighbourhood of 0, the former is nrfd^ and therefore zero when the particle passes through 0, while
at a finite distance
from the
origin, these
the latter
is infinite.
is very nearly an though the orbit at a distance from becomes elliptical in the neighbourhood of 0. The force is the path has a pericentre and riot sufficient to draw the particle into the centre the particle retires again to an infinite distance. See also Art. 322.
In the former
case,
it
equiangular spiral,
472.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
rd=a
under the action of a centre of force in the origin (Art. 358). Show that after passing through the centre of force it will describe another spiral of the same kind, obtained from the first by producing each radius vector backwards through
the origin to an equal distance.
is
may have
common
tangent, and
it
might therefore
But
this argu-
ment
requires that the particle should not pass through the origin, so that the
known
Ex.
2.
A particle describes
an epicycloid with the centre of force in the centre Supposing the force to become repulsive when the show that the path on passing the cusp is a hypocycloid.
Kepler's Problem.
473.
particle describes
one focus,
it is
required to
an
If
we
require
only the
first
it
is
r'^ = '^{fiaO-e%
where v
is
^^fl-H^ =
r,
1 -f e cos v
(1),
Eliminating
we have
%%={l-e^fa+ecosvr^ ^\
= (1 - f 6= -f &c.) (1 - 2e cos V -f Se^ cos^ v - &c.) = 1 2e cos V + f e^ cos 2v + &c. Remembering that v = a, where a is the longitude of the
nearest to the centre of force,
nt
apse
we have
(2),
where
296
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
[CHAP. VI.
We notice that
6 increases by
27r/?i.
27r
It follows
planet makes a complete revolution, and that the corresponding increment of t is immediately that n represents the mean angular
when the
velocity, the
see
Art. 341.
The equation (2) may be extended to higher powers of e, and therefore when e is small it may be used to determine the time
of describing
any angle
find 6 in
6.
474
it
To
e
terms of
t,
we
a.)
Writing
in the
form
= nt + e
first
-\-
2e
Bm{d -
- f e" sin
2 (^
- a),
we have
as a
approximation
d^nt +
a second approximation gives
^
e;
= ni + 6 + 2e sin (wi + e a). Writing Vo = nt-^e oi,a, third approximation gives ^ a = Vo + 2e sin {vq + 2e sin Vq) f e^ sin 2,Vq 6 = nt + e + 2e sin (nt + e - a) + fe^ gin 2(nt + - a).
;
.-.
.(3),
and
is
As the
about l/60th
it
is
rapidly evanescent.
For the sake of clearness we recapitulate the meaning of the letters in the important equation we have just investigated; is the true longitude of the planet measured from any axis of
475.
CO
a
;
is
the
mean angular
for
velocity, the
one complete revolution; a constant whose magnitude depends on the instant from
t is
measured.
e.
Let a particle Pq move round the its longitude is given by the equation 0o = nt + . It follows that this planet moves with a uniform angular velocity n and has therefore the same periodic
To
manner that
Po passes through an
ART. 477.]
297
integral multiple of
It
d = nt + . Hence
when the
of Pq
The
definition
may be
summed up
thus.
Let an imaginary planet move round the centre of force with a uniform angular velocity in the same period as the true planet and let their radii vectores coincide at one apse and therefore at the
other.
This planet
is
t
called the
is the
constant e
To express
the
of the time.
Since both the
mean and
e.
+ e = a,
If
m = nt +
m + e sin u.
for
the three
first
approximations,
(4).
(5).
The
second
power of the eccentricity. Laplace in the 2Iecanique Celeste (page 207) and Delaunay in his Theorie de la Lune (vol. i. pages 19 and 55) give the series up to the sixth power. Stone has continued the expansion up to the seventh power in the Astronomical Notices, 1896 (vol. lvi. page 110). Glaisher has given the expansion of the eccentric anomaly up to the eighth power in the Astronomical
Notices, 1877 (vol. xxxvii. page 445).
477. IVlieji the eccentricity e is very 7iearly equal to unity, as in the case of some comets, the formulse giving the relations between t and v must be modified.
Starting as before (Art. 473) from the equations
j2^=V{M(l-e2)},
we put the
perihelion distance
^i^^^^ = l + ecos,
a{l-e) = p.
(\ + ef-dv \/p'~j'\(1 + e cos v)^
298
Let
(1
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
- e)/(l + e) =f and put tan J v =a;
for the sake of brevity
[CHAP. VI.
V
When
If
P'^
J (l+fxY
is
small the term independent of f is the one requiring the most arithmetical calculation and this can be abbreviated by using the tables constructed for that purpose ; see Art. 349. Conversely when t is given and v is required the same
is
tables give a
first
approximate value of
x.
it
is
v-win
Theoria, &g.
478.
When
is given,
m=M-csm,
When any
tan-=
/1 + e, -
u tan-
(1),
r=a-ex = a(l-ecosu)
(2).
one of the other quantities is taken as the independent variable, the corresponding equations can be deduced from these in the form of series. Two methods are used to find the general term of these series. First we may have
recourse to Lagrange's theorem, viz.,
when
y=z+x<t>(y),
f(y)=f{z) + 2^.^^{{<f,{z)Yf'(z)},
.
where
I,i
=l
3...i,
and the S implies summation from i=l to oo By the is expressed by a definite integral which is usually
To express
the eccentric
479.
Since
Ziagrange's tlieorein.
anomaly u and
the
u=m + e sin u,
The expansion of (sin m)* in cosines of multiple angles when i is even and in sines when i is odd is given in books on trigonometry (see Hobson's Trigonometry, Art. The (i - l)th differential is always a series of sines and is easily seen to be 52).
;
2'~i
-{i
4)*-isin(i
- 4)m - &c.
'
2
i.e.
writing /(?/)
= cos y,
we
find
(smm)'+S
implies
to oo
examine the second method by which we express the general term in a definite integral. We know by Fourier's theorem that we can expand any function ^ (m) in a series of the form {m) = AQ + Aj^ cosm+ ...+AiCosim+.,. + J5i sin m+...+.BiSin im+ ...,
480.
Bessel's functions.
We
shall
now
briefly
ART. 483.]
which holds
bessel's functions.
for all values of
2ir,
299
If also
(p {in)
from -tt
to +7r.
is
a periodic
the expansion will hold for all values of m. If (m) does not change sign with m we may omit the second line of the expansion, while if it does change sign with vi, we omit the first line. function having the period
To
from
find
.4;
we use
bycosim and
integrate
Remembering
im cos
i'm dvi
Jcos^ ivi
that
Jcos im sin i'm
Jcos
= 0,
dm = 0,
dm = Jsin^ im dm ~ tt,
,
we
find
j(p
(m) cos
im dm=irAi
j(p
(m)
dm = 2Tr Aq
same
limits,
we
find
J^
(j?i)
sin
im dm = ttBi
481.
the limits
To expand u-vi=esinu in a series of sines of multiples of m. u-m='2,Bi sin im -irEi = ^(u - m) sin im dm, being 7n= - tt to t. Integrating by parts, triBi = - {u - m) cos im, + Jcos im [dii - dm).
.'.
We
put
is zero, for
TTiiSj
= Jcos
tt.
integral is zero
substituting for
Jcos
i
its
value in terms of u,
iriBi
(u-e sin w)
du.
and
ir is
written
ttJj (/<?).
We
have
iBi
2 Jj
[ie)
482.
The
vi^Bi =
[A>J'
I
- d sm
The
dm
zt
= du - sin im .
.
fd^u
I
dm
J dm^
3^ sm im dm.
Also
m= 7r.
=
,-^
u=m+e
d^u
sin w, '
.".
-7;
dm^
rr.
and since e<l, it is clear that d^ufdm^ has a numerical maximum value; let this be k. Since sinm<l, it follows that iri^Bi is numerically <2ft7r. The series is
therefore at least as convergent as
2 1/ i-.
483.
To compare
u-m.
e,
the coeSicient of
being a series
with Bessel's functions the terms are arranged according to the multiple angles, the coefficient of sintTJi being a
In the
series
series of
powers of
series for
e.
The
u-m
is really
a double series containing both trigonometrical If the terms are collected and e.
follows from
Uj
is
tliat
&c.
also form a convergent series, provided the eccentricity e is less than unity.
But if the series is arranged according to the powers of c, the positive and negative terms are added together in a different way. It may then be that the series of coefficients of e, e-, &c. are only made convergent by more limited values
of
e.
The condition
keplee's problem.
[chap.
300
484.
If
vi.
iriBi
The expression for JBj may be written Jcos iu .{l-\ iH^ sin'^ it + &c. } du + Jsin iu
sin^M, sin*w,
<fec.
{ie sin
u - &c. } du.
we expand
we see that every term in the first integral will be zero in which the power of e is less than i. A similar remark applies to the second integral. Hence the lowest power of e which accompanies the term sin im is e*.
486.
To express
r/a
= l - e cos u
.".
in
m, we put
m= -ir to
tt.
dm into
The
du,
we have
'n-iAi=
- e cos u sin im -
ejsin
im sin udu.
Writing ni=tt-esinM, the
integral
becomes
iriAi
= - ejsin i(u-e sin u) sin udu = Jc Jcos {{i + l)u- ie sin } du - Jc Jcos {{i - 1) - ie sin u} du;
.:
- Ji-^
(ie)
Similarly
^ttAq
Integrating between
= - cjcos udm= - ejcos u.(l-e cos m) du. limits = -tt to we find A(,=^e^:
tt, .:
486.
That
may
.
way
as before.
We have
!n^Ai=~e
by integrating by
IJil
..,
.
fd cos u
I
:;
J
parts.
dm
dGosim=e
m = wi +
u dm^ coaimdm, =
.
Since
c sin u,
.
we
find
,
by
,
differentiation
k.
m,
Then
since
cosm<l,
iri^Ai is
and the
vergent as Sl/i^.
487. Examples. Ex. 1. Prove cos ku =24, cos im, sin km = SB; sin im, where iAi=K {Ji-K {ie)-Ji+K (*)}> iBi=K {Jj-^ (ie) + Ji^^ (ie)} and k is not equal to
unity,
=1
1
to oo
(a;)
these series
may
be written
.
- cos KU = XJi^K
_,^
.cosim
(*)
-
- sin KU = ^Ji-K
,.
sinim
:
(*e)
where S implies summation from i= -oo to +ao, and the term J,.^ (ic)/i, when i=0, is - ie or according as k is equal or unequal to unity (Art. 485).
Since the Cartesian coordinates, referred to the centre of the
ellipse,
are
j;=acosM, J/ = 6 sin M, we deduce the expansions of these in terms of the mean anomaly by putting k=1.
Ex.
2.
extends froir
i=l
to 00
'
ART. 489.]
Ex.
3.
VARIOUS EXPANSIONS.
301
Prove that
where
i
- e^)
l""
cos
(u
e sin
?t)
7ri
Jo
\
1-e cos w
cos im (dv
- dm)
we can prove
v.
that this
convergent as Sl/t-.
This integral
is
and
Lefort, Liouville's
Ex.
4.
. .
...
where
X=__l__.
V-i ^^^
t^ke logarithms
7'
[Laplace.]
Ex.
5.
Show
that
00
vi=v + 2'2,
.
r {1 +
x/(l
e^) }
sin iv where
implies sum-
We have
.-.
w, r sin r
am.u=^
1
+ ecosr
edv
= -^^^- '-^
Expand, substitute in
follows.
...
,,
d
Tdv
(l
+ Xe''^-l)(l + Xe-^^'-l)
iTx^
3,
''"-
m=u- e sin m,
the result
This
is
488.
and
6.
first
to prove
and
true
anomaly
and in powers
tricity less
of the eccentricity are not convergent for all values of the eccen(see Arts. 474, 476).
than unity
He showed by
Tome
v.
process that the condition necessary for the convergence of both series
eccentricity should be less than -66195.
il/ec. Celeste,
that the
Supplement, p. 516.
&c.
This important result was afterwards confirmed by Cauchy, Exercises d' Analyse, An account is also given by Moigno in his Differential Calculus. The whole
argument was put on a better foundation by Eouche in a memoir on Lagrange's series in the Journal Foly technique. Tome xxii. The process was afterwards further simplified by Hermite in his Cours a la Faculte des Sciences, Paris 1886. In these investigations the test of convergency requires the use of the complex variable. The latter part of the method of Eouche may be found in Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, Art. 100, and is also given here.
equation
The theorem arrived at may be briefly stated. Having given the = m + X(p{z) we have (1) to distinguish which root we expand in powers of X, (2) to determine the test of convergency. It is shown that if a contour exist enclosing the complex point zm, such that at every point of the boundary the
489.
302
modulus
of ?ri?' is less
Kepler's problem.
[chap. vi.
z-vi
this
-within
convergent*.
(z)
To apply
= sin z
and
let
x repre-
We
OP by
measure a real length OA=m from an assumed origin 0, and with A for an arbitrary radius r. Representing the complex line
the Lagrangian series will be convergent
of
if
modulus
/>
gill
Z
is less
all positions of
P on
the circle.
Since
(mod)2 of
z=m + re
where
e is
we have
^
xainz /x\^sin(m + re^'')8in(m + re~^^) ,, (modPof zj 55 \rj z-m =1-) ' e*e~ *
^
= gy{j(/sin+e-'-inV-co82(m + rcos^)}.
* If /() be a continu6us one-valued function over the area of a circular contour whose centre is a;=a, then Cauchy's theorem asserts that f{x) can be expanded by Taylor's theorem in a convergent series of powers of x-.a for all points within the contour (see Forsyth's Theory of Functions, Art. 26).
;
(z), in powers of x is the Lagrangian expansion of z, or a transformation, term for term, of Taylor's, and we may use Cauchy's theorem, provided z, or ^ (2), is one-valued.
\f/
If z
whether this
same value of x, the equation F {z)=z -m- x<f> {z) = when x is given) has two roots. To determine we use another theorem of Cauchy's (see Burnside and Panton,
for the
Theory of Equations).
We
measure
if
OA=m
r.
a circle of radius
theorem
contour.
log
F (2)
is
and with A for centre describe from the assumed origin Let a point P describe this circle once, then by Cauchy's increased by 2mri, the equation F (z) has n roots within the
Hermite writes
log
F (z) = log (2 - m)
-f-
log ^1
^^)
(1)
The equation
z~m=Q
of
contour, hence as
(2) '
^
lies
within the
If the
modulus
a m z
is less
than unity at
all
the value of log(l-M), (being the same on departing from and arriving again at moves round the contour. any point of the contour) increases by zero when
F (z)
increases by 2iri
when
P makes
one
equation z = 'm + x<j>{z) has but one root within the contour if the modulus of
is less
xtp (z)
than unity at
all points
on the circumference.
ART. 489.]
CONVERGENCY OF THE
,
SERIES.
303
term of this ex-
we
l,
or ^ =
to
v = oo
and
is
therefore
when 6=^^.
The
second term
is zero.
The modulus
Ix --
{e^
+ e~^).
x
The Lagrangian
than
2/7(e''
less
e~'').
To
find the
maximum
r,
we equate
its differential
coefficient to zero.
This gives
F=e'-(r-l)-e-'"(r +
Since dVjdr
root,
is
l)
= 0.
e'*
positive for all values of r this equation has but one positive
and
between 1 and
2.
given by the
is /^/{r^-l),
equation
V=0, we
maximum
which reduces to
'66.
CHAPTER
YII.
The
Cartesian equations.
The equations
of motion
may be
written in a variety of
forms
all
of which are
much
used.
where x, y, z are the coordinates of the particle and X, Y, Z the These components of the accelerating forces on the particle.
axes, but it is
provided X, F,
Z are
The
tlie
Cylindrical equations.
From
these
we may
Let
are the
deduce
cylindrical or semi-polar
forms of
p,
<^, z,
the equations.
be
soy
where
p,
we
on that plane, and z = PN. By referring to Art. 35 first two of the equations (A) change by resolu tion into the first two of the following equations (B), while th We have third remains unaltered.
see that the
d-'p
fd<j>y
dt^-P[W=^' -pdtVTt)=^'
f ^d<i>\
d'z
d =
^'
"^^^'
where P, Q are the components of the accelerating forces respectively along and perpendicular to the radius vector p.
ART. 493.]
492.
ELEMENTARY RESOLUTIONS.
Principle
305
Since
the
of
angular
momentum.
and
the
moment
equal to Qp. In the same way the moment of the velocity about Oz is equal to the moment of its component perpendicular to
the plane POz, and this
written in the form
is'
p^d<f>/dt.
m of
may be
d /moment
dt
of \
_ /moment
V
of
Vmomentum/
forces
is
z.
fixed
by the
axis of
The
moment
of the
momentum
is
momentum
When the forces have no moment about a fixed straight line the angular momentum about that straight line is constant throughout
the motion.
493.
The
polar equations.
We may
polar
immediately deduce
from
the
semi-polar
form
<f)
(B),
the
equations (C).
Let
r, 0,
OP, 6 is the makes with the axis Oz, and the angle the plane POz makes with- the
ordinates
of P,
where r
angle
OP
<f}
plane
ccOz.
Since
OP = r
is
ON=p,
NP =
z,
we
see
by
Art. 35
d^
^^^
d'^z
^'^ equal to
acceleration of
of
^~^(^)
^^^^S
^P
direction in
which r
is
measured
(2)
which 6
is
measured
306
[CHAP. VII.
P\-^]
i.e.
ill
P on Oz,
(4)
parallel to
NO
- jiip^-^) perpendicular
to the plane
zOP
in the direc-
tion in which If R, 8,
increases.
OP,
OP
in the plane of
zOP, and
r, 0,
i(
,de\
rdtVdt)
(d^\
P\dt)
cos0
=S> =T
(C).
p dt
dt
= r sin 0.
show that the
radial acceleration is
If w be the velocity,
495.
p (d<f)Jdty to the right-hand side of the first equation and include it among the impressed accelerating forces,, the first and third
equations become the same as the Cartesian equations of motion
of a particle
moving
in a fixed plane
zOP
We may
Art. 38.
and
third resolutions
to
be equivalent
them.
For example,
if
we we
by
their
(d(f>ldt)- as an impressed accelerating and tending from the axis of z is sometimes called reducing the plane zOP to rest. See Arts. 197, 257.
The
process of regarding p
force acting at
ART. 497.]
496.
tions
SOLUTION OF TE EQUATIONS.
307
the intrinsic equa-
The
intrinsic equations.
to the
of motion, due
resolutions.
V,
Let P, P' be the positions of the particle at the times t,t + dt\ v + dv the velocities in those positions, d^fr the angle between
In the time
the component of velocity along the tangent
(w
the tangents.
dt,
at
cos
+ dv) cos
d-ylr.
Writing unity
for
dyfr,
i.e.
of the velocity,
The component
vd-slr.
P
is
The
therefore
vd'^jr/dt,
or which
The
is
tangents.
zero
by definition contains two consecutive The component of velocity perpendicular to that plane and remains zero. The acceleration along the perpendicular
osculating plane
i.e.
the binormal,
is
therefore zero.
posi-
and
are the
and
the radius of curvature p the component perpendicular to the osculating plane, the
v'^^F,
as
497.
Show
-=
p
G,
= ir
(D).
^ ^
when
the
the form
where f^
(r),
f^ (6)
and
f^
((f>)
The
mass being
unity,
r sine
dt\
dt J
rB\a.dd<t> r'^sia^d'
.'.\{r^smH^^^"=f,{<p)+A
The second
^ of the equations (C) gives
(1).
3^ rdt\
I
1
-5
r^
- 2/3(0) V cos
-^
.
r^sin^d
we obtain
K'-'If-^.-fM-'
(^)-
308
The equation
[CHAP. VII.
(:i)Hf)*'''^^'m-^-*^<'
After substituting from
(1)
<')
and
(2) this
beconies
<*>
(ly-f.-/.--
These are the first integrals of the equations of motion. Since the variables are separable in all the equations, they can be reduced to integrations. Substituting for dt from (4) in (2), that equation gives 6 in terms of r. Substituting again
in
(1),
we
find
<j>
in termS of
r.
Lastly
(4)
determines
in terms of
r.
498.
Moving
axes.
To find
the equations
of motion of a
the origin
move about
an arbitrary manner.
Let us suppose that the moving axes Ox, Oy, Oz are turning round some instantaneous axis 01 with an angular velocity which we --,^^ may call 6. Let 6i, 6^, 0s be the >^ ^2\ about the instantcomponents of
\
/ ,--'''
Then
,--'*'0
'""---..
"^^
3^^-
^-"^
zOx
is
circular arc
moving along that arc, 02 is which any point of the moving along the arc, and so on.
yOz
is
the rate at
V any
directed quantity or
a velocity, or an acceleration.
Vz be
its
components
Or],
moving
axes.
Of be three rectangular axes fixed in space and the components of the same vector along these be let Fi, Fa, Fs a, Let axes. /8, 7 be the angles the axis Of makes with Ox, Oy,
Let 0^,
Oz.
Then
Fg
dVs
^dVz
Let the arbitrary axis of f coincide with Oz at the time t, i.e. let the moving axis be passing through the fixed axis. Then a = ^,
ART. 500.]
yg
MOVING AXES.
309
= -^TT,
= 0.
Hence
dVs _ dVz
~dr~
dt
-p
da ''di~
-.^
d^
""df
Now da/dt is the angular rate at which the axis One is separating from a fixed line 0^ momentarily coincident with Oz, hence
da/dt
= ^2-
Similarly d/3/di
= O^.
Substituting
dt
dt
^-^^+^y^^F.^a
Similarly
^ = ^- _
+ VA,
When
axes, the
i.e.
the moving axes momentarily coincide with the fixed components of the vector V are equal, each to each, As the moving axes pass on, Fa;=Fi, Vy=V2, Vz=V3.
equality ceases to
exist.
this
The
rates
of increase
of
the
The
relations
V is
P, the components Vx, Vy, Vz are the Cartesian coordinates of P, and the rates of increase are the component velocities. If the
vector
V is
ponent accelerations.
Let then x, y, z be the coordinates of a point P u, v,w the components of its velocity in space; X, Y, Z the components of
;
its accelerations.
Then
u = -^-y6s-\-zdc^,
^-
2^^i
+ (xOs,.
^ = jT
-wdi + uda,
w = -Ti-;0^ + y6i,
500.
some
If the origin of
Z = -^-ud2 + vOi.
is
coordinates
slight modification.
Let p,
q,
In order that u,
v,
w may
represent the
310
[CHAP.
an origin
VII.
in space
(i.e.
referred to
fixed in
499.
p, q, r respectively to the expressions given for u, v, w in Art. These additions having been made, u, v, w represent the component space
we must add
velocities of P,
are the
same
on
The theory
moving axes
more
Rigid Dynamics.
founded on a method used by Prof. Slesser in the Quarterly Journal, 1858. Another simple proof is given in the chapter on moving axes at the beginning of
vol.
II.
501.
aiovlng
field
of force.
T be the
moments
semi vis viva, we know that dTJdt is equal to the sum of the virtual Hence, the mass being unity,
dT -^=iXu+Yv + Zw
at
(Art. 492),
A^=zu-xw, Ag=xv-yu, Ai=yw-zv, taking moments about the axes, and, dAJdt=zX-xZ, dAJdt=xY-yX. dAJdt=yZ-zY,
The equation
of vis viva therefore becomes
dT
where
this,
dAi
di'^^lu'^'dt
^_H
dA3_dU dt ~ dt'
If 6^, Sg, ^g are constant,
is
y, z only.
when
502.
