GLOSSARY

A abscisic acid: plant hormone that inhibits growth and

influences stomatal closure

abscission: separation of a leaf or fruit from a plant absolute ages: ages of objects, such as a rock or fossil,

expressed in actual years acceptor molecules: compounds such as NAD and FAD that can accept hydrogen atoms and electrons removed from compounds and transfer them to other compounds acidic: describes a solution or substance that is a hydrogen ion donor and has a pH value of less than 7 acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that results in significant damage to the immune system, making the infected person particularly susceptible to infectious disease acquired immunity: characterised by the presence in an individual of antibodies to a particular infective agent; in active acquired immunity, individuals produce their own antibodies as a result of exposure to an antigen; in passive acquired immunity, individuals receive antibodies from an outside source active immunity: immunity that develops when an organism makes its own antibodies; antibodies may be produced naturally in response to chance infection or may be induced by vaccination active transport: net movement of dissolved substances across a cell membrane by an energyrequiring process that moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower to higher concentration acute infection: infection that occurs suddenly, is short term and results in rapid recovery acute myeloid leukaemia: cancer of the blood in which a person produces faulty white blood cells adaptive convergence: similarity in appearance of organisms that are not closely related but that have similar ways of life; also termed convergent evolution adaptive radiation: outcome that occurs when one ancestral species gives rise to many new species that occupy different niches; a special case of divergent evolution adenine: one of the purine bases found in the nucleotides that are the building blocks of DNA (and RNA) adenosine diphosphate (ADP): compound containing adenine and two molecules of phosphate; in an energy-requiring reaction, it can combine with a third molecule of phosphate to form ATP adenosine triphosphate (ATP): compound containing adenosine and three molecules of phosphate, the major

supplies of which are produced in the mitochondria; common source of chemical energy for cells adult stem cells: undifferentiated cells obtained from various sources and capable of differentiating into related cell types; also known as somatic stem cells aerobic: requiring oxygen aerobic respiration: breakdown of glucose to simple inorganic compounds in the presence of oxygen and with release of energy that is transferred to ATP Afar Triangle: region in present-day Ethiopia where many early hominin fossils have been found, the most famous being Lucy affector neurons: also called sensory neurons; type of nerve cell that transmits information about changes in external or internal conditions to the central nervous system aflatoxin: toxin produced by Aspergillus flavus, a fungus found on peanuts and many grain foods agglutination: clumping of cells or particles brought about by antibodies binding to antigens on the surfaces of the cells or particles albinism: inherited condition in which pigment production does not occur normally; in the form known as oculo-cutaneous albinism, pigment is absent from the skin, hair and iris aldosterone: hormone produced by the adrenal cortex; acts on kidney tubules to stimulate sodium ion reabsorption alkaline: describes a solution or substance that is a hydrogen ion donor and has a pH of greater than 7; also called basic allele frequencies: incidence or frequencies of particular alleles in a population alleles: the different forms of a particular gene allergic responses: (allergy) rapid immune responses to normally harmless antigens such as dust or pollen; involves action of mast cells allopatric speciation: formation of new species when a population splits and becomes geographically isolated alpha cells: cells in the pancreas that synthesise and secrete the hormone glycagon alternative splicing: production of different mRNA molecules from one kind of pre-mRNA through joining various combinations of exons from the pre-mRNA amino acid derivatives: one category of water-soluble hormone amino acids: basic building blocks or sub-units of polypeptide chains and proteins

GLOSSARY

663

amniocentesis: procedure in which a sample is obtained

of amniotic fluid that surrounds a fetus in the uterus and contains fetal cells amniotic fluid: fluid surrounding and protecting the embryo or fetus in the amniotic sac anaemia: condition in which the concentration of red blood cells is much lower than normal anaerobic: refers to an organism that does not require oxygen to live; refers to an environment in which oxygen is not present anaerobic respiration: form of respiration occurring in the absence of oxygen in which glucose is broken down to smaller compounds, such as lactate, with release of energy that is transferred to ATP analogous structures: refers to body structures that carry out a similar function but that may not have a similar basic structure ancient DNA: DNA preserved in prehistoric material such as fossil bones antibiotics: naturally occurring substances that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria and other microorganisms antibodies: proteins produced by animals in response to antigens and which react specifically with the antigen that induced their formation anti-codon: sequence of three bases in a transfer RNA molecule that can pair with the complementary codon of a messenger RNA molecule antigens: compounds, usually proteins, that can trigger the immune system to respond in various ways, including antibody production antioxidant: molecule that prevents the oxidation of other molecules antitoxins: protein produced by animals in response to toxin, which reacts specifically with the toxin that induced its formation antivenom: chemical that acts to neutralise the effect of a venom apical dominance: influence exerted by a terminal bud that suppresses growth of lateral buds apoptosis: the natural death of cells, also called programmed cell death arboreal: living in trees argon-39/argon-40 dating: a radiometric method of obtaining the absolute age of igneous rocks; can be performed on samples as small as one crystal of potassium-containing mineral artificial insemination (AI): process in which donor sperm is artificially introduced into the reproductive tract of a female artificial pollination: process of cross pollination in which pollen collected from one plant is manually transferred to the stigma of a second plant

artificial selection: action taken by breeders and others

in selecting from a population only those members that show specific expression of a particular trait to be the parents of the next generation asexual reproduction: production of genetically identical offspring from one parental organism only attenuated: refers to a micro-organism that, while still living, has been treated so that it is no longer able to cause disease australopithecine: any member of a species within the genus Australopithecus Australopithecus afarensis: extinct species of hominid, the best known example being Lucy found by Donald Johanson Australopithecus africanus: extinct species of hominid, the best known example being the Taung child identified by Raymond Dart auto-immune diseases: diseases in which the immune system fails to identify self material and makes antibodies against the bodys own tissues autonomic nervous system: also called involuntary nervous system; in vertebrates, nerves that transmit messages away from the brain and spinal cord to smooth (involuntary) muscle, heart and various glands autophagia: in a starving organism, process of metabolism of its own tissue proteins autosomes: pairs of chromosomes that are identical in appearance in males and females of a species; in the human organism, any of chromosome pairs numbered 1 to 22 inclusive autotrophic: describes an organism that, given a source of energy, can produce its own food from simple inorganic substances; also known as a producer auxins: group of plant hormones that control cell elongation axon: extension of a nerve cell along which impulses are transmitted away from that cell
B B cells: lymphocytes that give rise to plasma cells that

produce antibodies against foreign material bacillus: rod-shaped bacterium bacteria: (singular = bacterium) microscopic, usually unicellular, organism, and member of Kingdom Monera bacteriophages: types of virus that infect bacteria base: varying part of the structure of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA; bases in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T); bases in RNA are A, C, G and uracil (U)

664

GLOSSARY

base additions: mutational changes in DNA involving

branching evolution: formation of new species from one

the insertion of one or more bases into a gene sequence base deletions: mutational changes in DNA involving the removal of one or more bases from a gene sequence base pairs: any of the pairs formed between complementary bases in the two nucleotide chains of DNA, such as AT and CG; can also refer to any complementary pairs formed between a DNA chain and an RNA chain base sequence: specific order of nucleotides (bases) along a DNA (or an RNA) chain base substitutions: mutational changes involving the replacement of existing bases in a gene sequence by different bases basic: describes a solution or substance that is a hydrogen ion donor and has a pH of greater than 7; also called alkaline behavioural variation: variation exhibited among members of a population in terms of one or more behavioural traits beta cells: cells in the pancreas that synthesise and secrete the hormone insulin beta thalassaemia: inherited recessive disorder in which an affected person shows characteristic changes in their blood biochemical variation: variation exhibited among members of a population in terms of one or more biochemical traits bioethical: consideration of moral issues related to biological and medical matters biological evolution: process of change in members of a species under the influence of natural selection and requiring much longer time periods than so-called cultural evolution B-memory cells: particular kind of B cells that can respond quickly to a specific antigen that has been previously encountered bonds: in biology, forces of attraction between atoms that bring them together to form molecules bone marrow: fatty substance in the internal cavity of bones, the site of blood cell formation bottleneck effect: chance effects on allele frequencies in a population as a result of a major reduction in population size brachiation: mode of locomotion involving swinging from one handhold to another brain: enlarged anterior part of the central nervous system; the control centre of the nervous system brain stem: part of the brain that includes the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata

