1 Dios nos quiere sabios: la Tradicin Sapiencial en la Biblia Se suele ensear que una de las partes que componen

la Biblia la conforma los Libros Sapienciales. Y esto es cierto. Sin embargo es cierto que el tipo de enseanza que Dios nos ofrece en estos Libros lo encontramos, aunque sea en fragmentos ms o menos cortos en otros Libros del AT como tambin del NT. Conocemos este pasaje que nos habla de la Biblia: Toda la Escritura es inspirada por Dios y til para ensear, para argumentar, para corregir y para educar en la justicia (2 Tim 3,16). El profesor Pacwa nos dice que ningn Libro como el de los Proverbios hace realidad este dicho de san Pablo sobre la Palabra de Dios. En el Libro de los Proverbios podemos ver que Dios no habl a Israel solo mediante la Ley de Moiss, y mediante los Profetas, sino que Dios habl a Israel y a nosotros mediante el sentido comn (Pacwa). Es interesante saber que en el Libro de los Proverbios la primera coleccin de ellos recin aparece en los captulos 10-22 del Libro de los Proverbios y en dicha coleccin hay 375 proverbios y en hebreo las letras tienen un equivalente numrico, y la suma del equivalente numrico de las letras del nombre del rey Salomn suman 375, es decir el mismo nmero de proverbios en la primera coleccin de ellos en el Libro de los Proverbios (Pacwa).
Any text that contains the genres of wisdom may be seen to be part of a broad wisdom tradition that extends beyond Israel into the ancient Near East. In fact the wisdom tradition is thought to have sprung largely from contact with the wisdom of other nations rather than from within Israelite tradition itself, because it does not mention the saving events of the history of Israel Fjate en la hormiga, perezoso; mira su conducta y hazte sabio: (Pro 6,6)

La experiencia como medio de la revelacin divina. El don de la Ley a Israel, la recepcin del mensaje de Yahweh por parte de los profetas y las visiones apocalpticas todas son intervenciones de la revelacin divina que irrumpieron en la vida cotidiana de Israel, y que ofrecen conocimiento divino que Israel no pudo obtener de ninguna otra forma; por el contrario: el Libro de los Proverbios ofrece comprensin obtenida de la experiencia personal y social. (Hubbard). Proverbios ve a la creacin como la base del orden, por eso nos habla de los actos de la creacin en el captulo 8 el cual marca el tono del resto del Libro, y su principal propsito es mostrar el orden que unifica toda la vida. Las analogas y comparaciones entre la vida animal y la experiencia humana tienen sentido pues tras ellas est la mano del mismo Creador. Es la mano que subraya el patrn de causa y efecto de los proverbios, donde la conducta buena trae su propia recompensa y el mal comportamiento su propio dao. Es la misma mano que dicta el momento oportuno para aplicar un dicho o accin sabia. Es imprescindible tener presente la Alianza de Israel con Yahveh para comprender los proverbios. A los profetas de Israel Dios les dio la misin y el carisma para dar Su mensaje en tiempos de crisis. A los autores sagrados de los Libros Histricos de la Biblia los llam y capacit para narrar la Historia de Israel. La sabios cuya enseanza tenemos en los Libros Sapienciales de la Biblia tuvieron otra misin: ensearle a los jvenes y a los lderes de Israel a aplicar la fe de la Alianza en cada circunstancia de la vida diaria. La enseanza del Libro de los Proverbios, de Sircides, Eclesiasts, Job y Sabidura refuerzan y complementan los mandamientos ticos de la Ley y Profeca, y proclamaron as que Yahweh, el Creador- Redentor_ Legislador- Rey era en verdad Seor de todos y de todo (Hubbard sobre el Libro de los Proverbios). La confianza en Dios como soberano de todo lo creado fue el fundamento en el que se basaron los sabios judos para cruzar las fronteras de Israel y encontrar fuera de ellas una