Ex.
1.
Show how
from the
Oij,
;
Of.
OV
let Oij
The angular
may
therefore be
velocity d^\dt
may
be resolved into 6
tj
= gob dd^jdt
and ds=andd<pldt.
Also
P are ^=r, = 0,
f=0.
w= -0^r.
Ex.
immediately follows from the equations of moving axes that u=drldt, v=d^r, Substituting these in the expressions for X, Y, Z we obtain the com-
If (ai/3i7i), (02^272)'
(t^sTs)
^.re
system of
^^di'^^-^-dT^'^'di^''
where
6^ is positive
when the
rotation
is
from the
first
To prove
this
we
is
at the time
t.
Hence -
S^dt is the
new
axis of y
old axis of x.
ART. 504.]
Ex.
3.
Lagrange's equations.
particle is describing
311
an orbit about a centre of force which varies is acted on by a disturbing force which is
is
inversely pro-
its
instantaneous axis.
Lagrange's Equations.
503.
Lagrange has given a general theorem by which we can particle, or of a system of in any kind of coordinates*.
is
Any
of a particle,
it
will
be found convenient
thus x"
by some
coefficients
x',
Iiemina.
Let
he
and
If we
6,
(f>,
express x, y, &c.
<&c.
and
the time
say
x=f{t,d,4>,Sc.),
= F{t,d,<j>,&c.),
= &c
o
(1),
then will
^'
suffixes,
we
+ &c
(2).
through both
x, y, &c.
x', y' ,
and
&c.,
their velocities x\
&c. while
d'
* The Lagrangian equations are of the greatest importance in the higher dynamics and are usually studied as a part of BigiA Dynamics. We give here only such theorems as may be of use in the rest of this treatise. The application of the method to impulses, to the cases in which the geometrical equations contain
the differential coefficients of the coordinates, the use of indeterminate multipliers, the Hamiltonian function, &c., are regarded as a part of the higher dynamics.
312
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
partial differential coefficients
[CHAP. VII.
we have the
^^^'
aff=dSdF +
2/,
W'
for
/A\
&c.
{io(j
By
differentiating (2)
we
dsj
j^-
Hence
d dL
dL _/d dL dL (d
dL\ dx
daf\
dtW~W~\did^'~dx)de^
J,
.
,,
._v
;
^dii'W'-dgr^
By
differentiating yi totally with regard to
t,
<'>
we have
(6).
^/.=/.*+/a^'
+ &c
by
The right-hand
differentiating (2)
dx'
to be equal to -5^
from the Cartesian equations of motion. For the sake of generality, let there be any number of particles, of any masses m^, Wg, &c., Let T be and let their coordinates be {x^,yi,z-^, ix^,y^,z^, &c. the semi vis viva of the system, then
2T = 2m (a;'2 +
Let
2/''
+ Z'^)
(7).
CT"
is a Let jRa;> -Rj/> ^z be the components of any forces of constraint which act on the tj^ical We have as many Cartesian equations of motion of particle m. the form dJJ dU dJJ T3 J.
V be
,/
The
particles
may be
by curves and
surfaces,
ART. 506.]
313
the particle m,
be
0,
<f>,
,&c.;
z.
d dL
where
dL
^(-pdx
dz\
dtde'-dd^^r-Te^^'de^^'dd)
2
implies
^^^'
summation
The right-hand
by B6)
work
is
is
side of this
the virtual
moment
known
to be zero.
Since the variations of the coordinates x, y, &c. due to the displacement Sd are differential coefficients dxjdd, dyjdO, &c., t not varying,
is
t.
Taking the various kinds of forces of constraint it has been proved in Art. 248 moment of each for such a displacement is zero. Consider the case of a particle constrained to rest on a curve or surface, the virtual moment is zero for any displacement tangential to the instantaneous position of the curve or surface. The restriction that the geometrical equations must not contain the time
explicitly is not necessary in Lagrange's equations.
If some of the particles are connected together so as to form a rigid body, the mutual actions and reactions of the molecules are equal. Their virtual moments destroy each other because each pair of particles remain at a constant distance from each other. The Lagrangian equations may therefore be applied to rigid
bodies.
506.
d dL dL _ dtdd'de-^'
dL _ . _ ^ d dL *^-~" dtd4'~dj>-^'
is
,.
^^^
therefore the
sum of
the kinetic
If
we use the
function
we have, by
definition,
V to repreU-\- V equal to
a constant.
We
then put
L=TV,
so that
is the difference
Substituting these and potential energies. values for L, and remembering that U and V are functions of the coordinates and not of their velocities, we may also write the Lagrangian equations in the two typical forms
between the kinetic
dt dff
d0~dd
for
'
dt dff
dd
"^
dO
^'
where 6 stands
It should be
314
Lagrange's equations.
all
[chap.
vii.
the
t.
with regard to
The function L is sometimes called the Lagrangian function. We see that when once it has been found, all the dynamical equations, free from all unknown reactions, can he deduced by
simple differentiation.
507. Virtual moment of the effective lemma of Art, 604 the value of T given by
forces.
(7)
If
we
substitute for
in
the
we have
,,dy
d^dT T
dt dd'
dT
,,dx
,.
The right-hand
by 36)
is
the
sum of
the virtual
moments
the
Lagrangian
sum of
the generalized
coordinates
0, <p, c&c.
T for the
arbitrary function
in
(4),
we have by
(7)
dT
The left-hand
ment
50.
^\
,dx
,dy
sum of
the
momenta of the
component of the
momentum.
the
508. mxeaning of the lemma. The fundamental equation represented by lemma has been deduced from the principles of the differential calculus without
Analytically,
by
d
follows the
^'^d0~Ttd0'
same law as the
differential coefficient dld0, i.e.
AgL
where
5^,
dx,
5y,
lemma dynamically (Art. 506), the equation asserts that the sum- of the virtual moments of the effective and impressed forces for a displacement 5^ has the same value whatever changes are made in the coordinates.
we
interpret the
writing
It
509. vrorking rule. When we solve a dynamical problem we begin by down the equation of vis viva, viz. T=U+C.
appears that
all
this,
down
differentiations
ART. 511.]
THE FUNCTION
factors
t
;
T.
315
We
shall presently
remove certain
show that before performing these differentiations, we may from one side to the other by making a change in the
Art. 524.
independent variable
510.
The
function T.
We
coordinates x, y, z 6i every particle of the system can be expressed in terms of the generalized coordinates B, <f), &c. by means of
x=f(t,d,<j>,&c.)
these equations
(1);
but not d', (j>', &c. (Art. 504). In choosing therefore the Lagrangian coordinates, we see that they must be such that the Cartesian coordinates of every particle could be eaypressed if required in terms of them by means of equations
contain
t,
may
which
may
contain the time, but do not contain differential coto the time.
efficients
with regard
^'=/t+/fl^'+'/f
and substituting in the expression
+ &C.,
for
/ = &c
(2),
2T=Sm(a;'2+2/'^
given in Art. 505,
+ /2)
..,
(7),
we
2T =
where the
t,
A^^ff^
. . .
+ B^O' + B,<f>' +
B2, &c.,
G,
coefficients
An,
&c.,
Bt^,
and
are functions of
e,
(f>,
&c.
0,
&c.
&c. of the
is
order.
When
we
find that
viz.
2T
a homogeneous function of
&
<f)',
<&c.
2T = An0'^ + 2A^^e'(f>'+...,
where J-u, A12, &c. are functions
not of t
SIX.
of the Coordinates 6,
<}>,
&c. but
Ex.
first
Two
particles, of
masses
M, m,
are connected
The
is
constrained to
the motion.
move
B is
It is required to find
To
fix
316
to the vertical.
Lagrange's equations.
[chap.
vii.
The Cartesian coordinates of B are then x=^+l sin d and y=l cos 6.
and work functions are then
The semi
vis viva
(1), (2).
U=mgl cos d
Substituting in the Lagrangian equations,
ddT_dT_dU
dt d^'
ddT_dT_dU
dtde'~dd~dd'
'd^~d^'
we have
J {{M+m)^'+mlcoBee'\ =
(M+m)^' + mlcosee'=A,
where
-g sin 6
(3),
is
a constant of integration.
Eliminating
we have
{M+msm^e)e'e''+msm.ecosed' .e'^=-j{M+m)sva.ed'.
This gives by integration
(M+msin2&)d'2=C+^(M+m)cos0
In this way the velocities
I, e.
(4).
^'
and
d'
We have here used both the Lagrangian equations, but we might have replaced T=U+C. Eliminating ^' by the help
we should then have
arrived at the result (4) without
integrations.
any further
512., Ex.
at once
1. The four elementary forms for the acceleration of a point follow from Lagrange^s equations. For example, let us deduce the polar form
We
plane
perpendicular to
are respectively
r'
and
rd',
zOP is
rsin
d<l>'.
2T=vi (r'2+r20'2+r2sin2
Substituting in the Lagrangian equation
^^'2).
d^dT_dT_dU
dt di'
d|
obtain
d|
'
for
r, 6,
<f>,
we
/7
(mr')
- VI (rd'^ + r - mr^
sin
sin^ e^'^)
/ITT
,
j: (mr^d')
cos
H'^=-TS
>
|(mr2sin2^^')=^.
which evidently reduce to the forms given in Art. 493.
"
ART. 512.]
VARIOUS EXAMPLES.
317
Ex. 2. To deduce the accelerations for moving axes from Lagrange^s equations when the component velocities are known.
499,
u=x' -y$^+z6^,
vy'-z6^ + xd^,-
w=:z' -xd^-Vyd-^.
T=\(u^ + v^ + w'),
Since x' enters into the expression for
we have
^
^
dT_dTd^
'
dx
<^
dTdw_
dw dx~
dv dx
dT dU -_-_ =_
'^T
-r-
becomes
dt
- vd., + wd^ X.
Ex.
3.
To deduce
di de'
de~
dd
"'
'
dt
d(p'
d<j>~ d<p'
by
6', 0',
we have
^\dty
where S implies summation
If
dd')-^
m~
de-^^dd'
T is
a homo-
geneous function of
since
dT
functions of
-(*' dd
'
de'J'
dt
dd
we have
2^T_dT^dU
dt dt dt
,^^^^a,
vis viva.
1/f, I/17, is
it
where
is
Ex.
4.
The
position of a
moving point
1/f
and touch three fixed rectangular coordinate planes at the origin. Find the component velocities u, v, w of the point in the directions of the outward normals of the spheres, and prove that the component accelerations in the same directions are dujdt+v {rju -^v)-w {^ic - fw), and [Coll. Ex. 1896.] two similar expressions.
of the three spheres which pass through
Writing
D = ^+Tf + ^^
y', z'
we deduce from
the equations
of the
spheres that
x=2^ID, &c.
velocities x',
along them,
m=
-x^'f^,
v=
Hence
is
dUjudt or -^DdUjd^.
Substituting in
It
= j-
-j^r
~'lt'^^
may
318
513.
[chap.
to
vii.
Lagrangian equations
determine the
small oscillations of
explicitly.
system of particles about a position of equilibrium, when the geometrical equations do not contain the time
let
these be
a,
6, 0,
&c.
^, &c.,
and at
any time
t,
let
= a-\-x,
(f>
= ^ + y,
&c.
function of
0',
<f>,
&c. (Art.
2T = PO'^ +
where P,
2Qe'j>'
substitute
= a + x,
&c.
and
reject all
powers of
2A^^'y'
2T = A^y^ +
where the
a,
+ A^^y'^ + &c
(1),
^, &c.
is
a function of
0,
(p,
&c.
2U=2Uo + 2B^x +
2B,y
.(2).
We
iT
by
= 0,
3/
= 0,
&c.,
we have by the
^=0,
of
a, /5,
^=
0,&c.;
is
5i = 0, 5^
= 0,
&c.
(3).
'
not
known
&c.
may be
dT_dT^dU
dt dx'
dx
dx
"^
x,
T does
The equation
(4) there-
fore
becomes
A^^x"
+ A^^y" + A^sz" + &'c. = B^^x + B^^y + B^^z + &c. A^^" + A.^y" + A^^z" + &c. = B^^ + B^y + B^z + &c.
&c.
. .
J-
.(5)..
= &c.
ART. 516.]
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
319
To
292.
we
oscillation
be represented by
Szc
...(6),
a;=GsiD.(pt + a),
We find by an
. . .
easy substitution
+ Ai) G + {A^p' + B,,)H+ = 0] {A,,p^ + B,,)Q + {A^P' + B^)H^... = q\ &c. = oj Eliminating the ratios G H &c., the n values of p^
:
:
(7).
are given
&c.
(8).
&c. &c.
that, because the
a/, y' ,
&c.
514.
vis viva
It is
2T is
&c.,
real.
If
any or
all
all
the values of
does not
515.
+ q \j
1.
The corresponding
If a value of p^
zero
the corresponding term in (6) takes the form A + Bt. In such a case the coordinate may become large and the system will then
it
will
be
necessary to take account of the small terms in (1) and (2) of higher orders than the second.
516.
Rule.
When
a position of equilibrium we begin for the vis viva and work function for the system in its displaced position, and express these in the quadratic forms (1) and (2) (Art. 513). If the whole motion is
special case of oscillation ahmxt
required
we
But if, as usually happens, only the we omit the intervening steps and deduce
(1), (2).
320
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
notice that, if
[CHAP. VII.
the accents in
we drop
is the
discriminant of the
quadric Tp^
517.
to
motion of a system.
The method has been already explained in Art. 282. Lagrangian equations give the values of 6" ^", &c. in the
,
The
initial
unknown
reactions.
Differen6"', ^"',
we
obtain
differential coefficients.
any point
z = &c.,
of the
system,
we have by
X =/i {9,
Art. 510,
<f>,
&c.),
y =f, (6,
4>,
&c.),
and
y',
therefore
by
may
be found.
The
initial radius of
curvature
518.
Let,
initial
accelerations he required
when
(f>
The
initial position
(f)
being 6
&c.
= a,
= 13, &c. we
6 = a + x,
x',
= ^ + y,
Since
the velocities
(1)
y' ,
and
(2) as before.
Since the
= 0,
= 0,
&c.
&Ct which
we have
&c.
= &c..
These determine the initial accelerations of the coordinates and therefore the component accelerations of every point of the system.
519. Bx.
1.
oscilla-
The
quantities
^,
equilibrium.
The vis
The determinant
ri)2
is
the discriminant of
.
+ U-= J (ilf + m) p2|2 + ^^^2^0 + J ml (Zi)2 _ g,) 02. =0. {M + m)'g^, mlf
.-.
I I
ART. 521.]
One
principal motion is given
EXAMPLES.
by
321
i>2=|^^i^\
The other
is
e=:H sm
(pt
+ a).
A + Bt.
determined by p-=0; this implies that one coordinate takes the form rod could be so projected along the horizontal wire
lations
The student should apply Lagrange's equations to the problems on small osciland initial motions already considered in the chapter on motion in two
dimensions.
He
of the
different methods.
m, m', m.
Three uniform rods AB, BC, CD have lengths 2a, 26, 2a and masses They are hinged together at B and C, and at ^, D are small smooth The rods hang in rings which are free to move along a fixed fine horizontal bar.
Ex.
2.
When
a slight symmetrical
vi')
is
given by imap^ = Sg (m
[Coll.
is
unsymmetrical.
Ex. 1897.]
the
3. Two equal strings AC, BC have their ends at the fixed points A, B, on same horizontal line, and at C a heavy particle is attached. From C a string CD hangs down with a second heavy particle at D. Find the periods of the three
Ex.
small oscillations.
cal plane
through
A and B
[The two periods of the oscillations perpendicular to the are given in Art. 300, Ex. 1.]
verti-
Our success Solution of Lagrange^s Equations. in obtaining the first integrals of the Lagrangian equations will When the position greatly depend on the choice of coordinates. of the system is determined by only one coordinate, the equation of vis viva is the first integral, and this is sufficient to determine
520.
the motion.
When
of the solution
which may
the student.
521.
We
one of them
absent
from
is
work function U.
For example,
we should
take the axis of z in that direction and let z be one of the coordinates.
Again
if
the
moment
^ which
the
plane
case dU/d<f>
coordinate.
In that
(f).
These, or similar,
322
Lagrange's equations.
[chap,
vii.
if 6
Let 6 be the coordinate absent from the work function, then is also absent from the expression for T. though the differential coefficient 6' is present, the Lagrangian equation
d
where
dT
dt dO'
dT _dU " de - dd
^^^"^^'
is
different from
522.
This
Xaiouville's integral.
an
integral' of Lagrange's
it
when
may
be found in vol.
xi. of his
Journal, 1846
the following
is
fication of his
method.
(1),
the co-
P should be a function of only, while Q, R, c&c, are not functions of 0. We notice that it/ may be a function of all or any of the coordinates, and Q, R,&c.
functions of any except
6.
^,
;fee.)
(2),
where C
is
T=U+C
We
We
take
^,
(3).
shall
now prove
that
when
first integral is
(4).
i]\r-P0'-^=F^{e)+A
first
<f>,
\j/,
only and
we may temporarily
T='^M{^'^+Q<j>'-^ + &G.)=U+C,
for ^ is
ldM,^,
dU
form
(2)
and multiplying by
J',
we have
Since F^
(d)
is
lHP^"'=F^{e) + A.
Eeturning to the coordinate
0,
we have
the integral
(4).
When
C can
be found by introduc-
ART. 524.]
initial conditions
liouville's integral.
323
is
arbitrary
and
both
equation.
t;
C)
= l\
(6)
+ .,(<}>)+ &c.,
<p,
and Q, R, &c. are respectively functions method supplies all the first integrals.
the
of
Ex. If T=M{Pe'- + Q4>"^), M=f^(e) +/{(/>), iHr7=Fi((?)+K Lagrangian equations by Liouvllle^s method. The integrals are
1 3PPd''- =
(</>),
integrate
F,
{e)
+ cj\ (d) +A
i 2r-Qi>'^ = F. (0)
vis viva
we
see that ^^
paths
sJPd d
>J(F,
+
f.-,
Cf^
jQd<t)
_ sl^dt
'
Multiplying these by /j
found by
_ ~^
523.
0,
(p,
Jacobi'B integral.
If
&c. of
(71
n dimensions and
Ua
of
+ 2)
(n
+ 2)Ct + A,
where C
is
A an
arbitrary constant.
To prove this, we multiply the Lagrangian equations by 0, <p,&c. and add products. Remembering Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions, we have
the
The
same
as
dt \
dd'
dd'
d', <p',
dt \
'
dd'
since
T is
a homogeneous function of
Remembering
that
T-U=C,
A
is
we have
|at
Ex.
where r
free
attractions, the
i:,mr^
= A + Bt + Ct^
from the
origin.
Some developments
treatise
first
on Rigid Dynamics.
524.
to
variable.
to
some other
is
any function of
form
^A..,<p'-^+
the coordinates.
We
so that
suppose that the geometrical equations do not contain the time explicitly,
T is
homogeneous function
of the
T=^A^^e'- + A^._e'<p' +
(1).
324
Let
lagkange's equations.
suffixes applied to the coordinates
[chap. vii.
mean
Then
Consider
dt d(p'
is
d(t>~ d<p
''
affected
by the change of
t.
Let us write
2'2=(4'^iA- + -fiA0i +
)P
d',
(/>',
(3).
Supposing that
P is
&c.,
we have
dT
dT
dT_ldA,
The Lagraugian equation
_ndA,,
''
T=U+G,
.
equation becomes ^
The
typical Lagrangian
form
^dT2_dT^_d^ U+C
dr
d<p^
d(t>
~ d<f)
P
To
d',
<j>',
'
''
We
TP2\,
T.,,
obtain the
must be replaced by
Suppose
for
l\=3IP{^A9i' + &c.},
Choosing
U.= ^-~-.
MP=\, we
have
The factor
has thus been transferred from the expression for the vis viva to
Here
is
We may now
importance
if
change the
differenis
This difference
of
no
we
and not
their positions at
any time.
If
525.
plified
Orthogonal Coordinates. The Lagrangian equations when the expression for T can be put into the form
T=^(Pe'-'+Q<p'-' + &c.),
much
sim-
d'cp',
We
shall
now prove
case
when
ART. 526.]
ORTHOGONAL COORDINATES.
surfaces which
p.-,,
325
intersect
at
right
(1),
= /3i,
is
/a
(.r,
y,
z)
/^{x, y, z)=p^
where
/d^
These parameters
may
called
Lame in his Lemons sur les In what follows we adopt his notation as far as
As an example of orthogonal coordinates we call to mind a system of confocal and hyperboloids of one and two sheets, the lengths of the major axes being usually taken as the parameters. These are called elliptic coordinates. We may also notice that all the coordinates in common use, whether Cartesian, cylindrical
ellipsoids
In the
first
the point
is
and in
Let
(ttj,
bi,
Ci)
parameter
is p^,
then
i-/ii dx
'
'^^"/ii
dy'
^^~h^ dz
''
where
Let
dsj^
Hn^m<^)'
dsi
,
')
is also
we
travel
be an elementary arc of the intersection of the two surfaces p-2, Psi then As an elementary length measured along the normal to the surface p^ along this arc x, y, z and p^ vary, while p.2 p^ are constant. Hence
.
= dp,; '^dxAdy+'pdz dx dz dy ^
'^'^
'
:.
a-j^dx
(4).
But the
left side is
the
sum
is
therefore ds^;
hence
dsi
= dpjh^.
component
of velocity
p^ is
-j^
normal
to the other
two surfaces
may
right angles,
^'=I^^f'^''-'h'^''^^^''^''
(^)'
where accents denote differential coefficients. In order to use this expression, it will be necessary to express. 7^^, h^, h^, in terms of the new coordinates p^, p^, p^. To effect this we solve the equations (1) and determine x, y, z as functions of Pi, p^, pi', finally substituting these values in the expressions (3) for h-^ h^ h^ This is sometimes a lengthy process.
, ,
Motion on a Curve.
526.
Fixed Curves.
To find
the motion
of a particle on a
To
we
to the curve.
If
326
MOTION ON A CURVE.
this gives as in Art. 181,
[chap. VII.
X, Y, Z,
mv
If
dv
-,
as
+Z =F=^X-f~+Y-f ds ds ds
-,-
^rdx
^^dy
-^dz
.
Uhe
is
which
two directions which may suit the problem under consideration. Supposing that we choose the radius of curvature and binomial, we have
To
we
resolve in any
where G,
B.>
curve
These equations show that the pressure of the particle on the is the resultant of two forces, (1) the statical pressure due
to the forces urging the particle against the curve, (2) the centri-
is
527.
plane
is
at
P making an
angle
G'
of
p'
cos
p,
corresponding to Meunier's
Ex.
2.
helix
is
placed with
its
axis vertical,
inclination
Let a be the radius of the cylinder, a the of the tangent to the horizon.
Drawing
PL
z,
the
radius of curvature
PL
equal to a sec^ a.
is
PT is
osculating plane
LPT.
C,
If the helix is
smooth
we have
v^= -2gz +
v^ cos^ a
_Ri
'
gcosa-^
If
a
-
1)1
we
see that
C=2gh.