of two populations resulting from the division of an original population broad-spectrum: characterises an antibiotic that is effective against many different pathogens Bt gene: gene that controls production of a toxin in the bacterial species Bacillus thuringiensis
C Calvin cycle: cycle of reactions occurring in the stroma

of chloroplasts in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis during which carbon dioxide is progressively reduced to sugar cancer: abnormal and uncontrolled cell multiplication capsule: gelatinous layer surrounding the cell wall of some bacteria carbohydrates: organic compounds that include sugars, starch and cellulose and are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen carbon dioxide: compound CO2 produced during cellular respiration; necessary in green plants for photosynthesis carbon dioxide fixation: also called carbon fixation; occurs during photosynthesis when carbon is moved from a gas, carbon dioxide, into an organic compound carbon reduction reactions: light-independent stage of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is progressively reduced through the Calvin cycle carbon-14 dating: a radiometric method of dating carboncontaining material up to about 60 000 years old carrier: in infection, refers to a person who shows no sign of an infectious disease but is host to the causative agent and can transmit it to other people; in genetics, refers to a heterozygous organism that does not show a particular trait but can transmit to its offspring the allele responsible for that trait carrier protein: protein that binds to specific substance and facilitates its movement; may be carrier for lipophilic hormone for transport in the blood; also refers to proteins that facilitate movement across the plasma membrane cast: type of fossil formed when a buried structure decays leaving a cavity, which is later filled by different material that forms a model of the original structure cell body: that part of a neuron that contains the nucleus cell wall: semi-rigid structure located outside the cell membrane of plants, algae, fungi and bacteria cellular agents: in the context of disease and infection refers to cellular organisms, such as bacteria, in contrast to infective agents such as viruses and prions that lack a cellular structure

GLOSSARY

665

cellular immunity: response to infection involving

class 2 markers: group of proteins produced by a set of

action of phagocytes and Tcells cellular respiration: process of transferring energy present in organic compounds to a form useable by cells, typically ATP cellulose: complex carbohydrate composed of chains of glucose molecules; the main component of plant cell walls central nervous system (CNS): in vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord centromere: constricted part of chromosome that contains the region where spindle fibres attach during mitosis and meiosis cerebral cortex: folded surface of cerebrum cerebrum: largest part of mammalian brain, divided into left and right sides, which are connected by a thick band of nerves Chargaffs rule: regularity observed by Chargaff that, in DNA, the relative proportions of A and T are equal and, similarly, the proportion of C is equal to that of G chemical energy: potential energy stored in substances that become available when certain types of chemical reactions occur chemosynthetic: refers to autotrophic bacteria that use energy from chemical reactions to synthesise organic matter from inorganic substances chemotherapy: use of chemicals in the treatment of disease chitin: carbohydrate material present in the exoskeletons of arthropods and insects and also in the cell walls of some fungi chlorophylls: green pigments required for photosynthesis that traps the radiant energy of sunlight chloroplasts: chlorophyll-containing organelles that occur in the cytosol of cells of specific plant tissues chorionic villus sampling (CVS): prenatal process of obtaining a sample of chorion tissue that surrounds a developing embryo or early fetus and includes cells of embryonic or fetal origin chromosome map: drawing of a chromosome showing some of the gene loci that it carries chromosomes: thread-like structures composed of DNA and protein, and visible in cells during mitosis and meiosis chronic infections: long-term infections citric acid cycle: also called Krebs cycle; the second stage of aerobic respiration, occurring mainly in mitochondria, in which pyruvate is broken down to carbon dioxide class 1 markers: group of proteins produced by a set of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and found on the membranes of all cells except red blood cells; one of the self proteins of an individual

genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and found only on the membranes of T cells, B cells and some macrophages; one of the self proteins of an individual clinal gradations: levels of gradual change in a trait in members of a population, such as changes in aspects of body shape with latitude or with climate cline: gradual change in a trait in members of a population across its geographic range clone: group of cells, organisms or genes with identical genetic make-up cloned gene: gene that has been constructed to produce a desired effect when activated cloning: process of making identical copies of a gene, a cell or an organism coccus: round-shaped bacterium coding region: part of a gene that contains the coded information for making a polypeptide chain co-dominance: relationship between two alleles of a gene such that a heterozygous organism shows the expression of both alleles in its phenotype; sometimes termed partial dominance or incomplete dominance codons: sequences of three bases in a messenger RNA molecule that contain information either to bring amino acids into place in a polypeptide chain or to start or stop this process coenzyme: organic compound that acts with an enzyme to alter the rate of a reaction co-evolution: evolutionary changes in two species having a close interaction, such as predator and prey, or parasite and host cofactors: non-protein, additional component that is essential for the normal functioning of some enzymes cohesive: describes the tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick together colony stimulating factor (CSF): chemical substance present in blood serum that stimulates formation of white blood cells involved in non-specific immunity common ancestor: an ancestral species from which later species evolved comparative genomics: comparative study of the genomes of several species complement proteins: group of blood proteins that play various roles in the bodys second line of defence against infection complementary base pairs: in a DNA double helix, refers to specific base pairs that form between a purine base and a pyrimidine base, namely A with T and G with C; also refers to pairing between specific bases in RNA, namely A with U and G with C

666

GLOSSARY

complete selection: applies when no member of a

crossing over: event that occurs during meiosis after

population with a particular phenotype makes any genetic contribution to the next generation as, for example, when a phenotype results in childhood death. When a phenotype is selected against completely, it has zero genetic fitness. complex carbohydrates: carbohydrates made up of many sugar molecules linked together; examples include starch, cellulose and glycogen computerised axial tomography: technique, abbreviated to CAT, that uses special X-rays to produce sectional images of internal structures of the body conception: production of a zygote from fertilisation of an egg by a sperm conjugate: describes a condition in which amino acids of a protein, particularly proteins in the nucleus, associate with other groups; for example, nucleoproteins in which proteins conjugate with nucleic acids connecting neurons: also called interneurons; type of nerve cell, located in the central nervous system, that links sensory and effector neurons consumers: organisms that obtain their energy and organic matter by eating or ingesting the organic matter of other organisms; also termed heterotrophs continuous variation: type of variation in which members of a population vary across a range contraception: any technique that prevents production of a zygote or its implantation into the uterus wall convergent: refers to evolution that results in similarity in appearance of organisms that are not closely related but that have similar ways of life; also termed adaptive convergence copy DNA (cDNA): DNA made from a messenger RNA template using the reverse transcriptase enzyme; cDNA has no introns core temperature: temperature within the body of a multicellular organism coupled reactions: linked reactions in which energy released from one reaction is used to drive a second energy-requiring reaction covalent: describes a strong chemical bond formed between atoms when they share electrons covalent bond: type of bond between an oxygen atom and each of the two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule; electrons are shared between the atoms involved in the bonding cranium: vertebrate skull minus the lower jaw Cro-Magnons: label given to humans who produced artifacts including finely crafted tools and other objects of art from stone, wood and bone and wall paintings, and who lived 40000 to 10000 years ago

synapsis; involves an exchange of corresponding segments of non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes and can result in new combinations of alleles of linked genes crossover: refers to gametes or to offspring that carry new combinations of linked alleles different from those present in the parental organisms; also termed recombinant cultural change: development over time of human societies from simple to more complex; also known as cultural evolution cultural evolution: rapid changes in a population as a result of transmission of knowledge, in contrast to biological evolution, which requires a long time culture: any form of learned behaviour acquired through formal teaching or by imitation, such as learning to write or learning a social rule cystic fibrosis (CF): a condition, inherited as an autosomal recessive, in which an affected person produces abnormal mucus secretions cysts: in some organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, a resting stage in which the cell is surrounded by a protective layer cytochromes: special proteins that act as electron carriers in respiration and photosynthesis cytokines: protein molecules that act as messengers between cells and elicit a response in the receiving cell; regulate many parts of the immune system cytokinins: plant hormones that regulate cell reproduction in shoots, roots and fruits cytosine: one of the pyrimidine bases found in the nucleotides that are the building blocks of DNA (and RNA) cytoskeleton: network of filaments within a cell cytosol: fluid contents of a cell cytotoxic T cells (Tc): kind of T cell that specifically recognises and kills infected body cells
D decoded: or translated; refers to the translation of

genetic information held in DNA into amino acids

deletion: type of chromosome change in which part of a

chromosome is lost dendrimers: minute molecules with a form like the branches of a tree forming a base for development of nanoparticles dendrites: branched extensions of nerve cell that transmit impulses to that cell deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): nucleic acid containing the four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine which forms the major component of chromosomes and contains coded genetic instructions

