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A. Sesay
ENEL 471
2.
Multiplexing: If more than one signal utilizes a single channel, modulation may be used to translate different signals to different spectral locations thus enabling the receiver to select the desired signal. Applications of multiplexing include data telemetry, FM stereophonic broadcasting, and long distance telephone. Overcome Equipment Limitations: The performance of signal processing devices such as filters and amplifiers, and the ease with which these devices can be built depend on the signal location in the frequency domain and on the ratio of the highest to lowest signal frequencies. Modulation can be used for translating the signal to a location in the frequency domain where design requirements are easily met. Modulation can also be used to convert a wideband signal (a signal for which the ratio of highest to lowest signal frequencies is large) to a narrow band signal. Occasionally in signal processing applications, the frequency range of the signal to be processed and the frequency range of the processing apparatus may not match. If the processing apparatus is elaborate and complex, it may be wise to leave the processing equipment to operate in some fixed frequency range and, instead, translate the frequency range of the signal to correspond to this fixed frequency range of the equipment. Modulation can be used to accomplish this frequency translation.
3.
5.
Frequency Assignment: Modulation allows several radio or television stations to broadcast simultaneously at different carrier frequencies and allows different receivers to be tuned to select different stations. Reduce Noise and Interference: The effect of noise and interference cannot be completely eliminated in a communication system. However, it is possible to minimize their effects by using certain types of modulation schemes. These schemes generally require a transmission bandwidth much larger than the bandwidth of the message signal. Thus bandwidth is traded for noise reduction - an important aspect of communication system design.
6.
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation In amplitude modulation the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier is varied in direct proportion to the low-frequency (baseband) message signal. The carrier is usually a sinusoidal waveform, that is, c(t ) = Ac cos(c t + c ) or c(t ) = Ac sin(c t + c ) Ac is the unmodulated carrier amplitude c = 2 f c is the unmodulated carrier angular frequency in radians/s; f c is the carrier frequency in Hz c is the unmodulated carrier phase, which we shall assume is zero. The amplitude modulated carrier has the mathematical form
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
(d) (e)
(f)
There is a 180o phase reversal at the point where + A(t ) = + m(t ) goes negative. This is typical of DSB-SC modulation. The bandwidth of the DSB-SC signal is double that of the message signal, that is, BWDSB SC = 2 B (Hz) . The modulated signal is centred at the carrier frequency c with two identical sidebands (double-sideband) the lower sideband (LSB) and the upper sideband (USB). Being identical, they both convey the same message component. The spectrum contains no isolated carrier. Thus the name suppressed carrier. The 180o phase reversal causes the positive (or negative) side of the envelope to have a shape different from that of the message signal, see Figure 1(d) and (e). This is known as envelope distortion, which is typical of DSB-SC modulation. The power in the modulated signal is contained in all four sidebands.
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
The circuits for generating modulated signals are known as modulators. We shall discuss three basic modulators nonlinear, switching and ring modulators. Conceptually, the simplest modulator is the product or multiplier modulator, Figure 1(a). However, it is very difficult (and expensive) in practice to design a product modulator that maintains amplitude linearity at high carrier frequencies.
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Nonlinear Modulators
Nonlinear elements produce distortion by generating new signal components at new frequencies. We can utilize the distortions to generate modulated signals by filtering out all the undesired components. Consider two nonlinear devices (NL), in Figure 2, with identical input-output characteristics given by y (t ) = ax(t ) + bx 2 (t ) The input signal to the top device is the sum of the message and carrier signals x1 (t ) = cos(c t ) + m(t ) The input signal to the bottom device is the difference of the message and carrier signals x2 (t ) = cos(c t ) m(t ) The output signals are given, respectively, by
y1 (t ) = ax1 (t ) + bx12 (t ) = a ( cos(c t ) + m(t ) ) + b ( cos(c t ) + m(t ) )
2
Individually, these outputs contains several unwanted components in addition to the desired component 2bm(t ) cos(c t ) . Subtraction of the two outputs gives z (t ) = 2am(t ) + 4bm(t ) cos(c t ) The first component is the baseband message signal, whose spectrum is located around dc with a maximum frequency of = 2 B . The second component is the desired DSB-SC Since signal whose spectrum is centred at c with minimum frequency c 2 B . c >> 2 B , the two spectra will not overlap. Therefore, passing z (t ) through a band-pass filter centred at c with bandwidth B , suppresses the baseband component and passes the desired modulated signal unaltered, that is, DSB SC (t ) = 4bm(t ) cos(ct )
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Without the band-pass filter, the circuit in Figure 2 is known as a single balanced modulator in the sense that it does not remove all the unwanted components. It needs a second stage, the band-pass filter, to remove the rest. The two together is called a double-balanced modulator. Semiconductor diodes are often used for nonlinear devices in balanced modulators. An example is shown in Figure 3. The performance of the modulator is dependent on how close the characteristics of the two diodes can be matched. Performance degrades if the parameters a and b are not identical for both diodes.