Since
is
v=
coseca^2hlg.
ART. 528.]
MOVING CURVES.
+ R^)
.
327
Supposing that the coefficient
of friction is
/*
= tan a,
V -y-=
-g sin oH
we
find
v/{v* COS''
a + a^'')
df
sin 2a
+ c.
/; To integrate this we multiply the numerator and denominator of the fraction on the left-hand side by the denominator with the minus sign changed. We
then find
log {v^ cos a + v/(v* cos2 a + a^g^)
o
OS,
}
^\ COS
J)
^ = sin2o + ^
Q/
C.
CL
To
find
C we
3.
If this
= tan o.
its
rough helical tube of pitch a and radius a is placed so as to have and the coefficient of friction is tan a cos e. An extended flexible string which just fits the tube is placed in it show that when the string has fallen
Ex.
axis vertical
ma
its
velocity
is
where
fi
is
Ex. 4. Two small rings of masses m, m' can slide freely on two wires each of which is a helix of pitch }}, the axes being coincident and the principal normals common ; the rings repel one another with a force equal to /xmm'r when they are at be the angle the plane through one a distance r from one another. Prove that if ring and the axis makes with the plane through the other ring and the axis, the time
in
which
<f>
increases from o to
/3
is
{A<p^ -
2B cos <p +
1
)
C]
"^
d(j),
where
,
/oil
^
and
a, b are the radii of
r,
&
p^
lm(a^ + p^)
m'(b^+p-))'
the cylinders on which the helices are drawn. [CoU. Ex, 1896.]
528.
line It
is
Moving
curves.
Ex.
1.
particle
is
Oz
an angular
velocity w.
required
Applying to
from the axis of rotation, we treat the curve as Taking the tangential if it were fixed. Art. 495. and normal resolutions, we have
V
dv =F m ds
is
u^x cos
4/,
v^' - -
=G m
, (i)\x
sin
u'
.R +
where v
4/
makes with the axis of x, and p is the radius of curvature. Also the components of the impressed forces along the tangent and radius
at
F and G
are
of curvature
at P.
We may
replace the
first
1 mv- = ^{Fds
+ inu^x dx)
328
MOTION ON A CURVE.
[CHAP. VII.
curve.
is
The second eqaation then gives the component E of pressure in the plane of the The component R' of pressure perpendicular to the plane of the curve
given by
where
H
2.
is
is
the
Ex.
round a
vertical tangent
without
any
under
the action
pressure.
of
gravity.
Find the
velocity
and
the
re-
Let
be the centre,
P an =a
accele-
-t-
a sin
$,
and acting
viva then gives
parallel to
OC.
The equation
of vis
\v^=g{a-aco&d) + w^
.:
fx
\
xdx;
J a
PC and
-B
^ X
6.
d
^j-
Ix^w)
E'
at
The
Ex. smooth
Two
small rings of masses m, m', {m>m') are capable of sliding on a whose vertical diameter is fixed, the rings being
below the centre and connected by a light string of length a:j2: prove that if the wire is made to rotate round the vertical diameter with an angular velocity
J -, (a/v/3
; I m-m'
J
the vertical.
Show
/3
1
g.
^^
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
its
Ex.
4.
smooth
and
vertex,
hangs at rest by a string which passes through the vertex and a mass vi attached to the upper extremity describes a horizontal circle on the inner surface of the cone. Find the time T of a complete revolution, and prove that small oscillations about the steady motion take place in
pierced with a small hole, downwards.
A mass M
the time
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
at rest.
5.
vertical axis
which
Show
the
depth of the particle below 0, p its distance from the axis and v the speed with [Coll. Ex. 1893.] which the path is traced on the plane.
ART. 529.]
529,
329
A particle P,
of unit mass,
major axis.
The particle
is
is
H, which
We
and the
Let w be
from
the major axis by y, the component R' of pressure on the particle perpendicular to the plane of the curve is gi\en by
-y dt^-'
'
is
without inertia,
zero, Art. 267.
i.e.
on
it is
2/2(0
= 5,
about the axis of rotation.
where
B is the
constant of angular
momentum
foci S,
H he
P
r^, r^;
and
let
the central
To
find the
an acceleration
if it
o)hj=B^ly'^,
fixed.
tending from the major axis, and then treat the curve as
were
It
We
notice that the particle could freely describe the ellipse under any one of the forces
/^ilh'i
M'zl^i'i
^^ly^
if
follows that if all the three forces act simultaneously, the pressure
will
The pressure
to the
is
equal
be the
sum
when the
freely
We
zero, if
^(}r>'{k-l)-<'^~-f-y
If V be the resultant velocity of the particle in space,
2
we have
v^
= Vi^ + uihj^.
Hence
/2
IN
/2
1\
_a2-i
When
its
may
path freely in space under the action of the two given centres of force.
projected along the tangent to any ellipse having S,
The
If the
general path under all circumstances of projection has not been found.
particle
is
H for foci
lohose
loith
and
component
is
v'=-wy = Bly,
it ivill
SH
with a variable
Ex.
centre
2.
330
MOTION ON A CURVE.
[CHAP.
VII.
530. Ex. A particle of unit mass moves on a smooth curve which is constrained to turn about a fixed axis with an angular velocity w. It is required to
find the relative motion.
Let the axis of rotation be the axis of z and let the axes of x, y be fixed to the curve and rotate round Oz with the angular velocity w. Let us refer the motion to these moving axes. Since (?i = 0, ^, = 0, 6*3 = 0;, the equations of Art. 499 become
^ Ty du A. + ii = -j~-vu},
,
at
dx u = -y--yu
dt
"^
Y+R^ = - + na,,
^
^'
= ^+^V
dt
}
(1),
dt
where
?(,
J^^,
V,
w,
dhj
^^
du
dx
dt
(2).
df^
Z + R.,
The
directly
resultant of the two accelerating forces Xj = w-a;, Fi = w^ is a force tending from the axis of rotation and whose magnitude is i^i = wV, where r is the
P from the
axis.
X.,
forces
= ydojldt,
Y.^=
-xdwjdt
is
is
F^
-rdujdt,
measured.
-^usdxjdt,
To
F.^
Y^=
we notice
is
that the
+ Y.^dylds,
zero.
The resultant acts perpendicularly to the given curve, and may be compounded with and included in the reaction. When only the motion of the particle is required,
the force F^
may
be omitted.
Eeasoning as in Art. 197, we see that the equations of motion (2) become the same as if the particle were moving on a fixed curve, provided we impress on the particle (in addition to given forces X, Y, Z) two accelerating forces, viz. (1) a force Fi=u)h and (2) a force F.2= -rdcojdt.
The process
F-^,
is
the curve is found either by the equation of vis viva or by resolving along the
We
find
^v^ =
C+ U+
\u3h-dr- jr
If
rd<l>,
where
is
uniform, this
reduces to
^v^=C+U+hu)^r^.
The velocity thus found
in space
is
is
and the
ART. 534.]
531.
A CHANGING CURVE.
331
The pressure of the fixed curve on the particle is not the same as the moving curve. Representing the first by R' and the second by R, we see that R' is the resultant of R and the two forces X^ = 2wdyldt, Y= -2wdxjdt. We may compound these two forces into a single force F^. We
project the
If
P'
The
to the curve
and
its
projection.
The
is
532. Ex. A small bead slides on a smooth circular ring of radius a which made to revolve about a vertical axis passing through its centre with uniform
w,
angular velocity
horizontal plane.
Show
is
the same as that of a bead on the ring of radius a/sin a revolving round a vertical
a.
[Coll.
Ex.]
533. A changing cuirve. A bead of unit mass moves on a smooth curve whose form is changing in any given manner. It is required to find the motion.
Let the equations of the curve be written in the form
where 6
z^f,(0, t) (1), y=f.2{9, t), ^=/i(^, t), an auxiliary variable. We may regard the position of the particle at any given time t as defined by some value of 6. Our object is to find 6 in terms of
is
the time.
We have
(2),
r=i2(/,9'+/^)2
where S implies summation for all the coordinates, and partial cients are indicated by suffixes. The Lagrangian equation is
differential coeffi-
ddT_dT_dU
:-^li(fe^'+ft)f9-^(fe0'+ft)ife9^'+fet)-'
This
is
Wbe found.
may
A',
The
axes
may
If
r, Z, be the
com-
R^ those
^'^-^4-7?
'^'y-Y4.-R
^'^-7,1?
we do not
it
may
534. Ex. A helix is constrained to turn about its axis Oz, which is vertical, with a uniform angular velocity w. Find the motion of a particle of unit mass descending on it under the action of gravity.
Let the axes OA,
OB move
in
let
OA make an
angle ut with
figure
some
axis
of
fixed
space.
AON =6.
See the
of
Art. 527.
332
The equations
MOTION ON A SURFACE.
of the helix referred to axes fixed in space are
(d
[CHAP. VII.
x = acoR
.:
+ ut),
y=:asm{d + wt),
we
= a6tana;
2r=a;'2+?/'2 + 2'2=a2{(^'
+ w)2 + tan2ae'2}.
which admits of easy integration. It should be noticed that this result is independent of the angular velocity of the guiding curve, provided only it is constant. A similar result holds for any curve on a right circular cylinder turning uniformly
about
its axis.
To
'p=a,
on the
particle
we use
cylindrical coordinates,
Art. 491.
<j)=id
Let P, Q,
+ ut, we
find by substitution
P=-a{e' + u}f,
Q = ae",
is
Z-g=at&nae".
equivalent to a sustaining force
g cos a acting perpendicularly to the osculating plane together with the radial
Motion on a Surface.
535.
Any
Surface.
To find
the motion
of a particle on a
fixed surface.
Let
be the position of the particle at the time t, Ft) a tangent to the path, P^ a normal to
the surface, and
P|
is
that tangent to
perpendicular to
Let
PC
be the radius of
PA
the bi-
/
Let X, Y,
normal, then
1^.
PA, PC
lie
in the plane
Let
any axes
x, y,
z fixed in space.
t)e/(,y, 2)
= 0.
directions
The
PA,
P-q,
PC
are
known
dv
as
to be zero, vdv/ds
and
v^/p respectively.
Art. 496.
Hence
^rdx as
^jrdu
dz
as
as
which
if
U be
hmv'==U + C
This
is
(1).
ART, 538.]
ELEMENTARY RESOLUTIONS.
333
Let
particle
measured
inwards.
Then
resolving
along
the normal,
cos
Y = n + K,
If p' be the
where
is
radius of curvature
made by
is
proved
=p
P
cos x-
We
therefore have
(2).
"^
536.
at P,
<p
=H + R
a,
the angle the tangent to the path makes with the section
we have by
Euler's theorem
pa
Let
I'l,
^ and
Vo=:v sin
tf>.
The equation
(2)
then takes
the form
(?-)= H+B.
537.
is
coordinates at any
instant
and of
at any point
we do not
require to
The
pressure
is
The pressure
energy
is therefore also
The
ivhole
G
(2)
and
the direction
of motion.
The equation
To
we resolve
in
some
third direction.
-sin;^ = P
(.3),
334 where
MOTION ON A SURFACE.
[CHAP.
VII.
is
This
may
also
--rtanx = F,
P
r=F,
P
where p"
curvature.
539.
is
G-eodesic path.
^ = 0,
a straight
The path
is
If the
surface
to
the
direction of motion,
particle
and
would
still
be zero.
So
is
also if the
moves in a
resisting
medium
the resistance
opposite to
Generally we conclude that the path of a particle on a rough surface in a resisting medium when acted on hy forces normal to the surface is a geodesic.
Conversely, if the path
is a geodesic line we must have sin % = The component of the impressed force tansurface must then also be tangential to the path.
and therefore
gential to the
F=0.
540.
To find
when
the position
and
direction of
To
effect this
rriv^
pa
op
is a,
The
v-,
Since
principal section
we have
^= J.cos^ + 5sin^,
where
and
of impressed
force
ART. 541.]
541.
335
-Motion on
When
it
the
is
surface
one of revolution,
Let the axis of figure be the axis of z and let | be the Let the equation of distance of the particle P from that axis.
the surface be z
=f (|).
Let
U be
let
the
mass be unity.
The equation
of motion obtained
is
by resolving
zOP
\>^'^=m-We
have also the equation of
vis viva
r=Hr+^'^+rf^} =
the form
f^+c^
(2),
may
be written in
(3).
By
we determine
^,
(j>
The equation
(4),
We
then have
(j>'
in (3)
we
find
irr{i + (|J}=i^.(i,^)+cr-^
Since ^
is
^^^-
are separable.
therefore
known function of ^, the variables in this equation The determination of | as a function of t has been reduced to integration. The differential equation
a
is
of the path
(6).
It is evident that
336
MOTION ON A SURFACE.
Since the expression for the vis viva, given in
[CHAP. VII.
(3),
can be
where
is
is
an example of
;
Liouville's
Art. 522.
542.
Motion on a sphere.
is
When
may
a sphere, we
The equations corresponding to (1) and found by putting ^= I sin 6, where I is the
radius
we then have
P
^^
(sin^^f )
1^2 10'2
+ sin^^c^'^i =u+c.
These admit of integration when U, expressed in polar coordinates, has the form
The
^Psin-'e0'^=F,{l,e)
548.
+ Csin'0-Al
Sxamplea.
of a cone of revolution,
Ex. 1. A particle of mass m moves on the inner surface whose semi-vertical angle is a, under the action of a from the axis ; the angular momentum of the particle about
its
path
is
an arc
of a hyperbola
whose
axis,
thus avoiding
These prove by integration that the path lies on a plane The angle between the asymptotes is therefore equal to the
Ex.
2.
particle
gravity and a force X=p.lx^ tending directly from a vertical diametral plane taken
Show
axis of X,
horizontally,
it is
on by a force the direction of which meets an infinite straight line AB at right angles and the intensity of which is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance from AB. The particle is projected with the velocity from infinity from a point P at a distance a from the nearest point of the line in a direction perpendicular to OP and inclined at an angle a to the plane AOP. Prove that the particle is always on the sphere the centre of which is 0, that it meets every meridian line through AB at the angle o, and that it reaches the line AB in the time a- sec aj^n, where p. is the absolute force.
3.
Ex,
particle is acted
ART. 545.]
Ex.
4.
VARIOUS SURFACES.
particle
337
A
is
being determined by
acceleration
its
moves on a spherical surface of unit radius, its position polar distance 6 and its longitude <p. If the tangential always in the meridian, and sin- 0d<pldt = h, cotd=u, prove that
its
value
is h^ (l
+ u-)(u+
-^
to the equatorial
is
plane under
-r5
sin^
sin''
1 -^-7
sin''
can be described
Ex.
force
fjt.7'
5.
particle
moves on a smooth
z.
helicoid, z
= a^,
per unit mass directed at each point along the generator inwards, r being
The
particle is
its
its
is
+ a^jr^ = sec^a
1.
544.
Cylinders.
Ex.
particle
moves on a rough
cylinder
t
forces.
is
F in
a direc-
J
of the cylinder.
tion
heavy particle moves on a rough vertical circular cylinder and is projected horizontally with a velocity V. Prove that at the point where the path cuts the generator at an angle 0, the velocity v is given by
Ex.
2.
ap/v"
sin'^ <p
and that the azimuthal angle 6 and vertical descent gz=\v^ cot (p dip, the limits being <t>=^ir to (p.
The
cylindrical equations of
motion give
{v sin <p)=
CLZ
-.(Ji
Q/v
^ (v cos (p)=g
v^ sin^
first
<p
cos
(p.
First eliminating dt
result.
Secondly
Ex.
3.
A
its
is
a cardioid
is
placed with
its
generators inclined at an angle a to the vertical and having the generator through
the cusp in
velocity
and a
particle is projected
V^<-.
where 2a
is
the
Ex. 1. A string, one end of which is fastened smooth circular cylinder whose axis is vertical, winds round the cylinder for part of its length, and terminates in a straight portion of length c at the end of which a particle is tied. Show that when the particle is projected in the direction horizontal and perpendicular to the string it begins to a being rise or fall according as the velocity is greater or less than sin a (gc sec ay the angle at which the string cuts the generators.
545.
String on a surface.
338
MOTION ON A SURFACE.
[CHAP. VII.
r being at
{r^u) + au^ =0
any
time the length of the projection of the straight portion of the string on a horizontal plane, w the angular velocity of the vertical plane drawn through the string and a the radius of the cylinder. [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
Ex. 2. A string is wound round a vertical cylinder of radius a in the form of a given helix, the inclination to the horizon being i. The upper end is attached to a fixed point on the cylinder, and the lower, a portion of the string of length I sec i having been unwound, has a material particle attached to it which is also in
contact with a
rou^
horizontal
plane,
the coefficient
of
friction
being
/a.
determine the motion and prove that the particle will leave the plane after the
projection of the
unwound
an angle
-.^og
2/ttani
,..,,,,,,Jl,,,^ 2fji,V^ta,n^i-2/j,glt&ni + ga
I
Ex.
3.
is
fastened to a point
smooth cylinder
wound round the cylinder, has a particle of given mass attached to the free end. Show that, if the particle is projected in any direction, it will, so long as the string is tight and some portion of it remains wound on the
of radius a, and, being
cylinder, describe a geodesic line
on the surface
X cos-
(J V^ - z^ -
x'^
the axis of
z,
of
is
the radius
Show
also that the particle cannot be so projected that the string shall ^ot
lies in
sUp
on the cylinder, except when the path the cylinder drawn through A.
546.
Gauss' coordinates.
The motion
on a surface may
also
be investigated by using the geodesic polar coordinates of Gauss. In this method every surface has a geometry of its own, in which all the lines under consideration
are drawn on the surfacfe.
lines
The geodesies on the surface correspond to straight on a plane, and the properties of the figures are discussed by reasoning analogous to that of two dimensions. to any moving be any origin, p the length of the geodesic drawn from Let point P. Let w be the angle OP makes with some fixed geodesic Ox. Let OP' be Then in the limit LP' = dp, a neighbouring geodesic, PL the perpendicular to OP'. PL = Pdu. The theorem that OP=OL is proved in Salmon's Solid Geovietry, The quantity P is a function of p and w, whose form Art. 394, edition of 1882. depends on the particular surface under consideration. On a plane P=p, and on a sphere of radius a, Pasiupja. On an ellipsoid when the origin O is at an umbilicus, P=y cosec w, where w is the angle the geodesic OP makes with the arc containing the four umbilici. The difficulty of finding the value of P for any
surface prevents this
The
vis viva
2T
of a particle of unit
mass
given by
T=4(/)'2 + PV^),
ART. 549.]
Let
gauss' coordinates.
;
339
F,
the accelerations at
OP.
We have
dp
'
dtdp'
dt d(a'
,
dp
dp
>'
<lT_dT^dU
du)
,
da
^,. this reduces to
a='^d F dt^
dP^,,^
du
Since
dP dP dP ^- = -3- p + ^ w,
dt
dp
do)
G = Pw"-h~w'2 + 2^wy
du
dp
dP
dP
(2).
547.
Let
u,
We may
PT at P to
OP.
P along and perpendicular to the tangent Let P'T' be the projection of the tangent to OP' on Since the tangent planes at P, P' make an indefinitely
If
u+du and
v-^dv.
dd be the angle
rations along
and perpendicular
to
PT are
dd
F=--v,, dt
dt
du
^ =^+ u G
dv
dt
dt
Now
Bd2,de=-^du).
dp
dP
We
therefore have
before.
648. Ex. A particle P, constrained to move on an ellipsoid, is attached to an umbilicus by a string of given length, which also lies on the surface. Prove that the particle describes a geodesic circle with a uniform velocity V, and that the
angular velocity of the string about the umbilicus
the accelerating tension
string
is
is
V sin w/y.
/3
is
P to
the
axis of y.
649.
is
developable,
When
fix
as a curve of reference.
point
to a point
passes through P.
Let
QP=u
We
then have
v-=
^2
s'-
+ (u' + s')'^.
The form of the surface being given, the radius of curvature p of the edge at known as a function of s. When TJ is given as a function of u and s the Lagrangian method supplies two equations to find the coordinates u and s.
is
heavy particle moves on a developable surface whose edge is a helix Obtain two integrals by which s' and u' may always be found in terms of u and s. Show also that if the particle is projected along a Ex.
with
its
axis vertical.
it
340
[CHAP. VII.
To find
the
Let the axis of z be the axis of the surface and measured upwards. The velocity v is then given by
v^'
be
= 2g{h-z)...
initial conditions.
(1),
where A
is
Let
the plane z =
hhe
and
Let ^ be the distance of the particle P from the axis of the angle the plane zOP makes with the plane zOoc.
<f)
Then
(2)'
f'f=^
where
mA
is
momentum and
its
;
value
is
known when the initial values of ^ and d<f>/dt are given Art. 492. The velocity v at any point being given by (1), the angular momentum A must lie between zero and v^. It is the former when the particle is moving in the plane zOP and the latter when moving horizontally. The particle therefore can occupy only
those- points of the surface at which
v^>A,
i.e.
those points at
which
2g {h z)^^> A^.
If then
we
(h-z)^^=A^f2g
the ^ of the particle for any value of z must be greater than the Corresponding ^ of the cubic surface.
separated by horizontal
This cubic divides the given surface of revolution into zones, circles, and the particle can move only in
those zones which are more remote from the axis of figure than
The zone
actually
moved
by the point of projection. The particle moves round the axis of figure and must continue to ascend or to descend until it arrives at a point at which the vertical velocity can be
zero, that
is,
until
it
is
If the particle
on the boundary
is
of two zones.
It will
move on
the more remote from the axis than the corresponding portion of If the cubic touch the surface of revolution, the the cubic.
particle is situated
will
then describe
ART. 553.]
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.
341
a horizontal circle. The path is stable or unstable according as the neighbouring zones are less or more remote from the axis of
figure than the cubic surface,
551.
Ex.
a velocity
at a point
Will
it rise
or fall?
i/-
the angle the radius of curvature If mR be the pressure on the particle, makes with the vertical, we see by resolving vertically, that the particle if inside and < 2"" ^^il^ ^^^^ ^^' ^^^^ according as R cos f is greater or less than g. To find R we resolve along the normal to the surface. Since the particle is moving along that principal section whose radius of curvatui-e is the normal n, Art. 536. Since n sin i/'=f, we see that the particle will we have V^ln = R- g cos rise, fall, or describe a horizontal circle according as V^ is greater, less, or equal to
'/'
i//,
g,
tan
\{/.
If
\j/
= dzld^.
surface
To
which the
A and
h being
known from
the equations
intermediate motion
of the
same
article.
552.
Ex.
To find
We
The
v.,
n.
The
= ^d(f>jdt,
meridian
is
The formula
-\-
-^
p
-=-
n
,
= R- q cos
i/',
shows that
2g(h-z)
P
A"-
1\
\" p) This problem has a special interest because we can use it to represent experimentally the path of a particle under the action of a centre of force. If Q be the projection of the particle on a horizontal plane, the motion of Q is the same as that of a particle moving under the action of a central force whose magnitude is
s-
R sin
<3
\p.
If
then a surface
is
differential equation
R sinxp
where
must
to
It is better to replace
made
553.
to roll
must be modified
Nature, 1897.
Ex.
circle on
to rest if
we apply
Since
^d(f>ld.t
= A,
A"
where
\{/
is
the angle
PGO
to the surface
axis.