GLOSSARY

667

deoxyribose: five-carbon sugar that forms one

DNA arrays: alternative term for microarrays or gene chips DNA fingerprinting: technique for identifying DNA

component of the nucleotides found in DNA desmosomes: type of cell-to-cell junction in which protein filaments span the intercellular space and hold the cells together developmental variation: variation exhibited among members of a population at different ages or stages of development diabetes: disease due to a deficiency in production of the hormone insulin by the pancreas of an individual diabetes mellitus: disease due to a deficiency in production of the hormone insulin by the pancreas of an individual differential reproduction: occurs when different inherited varieties in a population vary in their rates of production of viable offspring diffusion: net movement of a substance from a region of high concentration of the substance to a region of lower concentration; the process does not require energy dihybrid: refers to a cross in which alleles of two different genes are involved dihybrid cross: refers to a cross in which alleles of two different genes are involved diploid: refers to organisms or cells having two copies of each specific chromosome: that is, having a paired set of chromosomes disaccharide: carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide units, for example, sucrose discontinuous variation: type of variation in which members of a population can be grouped into a few non-overlapping classes with regard to expression of a trait disease: any change from a state of health disjunction: in meiosis, separation of homologous chromosomes or of the strands (chromatids) of replicated chromosomes to opposite poles dissociation: separation of a double-stranded DNA molecule into its single strands, which occurs when the hydrogen bonds stabilising the two strands are broken, such as by heating divergence: change over time whereby populations of one species living under different environmental conditions become differentiated from each other divergent evolution: outcome that results when, over time, one ancestral species changes to give rise to several new species each occupying a different niche D-loop: region of mtDNA, also known as the control region, or the hypervariable region

from different individuals based on variable numbers of tandem repeats of short DNA segments near the ends of chromosomes. These regions are known as minisatellites or variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs), and their detection uses a multi-locus probe. DNA ligase: an enzyme involved in the joining of DNA fragments DNA polymerase: enzyme that controls the process of DNA replication DNA primase: an enzyme that controls the binding of RNA primers to DNA strands during the process of DNA replication DNA profiling: technique for identifying DNA from different individuals based on variable regions known as short tandem repeats (STRs) or microsatellites. Detection of variation uses a combination of singlelocus probes, each specific to a different STR locus. DNA replication: process by which a DNA double helix makes a precise copy of itself DNA sequencers: instruments that automate the identification of the order or sequence of bases along a DNA strand DNA-binding proteins: proteins that bind to regions of nuclear DNA near genes and directly switch these genes on or off DNADNA hybridisation: technique used to compare the similarity of the genomes of different species and so infer their degree of evolutionary relatedness dominant: refers to a trait that is expressed in the heterozygous condition; refers to a trait that requires only a single copy of the responsible allele for its phenotypic expression double helix: three-dimensional structure of DNA consisting of two nucleotide chains coiled in a regular manner Down syndrome (DS): chromosomal disorder due to the presence of an additional number-21 chromosome,either as a separate chromosome (trisomy- or triplo-DS) or attached to another chromosome (translocation DS) duplication: type of chromosome change in which part of a chromosome is repeated
E ectoparasites: parasites that live on the outside of their

host
Ediacaran period: recently defined period in the

geological time scale that precedes the Cambrian period

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GLOSSARY

effector neurons: also called motor neurons; type of

enzyme: typically, a specific protein that acts as a

nerve cell that transmits information from the central nervous system to muscle cells or glands effector organs: organs that respond to stimuli from the nervous system egg: female gamete produced in an ovary electroencephalogram (EEG): measurement of electrical activity of the brain electron transport: third stage of aerobic respiration in which electrons are transferred along a series of compounds known as cytochromes to be finally accepted by oxygen; energy released during this process results in the major yield of ATP electron-spin resonance (ESR): technique useful for dating objects buried 50 000 to 500 000 years ago electrophoresis: technique for sorting through an electric field a mixture of DNA fragments (and other molecules with a net charge) on the basis of different fragment lengths embryo: early stage of a developing organism; in humans includes the first eight weeks of development embryo splitting: process of separating the totipotent cells of a very early embryo, so that the resultant cells are each able to form a complete embryo embryo transfer: process of removing early embryos from one female and transferring them into the reproductive tracts of other females of the same species embryonic stem cells: undifferentiated cells obtained from early embryonic tissue and capable of differentiating into many cell types emigration: net movement of organisms out of a population encoded: refers to the holding of genetic information in DNA in coded form as a base sequence endergonic: refers to a chemical reaction that is energy requiring endocrine system: system of ductless glands that produce hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream endocytosis: bulk movement of solids or liquids into a cell by engulfment endoparasites: parasites that live within their host endoplasmic reticulum: organelle consisting of a system of membrane-bound channels that transport substances within a cell endotoxins: toxins produced by an organism and released only when the organism disintegrates enucleated: refers to a cell from which the nucleus has been removed environmental variations: variations exhibited among members of a population owing to the action of environmental factors

catalyst to increase the rate of a particular chemical reaction in living organisms epidemic: refers to a situation when, over a short time, many people in a region contract a specific disease ethylene: plant hormone, occurring as a gas, that regulates ripening of fruit eukaryote: cell or organism with a membrane-bound nucleus evolution: process of change, typically over geological time, that produces new species from ancestral species exergonic: refers to a chemical reaction that is energy releasing exocytosis: movement of material out of cells via vesicles in the cytoplasm exon: part of the coding region of a gene that is both transcribed and translated exotoxin: toxin secreted into the surrounding medium by a micro-organism as it grows external environment: environment outside an organism extinct: refers to a species of which no living members exist extracellular fluids: also called tissue fluids; the fluids that surround and bathe the membranes of nearly all cells
F Factor VIII: one of several factors required for normal

clotting of the blood; its absence produces the inherited disorder, haemophilia facultative anaerobe: organism that can live regardless of whether oxygen is present or not FADH2: reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide; compound produced when the acceptor molecule FAD gathers hydrogen ions which are released during the electron transport stage of cellular respiration fatty acids: sub-units of fats, oils and waxes fecundity: fertility fermentation: process of anaerobic respiration in yeasts that results in alcohol formation fetal alcohol syndrome: condition of brain damage and low birth weight in a baby at birth resulting from maternal alcohol ingestion during pregnancy fetus: developing human baby from week nine to birth FISH: fluorescence in situ hybridisation, a technique using a fluorescent probe to detect a specific DNA sequence in its chromosomal location fitness value: measure of genetic contribution to the next generation of one phenotype relative to other phenotypes for the same gene locus; ranges from 1 (most fit) to 0

GLOSSARY

669

flagella: (singular = flagellum) whip-like cell organelles

gene chips: alternative name for microarrays or gene

involved in movement flanking regions: regions located either downstream or upstream of the coding region of a gene florigen: hormone that may influence flowering in plants foramen magnum: hole in the skull base indicating the position where it meets the vertebral column fossilisation: process of preserving parts of organisms that lived in the geological past fossils: evidence or remains of organisms that lived long ago founder effect: chance effects on allele frequencies in a population that is formed from a small unrepresentative sample of a larger population founder population: refers to a small group of organisms, as small as a mating pair or individual inseminated female, that starts a new population frameshift: type of mutation in which, as a result of insertion or deletion of a base, all codons from that point are affected. fungi: group of heterotrophic organisms (such as mushrooms, moulds and yeasts) that play a role in decomposition of organic matter. Fungi release to the exterior enzymes that break down organic matter, then absorb the products of this digestion. This contrasts with animals that engulf or digest organic matter into their bodies prior to digestion. fungicides: chemicals that kill fungi fusion: the joining of two smaller chromosomes to form one larger chromosome
G galactosaemia: an inherited autosomal recessive