Figure 2
Figure 3
Switching Modulator
Figure 4
A linear device with time-varying gain is used to obtain multiplier action. This is demonstrated in Fig. 4, in which the time-varying device is an analog switch that is turned on an off by a square-wave oscillator signal operating at a frequency of c . The switch is turned on for half
A. Sesay
ENEL 471 the period ( Tc = 2 / c ) and off for the rest of the period of the pulse generator output. When the switch is on, the input is passed and when the switch is off the input is blocked. This way, we think of the gain of the switch as being either unity or zero. The waveform at the output of the analog switch is equivalent to the product of the input signal uin (t ) = m(t ) and the oscillator output s (t ) = w(t ) , that is, v1 (t ) = m(t ) w(t ) The signal v1 (t ) = m(t ) w(t ) , is shown in Figure 5(b).
Figure 5
1 sin(n / 2) cos(nc t ) + 2 2 n n =1
while the terms in the summation are centred at = 2c , 3c ,... , which are very far away from
A. Sesay
ENEL 471 1 m(t ) is baseband. Therefore, a band-pass filter centred at c with 2 2 bandwidth twice that of m(t ) , will pass m(t ) cos(c t ) and eliminate the rest. The modulated
The schematic diagrams and waveforms for a ring modulator are shown in Figures 6 and 7. Semi- conductor diodes are ideally suited for use in balanced modulator circuits because they are stable, require no external power source, have a long life, and require virtually no maintenance. A balanced modulator has two inputs: a single-frequency carrier and the modulating signal. For the modulator to operate properly, the amplitude of the carrier must be sufficiently greater than the amplitude of the modulating signal (approximately six to seven times greater). This ensures that the carrier and not the modulating signal controls the on or off condition of the four diode switches ( D1 to D4 ).
Circuit operation: Diodes D1 to D4 are electronic switches that control whether the modulating
signal m(t ) is passed from input transformer T1 to output transformer T2 as is or with a 1800 phase shift. With the carrier polarity as shown in Figure 6 (b), diode switches D1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while diode switches D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off. Consequently, the modulating signal is transferred across the closed switches to T2 without a phase reversal. When the polarity of the carrier reverses, as shown in Figure 6(c), diode switches D1 and D2 are reverse biased and off, while diode switches D3 and D4 are forward biased and on. Consequently, the modulating signal undergoes a 1800 phase reversal before reaching T2 Carrier current flows from its source to the center taps of T1 and T2 where it splits and goes in opposite directions through the upper and lower halves of the transformers. Thus, their magnetic fields cancel in the secondary windings of the transformer and the carrier is suppressed. If the diodes are not perfectly matched or if the transformers are not exactly center tapped, the circuit is out of balance and the carrier is not totally suppressed. In practice, it is virtually impossible to achieve perfect balance; thus, a small carrier component is always present in the output signal. This carrier leak is usually considered negligible. Figure 7 shows the input and output waveforms associated with a balanced modulator for a single-frequency modulating signal. It can be seen that D1 and D2 conduct only during the positive half-cycles of the carrier input signal, and D3 and D4 conduct only during the negative half-cycles.
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
(a)
(b)
Figure 6
The output from a balanced modulator consists of a series of pulses, which is equivalent to the product of the modulating signal m(t ) in Figure 6(a) and a rectangular pulse train whose frequency (or period) is determined by the carrier frequency Figure 6(b). Consequently, the output waveform takes the shape of the modulating signal Figure 6(c), except with alternating positive and negative polarities that correspond to the polarity of the carrier signal.
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
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Therefore, a band-pass filter (see Figure 8) centred at c with bandwidth twice that of m(t ) , will 2 pass the desired component m(t ) cos(c t ) and eliminate the rest. The modulated output is
therefore given by
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
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Figure 8
Demodulation of DSB-SC Signals
Demodulation or detection is the process of recovering the message signal from the modulated waveform. The method used to recover message signals from DSB-SC waveforms is known as coherent or synchronous detection (or demodulation).