342
[chap. VII.
at
Let the radius of the mean circle be N^Pi^c and let the normal to the surface any point of its circumference make an angle PiGiO = y with the vertical.
Since
may
be taken to be the arc of the meridian between the particle and the
mean
circle,
we have
^
= C+SC0S7,
ifi=:y
+ slp,
its
where p
is
mean
circle.
Substituting,
we
-r^=F-p^s,
SA'^ cos^ y
F=-^cosy-gsmy,
The
p-=
^2 sin 7
g cos y p
cy
is
c*
deviation s must be small. Let it be so chosen that the mean value of s (taken for any long time) is zero; we then have F=0. The mean circle and the angular momentum mA are so related that A^=c^gt&ny, while the oscillatory motion is given by s = I,sin (pt + M) where L, ill are the constants of integration.
To
find the
figure
^^d(pldt
= A;
d^
A[^
7
2s
" di
2 A cos
-cos(p + il/) + ^,
where
If
N is the constant
we
write
of integration.
for the
9
mean
value of
o o
d<}>jdt,
we have A = c^w.
We then find
9
cw'=<jrtan7,
<;cos7
'
The time
reverse
the particle takes to travel from the highest position to the lowest or the
is Trfp.
554.
vertical
A
its
smooth paraboloid
equation
is ^^
is
placed with
its
axis
moving horizontally
at
an altitude z=V^I2g.
ART. 555.]
CONICAL PENDULUM.
343
To prove the first, we notice that the angular momentum A = V^ where ^=4a6. The cubic ^{h-z) = A^I2g becomes z--hz + V'bl2g=0, one root of the quadratic being z = 6, the other b' is given either hj b + b' = h or b' = V^j2g. The second part
follows from Art. 552.
If
the time
of passing
from one
we
first
notice that
and
b'.
elliptic
forms by putting
a + = (&' + a)cos''^.
2
particle
is vertical,
vertex
moves under the action of gravity on a smooth paraboloid downwards and latus rectum 4a. If the particle be
projected along the surface in the horizontal plane through the focus with a
velocity ^(2nag), prove that the initial radius of curvature p of the path, and the angle d which the radius of curvature makes with the axis, are given by
(1
-n) tan^ = l + .
its
[Math. T. 1871.]
axis vertical, the
Ex.
3.
+ ?/-7j3=4z.
Show that
the particle
when moving
must
2
,
lie
x(~2~^)
1 /x'2
I
(9
1 .
2)"'
z{h-z)
r
also
where -s p^
that
= x^ + ^ + 4,
o}
B is
p^
+ ^ + 2a \ p'\apj
w'2
Show
when
the paraboloid
is.
555.
To find
the motion of
heavy particle
It will
on a smooth sp.iere*.
be convenient in this problem to take the origin of of the sphere and to measure O2
Let
I
OP
and
Let ^ be the angle the vertical fixed plane zOx. Let r be the
in
The problem
and
(3)
of the conical
He
of Art. 555 from his generalized equations, and notices that the
<f>
He reduces the determination of t and to integrals, and makes approximations when the bounding planes are close together. He There is an elaborate memoir by refers also to a memoir of Clairaut in 1735. Tissot in Liouville's Journal, vol. xvii. 1852. He expresses t, z, <p and the arc s in elliptic integrals in terms of n. A long communication by Chailan may be found
cubic has three real roots.
in the Bulletin de Soc. Math, de France, 1889, vol. xvu.
There
is
a brief discussion
344
distance of
[CHAP.
VII.
from Oz.
We
of the
By
momentum and
vis viva,
Eliminating
d<f>/dt
0,
(2).
this
may
also
l'{^J=-^9(h + ^)(i'-^')-^'-
To
we
put dz/dt =
the cubic
(h
+ z)(l'-z')-A'l2g =
make
is
Since the
left-hand
initial
value of z must
positive for
some value of z
is
negative,
by the
Lastly
hence the cubic has two real roots lying between + I and separated Let these roots be 2: = a and z = b. initial value of z.
when
is
is
and
I.
c.
The
particle
= a, z = b.
we have
a + b-c
Conversely,
= -h,
+ b)c-ab = P,
abc
= A^j^g - Mi.
when the depths a and b of the two boundaries of given, the values of the other constants of the are motion the and A, follow at once. We have h, motion, viz. c,
^
a+b
'
2g
a+b
556. Ex. Prove (1) that one of the two horizontal planes bounding the motion lies below the centre (2) that the plane equidistant from the two bounding planes also lies below the centre; (3) that both the bounding planes lie below the centre if 2ghP<A-; (4) if a length OC = c be measured upwards from the centre 0,
;
ART. 558.]
the point
velocity.
CONICAL PENDULUM.
is
345
not only above the top of the sphere, but above the level of zero
if all the roots were negative, every coefficient of which is not the case. To prove (2) since both a and 6 are numerically less than I, it follows from the value of c that a + b is positive. (3) The two roots a and h will have the same or different signs according as the left-hand side of the cubic when z = and z = l has the same or different signs. The fourth result follows from the fact that c-h, i.e. a + h, is positive.
To prove
(4)
(1),
we
notice that
positive,
the cubic
would be
The
all
first
and
many
sign,
657.
depth of
To
vector
z'
OP
outwards to a point
so that
PQ
is
Let
be the
given
crosses
Q below
mR
is
by lR = 2gz'.
sphere
is
may
momentum mA.
projected
horizontally with
558.
the motion.
Ex.
1.
particle
is
Determine whether
it loill rise
or fall,
and find
a velocity V. boundary to
Let the
initial radius
OP make
vertical.
Resolving along
mR
is
given by
The particle will rise or fall according as R cos a is > or <g, that is, according as F^cosa is > or <lgein^a. If these are equal the particle describes a horizontal
circle.
To determine how
Art. 555
is
we
known,
viz. z
to
may therefore
But
it is
more easy
We
momentum and
vis viva
,-^g=Fisina,
r3(f)%,-^(fy.F^ + 2,^cos.-cos).
Eliminating dtpjdt and putting zero for ddjdt, the limiting values of 6 are found from
V-^-^-^=V^ + 2gl{<iose-cosa);
.:
where the positive sign is given to the radical because cos d must be less than unity. This value of cos d and cos ^ = cos a determine the positions of the bounding planes
of the motion.
Ex.
2.
heavy
is
particle, constrained to
move on
sphere of radius a,
same point
is
given by
V^{x' + x) = 0.
346
Ex.
3.
[CHAP. VII.
force.
A heavy from a point distant 60 from the highest point with a velocity due to falling through the diameter by its weight only. Prove that it will be again moving horizontally at a point whose distance from the lowest point is tan~^ 4^|. [Coll. Ex.]
particle is projected horizontally along the surface of the sphere
Ex. 4. A particle is attached by a string to the top of a hemispherical dome, and is projected horizontally along the interior surface, which is rough, with a velocity just sufficient to prevent it from at once leaving the surface. Find the velocity after describing a given arc, and show that it will always remain in contact
with the surface. [Math. Tripos, 1853.]
Slioiv that the
550.
tion
Ex.
1.
X of
normal
to the
P
-5
= 1+fi-.
g^A^
tanx =
,
^,
momentum.
gA
where v
is
the velocity
and niA
We
follow the
Let
is
Then
Y ^
=7
I
V
,
sin x=^. p
To
find F,
we
tion perpendicular to the meridian plane is zero, while that tangential is g sin
Hence
if
makes an angle
i/*
F g sin 6 sin
ad'
\f/.
Since the components of velocity in and perpendicular to the meridian plane are
and asin^^', we have v coB\p = a6', u sin ^ = i sin ^^'. Choosing the latter component to find \p and remembering that l-siv?d<p' = A, the values of cos xfp and
sin xIp are evident.
Ex.
2.
V horizontally from a point on Prove that the radius of curvature of its path is
is
Ex. 1881.]
Ex.
3.
A
is
Mj2gl along a tangent to the horizontal equator, prove that at first the radius of
curvature
2?/^5.
Ex. 1897.]
560.
plane
is
Ex.
6=
or
-m {2/i.
+ 3^(Z-
f^)}, ivhere
Show
radii are
force.
circle,
path
^{P and
a-)
and ^(P -
If a
bounding There
'
ART. 562.]
CONICAL PENDULUM.
347
561. Ex. If we vrrite ^h + l cos = k cos <p, a conical pendulum may be reduced to the form
- aitfi
Show
Find also the positions of the bounding planes when the constants motion are given.
and a of the
562.
travels
The motion of the particle as it passage. from one boundary to the other may be found by an elliptic
the equation (3) of Art. 555 in the form
Time of
integral.
We write
V(2)^_f
I
J\/{a-z){z-b){z h(a-.
+ c)
where the limits are z=^a and z = b, and a>b. Putting z = a ^', the integral takes a standard form which is reduced to an elliptic
integral
by writing ^ = sin ^^
^yrite
V(25r)^^
I
2
\/{a
dir
where
is
required,
and
^tt.
If the two bounding planes are close together, k is small. By expanding in powers of k and effecting the integrations we find that the time from one boundary to the other is given by
V(25r)^^
I
TT
sjia
+ c)
|l
+ (|)^/.^+(]-^)\^ + &c.}
also close to the lowest point,
a=lcosa=l(l-^a%
= lcos ^ = 1(1-1^').
We
then find that the time of passage from one boundary to the
is
other
"Wffi ^+
16
+
[CHAP.
VII.
348
being neglected.
This result
is
given by Lagrange.
Let u
i/r
rrz.
and
be the value of
ii
when
= |-7r.
Let
any value of i/r, and one boundary to the other, then tjT = w/iT.
to the depth z defined by
563.
Ex.
1.
Prove that when half the time of passing from the lower to the is above the mean level between the two
is
then
{k'u
Ex.
2.
Prove that when a quarter of the time has elapsed, the depth z of the
particle is
(l+V')x/(l +
564.
The
apsidal angle.
To find
the
of
<f>
V(%)
Al
}^{a-z)^{z-h)^{z + c){l^-z''y
dl
where the limits of integration are z = h and z = a, and a >b. Putting a = 7n + z = m + ^ so that m is the middle b = value of z and /* the extreme deviation on each side of the middle, we have
fji,
fju,
Al
H
^
d^
J^/(fM'-^')^/{m
+ c + ^){l'-{m + ^y}'
= i^ and
/i.
When
to
range
yu,
of the values of ^
small.
near the lowest point, the two last factors in the denominator
are not small for any value of
^.
We may
therefore expand
these in powers of | and thus put the integral into the form
(p+Q^+ i^r-) = TT (p
this gives
'
^Rfj,').
After calculating
P and R,
irl
f
V(^2 + 3m2)
ART. 567.]
566.
CONICAL PENDULUM.
349
If both the bounding planes are near the lowest point of the sphere, I and and the last factor in the denonainator of <p (Art. 564), may be
itself.
We
write
The two
and these
may
make
We
shall
1-z = t].
c
A and
all
common
dz
forms.
To
We have
i V( -
2) n/(^
= a,
= b, make
q=l-z
+ | we
Since
Hence
for c
+l
its
bound the
oscillation,
we have
l-a=t, 21'
a=:l,b = l; hence (see Art. 562)
l-b = t, 21'
a'
factor,
we can
write
3p?)
/I L
1 p^ +
q^l
differs
The
correction
is
Show
vertical,
{<p
-pt) = -
^2 cos d,
where
is
equal to Jgll.
"
350
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
Motion on an Ellipsoid.
[CHAP. VII.
568.
particle of itnit
the
motion
of a
be the components of the impressed forces in Let R be the pressure on Since the direction the particle measured positively inwards. cosines of the normal dtxe pxja^, &c., the equations of motion are
Let X, Y,
^"
= X-i2i9|,
y"^Y-Rp^_,
z"
= Z-Rp^^...{l),
where accents denote differential coefficients with regard to the We also have from the equation of the surface time.
x^
z^ - + y^ = 1' + -2 ^ 0^ c?
^
XX
a^
a-
yy = + 1T+-T &
zz'
b^
y"^
z'^
^
(2), ^
xx"
a^
yy"
0^
zz"
c^
x'-
a^
h'
c^
adding and
we have
^{x'-
(4);
where
is
a constant.
This
is
of
(3),
we
find
fx''
y-
z''\
ix'-
/-
z''\
(Xx
Yy
Zz\
,^-
* The motion of a particle constrained to remain on an ellipsoid is discussed by Liouville in his Journal, vol. xi. 1846. He uses elliptic coordinates and shows that the variables can be separated when U {fj? - v-) = i\ (/i) - F.^ (v). There iff also a paper on the same snhject by W. R. Westropp Roberts in the Proceedings of the MiitJicmatical Society, 1883. He also uses elliptic coordinates and especially treats of the case in which the path is a line of curvature. The case in which the particle is attracted to the centre by a force proportional to the distance is solved in Cartesian coordinates by Painleve, Lemiis sur V integration des equations differentielles de la Mecavique, 1895. He also treats separately the limiting case of a heavy particle moving on a paraboloid whose axis is vertical. There is a short paper by T. Craig in the American Journal of Mathematics, vol. i. 1878. He discusses the same problem as Painleve, beginning with Cartesian coordinates, but passing quickly to Elliptic coordinates. He shows that the i^ath is a geodesic when the central force is zero and the particle is acted on by what is equivalent to a force tangential to the path and varying &s f(t) + F[s)v where s is the arc described. This result follows also from Art. 539.
'
ART. 569.]
CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
351
In an
ellipsoid
we have
f'a^^h^^d^'
where
D'~ a^^
h^'^
d"
^'
is
cosines are
m,
n).
parallel to
is
= D'^jp.
be
The equation
R=^-^
p
(n
force.
where
is
569.
In
integral.
Differ-
dt
\pj
a'
b'
c^
J^
dtKa-"
b^
cy
and using
(6),
R = Ap^
(10).
Substituting in (5) or (7), we have the third integral which be written in either of the forms
^'2
*
may
y"i
/2
c^
Xx
a-
Yy
0-
Zz
c-*
^
(11).
0-
N=
P
If only the direction of
(4)
Ap^
motion is required, we eliminate v and (7). Remembering that p = D'-jp, we see that the direction of motion at any point of the path is parallel to that semi-diameter D whose length is given by
2 ([^+(7)
iV
352
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
[CHAP. VII.
Supposing the condition (9) to be satisfied we notice that initial velocity and direction of motion are such that the equation (11) gives A = 0, it follows by (10) that the pressure R is zero throughout the motion. The particle is therefore free
when the
Conversely, if the and moves unconstrained by the ellipsoid. freely describe projected, can a curve on particle, when properly
is satisfied.
If
it
components X, Y,
do not
so by adding to them the components of an arbitrary normal force J'' and subtracting F from the reaction R. The condition (9) then becomes
where
X, y,
is
an arbitrary function of
oc,
y,
z and
is
a function of
z given
by
(6).
The equation
but as this
R = F + Ap^.
It is only necessary that the condition (9) should hold for the
path of the
particle,
is
670.
Ex.
particle is acted
on by a centre of attractive
ki:
If
D is
These reduce
Since
when ^=0.
first
X=
The
of the results to be
N=Kp.
ellipsoid
always parallel to the axis of y, and is projected from any point P with a velocity v^ = Kly^ in a direction perpendicular to the geodesic joining P to an umbilicus. Prove that the path is a geodesic circle having the
is
r=
moves on the
i.e.
P from
the umbilicus
is
constant*.
of force.
We
(9) is satisfied
by
this
law
p'
y-
where, as before,
is
Since
axis of y
is
pylb^,
we have
* This result is
due to
W.
E.
W.
Eoberts,
who
gives a proof
by
elliptic co-
'
ART. 572.]
CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
The
conditions of projection show that
353
.
N= KplhhiK
C= 0.
P
Hence
1
-=rx
1 p^y^ + =A
If also
2)2
+ _D'2'"p2'''o-2~
p^D'^
a262c2
P
^y2
^
'
1
62p2
Substituting for
p and r
(a2-;)2)(52-c2)
_ A) y^
K
J
a2p32
the coeflScient of
pD'=ac, must be zero. It then follows that throughout the subsequent motion pD'=ac, and the path cuts all the geodesies from the umbilicus at right"
Since the particle
is
j/2
angles.
all of
constant length.
Let a be the angle which the geodesic joining the particle P to an umbilicus U makes with the arc joining the umbilici. If ds be an arc of the orthogonal trajectory
of the geodesies,
(Art. 546).
Since v^=Kly^,
it
follows
that the angular velocity w' of the geodesic radius vector is given by
w'=^ sin u.
its
k/k
When
at
the ellipsoid reduces to a disc lying in the plane xy^the geodesies become
straight lines
H (Art. 576).
circle reduces to
is
centre
circle
Y=
- KJy^.
deduced from
Gauss' coordinates.
A particle, moving on the ellipsoid, is acted on by a centre of any given point E. If the force F is such that the condition (9) is satisfied, prove that F=/irlP^, where r and P are the distances of the particle from E and from the polar plane of E respectively. Thence show that, if the initial conditions are such that the constant ^=0, the path is a conic and the velocity at any point is given by v^=pN.
672.
Ex.
1.
force situated at
To prove
and
(o,
/3,
this
remembering
we put X=G{x-a), Y=G(y-^), Z=G(z-y), where G=F/r E. Substituting in the equation (9) and When Art. 568, we have an easy differential equation to find G.
is
^=0,
the particle moves freely on the ellipsoid under the action of a central force.
is
The path
motion
is
therefore a conic.
by
known.
354
Ex.
2.
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
[CHAP.
VII.
A particle
is
Prove that
\dtj
ar^
a^
where p is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane, r the distance from the focus, and A, B the constants of integration.
573. Ex. 1. A particle under the action of no external forces is projected from an umbilicus of an ellipsoid, prove that the path is one of the geodesies defined by 2?D =ac.
a velocity v along the surface of an bounded by similar ellipsoids. Prove that when it leaves the ellipsoid the perpendicular p from the centre on the tangent plane is given by MI^R^=v^^dbc, where R is the radius vector parallel to the initial the direction of motion, P the perpendicular on the initial tangent plane, [Math. Trip. I860.] attracting mass and a, h, c the semi-axes of the ellipsoid.
Ex.
2.
674.
Ex.
is
a perfect
v are
differential,
\,
fi,
the
\=pxld^, &o.
,,2
Prove that
-'2\
R + N=2pHS + B),
where
/'2
",.'2
is
of
The integrals of the equations Art. 569, by p^ and integrate by parts. motion are then obtained by using (6) and (7), remembering that p=D^lp.
Divide
576. In order to include in one form all the different cases of paraboloids, cones, and cylinders, it may be useful to state the results when the quadric on which the particle moves is written in its most general form <p (x, y, z) = 0.
4 Writing -i= <Px^ + <Py^ + <pj^, where
let
on the quadric.
x', y', z'
We
R=Ap^.
(4),
of the velocity
(2),
may
,p^+4,y'+<p^'=0
i(x'-^+y'^ + z'^)
= U+C. =^
2R
+ 4>^+<f>yY+(f>^Z
(5),
where the numbers appended to the equations correspond to those in Arts. 568, &c.
676.
particle
EUipUe coordinates.
Preliminary statement.
The
position
of
the
in space
is
given quadric.
In the figure ABC, A'MM', A"NN' are respectively the ellipsoid, only that part of each being drawn which lies in the positive octant. Let theic major axes 0A = \, OA'=/ji,
ART. 577.]
ELLIPTIC COORDINATES.
a, b, c
353
If
OA"=v.
then
Let
a?-b^=h^, a^-c^=k^,
The
positive
is less than h, and changes sign when the particle crosses the plane of yz. The y axes of the quadrics are y/(\'^-h^), ^(/i^-h^), sl{v^-h^); two of these are real and the third is imaginary. These radicals are positive when the particle lies in the positive octant, but the second or third vanishes and changes sign when the
third V
it
travels along
PN or PM.
Similar
remarks apply
to the z axes.
(x, y, z)
are
x^
y^
_1
where h and k are the constants of the system. Clearing of fractions and arranging the cubic in descending powers of a^, we see that the three roots X^, fj.^, v^ are
such that
\2 + ^2 + y2:^a;2
+ y2 + 22 + ;j2+fc2
(1).
= yikx
_ 7^2) ^(7i2 _ ^2) = ft ^^^yp. _ ft2) y-y - y?) ^(fc2 -v1.) = k V{ A;2 - W) z\
From
V(X2 X/(X2 -
fe2)
fc2)
^(;,2
^(fc2
.(2).
577.
To
{X2
of a particle in
_ X2) (^2 _ ^2) ^'2 _ ft2) (^2 _ fc2)
elliptio
coordinates is given by
- p.^)
(X2
- ;/2) X'2
(^2
X2)
(/a2
_ ^2) ^'2
(^2
(X2-/l2)(X2-fc2)
(;*2_ft2)(^2_^2)
'
(^2
(3).
We
856
is
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
[CHAP. VII.
components of velocity. first term is the square of the component normal to the ellipsoid, the other terms following by symmetry. If p is the perpendicular on the tangent plane Let {I, m, n) be the to the ellipsoid, the normal component is p'.
the
It is therefore sufficient to
sum
= X^ h^m^
k'^ri'^
.".
pp'
= XXf.
two
hjrperboloids,
to the
we
know
that
To find
the
coordinates.
Let the
is
as unity
determined by
This
we write
we
form
2T =
If
{Pfi""
Qu'']
(5).
fi,
in terms of (X,
v),
we
have (since X
T+ U expressed
we may obviously
solve the Lagrangian equations by proceeding as in that article. The results are that when the forces are such that the work
{^i^-v^)U
the integrals are
= F,if,) + F,(v)
(A),
..(B).
ART. 581.]
ELLIPTIC COORDINATES.
357
There
is
Ly2^U + C
that
(C).
is
Let
v-^
and
v^ be the
of the particle
!/= constant
= constant
and
Prove that
on the
particle is given
by
where p
force.
is
N the
is
normal impressed
See Art. 568.
The value
2.
in elliptic coordinates
is
Ex.
Pdii=Qdv
t=jPfj?dfi- ^Qv^dv,
The equations
(B)
Multiplying these by
p.^,
result.
580.
equations
To
(1)
we
use the
and (2) of Art. 576. Let the normals at the four umbilici U^, U^, &c. intersect the major axis in the two points E-^, E^, which of course are equally distant from the centre 0. We easily find that
0E, = ^4,
A
,l7,=^=^i^^!^^M^!^)
ft
(1).
The equations
(1)
(M')2=f a;y
y+
?/2
+ 22_
(\2-;i2)(\2_fc2)
'
\2
let
be the distances of the particle from the points Ei, E^, and be the distance of Ei from the umbilicus ?7j ; then
Let
r^, rg
(At-')2=ri2-m2,
{,j.
+ vf = r^^-ni'
(2).
From
d?
these
/j.,
may
581.
Ex.
d^
Show
V {iv--v^)=F-^(^tj)-\-F^(y)
p.2=sl{ri-mP).
is
equivalent to
= s/0\'^-m^),
(2) Art.
and by
d
'
580
d
dp
d
dp2
d
dp-y
dp^
dpi
The
858
582.
The condition
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
(A) of Art. 578, viz.
[CHAP. VII.
(^fi-p^)U=F,{^) + F,{p)
can he
1.