disorder in which an affected individual fails to produce the enzyme galactase and is unable to digest the sugar galactose galls: abnormal growths of plant tissue in response to infection by organisms such as insects gamete: general term for an egg or a sperm gene: inherited instruction carried on a chromosome; specific segment of DNA carrying an instruction encoded in its base sequence for a specific protein product gene action: processes of transcription and translation of a gene to produce a gene product, typically a polypeptide chain gene assortment: independent distribution of unlinked genes to gametes as a result of the independent movement of non-homologous chromosomes carrying those genes to opposite poles during meiosis

chips gene cloning: process of making multiple identical copies of a specific gene or segment of DNA gene conservation: preservation of a DNA sequence in different species related by evolution gene duplication: process whereby a second copy of the DNA sequence of a gene appears in a genome gene flow: in population genetics, movement of genes into or out of populations owing to migration; can result in changes in allele frequencies in a gene pool if an unrepresentative sample of the original population migrates gene mutation: general term for one of many possible changes in the DNA base sequence of a gene gene pool: sum total of genetic information present in a population gene sequence: order of bases in a DNA segment gene sequencing: identification of the order or sequence of bases along the DNA of a specific gene gene therapy: introduction into a tissue or organ of specific DNA to replace or compensate for a defective disease-causing allele genetic code: representation of genetic information through a non-overlapping series of groups of three bases (triplets) in a DNA template chain genetic counselling: provision of expert advice to prospective and actual parents about risks of occurrence or recurrence of inherited disorders genetic disorders: inherited abnormalities genetic distance: measure of the differences between the genomes or the gene products of two related species the fewer differences, the closer the relatedness. This measure is used to estimate the time elapsed since the species diverged from a common ancestor the more differences, the longer the time. genetic drift: changes, unpredictable in direction, in allele frequencies from one generation to the next owing to the action of chance events genetic engineering: technology that allows the genetic material DNA to be manipulated, such as the splicing of a gene from one species into the DNA of another species genetic screening: testing of persons to detect those with the allele responsible for a particular genetic disorder genetic variation: variation exhibited among members of a population owing to the action of genes genetically modified foods: foods derived from a plant or an animal into which a gene not normally present has been incorporated

670

GLOSSARY

genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose

genetic make-up has been altered by artificial means genome: sum total of the genes present in a cell or an organism genomics: study of the entire genetic make-up or genome of a species genotype: refers to both the double set of genetic instructions present in a diploid organism and to the genetic makeup of an organism at one particular gene locus genotype frequencies: proportions of various genotypes in a population geographic variation: variation in members of a population across a geographic range geotropism: response of a shoot or root to gravity germline cells: eggs or sperm cells that carry genetic instructions to organisms of the next generation germline mutation: change that occurs in the DNA of a gamete, or cell that can give rise to a gamete, and can be transmitted to the next generation gestation period: time from fertilisation to birth gibberellin: group of plant hormones that regulate aspects of cell growth and development glaucoma: a disease that develops in the eye if increased pressure within the eye remains untreated; optic nerve damage results in blindness but can be avoided by early treatment glucagon: hormone produced by alpha cells of the pancreas that acts on liver cells resulting in increased release of glucose from the liver cells into the bloodstream glucose: a six-carbon sugar; a common monosaccharide glycerol: molecule to which three fatty acids are linked to form a lipid (triglyceride) glycogen: a polysaccharide that is the storage carbohydrate in liver and muscle tissue glycolysis: first stage of respiration in which one 6C glucose molecule is broken down to two 3C compounds Golgi apparatus: also known as Golgi complex or Golgi body; organelle that packages material into vesicles for export from a cell Golgi complex: organelle that packages material into vesicles for export from a cell (also known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi body) gonads: organs in which gametes are formed; ovaries or testes Gram stain: differential stain by which bacteria are classified as Gram positive or Gram negative depending on chemical differences in their cell walls

grana: (singular = granum) stacks of membranes on

which chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts growth hormone: somatotropin; large peptide hormone that stimulates body growth guanine: one of the purine bases present in the nucleotides that are the building blocks of DNA (and RNA)
H haemoglobins: types of protein, consisting of four

polypeptide chains, found in red blood cells and responsible for the transport of oxygen; in normal red blood cells, haemoglobin A predominates haemophilia: inherited recessive disorder in which the blood fails to clot normally and is controlled by a gene located on the X chromosome half-life: period of time required for half the amount of an isotope originally present in a sample to decay to its stable daughter product haplogroups: related groups of base sequences present in mitochondrial DNA haploid: having one copy of each specific chromosome: that is, having a set of unpaired chromosomes HardyWeinberg equilibrium: specific set of conditions under which the allele frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation HardyWeinberg principle: concept that allele frequencies in a population remain constant from one generation to the next unless an agent of change acts on the population helicase: an enzyme that controls the opening of a DNA double helix during the process of DNA replication helper T cells (Th): class of T cell whose actions include stimulating B cells to produce specific antibodies hemizygous: in a male mammal, describes the genotype with respect to any gene carried on either the X or the Y chromosome, which comprises just a single allele for each gene herbicide: chemical that kills plants herbivorous: describes a plant-eating organism heterotrophic: describes an organism that cannot make its own food and must ingest or absorb organic material from its environment; also known as a consumer heterozygous: refers to a diploid cell or organism whose genotype for a particular gene comprises two different alleles. This state may be denoted, for example, as Aa. histamine: chemical released by cells at a site of injury HMS Beagle: ship in which Charles Darwin made his five-year voyage around the world homeostasis: condition of a relatively stable internal environment maintained within narrow limits

GLOSSARY

671

homeotic genes: master genes that are active during

hydrogen bonds: weak, non-covalent bonds that form

embryonic development and control other structural genes ensuring that various body parts are built in the correct locations hominin: collective term for various human species and their erect-walking close relatives; collective term for species within the genus Homo and the genus Australopithecus hominoids: collective term for apes including humans; members of the family Hominoidea Homo: genus containing modern humans and extinct human species Homo erectus: extinct human species appearing about two million years ago that was the first to migrate from Africa Homo sapiens: modern human species and only living species of the genus Homo homologous: in genetics, refers to members of a matching pair of chromosomes that carry the same gene loci homologous structures: in comparative anatomy, refers to structures in different kinds of organisms that have a similar basic pattern even though they may serve a different function, such as a bat wing and a whale flipper homozygous: refers to a diploid cell or organism whose genotype for a particular gene comprises two identical alleles. This state may be denoted, for example, as AA or aa. horizontal gene transfer: acquisition of a new gene by a species as a result of transfer from another species hormonal (endocrine) system: system of ductless glands that produce hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream hormones: in animals, chemicals produced in an endocrine gland that are released into and transported via the bloodstream to other parts of the body where they act; in plants, chemicals produced in small amounts in cells in one part of a plant that act on other cells involved in growth and development host: organism or cell that a specific parasite lives in or on Human Genome Project (HGP): international project directed at the identification of the sequence of the more than three billion bases in the human genome humoral immunity: immunity resulting from the presence of antibodies in body fluids Huntington disease: inherited dominant disorder that results in progressive neurological deterioration and is controlled by a gene on the number-4 chromosome hybridisation: pairing between single-stranded complementary DNA segments from organisms from the same or even different species

between complementary nucleotides in different DNA strands; hydrogen bonds are responsible for stabilising the structure of the DNA double helix hydrophilic: refers to compound that dissolves easily in water; also termed polar hydrophobic: refers to substances that tend to be insoluble in water; also termed non-polar hypervariable: describes a DNA segment that shows a high degree of variability between members of a population, and that is expressed as a large number of alleles, as different base sequences, or as different numbers of tandem repeats hypervariable regions (HVRs): regions of chromosomal DNA in which great variation exists in unrelated individuals, often as a result of variation in the number of repeats of short base sequences hypothalamus: tiny region of brain below the thalamus that controls various essential functions, including those associated with the autonomic nervous system hypothermia: condition in which an individual has an extremely low body temperature and is at risk of death hypothyroidism: condition in which there is a deficiency in thyroid hormone production
I ideogram: stylised representation of a haploid set of

chromosomes arranged in order of decreasing size igneous: refers to rocks formed when molten rock solidified either below the Earths crust (e.g. granite) or on the Earths surface (e.g. basalt, tuff) immune deficiency: malfunction or deficiency in one or more components of the immune system; may be inherited or acquired immune system: group of lymphoid tissues and organs and lymphatic vessels that assist the body to resist infection and disease through specialised cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, B cells and T cells immunity: reactions that occur in a person in response to an infection immunoglobulins: general term for all antibody molecules, including those found in body fluids and those on the surface of B cells in situ hybridisation: pairing between a single-stranded, labelled probe and a specific complementary, singlestranded DNA segment that is not isolated but is in place within a chromosome induced mutation: change in DNA brought about by the application of a known mutagen infectious disease: disease caused by an organism, typically a micro-organism; can be transmitted from person to person