2 correcta comprensin de las cosas sobre ciertas cosas, pues toda verdad viene finalmente de Dios. Sabidura es el conocimiento prctico de las leyes de la vida y del universo, basado en la experiencia (Von Rad) El arte de tener xito en la vida humana, tanto privada como colectiva (Cazelles) la bsqueda de la auto comprensin en trminos de relacin con las cosas, la gente y el Creador (Crenshaw). Si bien es cierto que en la Literatura Sapiencial vemos que el fruto de la observacin de la vida de los seres humanos, de las criaturas de la naturaleza y de lo creado nos ofrecen lecciones para ser felices, y lineamientos para aprender lecciones tiles que podamos sacar de nuestra propia observacin, sin embargo este saber siendo beneficioso para nosotros, tiene un lmite y las respuestas a todas nuestras preguntas las tiene nicamente Dios: 5 Confa en Yahveh de todo corazn y no te apoyes en tu entendimiento. 6 En todos tus caminos reconcele y l enderezar tus senderos. 7 No seas sabio a tus ojos, teme a Yahveh y aprtate del mal: 8 esto procurar salud a tu carne y alivio a tus huesos. (Pro 3,5-8). La sabidura es condicin necesaria para vivir una vida en plenitud (Morla). Atencin, NO PODEMOS VIVIR SIN SABIDURA. Por eso Dios nos ensea a buscarla Escucha, hijo mo, y s sabio; orienta tu corazn al buen camino. (Pro 23,19). El primer paso para ser sabio es ocuparse con toda la atencin y perseverancia en adquirir la Sabidura El principio de la sabidura es: Adquiere sabidura, gasta tu fortuna en adquirir prudencia (Pro 4,7). Quien vive con sabidura vive seguro (1,33), y aunque a los ojos del mundo no lo parezca, la sabidura es ms valiosa que todas las riquezas materiales, por eso la Sabidura dice Mi fruto es mejor que el oro fino, mi provecho mejor que la plata bruida. (Pro 8,19). El que peca se hace dao a s mismo (Sir 19,4), en cambio la Sabidura nos dice: Pero quien me escucha morar seguro, vivir tranquilo, sin miedo a la desdicha. (Pro 1,33). No es posible ser feliz sin la sabidura, pues la felicidad es consecuencia de la sabidura: 13 Feliz el hombre que hall sabidura, el hombre que adquiri inteligencia! 14 Pues su adquisicin ms vale que la plata, produce ms rentas que el oro. 15 Es ms preciosa que las perlas y no hay joya que se le pueda comparar. 16 Largos das hay en su mano derecha, en su izquierda riqueza y honor. 17 Sus caminos son de delicia y todos sus senderos de paz. (Pro 3:13-17 CAB). La Sabidura es presentada como una esposa con lo cual queda en claro que es una ayuda invaluable para todo humano, su carcter insustituible, y el inmenso gozo que puede traer, adems de la necesidad de amarla y serle fiel siempre. Cualquiera que rehuse escuchar a la Sabidura trae sobre si mismo calamidad, pnico y muerte (Pro 1,24-32; 8,36; Sir 4,19): De acuerdo a Sir 4,17 la Sabidura es cuidadosa pedagoga (Fabry). La sabidura es valiosa, pues Si eres sabio, en tu provecho lo sers (Pro 9,12). Existe una estrecha relacin entre lo sapiencial y lo tico, el sabio es el justo, pues la Sabidura proclama: Voy por el camino de la justicia, por entre las sendas de la equidad, (Pro 8,20). Siempre van indisolublemente unidas la sabidura y la justicia, es decir, la voluntad de Dios expresada en la Ley en la Alianza: El fruto de la justicia es rbol de vida, el sabio conquista a los hombres (Pro 11,30 De hecho en el texto hebreo del Libro de los Proverbios el segundo adjetivo ms empleado de todos es saddiyq, justo con 66 apariciones (Pro 2,20; 3,33). En la Biblia de la Iglesia del NT es decir en el AT Griego el adjetivo ms usado en el Libro de

3 los Proverbios es dikaios, justo con 104 usos y tiene el primer lugar con en toda la Biblia. La importancia en poner en prctica la Sabidura se puede ver en el hecho que el verbo ms empleado en el Libro de los Proverbios es halak, caminar, es decir modo de vivir con 38 veces (Pro 1,15), mientras que el verbo bin entender ocupa el 6to lugar con 33. Los caminos para obtener Sabidura son varios: El estudio de la Biblia, la experiencia y la reunin con los sabios.