(A),
satisfied
Let the force tend to the centre of the ellipsoid and vary as the distance. we have, by (1) Art. 576,
x,
and
1)
X= - 2Hlx^.
Then
Hh^k-^
^^
H/l2fc2
3.
where
r-,
is
particle
We
then have
0-=^,
To
find the force
.:{ix'-v')U=H(iJ. + v).
since
we notice that
Also
dUjdX^O, the
H
Y and
Z.
hk
fhkx
,\d\)
^-d^-~{j:^r~\'^\'W~^)dx]'
Now
the equation to the ellipsoid being
X= constant,
the last term of each of the three expressions represents the compo-
effect
we
see that X, Y,
Z are
the components of
5
.
E whose magnitude is
and
Hr
(ri2-m2)^
\=k
Ex.
(Art. 576),
The
583.
hj
/ji=fjiQ
1.
Show
Hr
^
{r^ -
mY
E-^.
Show
any point
is
2
j-
1)
J-
<
\{r-^
We
notice that
when
m=0, and
this
common
expression for the velocity under the action of a central force varying as
if
and (B) in Art. 578, we see that ^' = and n" = Q when fi=(iQ. we choose the constants G and A so that
marked
(A)
if
both
Fj^ (fi)
(m),
iji,=imq,
where
<p(fi) is
some function
of
(Art. 579)
^v^=U+C= ^'^''>Z^'^~^
ART. 584.]
In
C/ji?
SPHEROIDS.
special
359
the
case
proposed
U=HI(n-v).
We
+ HiJ.+A = (iJ,-HQ)'^C.
A = Cno^.
particle is constrained to
712,
move on the
surface
y=xt&nnz.
By
we have
+ l)U=F^{^) + F^{z),
The path
is
given by
,'2
on by a force tending
directly
and
varying as the distance from that axis, find the components of velocity along the
lines of curvature.
584.
Spheroids.
When
spheroid either prolate or oblate, the formulae (A) and (B) of Art. 578 require some
slight modifications.
Let
(X, i, c),
(fi,
b", c")
intersect in
P; then
also
In a prolate spheroid 6 = c,
A;,
and the
focal conies
CTJ
Prolate.
OH and HA.
minate.
The axes
jit=ft, 6'
b'jc'
= 0,
c'=0;
it
being indeter-
In an oblate spheroid \=6, h=0; one focal conic becomes coincident with OC, while the other is a circle of radius k. The axes of the hyperboloid of two sheets are v=0, b"=0, c"^= -k^; it therefore reduces to the two planes x^lv^ + y^lb"^=:0,
the limiting ratio vjb" being indeterminate.
In the figure the positions of the focal conies just before they assume their
limiting positions are represented by the dotted lines, while
PM
or
PN represents
of
we
shall
make a change
H^fi-
tan3^=-"
u?-W
sin^ <j>
M"
fc2
k^-h?'
-cp'2=
{ti?-W)((i^-k^
360
Thus tan
<f>
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
[ckAP. VIL
varies between the limits and oo as /* varies between k and h. Since b'^=pi?-h\ c'^=p?-lt^, andy^lb'^+z^lc'^=0, it is clear that is ultimately the angle the plane makes with the plane AB. Putting fi=h, the formulsB (A) and (B)
PM
become
_J
(fe2
_ ,2)2
tanV=-;;2-.
thus tan
</>
.-.
i/=fecos0,
as
i'
-0'2=-2^,
h and
0.
varies between
<t>
and
oo
varies between
Also since
x''lv^+y^lb"^=0,
is
CHAPTER
VIII.
To find
the
two confocal
OHi = h.
Let
OA=fi, OA' = v:
- h^
^/{v^
- A^).
Since
+ / ,, = 1, we have h^
fi^ fi^ ft*
(1).
The
relations
between the
v of
any point
P and the
^ = T,'
y,
(u?-h^f(i^-h'^)^
AV-l
where r
ri
is
= fi v,
* Euler was the first who attacked the problem of the motion of a particle in one plane about two fixed centres of force, M6moires de VAcademie de Berlin, 1760. Lagrange, in the Mecanique Analytique, page 93, begins by excusing himself for attempting a problem which has nothing corresponding to it in the system of the world, where all the centres of force are in motion. He supposes the motion to be in three dimensions and obtains a solution where the forces are ajr^+2yr and
^lr^ + 2yr.
Legendre in his Fonctions elliptiques pointed out that the variables used by Euler were really elliptic coordinates, and Serret remarks that this is the
first
and xxix. Liouville in 1846 methods of solution, the first by Lagrange's equations and the second by the Hamiltonian equations. Serret extends Liouville's first method to three dimensions, Liouville's Journal, xiii. 1848, and gives a history of the problem. Liouville in the same volume gives a further communication on the subject.
of his principle of the least multiplier, Crelle, xxvii.
and 1847
362
[CHAP.
VIII.
Proceeding as in Art. 577, the velocity v of the particle expressed in elliptic coordinates
is
2r=.=(^.-^){^:_^,l
where the accent represents form
djdt.
(2),
Comparing
in Art. 522,
we may obviously
by
The
when the
(3),
FM
integrals
.(4).
There is also the equation of vis viva which from these by simple addition, viz.
^v' =
586.
may be deduced
(5).
U+ G
Let the central forces tending to the and We then have H^/rs^ ^i/n^
foci
be respectively
'1
'<!.
The
become
0),
where
t,
_
fi,
-{dvf
2(dtf
The
initial
values of
fx
v,
C.
by the integration
values of
yt,,
of (8) which
is
v.
fourth constant
yu,
makes
or
v.
its
time
is
ART. 588.]
587.
fi=f''o> ^^
ELLIPTIC COORDINATES.
1.
363
Ex.
Show
is
*^ particle
given by
Vi
To prove
this
Mo/
V2
fi',
M-oJ
we
notice that
if
ellipse,
/x
is
constant
given by
(7)
C in
Ex.
2.
A and C
are zero.
Show
and
given by
d<t>
_ /^\* B
is
dO
where ii=h,se(?
Ex.
3.
4>,
v=:heoa^0 and
a constant.
of
particle
force,
one
attracting
The
if
particle is
Show
is
that
the direction
two
path
given by
^pog{^+^(^^-1fi)} + B =
where
v
d^
^{1 - k sin2 j^
'
4,)
= h cos^ + ^ svo?
<f>
<p,
2k = l- ^jh and
A = 2H^.
Ex. 4. Prove that the lemniscate, rr'=c^, can be described under the action of two centres of force each H/r^ tending to the foci, provided the velocity at the
node
2
is
a/ -3--
/2h /2ff
To find the motion of a particle of unit mass in three 588. dimensions under the action of two centres of force attracting
according
to
the
Newtonian law.
Let the two centres of force Hi, H^, be situated in the axis
of z and let the origin
bisect the distance
HJH^.
let
Let
<j>
be the
p be the distance
P from
Oz.
Oz,
Since the impressed forces have no moment about by the principle of angular momentum (Art. 492),
we have
.(1).
py=5
We now
adopt the method explained in Art. 495.
We
treat the
particle as if it
influence of the
force
were moving in a fixed plane zOP under the two centres of force together with an additional = B^/p^ tending from the axis of z. This problem has p(f>'^
;
it
364
effect of
[CHAP. VIII.
B^l^p^
to the
work function U.
foci of
be the
elliptic coordinates of
As
before,
we suppose
that
{fi^-v^)U=F,{fi)
Since p
is
+ F,{v)..
h'
(2).
2 _ ^'~
- h^)(v^ - h')
-h^
'
fj?
- V- _
p^
h^
v^-h^'"^'^'
as those
"
~ iM'-h^
The term
to
be added to
to
U has
therefore the
same form
already existing in
we have merely
by
multiplication
^B'^)
When
where
in Art. 586.
We
therefore
F^ (v)
=p
K^v.
force situated
by a third centre of
at the origin
expression for
effect of this is
and attracting as the distance, we add to the U the term \H^r^ = ^Hs(fM^-\- v^ h?). The to increase the functions Fi, F^ hj ^Hs (fi* A'V^),
respectively.
if
h^v"^)
the particle
is
also acted
on by a force
kJp', or
a force
particle
A and
B.
If the angles
the distances
AP,
BP be r^,
and the
AB a, G is & constant
is
in one plane.
ART. 591.]
If the
BRACHISTOCHRONES.
is
365
motion
{'''i^-jfj (
Iff)'^^^
^^ ^1
''* ^2
= (Mi cos
0-^
fj,^
cos
e^)
+ C,
Ex. 1895.]
where h
is
[Coll.
On
'
Brachistochrones.
Frelixninary Statement. Let a particle P, projected from a point A at with a velocity Vq , move along a smooth fixed wire under the influence of forces whose potential J7 is a given function of the coordinates of P, and let the particle arrive at a point B at a time f^ with a velocity Vj Let us suppose
590.
a time
Iq
from a neighbouring point A' at a time tg + dtQ with a velocity Vq + dv^ Let it be constrained by a smooth wire to describe an arbitrary path nearly coincident with the former under forces whose potential is the same function of the coordinates as before, and let it arrive at a point B' near the point B at a time t^ + 51^ with velocity
Vj
+ Svi.
According to the same notation, if x, y, z; x', y', z', are the coordinates and resolved velocities at any point P of the first path at the time t, then x + dx, &c.; x' + dx', &e., are the coordinates and resolved velocities at any point
P' of the varied pAth occupied by the particle at the time
t
+ St.
Let P, Q be any two points on the two paths simultaneously occupied at the time t. Let the coordinates of Q he x + Ax, y + Ay, &c. Then 5a; exceeds Ax by the space described in the time dt,
.:
when
We may We
(1)
Sz,
X, y, z, limited
There are
path, and
some
neighbouring path.
that ddx = ddx.
It follows
of unit mass moves under the action of forces so that its velocity v at any point is given by ^v^ = U+G, where U is a known function of the coordinates, the constant G being also known. Supposing the initial and final positions A, B to lie on two given surfaces, it is required to find
the 'path the particle
591.
transit m,ay be
*
to
An
is
History of Mathematics.
force
is given in Ball's Short Passing to later times, the theorem v=Aptor & central given by Euler, Mechanica, vol. ii. There is a memoir by Roger in
;
surfjace
366
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
[CHAP.
VIII.
integral a
The time t of transit being t = Jdsjv, we have to make this Since a variation is only a kind of difminimum. ferential, we follow the rules of the differential calculus and make
the
first
variation of
equal to zero.
AB be
varied
corresponding element.
is
not
Writing ^
we have
St=JB{(i>ds)=J{<f>dSs
+ dsS(f>).
Since {dsf
have
Integrating the
first
where the part outside the sign of integration between the limits A to B.
is
to be taken
We
If
G were
different
we should have
dx
dy
"
dz
dC
integral.
It follows that v^ is
is
to be a
minimum
B are
We
hx
= 0,
8y =0, Bz
0,
zero whatever small values the arbitrary functions Bx, By, Bz have.
It
is
may
force.
is
of Vc^riatiom, 1850, proves these theorems and deduces from the principle of least action that the brachistochrone becomes a free path when v = k^lv'. Tait has applied Hamilton's characteristic function to the
problem in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xxiv. 1865, and deduces from a more general theorem the above relation to free motion. Townsend in the Quarterly Journal, vol. xiv. 1877, obtains the relation v = v' in free motion, and gives
numerous examples. There are also some theorems by Larmor in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1884.
ART. 593.]
367
perhaps evident) that the coefficients of 8x, By, Bz must separately vanish. We therefore have, writing 1/v for <f>,
'
dy\v)~ds\vds)' dz\vl
if
ds\vds)'
we multiply them by
<j>dxlds, <f>dylds,
which
is
an evident
identity.
592.
solved, it remains to
effect
Supposing these differential equations to have been determine the constants of integration. To this we resume the expression for 8t, now reduced to the
We
ds
have
^ds
ds
which
be taken between the limits A to B. Since we may ^4 J5 of the curve, one at a time, along the bounding surface (Art. 144), this expression for 8t must be zero at each end.
is
to
The
variations
Bos,
therefore
implies
The expression
which
is
for Bt
may be put
Let
Ba-i,
be the displacements
dis-
Let
6^, 6^
placements respectively make with the tangents at A and B Let Vi, Wg be the velocities at A, the brachistochrone AB. Then
S/
to
B.
_ ^*^2 ^^^ ^2
^0"l
COS ^1
In some problems the velocity v is a given function of the coordinates of one or both ends of the curve. This does not
593.
affect the differential equations, for in these
ends,
when
fixed, are
is
merely constants.
The
case
different
in that portion
We
368
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
to that expression the terms of
B<}>
[CHAP.
VIII.
must add
ends A,
of the ends.
If a;o,yo,
Zq]
^d
2/h s^u
B,we
then have
694.
The equations
a
of
first
To determine whether
this curve
makes
the time a
minimum, or neither, it is necessary to examine the terms of the For this we refer the reader to treatises on the calculus of variations. In most cases there is obviously some one path for which the time is a minimum,
second order.
maximum,
and if our equations lead to but one path, that path must be a true brachistochrone. In other cases we can use Jacobi's rule. Let AB be the curve from A to B given by the calculus of variations. Let a second curve of the same kind but with varied
constants be drawn through the initial point
angle at A, with the curve
satisfies
A and make an
if
AB.
some point
minimum
only
be beyond B.
595.
Theorem
I.
When
(like gravity) in
a vertical direction,
= Ijv
is
a function of z
and the first two differential equations of the curve (Art. Remembering that 591) admit of an immediate integration. dx/ds = cos a, dy/ds = cos /S, it follows that the brachistochrone for a vertical force is such a curve that at every point v = acos a, v = b cos yS, where a, /3 are the angles the tangent makes with any two horizontal straight lines, and a, b are the two constants of By equating the two values of v and integrating, integration.
only,
we
is
a plane curve.
596.
Theorem
forces,
II.
Let X, Y,
&c.
impressed
U+G,
we have
X = ^dv^/dcc,
ds\v ds)
The
differential
equations of the
v'~
'
ds\v dsJ
v^
'
'-
Let
\,
fi,
the binormal
of curvature
^
dx
dy
dz
d^x
d^y
d^z
..
ART. 598.]
THREE THEOREMS.
'-
369
find
(3),
and
Let l=:p
m = p -J
IX +
mY+ nZ 1P + m^ +
v^
vi^
d fV\
ds \vj
V
is
K-*4
(4).
f,
dx
and we have
lX + mY+nZ=-'"p
of the impressed forces along the radius of curvature is equal minus the component of the effective forces in the same direction,
to
597. To find the pressure on the constraining curve. Let F^, F2 be the components of the impressed forces in the directions
same
directions.
= F, + R
i^2
In a brachistochrone
and
i^2
and
R^
= -2F^.
598.
II.
We
that
if
by referring
to the equations of
we changed the
zero,
would be
We
also suppose
immediately, that
brachistochrone
other,
angle
side,
same
and
still
velocities
of the particle,
when
free
i.e. v'
= v.
'
370
'
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
[CHAP.
VIII.
599.
Theorem
III.
The equations
of motion of a particle
ds \v dsj
If
~ da; = k^
first
\v/
or,
'
we now
v'
write
vv'
which
dx\
ds
/
k^dt',
where
= dsjdt',
the
_ dv'
dx
velocity, is equal to
ds \
Now
x component of the
v'
dx/dt'.
Multiplying by
^_
a, y, z at to
^2
rf^y
1 di/2
These are the equations of motion of a free particle P' moving along the same path with a velocity v' and occupying the position
the time
t'.
point in a field
TJ'
U+ G
same as
the
rj
in a field
+ C, provided
U' +
C=
k*
i--
'w'
=-
k^
To understand better the relation between the two fields of force we notice that if X, X' be the components of force in any the same direction at the same point,
dx
dx
that dt'/dt
\v.
We also notice
= v/v'.
600. This theorem is useful, as it enables us to apply to a brachistochrone the dynamical rules we have already studied for free motion. It also enables us to express at once the fundamental differential equations in polar or other coordinates.
The
fif st
is vertical
we
theorem (Art. 595) follows at once from the third, for when the force Since v'^k^jv, see by resolving horizontally that v' cos a is constant.
To deduce the second theorem, we notice that in the free motion v'^lp=Fi, where F^' is the component of force along the radius of curvature. Using the iheoxems v' = k^lv, X'=-X(klvf, (where X is here Fj) this becomes v^lp=-F-y.
601.
Ex.
1.
To find
the brachistochrone
to another,
is
and
The motion
ART. 603.]
equation of a cycloid, having
the generating circle
VERTICAL FORCE.
371
its cusps at the level of no velocity. The radius of and the position of the cusps on the axis are determined by the conditions that the cycloid cuts each of the bounding curves at right angles
Art. 592.
Ex. 2. If in the last example the bounding curves are two straight which intersect the axis of no velocity in the points L, L'; and make angles
lines
/3, )3'
with the horizon, prove that the diameter 2b of the generating circle is LL'K^ - j8') and the distance of the cusp from L is 2b^. Explain the results when the lines
are parallel.
602.
Ex.
to another
is
Show by using Jacobi's rule that the cycloid from one given point a real minimum, the level of zero velocity being given (Art. 594).
by the calculus of variations passes through A and B and no cusp between these points. Describe a neighbouring cycloid passing through A and having its cusps on the same horizontal line, the radii of the generating circles being i and b + db. Since the base of a cycloid from cusp to cusp is 2irb, it is easy to prove that the next intersection of the two curves lies in a vertical which passes between the two next cusps. The cycloids therefore cannot again intersect between A and B and the time from A to B must be a
The
cycloid found
there
is
minimum.
603.
Ex.
is
Find the brachistochrone from one given curve to another when gravity and the particle starts from rest at the upper curve.
it
follows,
is
a cycloid
having a cusp on the higher curve. To determine the constants of the curve, we examine the part of 5t due to the variation of the two ends. Let a;,,, ?/(,; x-^, ?/j be the coordinates of the upper and lower ends, then v'^2g{y-y^. By Art. 593
we have
where
<A
1/u
is
Now
in our problem
d<f>
_d(p
dy
dyQ
d ( ds \
dy\
d /
'
,
We there-
Remembering
that
<}>
form
5f/j
is
(5a;o
the upper
5j;i
+ tanai5)/i =
giving dyJSXf) = dyJ5x-y,
(2).
last of these
tangents to the bounding curves at the points ichere the brachistochrone meets them
are parallel.
372
604.
Ex.
1.
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
A particle
falls
[CHAP.
VIII.
from rest
passing through another point B ; find the entire path when the time of motion is a minimum, (1) supposing B to be a fixed point, (2) supposing B constrained to lie
on a given curve.
to
no impact
at
in passing
from one
The
ture
and moves
off
have yet to find the position of B when it Taking the origin at A, and the axis of z curve. v'^=2gz. The time is given by
We
only
known
vertically
r* ds
ds'
where accents
by Art. 592.
tangents at
ing that
Let
(a,
/3,
y], (a',
/3',
7').
(^>
two cycloids and to the constraining curve. Then rememberand C are fixed points and that B is varied on the curve, we have
to the
(cos a cos
+ cos j3 cos ^ + cos 7 cos f) - (cos o'.cos 6 + cos /3' cos <p + cos 7' cos Y") = 0.
AB, BC.
Find the curve of quickest descent from a fixed point A to another C, is interposed between A and C having a given finite aperture through which the path must pass. [So long as the curve AC can be Hence if the arbitrarily varied the minimum curve is found by Arts. 591, 601. single cycloid A G does not pass through the aperture, the minimum curve must pass through a point B on the boundary of the aperture. The curve then consists of two
Ex.
2.
cycloids
the position of
B is
found by Ex.
1.]
[Todhunter.]
605. Ex. 1. If the brachistochrone is a parabola when the force is parallel to the axis, prove that the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the [This follows from the equation square of the distance from the directrix.
i;
= a cos a.]
Prove also that the time of describing any arc PQ varies as the area [For cos a varies as 1/^, therefore dt varies radii, SP, SQ.
A point moves in a plane with a velocity always proportional to the curvature of the path, prove that the brachistochrone of continuous curvature [Math. Tripos, 1875.] between any two given points is a complete cycloid.
Ex.
We here h&Ye jpds =j<pdx a minimum, where (p={l + y'^)^ly". The curve can be immediately found by using two rules in the calculus of variations. First,
we have
djtpdx=<pdx + {Y,-l\/) u+Y,,w' + j(~ Y/ +
Y,/')
udx,
where F,, Y,,, are the partial differential coefficients of (p with regard to y', y"; u) = 8y-y'dx, and the part outside the integral sign is to be taken between limits. Also accents denote differentiation with regard to x. The extreme points being
given,
5a;
= 0,
Sy =
at
each
end.
Art.
591,
592,
the
at each end.
This
gives
F,-r/ = .4.
ART. 606.]
CENTRAL FORCE.
373
Y,,')
y'
+ Y,,rj" + B.
we
find
(j>
first
integrals
= Ay' + Y^,y" + B,
(j>
which contains two arbitrary constants A, B. Substituting for .: pds = ^Ady + \Bdx. leadsto {l-^y'")"ly" = \Ay' + \B;
and r
this
Taking the straight line Ay + Bx as an axis of ^, this is equivalent to p=Csva.ip where sin ip=d7)lds and C is a constant. This is the known equation of a cycloid. The condition F^, =0 at each end gives y" infinite and therefore p=0.
The
Ex.
Prove that the differential equation of the brachistochrone from rest A to another point B, when the length of the curve is also given, is
[Airy's Tracts.]
^ + 6=y/|l-f(g)].
X so that the arc has the given length.
To make ^dsjv a minimum subject to the condition that \ds is a given quantity we use a rule supplied by the calculus of Variations. We make J(X/u + l)ds a minimum without regard to the given condition and finally determine the constant
Central force. Ex. 1. Prove that the brachistochrone for a central given by v = Ap, where ^v^=jFdr and p is the perpendicular from the centre of force on the tangent. The mass is unity, as is usual in these problems.
606.
force
is
The brachistochrone
we have
equation
v = Ap.
is
= k^lv.
When
vAp
Ffxu^, and the velocity is equal to that from infinity, the differential can be integrated exactly as in Arts. 360, 363.
Ex. 2. Prove that the same path will be a brachistochrone for F=ijm''^ and a free path iox F' = pfu^' it n+n'=2, provided the velocity in each case varies as some power of the distance.
free
= 2mm"-V( - 1).
if 7i
= 2iJ.'u'''-^l{n' - 1).
(Art. 599).
+ n' = 2,
Ex. 3. Prove that the ellipse is a brachistochrone from the focus and equal to /Jt-K^a - r)^.
[Townsend.]
The conic is a free path for a force /jlISP^ tending to the focus 8. Hence making the force act on the other side of the tangent as described in Art. 598, the conic is a brachistochrone for an equal force tending from the other focus H.
Ex.
4.
Prove that the central repulsive force for the brachistochronism of a (p^)ldr, the circle of zero velocity being given by the
{x^+y'^)
'2,ay'^
is
repulsive force from the point (-a, 0) which at the distance r from that point
rl{r'^
+ 15d^f,
374
Ex.
5.
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
[CHAP.