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GLOSSARY

inflammation: reaction to an infection, typically

light energy: energy (generally from the sun) absorbed

associated with reddening of the skin owing to an increased blood supply to that region influenza: disease caused by the influenza virus inherited: in genetics, transmitted via the DNA from one generation to the next inorganic phosphate (Pi): the phosphate used during the transfer of energy from organic molecules when ATP is formed from ADP insulin: hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreas that acts to increase uptake of glucose from the blood by body cells interferons: group of proteins secreted by some cells, in response to a virus infection, that help uninfected cells resist infection by that virus intermediate host: a second host necessary, in addition to the primary host, for completion of the life cycle of some parasites such as tapeworms internal environment: the fluid surrounding living cells within a multicellular organism introns: parts of the coding region of a gene that are transcribed but not translated inulin: naturally occurring carbohydrate in plants; forms storage in some roots and rhizomes in-vitro fertilisation (IVF): technique in which eggs collected from an ovary are fertilised outside the body, incubated for a time and later transferred to the uterus for development involuntary nervous system: alternative term for autonomic nervous system
K KAr dating: technique useful for dating igneous rocks

by plants during those reactions of photosynthesis in which the energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH light-dependent reactions: reactions in photosynthesis that occur in the grana of chloroplasts and result in light energy being converted to chemical energy light-independent reactions: the second series of reactions in photosynthesis, occur in the stroma of chloroplasts and follow light-dependent reactions; involve carbon dioxide fixation and production of carbohydrate; called the Calvin cycle linked: describes genes whose loci are located on a given chromosome lipids: general term for fats, oils and waxes lipophilic: refers to a substance that dissolves in or mixes uniformly with lipids lipophobic: refers to a substance that resists combining with lipids (lipid hating); generally water soluble locus: (plural = loci) position of a gene on a chromosome Lucy: the first and most famous fossil specimen of Australopithecus afarensis, which was found in 1974 in present-day Ethiopia lymph: tissue fluid that circulates in the lymphatic vessels lymphocytes: class of white blood cells found in all tissues including blood, lymph nodes and spleen, and which play a role in specific immunity lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes
M macrophages: cells derived from monocytes that may be

over a wide age range and based on the radioactive decay of a potassium isotope to argon karyotype: specific complement of chromosomes present in a cell or an individual arranged in an organised manner according to an agreed convention kinetochore: part of the centromere of a chromosome that is the point of attachment for the spindle fibres Krebs cycle: second stage of aerobic respiration, occurring mainly in mitochondria, in which pyruvate is broken down to carbon dioxide
L lactate: the end product when glucose undergoes

anaerobic respiration in human muscle tissue lamella: system of membranous sacs in chloroplasts; also called thylakoids ligase: enzyme that catalyses the joining of two doublestranded DNA fragments

found in various tissues throughout the body and can engulf foreign material major histocompatibility complex (MHC): cluster of genes that encode information for the production of marker proteins on the surface of all cells malaria: disease caused by protozoans of genus Plasmodium and transmitted from human to human by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles mandible: bone that forms the lower jaw mast cells: non-motile cells containing histamine, which is involved in allergic responses matrilineal: pattern of inheritance in which a trait passes only from a mother to all her children medulla oblongata: lower part of brain stem connecting spinal cord to remainder of brain meiosis: process of cell division that results in the production of new cells each containing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell melting temperature (Tm): temperature at which half of a sample of double-stranded DNA becomes single stranded

GLOSSARY

673

Gregor Mendel to entities in his postulated model of inheritance in peas meninges: membranous tissue surrounding the brain and spinal cord and separated from them by a thin layer of fluid messenger RNA (mRNA): single-stranded RNA formed by transcription of a DNA template strand in the nucleus; mRNA carries a copy of the genetic information into the cytoplasm metabolic disorders: inability of an individual to metabolise a particular kind of food molecule, generally because of the absence of an appropriate enzyme metabolism: total of all chemical reactions occurring in an organism microarrays: surfaces, often glass, on which thousands of spots of single-stranded DNA are positioned in a precise arrangement and where each spot corresponds to a part of one particular gene migration: movement of organisms into or out of a population mildew: powdery fungus that grows on fruits, bread, cheese and other organic materials mitochondria: (singular = mitochondrion) in eukaryotic cells, organelles that are the major site of ATP production mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): circular DNA molecule present in many copies in each mitochondrion mitochondrial genes: genes located in the DNA of mitochondria and transmitted in a matrilineal manner molecular clock: concept that changes in the amino acid sub-units of a given protein occur at an approximately constant rate over geological time molecules: units of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds monocytes: the largest type of white blood cells; one kind of phagocyte monogenic traits: refers to traits that are under the control of single genes monohybrid: refers to a cross in which alleles at only one gene locus are involved monohybrid cross: a cross in which alleles of only one gene are involved monomers: small sub-units of the larger units of cells (polymers); also known as the building blocks of cells and include sugars, fatty acids, amino acids and nucleotides monomorphic: refers to a population in which all members are identical with regard to a particular phenotypic trait monosaccharide: any kind of simple sugar molecule, for example, glucose

Mendels factors: term that identifies the name given by

monosomy: condition in which a cell or organism has

only one copy of a particular chromosome that is normally present as a homologous pair motor (efferent) division: also called efferent division; part of nervous system that transmits nervous impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands mould: type of fossil that results when a buried organism decays, leaving an impression of the original organism multiple alleles: refers to three or more alleles of a specific gene multiple ovulation: process of stimulating a female through hormone treatment to release an increased number of eggs multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET): process of stimulating multiple egg release in one female and later transferring her early embryos to other females of the same species, where they develop to term multipotent: refers to a cell that can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types mutagenic agents: chemical or physical agents that can cause mutation in DNA mutation: change in the genetic material (DNA) myelin sheath: fatty substance forming an outer covering around some axons
N NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide): coenzyme

that in metabolic reactions accepts hydrogen atoms and electrons from one compound and transfers them to another, the acceptor molecule in cellular respiration reactions NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide): NAD that has accepted hydrogen NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate): coenzyme that in metabolic reactions accepts hydrogen atoms and electrons from one compound and transfers them to another, the acceptor molecule in photosynthesis reactions nanoparticle: very small human-made particle, typically between 0.1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in diameter nanotechnology: the study and control of particles of between roughly 0.1 and 100 nanometres diameter, and the novel uses that may be made of such small particles narrow-spectrum: characterises an antibiotic that is effective against a few pathogens only natural killer (NK) cells: type of lymphocytes that kill virus-infected cells before the virus has replicated, and tumour cells without involving recognition of specific markers