Coherent detection
The block diagram for coherent detection is shown in Figure 9. This is similar to the modulator except that the band-pass filter is replaced by a low-pass filter. The received DSB-SC signal is sm (t ) = DSB SC (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c t ) The receiver first generates an exact (coherent) replica (same phase and frequency) of the unmodulated carrier sc (t ) = cos(c t ) The coherent carrier is then multiplied with the received signal to give
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
sm (t ) sc (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c t ) cos(c t ) = 1 1 Ac m(t ) + Ac m(t ) cos(2c t ) 2 2
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The first term is the desired baseband signal while the second is a band-pass signal centred at 2c . A low-pass filter with bandwidth equal to that of the m(t ) will pass the first term and reject the band-pass component.
Figure 9
The problem with this is that the local carrier must have exactly the same phase (phase coherent) as the incoming carrier. The additional circuit (carrier recovery circuit) that ensures phase coherence makes the receiver more complex and expensive. For example, suppose the there is a phase error . Then the output of the multiplier is
sm (t ) sc (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c t ) cos(ct + ) = 1 1 Ac m(t ) cos( ) + Ac m(t ) cos(2ct + ) 2 2
1 1 s (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos( ) 2 2 There is no problem if the phase error is very small because cos( ) 1 . However, if the phase error is close to / 2 , then cos( ) 0 and the signal is lost completely.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Suppose we are given a message signal x(t ) . We first normalize this signal with respect to its maximum peak value X p = x(t ) peak , that is,
m(t ) =
We may now express x(t ) in terms of the normalized signal as x(t)=X p m(t )
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
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An AM signal is a DSB-SC signal plus a carries with a large amplitude, such that Ac X p ). That is, the AM signal is given by
The parameter is called the modulation index or depth of modulation and takes on the range of values
0 < 1 Examples of time waveforms of AM signal are shown in Figure 10 for = 0.0, 0.3, 0.8 and 1.0 , respectively.
(a) = 0
(b) = 0.3
(c) = 0.8
A. Sesay
ENEL 471 Any value of the modulation index that is greater than 1 is referred to as over modulation. Over modulation causes zero crossing of the envelope and causes envelope distortion.
Spectrum of AM Signals
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Suppose the spectrum of the normalized message is M ( ) m(t ) . The spectrum of an AM signal, obtained by applying the modulation theorem, is given by
[ Ac ( c ) + ( + c )] + [ M ( c ) + M ( + c )] AM (t ) = Ac [1 + m(t )] cos(ct )
An example of the spectrum of an AM signal is shown in Figure 11.
1 2
(a)
Figure 11
The spectrum contains a discrete carrier plus sidebands. Since the carrier contains no message, power carried in this component is wasted.
Power and Efficiency of an AM Signal
AM (t ) = Ac [1 + m(t ) ] cos(c t )
= Ac cos(c t ) + Ac m(t ) cos(ct )
The power in the message (sidebands) term is obtained by squaring and integrating
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
PSB = 1 2 2 2 1 Ac m (t ) + 2 Ac2 m2 (t ) cos(2c t ) 2 2 1 = 2 Ac2 Pm 2 the time averaged integral,
1 T /2 2 m (t )dt = Pm T T / 2
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The symbol
m 2 (t ) = lim
T
1 T
T /2
T / 2
m 2 (t ) cos(2c t )dt = 0
=
=
2 Pm 1 + 2 Pm
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Demodulation of AM Signals: Envelope Detector:
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An envelope detector is a circuit whose output closely approximates the envelope of the input signal. The baseband (message) signal m(t ) can be recovered from the received AM signal xr (t ) = AM (t ) using the simple circuit shown in Figure 12 as long as 1 m(t ) 1 . If 1 m(t ) 1 , then the envelope of the received signal never crosses zero and so the positive portion of the envelope approximates the message signal. The positive envelope is recovered by rectifying xr (t ) = AM (t ) and smoothing the rectified waveform using an RC network or a lowpass filter.