VIII.
tochrone in a
lemniscate,
Prove that the lemniscate of Bernoulli can be described as a brachisfield of potential fir^, r being measured from the node of the
find the necessary velocity.
and
Ex.
effect at
6.
particle, acted
is j-^
a distance r
* being a constant,
is
Prove that the form of the groove in which it must move in order to arrive at another given point in the shortest possible time is a hyperbola whose centre coincides with the centre of force. [Math. Tripos.]
infinity.
Ex.
7.
Show
along perpendiculars to
for
is
Ex. 1897.]
Brachistochrone on a surface. To find the brachiswe require only a slight modification the argument of Art. 591. Proceeding as before, we find -^
607.
Bt==^(^Bcc +
where
R.
&2;c^
P=-^
is
Since Bt
we must have
is
where
sufiixes
0,
coefficients.
We
by
must
of a brachisto-
\dsc
ds vds)
/'"'"'
\dy v
is
ds v ds) /
to begin
*^^
_ ~
<^
d dz\
ds vds)
\dz v
j"^''
If the brachistochrone
we equate
limits.
integrated
we
see that at each end the cosine of the angle between the tangents
to the curve
and
to the
boundary
is
The brachis-
608.
the form
By
may
be put into
\dt'^
dx J /'='' \dt'^
dy
)l '" ~ \dt'-^
dz )
P''
ART. 609.]
ON A SURFACE.
"
375
These are the equations of motion of a particle moving freely on the constraining surface,- It follows that the'brachistochrone from point to point on a constraining surface in a field U+ C is a free path on the same surface in a field U'+C, where
F' = -
The
component
forces in
any direction
is
by a smooth wire to describe the brachistochrone on the surface without a change in the field of force, prove that -v^ sin xIp = G, V'COSxIp=H+R, -'2,G=R^,
If the particle is constrained
Ex.
G are the components of the impressed forces along the normal to the and that tangent to the surface which is perpendicular to the path, and R i?2 are the components of the pressure in the same directions. Also p is the radius of curvature of the path, and x the angle the osculating plane makes with the normal to the surface.
where H,
surface,
,
The
first is
xlp=G' by the
6O0. We may also sometimes find the brachistochrone on a given surface by making a comparison with the brachistochrone on some other more suitable
surface.
X, y, z of
Let us derive a second surface from the given one by writing for the coordinates any point P some functions of J, 77, f, the coordinates of a corresponding
Let these functions be such that
point Q.
(d^)^
+ {dr,f + {dtf},
ratio to the
where
fx
is
a function of
f,
t],
f.
drawn from Q,
1.
t
surface
is
found by making
minimum,
__
ffida
'Jv-J-T'
and the
velocity
1?
of
is
of the coordinates of P.
Expressing v in terms of
curve on the derived surface
f,
is
motions of
and Q are
respectively
If
we arrange matters
is
surface
constant.
so that fifv is constant, the velocity on the second The brachistochrones on the given surface then correspond to
This comparison assists us in determining the point on a brachistochrone with one end given at which the time ceases to be a minimum.
The derived surface may be obtained in many ways, for example by using the method of inversion. The theory of this surface is also used in making maps see the United States Coast Survey, Craig^s treatise on Projections. The application to brachistochrones is given by Darboux in his Theorie generale des Surfaces.
Ex.
particle
P moves
on a sphere unJer the action of a centre of repulsive on the surface, and the velocity v at any point distant
376
r
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES,
is
is
[CHAP. VIII.
from
v=Ar'^.
another
Inverting the sphere with regard to 0, the diameter 2a being the constant of
inversion, the derived surface is a tangent plane-
The curve
;
is
traced out by Q,
P and Q
of
ia^.
is
P is
a brachistochrone for
a uniform velocity.
circle.
The path
is
P is
Bertrand'8 theorem. A series of brachistochrones is drawn on a given and the arcs AB, AB', &e. are described in equal times, the velocity at A being given. Prove that the locus of B cuts all the brachisto-
610.
acute.
The following amounts to Bertrand's proof. If possible let the angle AB'B be Drawing the arc BC so that the angle CBB'>CB'B, the sides of the triangle BCB'. will then be elementary and the triangle may be regarded as rectilinear. It follows that the arc CB'>CB. The time of describing CB' is > than
that of describing
CB
C is
because the velocity at every point in the neighbourhood of The time of describing the line ACB is therefore less
than that of describing AB' or AB. The path AB could not then be a brachistochrone. This proof is the same as that used by Salmon in his Solid Geometry, Art. 394, to prove the corresponding theorem for geodesies. Bertrand's theorem is
now
we proceed
in the next
article.
611.
A on
it
that
brachistochrone which
Let lengths
AB be
The
50-2
we may
call S^.
dt
By
we have
^'''i
cos
os djvj
By
construction cos
^^=0
for each line and, since the times of describing neighIt follows that the surface S^ also cuts the lines at
If the surface Sj is an infinitely small sphere all the brachistochrones diverge from a given point A. The locus of the other extremities of the arcs drawn from and described in equal times is therefore an orthogonal surface.
This proof
Art. 592.
may
expressing the conditions at the limits in Art. 607 in a form similar to that in
This theorem though enunciated for a brachistochrone applies generally to problems in the calculus of variations. The time t may stand for any integral of
the form
j<p
.
ds where
is
the integral
is
is
such that
612.
Ex.
1.
revolution for a heavy particle with a given level of zero velocity are
r^-^=Av,
ART. 613.]
377
v^=2gz, where r, <p, z are cylindrical coordinates, z being measured downwards from the zero level. Prove also that the brachistoehrone touches the meridian at
the zero level.
Ex.
2.
A heavy particle
is
vertical
and vertex
if it
Prove that,
reach
another given point not more than half-way round the cone in the least possible
time, the curve of the groove must be such as would, if the cone were developed, become a parabola with the point corresponding to the vertex as focus.
Prove that the brachistoehrone on a vertical cylinder for a heavy particle with a given level of zero velocity becomes the brachistoehrone on a
Ex.
f!.
vertical plane
when
the cylinder
is
[Roger.]
Find the brachistoehrone when the velocity at any point of space is proportional to the distance from a given straight line. Prove that the curve lies on a sphere and cuts all the circles whose planes are perpendicular to the given
Ex.
4.
i.e.,
the curve
is
a loxodrome.
[Tait.]
to the earth.
Let
still
X be
Let Let
its latitude.
be any point on the surface of the earth and let Then X is the angle which the normal to the
surface of
water at
of the equator.
OL = 6
ft)
on the axis of rotation. be a perpendicular from be the angular velocity of the earth, then the earth turns
from west to east in the time
27r/a).
round
its axis
As we intend
relative to
it
is
to rest.
We
therefore apply
a>^b and acting in an initial velocity equal to cob opposite to the direction of motion of 0, i.e. in a direction due westwards from 0.
an accelerating
force equal to
We
also apply
When
The
force.
it
is
0)^6.
earth,
but
The form
its
still
water.
is
Let g be this force at the point 0, then when the particle at 0, and has been reduced to rest, the resultant force is
"
represented by
^r.
378
[CHAP.
h,
VIII.
When
where a
is
the-
altered
and
is
nearly equal to
is
^r
(1 Ihja),
Since h
usually not
it is
more
obvious
first
is so small that, for a we may regard gravity as a force constant in direction and magnitude. Since 27r/a) is 24 hours, we find that m^a is nearly equal to ^/289. Hence if we neglect gh/a we must also neglect <o% at all points near 0. The applied force
approadmation at
least,
co^b is
is
nearly
The equations of motion of a particle referred to axes 614. moving with the earth have been already formed in Art. 49.9.
We
6i,
6^, 6^
in
We
then substitute
m^y, m^z.
the values of the space velocities second order and neglect thus find
all
u, v,
We
dx
^^*
ady a
c,dz ^
^dz
^
^-r
dy
dz
d'^V
^dx
d^Z
adx^
n dy \
forces other
the vertical at 0.
If the axis of x be directed along* the meridian towards the south and the axis of y towards the west, we have
Oi
= co cos \,
^2
= 0,
6s
= CD sin X,
since
It
A. is
sometimes necessary to take the axis of x inclined to the /3, the angle /3 being measured from the south towards the west. We then have
is
$1
02
6^
a>
sin \.
If we wish the axes to move round the vertical with 616. an angular velocity^, we have jBpt + e, where e is some constant.
ART. 618.]
FALLING BODIES.
379
We then
^i =
ft)
have
cos
cos
/3,
62
= (o
cos
The components
6^, 62, 63
are not
u, v,
in the
But
if
be any small
then be
The equations
of motion
will
still
As
in
it is
we give the
when
tively
the axis of z
is vertical,
while those of
y point respec-
sin
du
,-
ft)^
sin^Xa;
dV'
at
^ dx ^ dz 2g) cos X -y- 2a) sm \ ^- ay
r.
.
d-y
,-v
^y.
i.
dt^
dt
-}-
dt
d?z
-^
2ft)
cos
\ -^
P is
dv
ft)2
cos^
\z
618.
It
Ex.
particle
attached
to
a point
allowed
to fall freely.
The point
being
Taking the axes of x, y to point due south and west, the equations of motion are x"-2y'9^=Q, z" + 2y'd-i^= -g, y"-2z'^i + 2a;'^3=0,
where
^i
= wcosX,
first
d.,=
We
solve
As a
z
that initially av y,
and
= h, we
arrive at
Eemembering x=0, y = 0,
= h-\gt\
As
a second approximation
we
x=:At+B,
The
y=Ct + D-^gt^i,
^=0, C=0, E=0. The initial velocities in space are not required here, but (after O has been reduced to rest) these are given by u=0, v= -h6^, w = 0. To the value of V we may add the velocity of 0, viz. - ub. Also when t=0, we have x=0, y=0,z = h; .: x=0, z=h-^gt\ y=-h9t%,
We
see
motion
is
of the earth. The time of falling is given by h = \gt^. Since x = throughout the motion, the particle strikes the horizontal plane on the axis of y, and there i$
380
[CHAP. VIII.
\t^
;
no southerly deviation.
descent.
<i3
cos X
is
there is there-
This deviation
is
619.
Ex.
2.
Ex.
1.
Show
is
particle
no deviation
[Laplace
to the
4w cos W'^jSg^.
iv., p.
341.]
Ex.
3.
particle falls
from relative
rest at a point
situated at a height h
above the point 0. Supposing the resistance of the air to be represented by kv where v is the velocity and k a small quantity, find the effect on the easterly
deviation.
x'd^, y'd^,
as
we now know
that they are of the order w^ (Art. 618), the equations of motion become
IB-^z'
= - Ky\
z"=-g- kz'.
if
The
tuting
vertical
motion
is
sensibly the
same as
y'
Substi-
z'
-gt in the
first
ij"
equation,
.:
+ Ky'=- %ge^t,
+ Ky=- gd^t^
where ^=djdt.
deviation
is
This
leads
at
once
to
2/= -
ai/^i*^
l-x
^^^
easterly
Ex.
4.
Prove that,
if
represented by
X= - gxja, Y=
rest at a height h, as
-gyja, Z= -g (1-20/a), the time of falling from deduced from the equations of Art. 614, would be increased by
itself.
The southern deviation. A particle falls from relative rest at a point A on the vertical at a point on the surface of the earth. Let the soiithe-m horizontal component of the attraction of the earth be represented by
Ex.
5.
situated
and the angular velocity having been reduced to rest. Prove that the southern deviation measured on the tangent plane at is sin\cosXgt*{%u' + -i^C).
are very small functions of the ellipticity
A and C
This result
is
components of the attraction of the earth are to be found in treatises on the "figure of the earth" (see Stokes' Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. ii. p. These give approximately (after some reduction) C=(27?i-e) 2<7/a, where 142). m=w^alg and e= 1/300, hence C = 2w^ nearly.
620.
Two
cases of motion.
;
Two
(1)
when the
ART. 621.]
381
vertical
velocity
The products
tw
by
a
o)
approximation.
case,
In the second
neglect its product
by
w.
on the contrary, dz\dt is small and we The two sets of equations are therefore
fZ^
>^
d^x
dt'
^dy
dt
dt'
dt
^_
df'
dt
^
'
F
'f
dt"
'
" dt
d"z
d^z
^dx
is
^dy
We
ponents
until
notice that
6i,
6.2
we proceed to higher approximations. It is therefore the component of the angular velocity about a tangent to the earth
affects the motion.
which
On
horizontal
part.
for
If
the motion
is
neglected
we
motion of a particle moving freely in space but referred to axes which turn round the vertical with an angular velocity 6^. If,
.as
is
X,
we
The
particle
earth,
moves
but the axes of reference move round the vertical and leave the
particle behind.
As an example consider
is
nearly horizontal.
This oscillation
is left
plane of
382
[CHAP.
VIII.
The plane
of
X.
This problem
is
more
622.
nat
trajectories.
A
is
bullet is projected
at the
point 0, with a great velocity F, in a direction making a small angle a with the
nearly flat.
It is
The
gun the
round the vertical at 0, and the bullet is left Supposing that the initial plane of xz contains the direction of projection, the coordinates of the bullet at the time t are evidently
of reference turn with the earth
(Art. 620).
x=Vtcosa,
The deviation y
is
y- xO^t
left in
where
^3
- w sin X.
If
be the
notice also that the deviation y is independent of the azimuth of the plane of firing, and that the time of describing
is
Etu
sin X.
We
The
third equation of
motion
>
dec
'
= Vtwa.a-^gt^-V(i3t-cos,a.co&\sm^,
the angle the plane of firing
/3
is
The
from
its
moment
623.
is therefore
- xtui
Deviation of a projectile. Ex. A particle is projected with a velocity making an angle a Wuh the horizontal plane, and the vertical plane through the direction of projection makes an angle j3 with the plane of the meridian, the angle /3 being measured from the south towards the west. If x is measured horizontally in the plane of projection, y horizontally in a direction making an angle )3 + Jtt with the meridian, and z vertically upwards from the point
in a direction
sin
/3,
y = (V sin at- - ^gt^) u cos^X cos p + Fcos at^ w sin X, z=VBin at - ^gt^.-V cos ai^ w cos X sin /3,
where X
is
the latitude of the place, and w the angular velocity of the earth.
(1)
Prove also
point of projection
(2)
4w sin
/3
- cos- a)
V^jg^,
4w
and
(3)
sin^
(^
cos X cos
/3
of flight is decreased
It is
not usual in practical gunnery to take account of the rotation of the earth
great,
except
when F is very
F are perceptible.
mass
624.
is
Disturbance of a pendulum.
fine wire of length
I
particle of
suspended by a
from a point
fixed
ART. 624,]
THE PENDULUM.
vertical at 0, is let go.
383
It is
motion
The equations
of the mass
m we see that
than 1{1
cos a),
and the terms of the form ddzjdt are of the order Ima.^: these we Let us also make the axes of x, y turn slowly round shall reject. the vertical with such an angular velocity p relatively to the earth that ^3 = to sin A, +p becomes zero, as explained in Art. 616. The equations of motion are now
dt^
ml'
^
dt^~
^
ml'
(1).
I
is
d^, 6^
The third equation proves that the tension T differs from mg by quantities of the order Icoa at least. Since xjl and yjl are of the order a, and we have agreed to reject terms of the order aa^, we must put T = mg in the two first equations.
Since the two
first
of a real pendulum
when
is
p = (0
sin
A,
If In^
= g,
w = Acos{nt
G),
= Bsm(nt + D)
(2).
by
we
notice
To determine the constants of intethat when the particle is drawn aside from the
and not yet liberated, it partakes of the velocity of the earth and has therefore a small velocity relative to the axes.
This
is
equal to
displacement.
is
of xz at the time
la,
384
'
[CHAP. VIII.
an
ellipse
and
B.
sin
\ ^/{l/g)
is
a vertical plane.
The
X.
effect of
earth
is
to
make
known
pendulum
is
This progression of
this progression will
when
is
zero
As the presence of
(1)
important
be small,
(2)
that the
necessary.
This
is
usually effected
by fastening the bob when displaced to some point fixed in earth by a thread, and when the mass has come to apparent rest it is set free by burning the thread. The progression of the apses due to the angular magnitude of the displacement is in the opposite direction to that caused by the rotation of the earth.
The advantage
bob
of using a long
pendulum
is
be considerable though the angular displacement of the wire is very small. The bob should also be of some weight, for otherwise its motion would be soon
destroyed by the resistance of the air; Art. 113.
may
62 3.
As we have
rejected
it
is
interesting to
examine
(1)
if
to a
we substitute the first approximation of The third equation shows that Tjm - g has two sets of terms. First, there are terms independent of w which lead to the solution already obtained in Art. 555, and need not be again considered here. Next, there are terms which contain w as a factor and have the form &iu. [nt) where p=pt, Art. 616. These when multiplied by xll or yjl give no terms of the. form sinnt or cos nt. None of the terms which contain w can rise into importance
second approximation.
To determine
(Art. 303).
627.
The
with Newton.
The liberation of the balls was by burning the thread by which they were suspended, and this was not done until they had entirely ceased to vibrate as observed by a microscope. The vertical was determined by a plumb line, but he had to wait several mouths before The results were disappointing for tliey showed a deviation it came to rest. towards the south nearly as great as that towards the east. This discrepancy was
(1)
the numerous apertures in the walls of the tower caused was not ascertained until a change in the seasons had
ART. 628.]
altered
its
385
position.
Hamburg, but Reich's experiments in 1831 3 in the mines of Freiberg are generally considered to be the most important. The height of the fall was 158^ metres and the mean of 106 experiments gave a deviation to the east of 28^
millimetres, the deviation to the south being about a twentieth of that towards the
east.
he
to those given in
He
Journal de
I'ecole
The
to be
defect of experiments
on
measured.
angular velocity.
be (as
The advantage
of this
method
is
continued through several hours, so that the slow deviation of th& pendulum can
it
make
ment very
ments.
Among
English experiments we
may mention
of the
those by
The accuracy
30%
the true time lying between the two (see Engineering, July
1895).
Though the
required, yet
many
Indeed
arise
when the
Foucault admitted that it was only after a long series of trials that he made the experiment succeed (see Bulletin de la Soeiete Astronomiqxie de France, Dec. 1896).
Inversion*.
Let a point
of unit
polar
U =f(i\
where
paints.
6,
.
(f>).
OP
of the path to Q,
OP OQ =
the locus of
is
that of
Let
since
P', Q'
.
OP OQ =
be two other inverse points near the former, then OP' OQ', a circle can be. described about the
.
quadrilateral PQP'Q'.
The elementary
:
p.
If the points P,
Q move
is
so as
London
Mathematical Society, vol. xv. 1884. The, principle of least action to both this method of Inversion and that of Conjugate functions.
R. D.
there applied
25
386
INVERSION.
xt^,
[chap.
VIII.
are connected
by
= rjp.
The
in space
the quantities
or
(r, 6, ^).
coordinates, the
are
deduced from
T = 1m^ = 1 -]
r
(p'-'
Q.
They
P and
k^/p^
from
to
IT.
We
then
= i(/^ +
&c.),
t/,
= ^|/(^,^,</,) +
cj.
The Lagrangian equations derived from these give the motion of a particle which describes the same path as that of Q, but in a different time. Let the particle be called 11. The form of T.y shows that 11 moves as a free particle, acted on by forces whose
potential
is
C/a.
We
and
are equal.
other.
The path of either particle may be inferred from that of the If the path of the particle P described with a work function
is
f{r, d,^)-\-G
11,
if p>roperly pro-
a work function
^-?{^(f''''*)+4
between the velocities u, v of the particles P, 11, when passing through any inverse points P, Q, we notice that by the principle of vis viva ^u^ = U+ C, ^v^ U.2. It follows immediately that v uk-jp-, and therefore that ur = vp. Since the planes of motion OPP', OQQ' coincide, the angidar momenta of the particles, when at inverse points of their ^mths,
629.
find the relation
To
The constant G
is
ART. 631.]
387
equation
known
The
velocity
path must
satisfy the
particles P, IT
same instant. Let t, r be the times at which they pass through any pair P, Q, of inverse points; t + dt, r + dr the times at which they pass through a
points of their respective paths at the
Ijp, it
times
is
dt,
dr are in the
ratio
r'^
p^.
The
.
relation
.
between
and r
=
dt
r"
of inversion.
The
motion must be in the same plane and make supplementary angles with the radius vector which passes through
both the
630.
initial positions.
If the particle
P
(/>,
is
constrained to
move on a
surface
tlie
argument
The
6, (p)
inverse point
Let
then these
may
inverse surface,
we have
p'
-j^^' + rr,
'P'-
in the
expressions for
similar results.
and
U+C given
in Art. 628,
we proceed
as before
and arrive at
631.
The
I>Tessiires.
When
the particles P,
are constrained to
move on
a surface and the inverse surface respectively, the pressures R^, B, at any pair of inverse points are such that R^r^B^p^.
To prove
this
we take any
1
axis of z
particles
dA dA
1 r sin 6 1 p sin
dU
d(f>
r sin d dt
1
+ R^cosa^
p sin 6 dr
dU, + R^ cos a. d0
where
is
the angular
momentum
and
dt,
dr are the times respectively occupied by the particles in passing from any
The
forces R-^
R^
we
one surface.
388
product
INVERSION,
[chap. VIII.
The make eqtial angles with OPJ^. The angles a^, a., of
OP OQ
.
is
the same, the sphere will touch the inverse surface also.
of the sphere
and
will
{IJ
+C),v^e see
at
Since
i.e.
Ex.
(1)
relations
p^U2=r^(U+C),
^u^U+C,
that the parallel components G, G' of the impressed forces on the particles
in
P,
n
(2)
equation p^G'^r^G.
that the radial components F, F', are connected by
p'^F'
632.
Ex.
;
1.
straight line
particle,
in this case
free particle
?t'^
= 2C7=2C.
free
a circle passing
through the origin. This gives U^=Ck'^jp'^, and the central force FACk^jp^. This is Newton's theorem that a circle can be described freely about a centre of
force
fifth
'
power of the
distance.
Ex.
2.
Show
+ 6^
p^)
sin^ ^
in the origin
which varies as
p^
i-s
(a''
rs
7; -i,l
0-
When the axes a, & of the curve are so unequal that their ratio is greater than sJ2, the force F changes from attraction to repulsion as the particle proceeds from the extremity of one axis to the other. Verify this by tracing the curve, and show that the curve is convex at the extremity of the lesser axis.
Ex. 3. Prove that the central forces F, F', under the action of which a curve and its inverse can be described about the centre of inversion are so related that
- + - =2
show
v'
by
vr==v'r'.
When
Ex.
point
moves on a sphere under the action of a centre of on the surface, and the velocity v at any where r=OP. Prove that the path is a circle whose plane passes
particle
through 0.
Inverting the sphere,
line.
we
The
633.
Conjugate
,
{x, y), (f
7])
of
ftinctions. Let the Cartesian coordinates two corresponding points P, Q be so related that
^
2/*'
=/(f + ^0
(1)>
ART, 634.]
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
%
389
= \/(
!)
yi
(f)(^,7})
+ ylr{^,7]}i
The transformation
where
<^
effected
therefore
= (f>{^>v),
= i^{^,v)
(3),
the motion of
entiating (1)
Differ-
we
^'^
2/
/^^{r + VI
+ vi)-f(^-vi)
(4),
where
/x^ is
f^'^=f(^
(5).