674

GLOSSARY

act differentially and with no human intervention on various phenotypes in members of a population Neanderthal people: popular term for members of the human species, H. neanderthalensis negative feedback: change in a variable (for example, a decrease) and action to produce a change in the opposite direction (for example, an increase) negative feedback system: system of control in which change in a variable is detected (for example, a decrease) and action occurs to produce a change in the opposite direction (for example, an increase) neo-Darwinism: new concept of evolutionary biology generated from the synthesis of Darwins original ideas about evolution with the concepts of Mendelian genetics nerve: bundle of parallel axon and dendrite fibres surrounded by connective tissue nerve impulse: change that occurs in the electrical charge along a neuron membrane in response to a particular stimulus nervemuscle junction: point at which an action potential is transmitted from a nerve cell to a muscle nervous control system: brain, spinal cord and all nerves of the body nervous system: brain, spinal cord and all nerves of the body neurohormones: hormones released by the axon end of a neuron into the bloodstream neurons: nerve cells neurotoxin: poisonous or harmful substance that acts to inhibit normal functioning of the nervous system neurotransmitter: chemical released by a neuron axon into the synaptic cleft between it and the target cell; stimulates or inhibits the target cell neutral solution: a solution in which the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal; has a pH of 7 neutrophils: most common type of white blood cell; one kind of phagocyte Nobel Prize: founded by Alfred Nobel of Sweden in 1901. Prestigious international award given yearly for achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and for peace noncellular agents: in the context of disease and infection, refers to infective agents such as viruses and prions that lack a cellular structure noncrossover: refers to gametes or to offspring that carry combinations of linked alleles identical to combinations present in the parental organisms; also known as parental

natural selection: process in which agents of selection

nondisjunction: failure of normal separation of

homologous chromosomes during meiosis or failure of normal separation of the two strands of a doublestranded chromosome during meiosis or mitosis nonhomologous: refers to non-matching chromosomes that carry different genes, in contrast to homologous chromosomes non-polar: refers to substances that tend to be insoluble in water; also termed hydrophobic non-self receptors: receptors that detect non-self molecules or cells nonspecific immunity: also called non-adaptive immunity; group of defences including physical barriers, action of different kinds of blood cells, chemical reactions, and the inflammation reaction that the body makes to all infections nuclear envelope: membrane surrounding the nucleus of a eukaryote cell nucleic acids: compounds, such as DNA or RNA, built from nucleotide sub-units nucleolar organiser regions (NORs): regions of chromosomes where ribosomal RNA is transcribed nucleolus: (plural = nucleoli) structure present in the nucleus that is a store of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) nucleoproteins: proteins associated structurally with nucleic acids, either DNA or RNA nucleotide sequence: in DNA, refers to the specific order of nucleotides along part or all of a DNA molecule; also known as base sequence nucleotides: basic building blocks or sub-units of DNA and RNA and consisting of a phosphate group, a base and a sugar; the sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and that in RNA is ribose nucleus: in eukaryotic cells, a membrane-bound organelle containing the genetic material DNA
O obligate anaerobes: organisms that can grow only in

environments where oxygen is absent obligate intracellular parasites: parasites that can survive only inside cells oestrus: period of sexual receptivity in a nonhuman female mammal; also termed heat oestrus synchronisation: process of making all mature females in a flock or herd sexually receptive within a predictable and narrow time frame opportunistic infection: infection occurring when normal defences are compromised in some way, such as following disruption to natural flora of body or reduced responsiveness of immune system as in AIDS opposable: describes a digit, such as the human thumb, whose ventral surface can be brought into contact with those of the fingers

GLOSSARY

675

organelles: structures, for example, mitochondria, present

passive immunity: immunity provided when an

in a cell and which carry out a specific function osmoreceptors: receptors in the hypothalamus that detect an increase in blood solutes: that is, a reduction of water in the blood osmoregulation: maintenance of constant internal salt and water concentrations in internal fluids (homeostasis) in spite of different concentrations in the external environment osmosis: net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane and down a concentration gradient out-of-Africa hypothesis: proposal that modern human populations originated from modern humans who evolved in Africa and migrated from there to the rest of the world; also called the recent African origin hypothesis ovaries: egg-producing organs
P palaeoanthropologist: scientist specialising in the study

and interpretation of fossils relevant to hominin evolution palaeontology: the scientific study of fossils pancreas: produces digestive enzymes; also contains islets of cells that produce the hormones insulin and glucagon, which control the level of blood sugar pandemic: refers to a situation when, over a relatively short time, many people worldwide contract a specific disease as it spreads from a region of origin parallel evolution: response of species, with a common evolutionary heritage, to similar environmental demands through the evolution of structural similarities paralysis: state of animal with inability to move either whole or part of the body, generally due to illness, disease, injury or poisons parasite: organism that lives on or in another organism and feeds from it, usually without killing it parasympathetic nervous system: part of the autonomic nervous system involved in activating functions such as digestion, defecation and urination parental: also known as non-crossover; refers to gametes or to offspring that carry combinations of linked alleles identical to combinations present in the parental organisms partial selection: applies when members of a population with a particular phenotype make less genetic contribution to the next generation than other phenotypes controlled by the same gene. Such a phenotype is said to have reduced genetic fitness. partially permeable: describes a boundary that allows only some materials to pass through it; sometimes termed semi-permeable

individual receives antibodies made by another organism; antibodies may be received through injection or naturally, as when a baby receives them from its mother across the placenta or in breast milk pathogen: organism able to cause disease in a host pectin: carbohydrate in cell wall of plants, particularly the cell walls in some fruits, for example, apples, plums and oranges pedigree: graphic representation using standard symbols showing the pattern of occurrence of an inherited trait in a family penicillin: an antibiotic derived from a fungus that is typically effective against Gram-positive bacteria peptide hormones: one of the categories of watersoluble hormone peripheral nervous system (PNS): in vertebrates, all nerve cells that in whole or part lie outside the brain and spinal cord pH: measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; ranges in value from 0 to 14 phagocytes: types of white blood cell, including neutrophils and monocytes, that can engulf and destroy foreign material, such as micro-organisms, that enter the body phagocytosis: bulk movement of solid material into cells phenotype: expression of an organisms genotype in its structural, biochemical and physiological characteristics phenotype frequencies: incidence or frequencies of particular phenotypes in a population phenylketonuria (PKU): condition inherited as an autosomal recessive, in which an affected person fails to produce the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase pheromones: chemicals that, when released by one animal, elicit a response in another animal of the same species; in particular, act as a sex attractant for mating in many insect species phloem: kind of vascular tissue in plants that transports sugar (mainly sucrose) and other organic compounds phospholipids: major type of lipid found in plasma membranes photosynthesis: process by which plants use the radiant energy of sunlight trapped by chlorophyll to build carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water photosynthetic: refers to autotrophic organisms, typically plants, algae and some bacteria, that use the energy of sunlight to make organic compounds from inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water phototropism: movement of a plant in response to light

676

GLOSSARY

phrenology: in the nineteenth century, a popular study

in which slight variations in the surface of the skull were mapped as being responsible for a number of different traits; has no validity phyletic evolution: type of evolution in which one ancestral species changes over time and is ultimately recognised as a new species physiological variation: variation exhibited among members of a population in terms of one or more physiological traits pinocytosis: bulk movement of liquids into cells pituitary: endocrine gland attached to the hypothalamus that influences the production of thyroxine by the thyroid plasma: the fluid portion of blood in which blood cells are suspended plasma cells: cells produced by reproduction of a B cell, and which produce the same kind of antibody as their parent B cells plasma membrane: partially permeable boundary of a cell separating it from its physical surroundings; boundary controlling entry to and exit of substances from a cell plasmid: small, circular fragment of DNA, separate from the main chromosome, that is present in many copies in bacterial cells plasmodesmata: openings between plant cell walls through which adjacent cells are connected through cytoplasmic threads pluripotent: refers to a cell that can differentiate into many different cell types polar: refers to a compound that dissolves easily in water; also termed hydrophilic polygenes: a group of several genes that each acts in a small but cumulative manner on a trait polygenic traits: traits that are controlled by the action of two or more polygenes polymerase chain reaction (PCR): technique for amplifying tiny amounts of DNA exponentially through many cycles of multiplication; sometimes termed DNA xeroxing polymers: large molecules made of identical or similar single units, for example, starch, which is made of many glucose units polymorphic: refers to a population whose members show several variants of a particular trait polypeptide: macro-molecule built of amino acid subunits and linked by peptide bonds to form a single chain polysaccharides: carbohydrate made of many monosaccharide units population: members of one species living in one region at a particular time

positive feedback: physiological mechanism that

enhances further change in a particular variable that provoked the initial change positron emission tomography (PET): non-invasive technique that provides images of metabolic activity of tissues post-transcription modification: process occurring after transcription in which pre-mRNA is altered to become mRNA predictive testing: DNA-based technique for distinguishing whether a person who is at risk, but shows no clinical signs, has inherited the allele(s) responsible for a particular genetic disease; also known as pre-symptomatic testing pre-implantation genetic diagnosis: a test for the presence of alleles causing genetic disorders that uses one cell taken from an early embryo produced by in vitro fertilisation and occurs before the embryo is transferred to the mothers uterus (provided the test result is negative) prenatal: before birth prenatal testing: testing that occurs before birth presymptomatic testing: DNA-based technique for distinguishing whether a person who is at risk but who shows no clinical signs has inherited the allele(s) that is the cause of a particular genetic disease; also known as predictive testing primary antibody response: production of antibodies induced in an individual by the first injection of antigen during vaccination primary cell wall: the first layer of cellulose and other polysaccharides forming the cell wall outside a newly formed plant cell primates: members of the order Primates of class Mammalia, such as lemurs, monkeys and apes primer: short, single-stranded DNA (or RNA) sequences complementary to part of a specific DNA fragment principle of correlation: method of identifying rock strata in different locations as having the same relative age because of the presence of a particular index fossil principle of superposition: method of determining the relative ages of rock strata based on the principle that relatively older strata lie below relatively younger strata prions: infectious agents, made of protein, responsible for the various forms of spongiform encephalopathy (brain disease) probe: single-stranded segment of DNA (or RNA) with a base sequence complementary to that in a target strand of DNA and that carries a radioactive or fluorescent label to detect it