Figure 12
A. Sesay
ENEL 471 Since the diode only allows current to flow (conducts) in one direction, the negative portion is chopped off at the output of the diode, as shown in Figure 12. The operation of the envelope detector can be summarized as follows:
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(1) As the input waveform rises to its peak value, the diode conducts and current flows through the capacitor C . The capacitor charges up to the peak of the input. (2) As the input waveform starts to drop from its peak value, the diode is cut off and the capacitor discharges through the resistor R . (3) The charge and discharge operation is repeated throughout all the cycles of the input waveform. (4) The discharge rate is determined by the time constant RC . If RC is too small, the capacitor will discharge faster and not follow the envelope as shown in Figure 12 (d). (5) If RC is too large, the capacitor will not discharge enough to follow the envelope as shown in Figure 12 (c). (6) For best operation, the carrier frequency c should be much higher than the maximum frequency 2 B of the message signal and the discharge time constant RC should be adjusted so that 1 1 << RC << 2 B c In this case the capacitor will discharge just enough to closely follow the envelope of the input.
The output of the envelope detector consists of ripples, which is at the carrier frequency. The ripples may be removed by smoothing the detector output. Smoothing is accomplished by lowpass filtering. The output, after smoothing is given by yd (t ) = Ac + Ac m(t ) The dc component Ac is removed by a dc blocker, which is essentially a capacitor, which is placed in series. The AM signal may also be demodulated to recover the message signal with coherent detection followed by a dc blocker.
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
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QAM is a modulation method for transmitting two independent messages in an overlapping spectrum. This is accomplished by modulating one message on the cosine (inphase) carrier and the other message on the sine (quadrature) carrier. That is,
Figure 13
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Single-Sideband Modulation (SSB)
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In DSB-SC and AM, there are two sets of sidebands each of which convey identical message information. As a result, the bandwidth required for transmission is doubled that of the original signal. As it turns out, we can suppress one set of sidebands before transmission and accurately recover the original message signal at the receiver. We may, therefore, be able to transmit a completely independent message signal in the other sidebands. In short SSB modulations allows us to transmit two independent messages in the same bandwidth where AM and DSB-SC modulations would transmit only one message signal. Suppose the message bandwidth is B Hz . Then, the bandwidth required to transmit one message signal is also B Hz for SSB modulation. Single-sideband modulated signals can be generated by one two methods the filtering method and the phase-shift method.
(a) Filtering Method
In the filtering method we first generate a DSB-SC signal and then pass it through a band-pass filter with centre frequency and bandwidth just enough to pass either the upper sideband or the lower sideband as illustrated in Figure 14. The filter is referred to as a sideband filter and its transfer function is denoted by H SSB ( f ) .
A. Sesay
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Figure 14
Because an ideal filter is not practically realizable, the filtering method can only be used when there is insignificant content around dc, that is, if there is a gap between the sideband as shown in the figure below. An example of a message signal with insignificant contents around dc is speech. On the other hand, data and video signals have significant dc contents (as shown in the figure below) and so there is no gap between the sidebands. The filter must be ideal, which is not realizable.
(b) Phase-Shift Method
Fundamental to the phase-shift method is the Hilbert transform. We shall now provide a brief review of the Hilbert transform.
Hilbert Transform:
H ( ) = j sgn( )
A. Sesay
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The signum function sgn(.) is defined as 1 >0 sgn( ) = 1 < 0 Using this definition, we can express the transfer function in polar (or magnitude and phase) form as follows:
j = e j / 2 > 0 H ( ) = j / 2 <0 j=e
From the polar form expression, we see that the magnitude response is constant and equal to 1 , that is,
H ( ) = 1
>0 <0
This shows that the Hilbert transformer adds a phase shift of / 2 to all the positive frequencies of the input signal while the magnitude is unaltered.
Impulse Response:
From the Fourier transform table, we find impulse response of the Hilbert transform to be given by h(t ) = 1 H ( ) t
(t ) or g h (t ) is the output of the Hilbert The Hilbert transform of a signal g (t ) , denoted by g transformer in response to the signal g (t ) , applied to the input. That is, ( ) = ( j ) sgn( )G ( ) (t ) = h(t ) g (t ) G g
A. Sesay
ENEL 471
Example 1:
= ( j ) sgn( )G ( )
j / 2 = + ( + c )e j / 2 ( c )e
(t ) = Ac m (t ) sin(c t ) Let g (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c ) , then g ( ) = G ( ) and therefore, (a) Show that G 1 2
2 ( ) d = 1 G 2
G ( ) d = Eg
That is, the signal and its Hilbert transform contain the same energy (b)
(t )dt = 0 g (t ) g
That is, the signal and its Hilbert transform are orthogonal.