Let U = F{x,y) be the work function of the forces which act on the particle P. The motions of P and Q may be deduced by the Lagrangian rule from
the constant of
C being
included in
/z-
F for
to the
T.^ki^i' + vC-),
U,
= fM'F(<f>,ir),
IT,
whose mass
is
the same path as the point Q, but in a different time, Art. 524.
To
P,
between the
n
To
paths,
we observe
that
since ^u-
= U, \v^=Un,
= fMU.
(4),
dr we notice that, by
da
are such at ds
= /xda,
while
fjLU
= v.
by
division that dt
It is
= fx^dr.
+ y-lh-l,
kt.
634.
Ex.
known
r sin 6;
= p cos ip,
rj
= p sin
(p;
d-n<p.
The equation
_ c-"-
'''
390
Also,
GROUPING OF TRAJECTORIES.
M-=/'(f+'?0/'(?-^i)='i'(l'+rr-Vc"'"';
.-.
ij.
[CHAP.
VIII.
= np'^~^lc'^-'^.
Again in the
elliptic orbit,
Hence
since v=ij.u,
The
momenta,
equal to n.
When n=
r=c'^lp,
<p
6=
-<p.
is
measured positively
opposite direction to
635. Ex. If the particle P is constrained to move on any given curve with a work function U, while the equal particle 11 is constrained to move on the conjugate curve, with a work function V^=fi^'U, the pressures B.^, E^ on the two
curves are in the ratio of the cubes of the velocities,
also
i.e.
Rilu^=R.2lv^.
This gives
R2=M?Ri'
The grouping of
636.
trajectories
and Jacobi's
solution.
"
dU =d^v2
dU
'
y =iry-
dU =dJ
w.
,_.
and
to these
we
= ^'2 +
2/'2
+ /2^2f7+2a
(2).
When
the equations (1) have been integrated we have x, y, z t with six constants whose values
b, c
become known when the initial values a, and the initial velocities a', b', c' are given.
Since
t
of the coordinates
dt,
the
by writing
e for
t.
One
mere addition to the time. When we eliminate the time we arrive at two equations which are the equations of all the possible The constant e disappears Avith t, and the trajectories in space.
as a
C may
be regarded as one.
To understand the
ART. 637.]
ACTION.
it
391
becomes necessary
group the trajectories according to the values of the Taking any one group, having any given energy, the four remaining constants are determined for any special trajectory when the coordinates of some two points A, B arbitrarily chosen
first
We
energy
G.
on
it
are given.
637.
Action.
to B.
If ds
the m\>egxdX
V = j mvds
from
we
also
pas.sing
any position have V=jmv^dt, the limits being the times ti and t of through A and B. When we are only concerned with the
If mv^ be the vis viva of the particle in
it is
convenient to suppose
its
mass
let s
be measured from
let
to
B
I.
the length
AB
be
Let A'B' be a neighbouring trajectory (Art. 590) from some point A' near J. to a point B' near B. Proceeding as in Art. 591, writing
V for
<^,
we
find
SF=
v-^Zx + &c.
as
-/E-l("S)p
J^.^^" ds...{^\
where the part outside the integral is to be taken between the limits A and B and the energy C has been varied for the sake of generality. It is easy to deduce from the equations of motion
(as in Art. 599) that the coefficients of Zx, hy, hz inside the
Also since
|-v"^
= U+C, we
have vdv/dC
= 1.
Since vdxjds
is
we thus have
.
W^xhx + y'hij
When we
and
all
+ z'hz - a'Sa -
.(4).
it is more convenient to take t as the independent Let us imagine the systera to be moving in some manner which we will call the actual course. Let the work function of the field be U and let L be the Lagrangian function, then L = (Art. 506). Let ^j, d.^, &c. be any indepen-
variable.
T+U
a.,,
occupied
it is
t^.
Then
functions of
t,
whose forms
move
slightly different
in some varied manner, i.e. let the from those in the actual course. By
6^z
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP. VIII.
5fLdt = [lM-,^f^,J]l^+j^[
where u = S9 6'5t,
dL
dd
d dL\
dt dd'
'
summation for all the coordinates and t. Since each separate term vanishes by Lagrange's equations (Art. 506), we have
implies
i^
6^,
d.^,
will be a
homogeneous function
of d^,
6',
dT
We
also suppose that for each varied course the velocities are so arranged that the principle of energy holds, i.e. T - U= C, though C may be different for each course.
5j
Cdt = 5
(f
f^)
two equations
(A)
8fLdt=-C{St-dtT} + -2,f^,8e\-^['^,da]
6f2Tdt=(t-'t,)6C-,^('^,Se)-^[5a)
(B)._
The action V of the system is the sum of the actions of the several particles. therefore have V=j2Tdt. When the system reduces to a single particle of unit mass 2T=x''^ + y'- + and the equation (B) becomes the same as (4).
We
z''-^,
638.
let
the energy
Let us consider the motion of a single free particle and C be given, therefore 8(7=0. Let Vt, v., be the
velocities at
A, B;
So-j,
So-o
the displacements
A A',
BB'
6i, 6^
make
5;
hV=v.2
*
Vi cos
d^ha^
(I^)-
The proof
of this
theorem
is
as follows.
We have
6, 0',
Now L
is
8L = -s:{LeSd + Le'Sd'),
dL = -Z(Lede + Le'd"dt),
Since
where
suffixes
coefficients.
ART. 639.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
393
maybe
from
one trajectory
AB
to
a neighbouring one
the
is
the
of the virtual
moments of
momenta
at
the
two
Taking any arbitrary surface which we may call S^, let us group together all the trajectories which cut Si orthogonally, then cos 6i = 0. On each of. these trajectories let us take the point B so that the action from the surface Si to B is some given
quantity.
As we
which we may
It
call
S.2,
and at every
point of So
we have 8V =0.
it
(supposing
is
also zero.
The
Considering
all
possible trajectories
we
first
group them
ac-
We
classify
them again by
trajectories.
some given surface. We The theorem just proved can be cut orthogonally by a
These orthogonal surfaces are such that, when any two are given, the action from one to the other is the
same for all the trajectories. See Thomson and Natural Philosophy, 1879, vol. i. Art. 332.
All possible trajectories
just described in
Tait, Treatise on
may be grouped
many
different ways.
all
One method
to select
a surface intersecting
surface
the trajectories.
Each point
of this
may be
all
is
sphere which
surface S^
The
arbitrary surface.
By a
orthogonal surfaces.
639.
is
a special
When
this
method
is
and the
trajectories are
not so simple.
394
640.
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP.
VIII.
V be
and of
arbitrary positions
differential calculus,
and A.
Then by the
Comparing
we
see that
a'
= -^>c.,&c
*-*.
= ^..,(6).
(IT ^
where
values
motion.
{%)' Z7o
is
the value of
c.
a, b,
Hamiltonian equations of
'
'
It is obvious that if
(7)
the component velocities of the particle and the second set will
give the relations between the coordinates
values.
x, y,
and their
initial
The
last
'^
new
constants
ot,
/3,
7.
+7 He
(8),
also
a, b, c
V is
641.
unnecessary.
In the
first differential
between
x, y,
will be satisfied.
and a new variable t, the equations of motion These assumed relations are
'^=-^->
:;c
(^>'
ART. 641.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
39o
where
a-i,
ySi,
and
are three
t,
new
constants.
make
and
e.
x, y, z
functions of
G and
we
/S,
To prove these
and
relations
^'_&_ + y'AL+2'_^ =
dxda
dydcL
dzda.
(10) ^
for a,
is
replaced by unity.
y, z
first
is
a solution of the
satisfy that
of the differential
must
a,
equation identically.
We
may
We
dx dxda.
(11).
The
and
the zero
replaced by unity.
written for *
a,
(11),
we
V
d'f
,
y'=dy'
,
df .. ^'=5
<^^)-
_^
""
d'^f
'dx^"" '^'dxdyy
y", z".
^ dxdz^
^^'^^'
dfd^
dx dx^
df drf_ dy dxdy
dfd^f^^dU
dz dxdz
'
dx
We
therefore have
dU
dx
^
dU
dy
dU
dz
\v'hich
396
642.
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP.
VIII.
f{x,y,z,C,a,^)^K
where
C, a, /3 are constants
(14),
and
K the parameter.
The equations
is
normal to
Thus
yQj)
differential equations or
more
The
trajectories in Jacobi's
to^
method
according
By
trajectories in different
ways.
643.
Art. 638. As an example which requires no long algebraical process, let us discuss when the forces are absent. The Hamiltonian equation is
the trajectories
)^(^)^(/=One complete
integral, suggested
<-)
by the rules
V^\ax + ^ij+^l{l-o?-^-)z}J[2C)+y
another complete integral
is
r-{(,r-ar+(y-/3)^ + r^}iv/(2C)
If
(17).
we choose the
first
V=^K are
are grouped into systems of jjarallel lines, the lines taking all directions.
we
choose the second integral, the surfaces T'=A' are spheres having their centres on
the plane of xy.
The
trajectories are
To
let
us substitute in
integral.
We
have at once
>'
,/(2C)-*+^
(1^)'
where r'^=(x
-a)'^
+ {y
^)-
z'^.
= 0,
644.
When
(2).
not
Cartesian the
expression for the kinetic energy does not take the simple form
given in
T be
given by
(19),
6, <^,
-v/r.
2T = Pd'-' +
where P,
Q,
Qc^'-'
+ 'Rf'
Let us
now take
jdVy
(dV\-
/dV\^
_^
,^_,
ART. 645.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
397
if
V=f{d,4>,^\r,a,a,^) be an integral of
(20),
+ r^
of the
(21),
the
first
integrals
Lagrangian
^''-%'
The
trajectories, &c. are
(22).
given by
(2^)'
/3i,
and
are
new
constants.
But
his
a.
method
applies also to
which
iQ
generalizations
645.
Ex.
1.
we
(STKI>
Separating the variables,
we
find' that
is
Ex.
2.
about a fixed centre of force which attracts according to the Newtonian law.
U=-.
>
.
The Hamiltonian
may
].(f)'-..-.c.j.(i-^)%,L^(:4.r=o.
'/
a,
-a + /3cosec^^ and
Let the inteobvious that
V=f^{rj
is
a),
V=f^{e,
a,
/3),
V=f^{(i>,
all
/3).
It
is
y = f\+ f-2+ f3 + y
deduced.
the trajectories
may
be
Ex.
3.
ordinates
(X,
Apply Jacobi's method to find the motion of a v) when the work function is
//,,
for
^
[CHAP.
_
VIII.
3&8
V2) (X2
JACOBI'S SOLUTION.
_
(^L.
,,2)
(^=
,.)
^^_y+
{(m- -
J,-2)
(^2
,,.)
(,2
X2)
(^ILy +
(X-
(,-2
J,?)
(,2
fc-2)
(X2
_ ^2)
(^
= -2
where
Z)
v^)f^ (X)
(v-
(.-
- X=)/o
Since
(m)
- A*-) f,
(")
- 2CD,
X^) .
(m2
1/2)
(;/2
X2 (^2
^2)
+ ^2
(^2
_ _
+ 2
+
i
(X2
(X-2
_ /^2) ^ Q,
X*
- J/S) + ^4 (Ai2
is satisfied
(^2
- ^2) ^ _
2)^
by assuming
r-) (X2
r-)
('Jiy
- 2/i
(X)
+ a + |3X2 + 2CX^
with similar expressions for dVjdfM and dVjdv. In these trial solutions the variables and the third v. X, fx, V have been separated, the first containing X, the second
ij.,
to be
&c.), V^F^ {v, &c.), the C), V = F^ V=F^ (X, o, The solution then follows is then V ^F^ + F^ + F^ + y.
/3,
{/j.,
a,
|3,
G.
vol. xii. 1847.
uses
This expression for U is given by Liouville in his Journal, it in conjunction with Jacobi's solution.
He
We may also write the expression in a different form. Let 2h^ P-2f Ps ^^ ^^^ perpendiculars from the origin on the tangent planes to the three confocals which We find intersect in any point, and let X, jx, v be as before the. semi-major axes.
by using the expressions
for these perpendiculars in elliptic coordinates (Art. 577)
w)
+ p.J^F., {p)
see at once that the level surfaces
we
The direction of the force at any point P It may be shown by is therefore normal to the polhode which passes through P. differentiation that the components, T and N, of the force, tangential and normal to the ellipsoid which passes through P, are
r=
-2p^F{\){S,-p'S,^]'=
-2i>'^F{\) Is^^'^qx^^-.^'p-,
N^2i}'F{\)S,+^~F{\),
where S
=+ +-.
A",
1',
are
xJ^f^i^-^, + 2f-Se\F(\) +
with similar expressions
for
p*x F'
X-
(X)
^
Y and
Z.
We may obtain
/
(X)
- X-"+'*,
/-,
simpler expressions by combining the three terms of U. Putting '-"+', we see that U is equal to the sum (m) = - M^""*"^, fs (") of
X-, m". ""
of the different
homogeneous products
being taken with a coefficient unity. This symmetrical function of the roots of the cubic in Art. 576 may be expressed as a rational function of the coefficients. We thus find possible forms for U in Cartesian coordinates. For example, putting
/j(X)=-X&c wefind
U=\- +
iJ.'
i'-
= {x- + y- + Z-) + A
ART. 646.]
399'
= - \^
&c.,
we then have
{h- + k-)
+ h-i/- + l;-z- + B,
B are
two constants.
646.
B
to
and
let
smooth
wire, the
energy being given, Art. 636. Of all the different methods of conducting the particle from A to B there may be one which is
the trajectory the particle would take
if
unconstrained.
We
see
by Art. 637
equation
(4).
hV
is
given by
But
A,
We
therefore have
B are SF= 0.
It follows there-
passing from
it to any neighbouring constrained course The action for a free trajectory luith given energy is maximum, a minimum, or is stationary.
zero.
either
Conversely,
if
to
is
problem permit
^x, 8y, 8z to
have arbitrary
result
signs.
Assuming
The
is
from
to
is
max-min
by the
calculus of variations.
similar theorem holds for the motion of a system either free or connected hy
geometrical relations.
Let any two configurations or positions ^, i3 be given. If to B by any varied paths as described in Art. 637 we
of these positions are zero)
5^Ldt=-C(dt-5tj)
Let us
(A),
8J2Tdt = {t-t^)SG
(B).
now suppose
C T - V has
jiatlt.
a viax-min or
is
The equation
then ^Ldt
is
(A) gives a
companion theorem.
stationary.
equal
to
a given quantity,
400
647.
[CHAP. VIII.
The action from one given point to another cannot be a real maximum Every is always the same function of the position of the particle. element of either of the integrals \v'^dt or ^vds is positive and therefore, whatever path from A to B may be taken, we can increase the whole action by conducting
if
the velocity
the particle along a sufficiently circuitous but neighbouring path. Thus, if C be any point on the- free course AB w.e can conduct the particle along that course
to C, then
compel
it
it
to
make
a circuit,
and
neighbourhood
of
C conduct
CB
Additional positive
terms are thus given to the integral and the action is increased. motion is unaltered, but the time of transit is longer.
A and B
Since every element of the integral is positive, there must.be some path joining which makes the action a true minimum. If the theory of max-min in
the Calculus of Variations gives only one path, that path must be a
minimum.
648.
from
It
may
be that there are several free paths by which the particle could travel
to B.
if
it is
Let a neighbouring free path starting from A (the energy being To simplify matters let no other free path the same) intersect ADB in C. If B lie between A and C there is only one intersect ADB nearer to A than C.
a true
minimum.
free
path from
to
which
is
and
minimum from A to C.
Art. 647.
It
If
is
beyond
C, there
may
from
yi
minimum, the
action for
some neighbouring
courses being greater and for others less than for the free path
AB
(Art. 653).
is no free path from A to B, yet there must be a path For example, a heavy particle projected from A with a given velocity can by a free path arrive only at such points as lie within a certain paraboloid whose focus is at A, Art. 159. The path of minimum action from A to a point B beyond the paraboloidal boundary is not a free path. When deduced from the Calculus of Variations it falls under the case mentioned in Art. 646. Its position is such that it cannot be varied arbitrarily on all sides, i.e. the signs of the variations 5.r, Sy, 8z are not arbitrary along the whole length of the course.
649.
It
may be
that there
of
minimum
action.
exist
of the field of
We
draw
verticals
from A and
to intersect the
C and D.
please,
A along
as
we
along a course coinciding indefinitely nearly with the directrix to a point as near The particle is finally conducted along the vertical DB to the as we please.
given point B.
ij(2gz)
Throughout
supposed to be
where
z is the
The
to
is
reduced to the
sum
of the
AC, DB.
The path
he varied arbitrarily, because the particle cannot be conducted above that level without making the velocity imaginary. This minimum path is therefore not given
of Variations.
The parabola
is
brachistochrone
the force acts parallel to the axis and is such that the velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of the distance from the
when
ART. 651.]
directrix; Art. 605.
EXAMPLES.
The
directrix being given in position, the initial
401
and
final
be so far apart that no such parabola can be drawn. In this case the brachistochrone is found by conducting the particle along the vertical straight line ^C in accordance with the given law of velocity, thence with
points A,
of the course
may
an infinite toB.
CD, and
DB
The further discussion of these points is a part of the Calculus of Variations. Some remarks on the dynamics of the problem may be found in the author's
Rigid Dynamics,
vol.
ii.
chap. x.
660. JEx. 1. Prove that the same path is a brachistochrone and a path of least action for v''^=Alf{x, y, z); Art. 599.
for
v^=f{x,
y, z)
The brachistochrone
Idsjv a
is
minimum
must
give the
2.
same curve
deduced from the calculus of variations by making making ^v'ds a minimum. These v'=k^jv ; (Jellett and Tait).
Ex.
Prove that,
d,
if
<f>),
P with such a work the inverse path can be described by a particle II with
Art. 628.
To find the first path we make jvds a minimum. Since ds'lds=plr, the second path is found by making jv'dspjr a minimum. These are the same integrals. This mode of proof applies equally whether the particle is free or constrained to move on a surface.
Ex. 1. Prove that in an elliptic orbit described about the focus S, the measured by the area described about the focus S and the action by the time described about the empty focus H.
time
is
651.
If p, v'
pp'=b'^.
about
be the perpendiculars on the tangent from S and H, we know that Since v^hjp, the action jvds becomes jp'ds .hlb^; the area described being ^jp'ds, the result follows at once. [Tait, Dynamics of a particle,]
Ex. 2. In an ellipse described about the centre G, perpendiculars PM, PN are drawn from P on the major and minor axes CA, CB, and A, B represent the Prove that the action from ^ to P is elliptic areas PMA, PNG A respectively.
(aU + b^B)^filab.
Ex.
3.
is
-i
/K-S)'
dr.
When
is
initial velocity is
^tan^^, where
;
is
maximum
or
minimum
radius vector
Art. 360,
Prove that the action from any point A to another B is k times the sectorial area ASB, where S is the focus, K^ l&gjl and I is the semi-latus rectum.
4.
Ex.
Prove also
that, if the
is
chord
AB
parabolic path
AG, GD,
DB
where AG,
BD
402
652.
paths.
[CHAP.
VIII.
When
a heavy particle
is
with a given,
velocity to pass through a point B, there are in general two possible parabolic
AB
is less
from A
Prove that the action is a minimum along that parabola in which the arc than the arc AC where C is the other extremity of the chord drawn through the focus.
action
is
The
chord of intersection
ultimately passes through the focus of either of these neighbouring parabolas, Art.
159, the result given follows at once.
Ex.
2.
When
the force
is
central
to the
Newtonian law,
there are in general two elliptic paths which a particle could take
when
projected
from
minimum
^5
is
Art. 339.
653.
Ex.
particle
describes
centre
of force
change
when
the particle
is
to
another
on the
circle by
circle.
Let
be
the
radius,
then
taking
the
normal resolution,
the
velocity
Vq=s/(/j-Io."'~^)-
The
- = -^2
-n-lr"-!
Also
C=
2 w
1 a"-^
C is
is
some function
Substituting
we
find
v = Vo{l-p + h{n-l)p-^+...}
(1).
Here
is
Since
{ddf +
{dr)"^,
we
find
"-'{'+
The
action therefore
p^l(^0+-\
from
to ^ is
(2).
when
6 increases
jvds = av,
where p" = B-n as
{e
lj{{%y-py}
de+...]
to
6.
(8),
m Art.
367,
By
substituting for p
from
free
path with
we know by
new path
is
at a point given
by d = irjp nearly.
(3)
We may
easily deduce
from A
to
is
ART. 654]
true
403
this
minimum
A OB < irjp
Since
To prove
we use
an
artifice
due to Lagrange*.
-(Xp-)=.2Xp/^ +
where X
is
r-
(4).
6,
we may
on the right-hand
The term
at B.
Xp^ taken between the limits is zero, since both paths begin at
?^-=^-i^^
then
Since this integral
is
X=i)tanj3(6>-a)
(5),
1= jf^ + Xpydd
essentially positive it follows
(6).
from
(3)
to
is
By
taking pa=l'ir
(5)
where
e is
a quantity as small as
we
please the
e'
values of X given by
can be
please.
made
finite
from
to d
Trjp- e'
where
is
quantity as small as
should not make the
we
When
the angle
AOB
is
greater than irfp lye can prove that the action along
to
is less,
and along
To prove
each end, g
is
this let us
is
io
whose equation
p=L B\r*gd.
be the angle
AOB, then
Since p^>ir one value arbitrary except that g^ is a multiple of tt. at least of g is less than p and the others are greater than p. Substituting in (3),
we
de=-^^{g^-p^)
(7),
The conclusion
a true minimum.
is that
The smaller values of g make I negative, while the more circuitous routes) make I positive. when the angle AOB>irlp, the action along the circle is not
velocity v
at
= (p
(x,
y) beginning
action,
being that of
minimum
it is
to find in
Let the elementary action t;ds=:0^{l + 2/'2) dx be represented by f{x, y, p)dx, where p has been written for y'=dyldx. Then writing y + dy, p + 8p for y and p,
* Lagrange Theorie des fonctions Analytiques 1797. He refers to Legendre, Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences 1786, and adds that it must be shown that X does not become infinite between the limits of integration. Not being able to See also Todhunter's settle this question, he just missed Jacobi's discovery.
4.
404
[CHAP.
is
Vlll.
by Taylor's
theorem,
SA = j[fy5y +fpSp + h.
{fyy
where
dx,
is zero,
and
is
The path
of
minimum
This path
(1).
therefore given by
fy-fp' =
in
SA = ij[fyy(Syf + 2f,p8ySp+fpp(dpr']dx
To
we
This
when
is
given.
treatises
The
on
integration
differential
difficulties
We now
(2).
To determine
we write
(2)
in the form
where the term outside the integral between the limits of integration.
Let y=:F
C2
{x, Cj
j3
,
is zero,
Cg)
be the integral of
(1),
Cj
+ a,
+ P where
a,
^
is
dF ^ ^ dF ^ + ^2^="^+^/+d^^
choose the constants
Cj,"c2 so
,,,
<'^)'
also a solution of
(1).
We
A and
to find
B.
pass through A,
we have an equation
also
fdF
is
dF p\
the equation of a neighbouring path of minimum action beginning at A and making a small arbitrary angle with the path AB, the magnitude of the angle depending on that of a. If C is the first point of intersection of these two paths, then u is not zero between A and Q.