GLOSSARY

677

producers: photosynthetic organisms and

chemosynthetic bacteria that can build organic matter from simple inorganic substances given a source of energy; also known as autotrophs prokaryote: any cell or organism without a membranebound nucleus promoters: part of the upstream flanking region of a gene containing base sequences that control the activity of that gene protein chains: chains of amino acids resulting from gene translation; also termed polypeptides protein filaments: part of the cytoskeleton or internal framework of a cell that supply strength and support for the cell; made of a variety of proteins, depending on the particular cell, and are very tough protein hormones: one of the water-soluble hormone groups proteins: macromolecules built of amino acid sub-units and linked by peptide bonds to form a chain, sometimes termed a polypeptide; usual product of gene translation; some proteins consist of a single polypeptide while other proteins consist of two or more polypeptides proteome: the complete array of proteins produced by a single cell or an organism in a particular environment proteomics: the study of the proteome, the complete array of proteins produced by an organism punctuated equilibrium: a model of macro-evolution proposed by Gould and Eldredge that assumes evolutionary change does not occur gradually but occurs rapidly over short periods interspersed among long periods of no change purines: class of nitrogen-containing bases, including adenine and guanine pus: material formed at a site of inflammation that includes dead white blood cells that have engulfed infecting bacteria pyrimidines: class of nitrogen-containing bases, including cytosine and thymine pyruvate: a 3C compound formed during the first stage of cellular respiration
R rabid: describes an animal infected with rabies;

random mating: situation that applies in a population

associated with rabies races: populations showing features that distinguish them from other populations of the same species radioactive isotopes: isotopes that are not stable but undergo spontaneous decay at a regular rate to form stable daughter products radiometric dating: technique for obtaining the age of objects that depends on the known rate of decay of a radioactive parent isotope to a stable daughter product, such as potassiumargon dating

when all possible matings are equally likely to occur. This is in contrast to a situation in which nonrandom or assortative mating occurs. rational drug design: construction of a drug to fit the active site of a molecule so that the natural action of the molecule cannot occur re-association: pairing again of single strands of DNA during cooling after the two strands of a DNA double helix have been dissociated by heating recent African origin hypothesis: an hypothesis, supported by various lines of evidence, that modern humans evolved in Africa and then migrated to other parts of the world; also called the out-of-Africa hypothesis. receptors: chemical structures, often on the surface of cells, that receive signals from hormones, neurons or cytokines recessive: refers to a trait that is not expressed but remains hidden in a heterozygous organism recognition sequence: sequence of three to six nucleotides within a DNA molecule that forms the specific site for a restriction enzyme that can cut the DNA at that point; also termed a cutting site recombinant: refers to gametes or to offspring that carry new combinations of linked alleles different from those present in the parental organisms; also termed crossover recombination: process of generating new combinations of alleles of various genes both by crossing over and by independent assortment during meiosis reduction reactions: refers to energy-requiring chemical reactions that involve the removal of oxygen from (or addition of electrons to) a substance; the most significant biological reaction of this type is the reduction of carbon dioxide to sugar during photosynthesis regional continuity hypothesis: proposal that modern humans in various regions of the world originated from more primitive human ancestors who were living in those regions regulator genes: class of gene that controls the activity of other genes relative ages: age of objects expressed in relative terms so that they are identified as younger or older than other objects, but the actual ages of the objects concerned are unknown relay molecules: molecules, often protein, involved in signal transduction within a cell renin: hormone released by the kidney that acts to increase water reabsorption from nephron tubules reproductive cloning: cloning carried out for the purpose of producing an organism

678

GLOSSARY

restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP):

selective breeding: a process of mating that is not

variation that may be detected in members of a family depending on the presence or absence of a restriction enzyme cutting site within the DNA of a given gene retroviruses: viruses whose genetic material is RNA; the RNA is changed into a molecule of DNA that is inserted into a hosts DNA when the retrovirus enters the host cell reverse transcriptase: enzyme that directs the formation of copy DNA from a messenger RNA template ribonucleic acid (RNA): type of nucleic acid consisting of a single chain of nucleotide sub-units that contain the sugar ribose, and the bases A, U, C and G; RNA includes messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ribose: five-carbon sugar that forms one component of the nucleotides found in RNA ribosomal RNA (rRNA): one of the three kinds of RNA found in cells; the type of RNA that is found in ribosomes ribosomes: organelles containing RNA that are major sites of protein production in cells in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes RNA interference (RNAi): process by which specific genes can be silenced, starting with double-stranded RNA RNA polymerase: an enzyme that controls the synthesis of an RNA strand from a DNA template during transcription robusts: hominins of the Paranthropus group that were larger and more heavily built than other species roundworm: small, round, unsegmented worms, some free-living, others parasitic; one species, Enterobius vermicularis, also called threadworm or pinworm, is common in the intestine of children
S second messenger molecule: often protein, that acts as

an intermediary in the transfer of messages secondary antibody response: production of antibodies induced in an individual by a booster (second) injection of antigen secondary cell walls: walls of lignin and cellulose deposited on the primary cell wall of some plant cells after cell growth has ceased selecting agent: environmental factor that acts differentially on the various phenotypes in a population selective advantage: relative higher genetic fitness of a phenotype compared with other phenotypes controlled by the same gene

random, but uses parents chosen by the breeder on the basis of particular phenotypic characteristics that they display self antigens: antigens on cells that are recognised by self receptors as being part of the same body self receptors: receptors used by cells to determine whether an encountered molecule or cell has structures that indicate it is part of the same body semen: nutrient-rich fluid containing sperm semi-conservative model: model of DNA replication in which each new DNA double helix consists of one old template strand and a newly synthesised complementary DNA strand sensitivity test: test to establish the most effective drug to use for treatment against a particular bacterial infection sensory (afferent) division: informs the central nervous system about the internal environment, via visceral sensory neurons, and about the external environment, via somatic sensory neurons sex chromosomes: chromosomes (usually a pair) that differ in males and females of a species; in humans, the X and the Y chromosomes, and, in birds, the W and the Z chromosomes sex selection: process of producing offspring, predominantly of one sex, by artificially separating sperm from a semen sample into those with X chromosomes and those with Y chromosomes sexual dimorphism: condition in some species, including some mammals and some birds, in which adult males and females of the species can be readily distinguished because of marked differences in body size or in the colouring or patterning of hair/feathers sexual reproduction: method of producing offspring that involves a genetic contribution from two parents, typically the fusion of a haploid egg and a haploid sperm to form a diploid zygote sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): diseases usually spread by sexual contact short tandem repeats (STRs): chromosomal sites where many copies of a short DNA sequence are joined end to end; also termed microsatellites. Sequences are normally 2 to 4 base pairs, and the number of repeats are very variable between unrelated people. side effects: adverse effects on a patient occurring in association with use of a particular drug signal transduction: cascade of events linking an external signal (such as from a hormone) to a specific cellular response signalling molecules: carry signals or messages from one cell to another; can be hormonal, neurohormonal, acetylcholine etc.