Analytic Functions:
(t ) x(t ) = g (t ) + jg
Taking the Fourier transform gives X ( ) = G ( ) + j ( j ) sgn( )G ( ) = G ( ) [1 + sgn( )] Using the definition of the signum function we obtain 2G ( ) > 0 X ( ) = <0 0 We see that an analytic signal has positive spectrum.
A. Sesay
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The SSB signal is obtained by adding or subtracting a DSB-SC signal and its Hilbert transform as follows: DSB SC (t ) SSB (t ) = DSB SC (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c t ) Ac mh (t ) sin(ct ) The minus sign gives upper sideband while the plus sign gives lower sidebands. A block diagram implementation of the above equation is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15
SSB ( ) =
where
Ac A [ M ( c ) + M ( + c )] c [ M h ( c ) + M h ( + c )] 2 2j
M h ( c ) = ( j ) sgn( c ) M ( c ) M h ( + c ) = ( j ) sgn( + c ) M ( + c ) Consider the upper sideband SSB, that is, pick the minus sign. Then we have
A. Sesay
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Ac A [ M ( c ) + M ( + c )] c [ M h ( c ) M h ( + c )] 2 2j Ac 2
SSB ( ) =
=
By definition we have 1 > c 1 > c and sgn( + c ) = sgn( c ) = 1 < c 1 < c These two functions are sketched below.
Therefore,
2 > c 0 > c and 1 sgn( + c ) = 1 + sgn( c ) = 2 < c 0 < c
These functions are also sketched below. Using these results, the Fourier transform of the SSB signal reduces to (also sketched in the figure below)
SSB signals can be demodulated by one of two methods coherent detection and envelope detection.
Coherent Detection:
Regardless of the method by which the SSB signal is generated, the message signal is recovered by coherent detection. Consider that the local oscillator has a phase error of e . The output of the multiplier of the detector is
x(t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(c t ) cos(c t + e ) + Ac mh (t ) sin(c t ) cos(c t + e ) (t ) (t ) A m(t ) A m(t ) Am Am cos( e ) + c cos(2c t + e ) + c sin( e ) c sin 2c t + e ) = c 2 2 2 2
A. Sesay
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If the phase error is close to zero we obtain y (t ) = km(t ) , which is the desired message signal. If the phase error is close to / 2 we obtain the Hilbert transform of the message signal. Therefore, the local oscillator must produce a negligible phase error. The Hilbert transform produces the Donald Duck sound effect.
Envelope Detection of SSB Signals
In order to use envelope detection, we first insert a carrier with a very large amplitude at the receiver, that is,
[ A0 + m(t )]
[ A0 + m(t )]
2 + mh (t ) [ A0 + m(t )]
Therefore, we obtain SSB (t ) + Carrier [ A0 + m(t ) ] cos(c t + (t )) The above is essentially an AM signal, which can now be demodulated using an envelope detector.
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
Many message signals , such as TV video, Fax and high speed data have very large bandwidth a significant low-frequency content. Although SSB may be used to save bandwidth, they would require ideal sideband filters, which not realizable in practice. While DSB may be more suitable they require twice the message bandwidth for transmission. The best compromise between bandwidth savings and the required filtering is VSB. VSB is obtained by filtering DSB-SC or AM using a practical VSB filter. Rather than suppress an entire sideband, a trace or vestige (of width Hz ) is passed by the filter as shown in Figure 16. The response of the VSB filter must have an odd symmetry about the carrier frequency f c
A. Sesay
ENEL 471 or c . The VSB sideband has a transition interval of width 2 Hz . If the bandwidth of the baseband signal is B Hz then the bandwidth of the VSB signal is given by
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BW = B + ; < B
It is difficult to derive the time domain expression for the VSB. However, consider a sideband filter ( H SSB ( f ) ) to be an ideal high-pass filter and a vestige filter ( H ( f ) ) as shown in Figure 16. Then we can consider the VSB filter to comprise the difference of the SSB filter and the vestige filter. That is, HVSB ( f ) = H SSB ( f ) H ( f ) If the output of the modulator is Ac [1 + m(t )]cos(c t ) (assuming = 1 ) then the output of VSB filter can be expressed as
(t ) sin(c t ) ] Ac m (t ) sin(c t ) VSb (t ) = Ac cos(c t )+ Ac [ m(t ) cos(c t ) m
carrier SSB signal vestige signal VSB signal VSB+carrier