Differentiating
(1)
we
see that
5y=u
satisfies
the equation
fyySy + fypSp -
^^^
(fypdy +fppdp)
= 0;
^^>-
(^^^-^^^0"=i(-^^'""'^
Returning to the integral
(3) let
us choose X so that
(7).
{fyp-2\)u=-f,pXl'
Substituting in
(6)
we
find
\dx-""'
dx)
Jpp
ART. 654.]
405
This becomes
()-
(/2^-2g)/pp=(/.p-2X)^
The quantity under the bering (7) we see that
integral sign in (3) is therefore a perfect square.
Remem-
SA = ljfpp\5^-'^5y\''dx
(9).
The
value of X
is
by
(7)
-,
/dv
u'\
^Hdy'^-iT^u) VIT^
and the
subject of integration in
(9)
,,-. <'')
Hence
it is
may
be finite
The
must
therefore not be
beyond C.
It is
supposed that v
finite
this
is
is
fpp
positive from
to B.
Since fpp=v
(l
+ p^)"^, and
the velocity v
supposed to keep one sign throughout the motion, this condition also is satisfied. The cliange of action caused by a variation of path is therefore always positive and
its
amount
is
determined by
(2)
or
(9).
may also be
extended
any cases in which the subject of integration, viz. f{x, y, p), is a function only of the coordinates y, x, and the first differential coefficient. In order that the course AB given by (1) should be a true minimum, no variation must exist which can make 34 negative. The conditions for this are (1) the point B must not be beyond C, as explained in Arts, 594, 648, (2) the differential coefficient dYldp^ must be positive throughout the whole course AB.
If d^fjdp^ were negative for
any portion
PQ
(1), let
us
QB
so that 8y
as nearly equal to
that 8A
u as we
is
PQ being varied in
from
(7)
prominence
negative.
is
made
It is also evident
d^ffdpdy are
finite.
A SWARM OF
PARTICLES.
The argument
the
will
be
swarm
is
an
forces of attraction
for
an
ellipsoid
same as those
for a sphere.
Taking the same axes as before, the coordinates of the projection of any particle on the plane of motion of the centre are r + ^, ij, while f is the distance of P from that plane. Treating the ellipsoid as homogeneous and of density D, the component attractions of the swarm at any internal point are A^, Bt), Cf, where A, B, G are functions of the ratios of the axes of the bounding ellipsoid and their
sum
is
47rD.
(1)
The equations
ireplaced
by - A^, -
Brj
and instead of
(3)
we have
The equation
for f is evidently
S=-'^^-(?f=-K+^)f
>]= b sin
{2yt
(II)-
+ a),
find by pro-
{i7^-(A-3n^)}{2)--B}-4:2}^n' = 0,
(III).
The condition
direction of
A > 3-.
In an ellipsoid
rj.
A> B
il
the axis in the direction of f is less than that in the the least axis, A is greater for
an
ellipsoid
The swarm
is
therefore
more
soidal
than for a spherical swarm provided the least axis of the ellipsoid
all
same principal
oscillation.
The
T]
= b sin 0,
where 0=pt'+ a.
27r/j^j,
same
periodic time
By
;
substituting these
it
values of
t,
-n
we
find
=-
There will
- 2hp therefore be no
b
= -
collisions
between
ELLIPSOIDAL SWARM.
The
we
find ratio of the axes of the ellipses is not altogether arbitrary.
407
By
using
(III)
and therefore ^^ are known functions of the ratios of the axes of the may deduce from the values of ^1, J5 given in the theory of Attractions that Aa^ is less or greater than Bb^ according as a^ is greater or less than b"^. It then follows from this equation that in both the principal oscillations the axis of the ellipsoid in the direction of the radius vector from the sun is less than the axis of the ellipsoid in the direction of motion of the centre.
where A,
ellipsoid.
"We
If
P, Q,
common
centre,
it is
not
difficult
to
PQR
is
Let
us apply this theorem to the motion of the projections of the particles on the plane of ^t]. Joining adjacent triads of particles, we divide the whole area into
elementary triangles.
are initially equal
If the swarm is homogeneous, the areas of these triangles and we see that they will remain equal throughout the The swarm will therefore remain homogeneous.
motion.
Consider next the motions of the particles perpendicular to the plane of f??. These are harmonic oscillations and are all described in the same time 2Trlq.
The amplitude
and
same
particle.
The distance between two adjacent particles moving- in the same ordinate in the same direction is increasing or decreasing according as they are approaching or receding from the plane of ^rj. As there are as many particles approaching as
receding, the uniformity of the density
is
When
motion becomes more complicated. The outer boundary is not strictly dependent on both the states of motion. Since also the rotations in the principal oscillations are in opposite directions, we can no longer neglect the collisions between the particles.
state of the
ellipsoidal, being
To
we must have
But
this
far
from the
methods
of this treatise.
to a
For an example of the application of the kinetic theory the reader is referred memoir by G. H. Darwin, On the mechanical conditions of a swarm of meteorites,
Phil. Trans. 1889.
etc.,
He
from a condition of wide dispersion and to have not yet coalesced into a system of a sun and planets. No account is taken of the rotation of the system.
Callandreau has discussed the case in which a comet, regarded as a spherical
swarm
from the
account.
The
effect of
He
considers
it
probable that the periodic comets are undergoing a gradual disintegration and he
points out that according to this hypothesis a few comets captured by the action
of Jupiter could by repeated subdivisions produce all those
known
to exist.
See
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
Note on Art. 524.
This rule may be put into another form. We know that ii L = T+U+C'be the Lagrangian function and 0, <p, &c. the coordinates, the equations of motion are
d (IL
_dL
We now
see that
d dL _dL dtd^'^d^'
equations,
if
,.
''
we
substitute
L=^ + 3I(U+C)
where
(2),
is
0, tp,
&c. which
we may
find
suitable
when
The expression
efi&cients are
from T only
represented by
Thus
When
the
equations have been solved the paths of the particles are found by
its
meaning.
of energy is supposed to be
initial values of 0,
<p,
T0',
J7=
the constant
is
therefore
&c.,
<p',
We
must be analogous
by the principle
of vis viva.
We
therefore have
it
^=M{V+C).
Mdr = dt.
To
equation
T=C7+C,
T=tJj~\
may
T^^SI-T.
The
relation between t
and
therefore
When
from
'
the
Lagrangian
function.
In this method we choose some one coordinate to be the independent variable and regard the others ip, \p, &c. as unknown functions of whose forms are to be determined by the altered equations of motion. Let
(4).
Let also
(5).
new
independent variable
0.
dT _dT'
" il^~
d<pi
'
dT_dT'
d^ ~
(6).
d<p
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
The equation of energy
gives
409
^.
-(W ____ _
d dT
'"
dT
= dU,becomes
_dT'
d
\
^f
) dd \\
U+C^^dT']^ r J d^J
~ d^
U+C dU
d(l>'
where
all
Remembering that
U is
1^4'^''^^^'''^'^^^^''^''^'"^^'
^'^-
If then we use Q = {{TJ+C) T']^ as if it were the Lagrangian function and regard 9 as the independent variable, we have the equations
d^dQ ^dQ
from which
the paths
^dQ^dQ^^
may
be found.
by putting dT=dd, and we have here reproduced so much of that article as is required for our present purpose. If dr = dd, we have Mdd = dt and therefore by (7) of this note
This result follows easily from the theorem of Art. 524
M=
^^
Substituting in
(2)
L = 2{(U+C)i']^.
We
may
6,
<j>,
{U+ C)
T rcviains
unchanged, the paths are determined by the same relations between the coordinates
(&c. 6,
<p,
system,
it
is
evident that
any
(p,
is
(U+C)
I" (though
^=a,
ivhere a is
..(U+Cr^-=a
(10),
independent of
is
an arbitrary constant. If C is arbitrary, the product Q cannot be and U are separately independent of (p. But when C (p unless
not necessary.
If
we
substitute
for rfr'/rf^i
which
is
and 7" the values given by (6) and (7) the same as that obtained in Ai't. 521.
this integral
Lagrangian equations.
>/',
Suppose
U+C^ ^^f{e,
&c.),
is
a function of
(j>,
In this
t/
+ C)
is
not a function of 0.
410
for
tf)
Lagrange's equations.
gives
dT
dM
14.
It d^'
ii^nO- + ^o.)=
,,
dM
^,&o.);
dtd<p'-dpM^^^^^
If then
<^^^-
is
T= U+ G,
dT we have 3 = 0.
d<(>
case of a projectile moving under the action have T=:\{x'^-\-y'^), U=-gy. Since the product of these is independent of x we choose some other coordinate as the independent variable. Writing x-^ = dxjdy we have
of
We
d^^-;/(ri:V)~
{x
- j3)'^ = 4a^
{y
+ C-a^).
by Painleve
The elimination
By an
called
r-y = r^ From these dq^ dqidq'n he deduces (page 239) that the Lagrangian equations may be written in the two forms
Q and
^_dT_dU
dt dq'
dq~ dq dT = {U+C)dt.
'
A^^'_^'-0
dr dq'
dq
'
U+ C.
Its
importance
lies
in
made
to
under no forces.
The elimination
results in the
of the time
is also
in his Legons sur la theorie generate des surfaces, Art. 571, 1889.
He expresses
his
We may
discussed
where
!, is
a homogeneous function of
0,
<f>,
6',
0',
being functions of
t.
We
&c. of the order n, the coefficients then find as in Art. 512, Ex. 3, that
L^-L^ = G
Proceeding as in Art. 524, we change dt into dr and write
(13).
L=^ + L^ + M{L, + C)
We may now
use this as the Lagrangian function.
(14).
INDEX.
The immhers refer
to the artich'--
AccELEKATiON.
Moving
axes, 223.
Three
Accele-
Moving
heavy
axes, 498.
Hyper
acceleration, 233.
Adams,
Algol.
J.
C.
Motion
of a
projectile, 178.
347.
Two
Ai,LEGREX.
Problem on the resistance to a projectile, 176, Ex. 4. Amhigxjous signs. In rectilinear motion &c., 97, 100. In Euler's and Lambert's theorems in elliptic motion, 350, 353.
Anomaly.
Apse.
Defined, 342.
Defined, apocentre
367, 422,
and
pericentre, 314.
when independent
430-433.
boundaries, 441.
Apsidal
Asymptotic ciecles.
Atwood. Machine, 60. Constant of gravity, 66. Backlund. Eesistance to Encke's comet, 385, note. Ball. History of mathematics, 591, note.
Baeriek cueves.
action, 649.
Boundaries of the
field,
299.
Bashforth.
Motion of
projectiles, 169.
Law
of resistance, 171.
Beetrand.
2, 3.
Law
The
Brachistochroues, 610.
Besant.
On
Bonnet.
Beachistocheones.
606.
Ex.
Beyant.
True and mean anomalies, 347, Ex. Bubnside and Paxton, quoted, 489, note.
Call.\ndeeau.
The
disintegration of
On
Catenary.
7.
Cauchy.
412
Caylet.
INDEX.
Infinitesimal impulses, 160, Ex.
3.
Motion in an
Centeal fokce.
Elementary theorems, &c., 306. Solution by Jacobi's method in Locus of centres for a given orbit, 421. Force =;*,
Stability, 439.
362,
Solution
when the
velocity
3.
360,
time,
The
inverse cube, rectilinear motion, 100, lemniscate, 190, Ex. 11, Cotes' spirals,
356.
Inverse fourth,
fifth,
Centrifugal foece.
Challis.
Explained, 183.
Choeds of quickest descent. Smooth and rough, 143, &c. Circle. Motion of a heavy particle, time just all round, 201, Ex. 1. arc, 213. Continuous and oscillatory, 216. Coaxial circles,
force, 318, 321, 190,
orbits, 367,
Time
219.
in
any
Central
force is
Ex. 7. Parallel force ^=Al/.V^ 323, 452. Nearly circular second approximation, 369, 370, least action, 653. When the infinite, 466. A rough circle, 192, a moving circle, 198. Geodesic
Two
Clerke.
Conic.
As a central orbit with any centre, there are two laws of force, 456. Time, Elements of the conic, 457. Classification, 460. A corresponding curve on an ellipsoid, 672. A brachistochrone, 606, Ex. 3, 4, Conical Pendulum. The cubic, 555. Kise and fall, 558. Tension, 557. Radius of curvature, 559. Projection a central orbit, 560. Time of passage, 562.
454.
Conjugate functions.
636.
Conservative
system.
Explained, 181.
Oscillations, 294.
function, 248.
Convergency.
CoEioLis.
Ceaig.
The series in Kepler's problem, 488, &c. Theorem on relative vis viva, 267. Particle on an ellipsoid, 668. Treatise on projections
Motion in two dimensions, fixed, 181, rough, 191, moving, 197. Three dimensions, fixed, 626, moving, 528, changing, 533. Cycloid. A tautochrone, 204, theorems, 206, rough, 212. Resisting medium, 210.
CuEVE.
A brachistochrone,
Cylinders.
Motion on,
544.
3.
page 410.
Darwin.
Swarm
arc, 203,
Ex.
1.
In central
orbits, 316.
Direct distance. With this law of force, rectilinear motion with friction, 125, and resistance, 126. Time in an arc of lemniscate, 201, Ex. 2, 3. Central
force, &c., 326.
Discontinuity.
135.
Of
friction,
125, 191.
Of
force,
INDEX.
Double answebs.
Effective force.
Virtual
413
In rectilinear motion, 98. In two dimensions, 266. Kesultant effective force and couple, 239. Defined, 68, 235.
507.
moment,
Ellipsoid.
Elliptic
Spheroidal coordinates,
Translation
into
Motion on a
585,
Elliptic
cooedinates.
Two
dimensions,
three,
Elliptic motion.
Time found,
342, 345.
bj-
Change
383.
of eccentricity
and
by a resisting medium,
480.
250.
Force
infinite, 472,
Ex.
2.
tautochrone, 211.
Equiangulae spiral.
chrone, 211.
Moving
305,
spiral, 198,
Ex.
2.
tauto-
Euleb,
350.
Ex.
4.
On motion
in a parabola,
2.
585,
note.
Finite differences.
Forsyth.
of functions, 489.
FoucAULT.
Friction.
Pendulum referred to, 57, 627. Theory, 624, 626. Eough chords with gravity, 104, centre of force, 133.
Eough
curve, 191.
Frost.
Gauss.
Geodesic
Glaisher.
on
ellipsoid, 548.
Eoberts, 571.
Brachistochrones
Time in an ellipse, 347, Ex. 1, 476. Force in a conic, 450, note. Gray and Mathews. Treatise on Bessel functions, 286, Ex. 9. Kepler's problem,
481.
Greenhill.
force
An
fiu'^,
integral,
116.
Motion
of
213,
projectiles,
169.
Cubic law of
resistance, 177.
Elliptic functions,
note, 364.
Stability of orbits
and asymptotic
Grouping.
Of
trajectories of a
Guglielmini. Experiments on falling bodies, 627. Haerdtl. Traces path of a planet in a binary system, 418, Ex. 2. Hall, Asaph. Satellites and mass of Mars, 403. Singular points in central
465, note.
orbits,
Hall Maxwell. On Algol, 405, Ex. 1. Halphan. Law of gravitation, 393, Ex. 1. Force in a conic, 450, note. Hamilton. Law of force in a conic, 453. Hodograph, 394. Haemowic oscillation. Definition, frequency, amplitude, &c., 119. Helix. Heavy particle on, fixed, 527, moving, 534.
Helkjoide.
583,
Ex.
4,
Ex.
Hjerschel.
Disturbed
elliptic
motion, 379.
Algol, 405.
414
Hill.
Stability of the
INDEX.
moon's orbit, Elementary theorems,
417.
29.
HoDOGRAPH.
Hopkins.
Itself
a central
orbit, 398.
HoBSE-POWEB. Defined, 72. HuYGENS. Terminal velocity. 111. Impulses. How measured, 80. Infinitesimal,
Inebtia,
Ini-inite.
148.
Smooth
Moment
of, 241.
Motion of projectiles quoted, 169. iNiTiAii. Tension and curvature, 276, &c. String of particles, 279. Starting from rest, 280. Initial motion deduce from Lagrange's equations, 517. Three attracting particles fall from rest, 284, Ex. 6. Imtegeals. Of the equations of motion. Two elementary, 74, 76. Rectilinear
Ingall.
General and Particular integrals, 244, 245. Summary of 97, 101. methods in two dimensions, 264. Integrals of Lagrange's equations, 521 and page 408, Liouville's, 622. A general case in three dimensions, 497, in Jacobi's method, 645. Inverse squabe, law of. Eectilinear motion, 130. Particle falls from a planet,
motion,
134.
See Time.
Invebsion.
Of the motion of a
particle, 628.
&c., 631.
2.
Of the impressed
Jacobi.
Case of solution
Two
Method
of
max-min
in the calculus
Jellett.
On
The
1.
Kepler.
Law
and
Koeteweg.
Lachlan.
Laisant.
Stability,
asymptotic
Treatise
On
Lagbange.
Energy
note.
Two
Lagbange's equations.
Ex.
517.
1,
motion,
and page
408.
On
<fec.,
Convergency, 488.
Labmob. Calculus of variations, 691, note. Inversion, 628, note. Laws. Of motion, 61. Of resistance, 171. Of Kepler, 387. Least action. Principle of, 646. A minimum, 647, 648. Case when there
free path, 649.
is
no
Parabola, ellipse
and any central orbit, 651. Terms of the second order, 663, 664. Legendee. Central orbits, 356, note. Two centres of force, 585, note. Lejeune Dirichlet. Energy test of stabiUty, 296, note.
INDEX.
Lemniscate.
415
Time
in
an
arc, 201,
Ex.
2,
3.
Two
Leveeriek.
free, 587,
Ex.
4.
The pedal
5.
True and mean anomalies, 347." Limiting velocity. Explained, 111. Theorems, 115, 116, &c. Linear equations. Theory, 118. Elementary cases, 122. See Oscillations. Liouville. The line arrangement of three attracting particles, 406, note. Solution
of Lagrange's equation, 522.
particle
on an
Two
problems, 645.
Central orbits,
Mass.
Units, 63.
Maxwell.
Laws
of
Of a planet,
403.
Mean
distance.
Miller.
r", 344.
Momentum.
Angular,
79,
492.
Conservation
of
259,
linear
and
angular, 92.
in
central
Moving axes. In two dimensions, 223. Geometrical relations between relative and actual path, 229. Oblique axes, 232. In three dimensions, 498, deduced from Lagrange's equations, 512, Ex. 2. Moving curves, 197. Moving
'central orbits, 359.
MuiEHEAD.
Mayevski.
On
Newton.
of gravity, 67.
Law
of elasticity, 83.
Two
NivEN.
Orbits.
Central forces, a
circle,
318; a conic
distance, 438.
central orbit
is
brachistochrone, 606.
Orthogonal Coordinates.
Oscillations.
finite,
generalization, 525.
Small
200.
rectilinear,
Problems, 138.
One degree
292.
Of suspended
ficiency of a first
About a steady motion, 304. Insufapproximation, 302. Of a series of n particles, 305. Use
particles, 300.
ellipsoid, 568, note.
Painleve.
Particle
on an
Parallel forces. Constant, see Projectile. Variable a conic described, Parallelogram- law. Velocity, 4, acceleration, 28, angular velocity, 43.
_222.
323, 452.
Vectors,
Path.
268.
269, &c.
Pendulum.
Point to
Change
point.
of place, 207,
itc.
itc.
Eotatiou
Under
central force,
330,
339.
brachistochrone, 591.
416
PoissoN.
INDEX.
Expansion of true anomaly,
&c., 487, Ex. 3.
Pkessuke.
Two
dimensions, 184.
constrained motion
may
Does the
kv,
5.
Pbojectiles.
In
vacuo,
164,
by Jacobi's method,
645.
Resistance
176,
162.
n=0,
Ex.
Given
flat
PuissEUx.
The
Reciprocal spiral.
Reich.
central orbit
rd=a,
358.
39, 276; to
a moving
Relative
229.
Coriolis, 257.
Three dimen-
sions, relative to the meridian plane, 495, to a moving curve, 630. Representative particle. Defined, 295. Resisting medium. Rectilinear motion, light particle, 102. Heavy particle on a chord, 107, falls freely, 115, &c. Curvilinear motion of a heavy particle,
162
180.
Law
of resistance, 171.
Roberts, R. A.
Roger.
RoucHE.
Salmon.
Sang.
Heavy
on a
circle, 217.
Schiaparelli.
Second approximations.
Serbet.
Similar.
&c.
motion,
141,
curvilinear,
202,
302,
303.
Two
9, 10.
particles, 409,
Singular points.
Slesser.
Of
infinite
force, 466.
468.
Spheres,
83,
&c.
Energy
lost,
90.
Impulses of
Motion of
Energy
/cth,
test, 296.
inverse
298.
Of oscillations, 287. When the law of force is the Of the moon's orbit, 417, 418. Of central orbits, 439, 444.
Stokes.
On
5.
Stone.
Longitude
is elliptic
motion, 476.
String of particles, n heavy suspended particles, 305. Initial tensions, &c., 279. * Train and engine, 150, Ex. 5, 305, Ex. 3. Pulleys, 78^ Ex. 10. String passes over a surface, 545; Sufficiency. Of the equations of motion, 243. Insufficiency of a first approximation, 302.
Superposition.
Of motions.
Theory, 271
275.
INDEX.
SuKFACE.
417
steady motion,
String, 545.
Small oscillations of a heavy particle about lowest point, 301. About Motion on any surface, 535, &c. Cylinders, 544. 553.
Developable, 549.
Of revolution,
414.
541, the
zones,
550,
&c.
Paraboloid, 554.
Ellipsoid, 568.
Swarm.
Tait.
Stability of a spherical
swarm,
Sylvester.
Motion in a
of
circle 321,
Kelation
Brachistochrone
when the
Tautochronb.
from the
Least action in
211.
Three attracting
Motion from
Time.
Triangle
arrangement, 407.
Stability, 408.
Line arrangement,
6.
409.
Unstable, 412.
rest in either
In a central
342,
hyperbola,
348,
Tisserand.
TissoT.
Comet
in a resisting
medium,
384, &c.
Disintegration, 414.
Criterion
4.
The
Thomson and Tait. Laws of motion, 51. Orthogonal surfaces of trajectories, ToDHUNTER. Eiror in a Newtonian problem, 134, Ex. 3. On brachistochrones, TowNSEND. Memoir on brachistochrones, 591, note.
Transon. On hyper-acceleration, 233. Two ATTRACTING PARTICLES. Orbit and time, 399. Mass of Two CENTRES OF FORCE. A circlc is a possible orbit F=/j.n^,
Ffjiu^,
a planet, 402.
194.
Ellipse described
two dimensions,
F=ij.ifi,
Uniform.
Units.
2,
&c.
Angular velocity,
41.
Defini-
tion, 53.
46.
11.
Mass,
63.
Force, 64.
of,
Work,
71.
Horse-power,
72.
Velocity.
Components,
Moment
9.
and
Vis Viva.
Villarceau.
Law
See Energy.
Defined, 69.
on
512, Ex. 3.
Work.
Defined,
force, 186.
Work
function,
185.
Central
note.
Young. Rule for the attraction of table land, 208. Zenger. Mean and true anomalies, 347, Ex. 2.
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