GLOSSARY

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simple carbohydrates: carbohydrates that have only one

or two monosaccharide units in their molecule; also called sugars single nucleotide polymorphisms: genetic differences between individuals resulting from single base changes in their DNA sequences skin (surface) temperature: temperature at the skin or surface of an organism skull: cranium plus lower jaw small interfering RNA (siRNA): short fragments of RNA that play a role in the process of RNA interference somatic cells: refers to cells of the body other than germline cells somatic mutation: change in the genetic material (DNA) that occurs in a body cell and cannot be transmitted to the next generation somatic nervous system: also called voluntary nervous system; in vertebrates, group of nerves transmitting signals away from the brain and spinal cord to skeletal muscles somatic sensory neurons: neurons that carry information to the central nervous system from the external environment via the senses somatic stem cells: undifferentiated cells obtained from various sources and capable of differentiating into related cell types; also known as adult stem cells special creation of species: pre-Darwinian view that each species was separately and independently created speciation: process of formation of new species specific immunity: also called adaptive immunity; the reaction of each lymphocyte to a specific antigen resulting in the production of antibodies, which act to neutralise the antigen that provoked their production; includes the production of memory cells sperm: male gametes produced in the testes spinal cord: dorsal nerve cord within the vertebral column that, together with the brain and associated nerves, makes up the central nervous system spirochaete: spiral-shaped bacterium spongiform encephalopathy: brain diseases of mammals characterised by the presence of damaged brain cells, holes in the brain where nerve cells have been killed, and clumps of proteins called plaques; caused by prions spontaneous mutation: unpredictable change of unknown causation in the nucleotide sequence of a gene spore: in bacteria, reproductive structure that is resistant to heat and desiccation; also formed by fungi and some plants starch: complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide), polymer of glucose units; main storage carbohydrate in many plant cells

steam: gaseous form of water stem cells: undifferentiated or precursor cells capable of

differentiating into various cell types steroid hormones: lipid-based hormones steroids: lipid characterised by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings to which different functional groups may be attached; important in most living organisms as hormones stomata: (singular = stoma) an opening, typically on a leaf surface, through which water vapour and carbon dioxide can move strata: (singular = stratum) a distinct layer of sedimentary rock within a larger group of many layers stroma: in chloroplasts, the semi-fluid substance between the grana and which contains enzymes for some of the reactions of photosynthesis structural genes: genes that produce proteins that contribute to the structure or functioning of an organism structural variations: variations exhibited among members of a population in terms of one or more structural traits subclinical infection: level of infection that activates the immune system but is not associated with visible signs of infection subspecies: distinct population of a species that varies from other populations of the same species and which, over time, may evolve into a new species if the population remains isolated substrate: compound on which an enzyme acts sucrose: disaccharide carbohydrate formed from glucose and fructose; common chemical name for table sugar sugars: carbohydrates that have one or two monosaccharide units in their molecule and have a sweet taste sympathetic nervous system: part of the autonomic nervous system that supports physical activity of the body synapse: in physiology, junction between two neurons; in genetics, the close pairing that takes place between homologous chromosomes during meiosis synchrotron: super-microscope producing light of great intensity and brilliance that enables examination of molecules in very fine detail
T T cells: type of lymphocyte that mature in the thymus;

play a role in specific immunity tapeworms: segmented flat worms, parasites of vertebrates, including humans; life cycle involves at least two hosts, a primary host and an intermediate host target cells: cells with appropriate receptors able to receive particular hormonal or nervous messages

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GLOSSARY

the upstream flanking region of the coding region of genes of many different species Taung child: fossil skull identified by Raymond Dart as belonging to a new species that he named Australopithecus africanus technological evolution: progressive development over time of technologies giving greater human control over the environment telomeres: normal terminal regions of a chromosome template strand: part of one strand of a DNA double helix that contains the coded information of a particular gene; sometimes called the sense strand test cross: cross of an organism (uncertain genotype A) with a homozygous recessive organism (genotype aa) to determine whether that organism is homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa); cross of a double heterozygote (AaBb) with a homozygous recessive (aabb) to determine whether or not the two genes concerned are linked, and, if they are linked, to obtain an estimate of the distance between the two loci testes: (singular = testis) male gonads that produce sperm and the male sex hormones thalamus: large region of nerve cells below the cerebrum that receives sensory information and transmits it to other parts of the brain theory of evolution by natural selection: theory that agents of selection act differentially and with no human intervention on various phenotypes in members of a population therapeutic cloning: cloning carried out to create an embryo from which stem cells can be harvested thylakoids: flattened membranous sacs in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll thymine: one of the pyrimidine bases found in the nucleotides that are the building blocks of DNA thyroid: endocrine gland located on the ventral surface of the trachea thyroxine: hormone produced by the thyroid gland that acts to increase the rate of cell metabolism tissue culture: in plants, technique in which several identical plants are produced from a single piece of plant tissue tissue fluid: also called extracellular fluid; fluid that bathes the cells within a multicellular organism totipotent: refers to a cell that can differentiate into all different cell types toxins: substances poisonous to an organism toxoids: inactivated toxins used for active immunisation trace fossils: indirect fossil evidence of past life, such as tracks traits: specific expressions of a structural, biochemical, physiological or behavioural character

TATA box: short base sequence consistently found in

transcription: process of copying the genetic

instructions present in DNA to messenger RNA transfected: describes eukaryotic cells to which foreign DNA has been added transfer RNA (tRNA): one of a group of single-stranded RNA molecules that can attach to a specific amino acid and can also pair with a mRNA codon transformed: describes prokaryotic cells to which foreign DNA has been added transforming factor: substance isolated by Oswald Avery that had the ability to change the genetic character of bacteria and was later identified as being DNA transgenic organisms (TGOs): organisms that carry in their genomes one or more genes artificially introduced from another species translation: process of decoding the genetic instructions in mRNA into a protein (polypeptide chain) built of amino acids translocation: type of chromosomal change in which a segment of one chromosome becomes physically attached to a non-homologous chromosome transmitter substances: compounds produced and released at the ends of axons, such as acetylcholine transmutation of species: view that species can change and give rise to new species triglycerides: organic molecules made of one molecule of glycerol combined with three fatty acid molecules trinucleotide repeat expansion (TRE): mutation in DNA that entails the addition of many repeats of a sequence of three nucleotides into a gene triplet code: identifies that the genetic code consists of triplets or three-base sequences trisomic: describes a cell or organism with three copies of a particular chromosome that is normally present as an homologous pair tropism: a directional growth response of a plant to an environmental stimulus
U ultrasound: technique using sound waves to form an

image of internal structures, including a fetus in its mothers uterus unconformity: junction between two rock depositional sequences lying at different orientations uracil: one of the pyrimidine bases found in the nucleotides that are the building blocks of RNA urea: nitrogenous waste excreted by the body in urine
V vaccination: injection of an individual with a vaccine

to induce active immunity (also called adaptive immunity) against a pathogen

GLOSSARY

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vaccine: suspension of attenuated living or dead micro-

organisms that, when introduced into a person, stimulates the immune system to produce specific antibodies variation: in a population, a condition in which members of that population differ in one or more traits vasopressin: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus in the brain vector: in genetics, refers to an agent such as a plasmid or a virus that carries passenger DNA into a cell; in disease, an insect or other animal that carries a pathogenic organism from one host to another; also refers to an insect that carries pollen from one flower to another venom: modified saliva or secretion produced by some living organisms, such as snakes and spiders, that has an adverse effect on the tissues of other living things vertebrates: general term for animals with a backbone, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals vesicles: membrane-bound sacs found within a cell, typically fluid filled. One kind of vesicle containing digestive enzymes is known as a lysosome. viroids: small pieces of RNA that cause some diseases in plants virulence: degree to which an organism can cause disease viruses: particles lacking cellular organisation and consisting of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat; reproduce only in a host cell

visceral sensory neurons: transmit information to the

central nervous system from the internal environment of the body voluntary nervous system: also called somatic; in vertebrates, group of nerves transmitting signals away from the brain and spinal cord to skeletal muscles
W water: tasteless, odourless and nearly colourless

substance, the most universal solvent and essential for all known forms of life; formula H2O

X X-inactivation: random switching off of one of the

two X chromosomes present in somatic cells of mammalian females X-linked: refers to a gene with its locus on the X chromosome; also refers to a trait that is controlled by such a gene xylem: the part of vascular tissue that transports water and minerals throughout a plant and provides a plant with support Y Y-linked: refers to a gene with its locus on the Y chromosome; also refers to a trait that is controlled by such a gene Z zygomatic arches: cheekbones comprising horizontal bony ridges on a mammalian skull

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GLOSSARY