Dios nos exhorta a tener confianza sobre la posibilidad de obtener Sabidura y lo hace en varios pasajes de la Biblia: (Dt 32,29; 1 Re 4,31 [5,11]; Job 32,9; Prov 6,6; 9,12; 13,20; 19,20; 20,1; 23.15. 19; Eccl 2,15.19; 7,23; Zac 9,2).1
14

Quienes la sirven, dan culto al Santo; y a quienes la aman, los ama el Seor. (Sir 4:14 CAB)

El Vocabulario de la Sabidura
Al leer los Libros Sapienciales podemos encontrar ciertas palabras que son ms importantes en lo que respecta a la Sabidura. Como sabemos buena parte de los Libros del AT fueron escritos en hebreo y como escribi el nieto del autor del Libro de Eclesistico o Sircides Pues no tienen la misma fuerza las cosas dichas en hebreo en este libro cuando son traducidas a otra lengua (Sir 1:1). Considerando esto debemos decir que en el Libro de los Proverbios como tambin en Sircides hay diversas palabras hebreas, las cuales en ocasiones van juntas, que nos ayudan a comprender mejor lo que Dios nos quiere decir acerca de la Sabidura, y lo que significa. En realidad son varias, aunque son comunes en los Libros Sapienciales, a estas palabras las encontramos en un pasaje tan importante como Is 11,2 en donde Dios nos habla de los dones que acompaan y caracterizan al Rey Mesas, y esos 6 dones aparecen en el Libro de los Proverbios: Una rama saldr del tronco de Jes, un brote surgir de sus races. Sobre l reposar el Espritu de Yahveh, espritu de sabidura e inteligencia, espritu de consejo y fortaleza, espritu de conocimiento y de temor del Seor, para respetarlo, y para gobernar segn sus preceptos. Echemos una mirada a los 6 dones del Espritu Santo del Rey Mesinico mencionados en este pasaje de Isaas: Sabidura, Hokma en hebreo sofia en griego. Inteligencia, binah 14 veces en Proverbios que es el Libro del AT con mayor usos de esta palabra con 14 de 38 veces, y es Sircides el que ms veces en toda la Biblia emplea su equivalente griego synesis, con 30 usos de 135 (Sir 5,10; 6,35; 8,9 etc.) Consejo, esah en hebreo usado en Proverbios 11 veces (1,25.30; 8,14 etc.) como atributo de la Sabidura. Fortaleza: Aparece una sola vez en el Libro de los Proverbios, pero lo hace en un pasaje muy importante: La fortaleza es una caracterstica de la Sabidura (Pro 8,14). Conocimiento en hebreo da at 40 veces en Proverbios (1,4.7.22 etc.), el Libro con ms usos de estas palabras en el AT. Temor del Seor: Sobre este don hay una seccin aparte.

VanGemeren, W. (1998). New international dictionary of Old Testament theology & exegesis (2:131). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.

4 A estas palabras del vocabulario de la Sabidura que encontramos en Is 11,2 podemos sumar otras, pero solo presentar dos: hokma, sabidura y binah comprensin y muy brevemente alguna ms. Sabidura La palabra hebrea que nuestras ediciones de la Biblia suelen traducir por Sabidura es hokma (Pro 2,2; Sir 4,11). Sabidura es esencialmente conocer la voluntad de Dios, tener la capacidad para llevarla a caboY PONERLA POR OBRA. Uno NO puede tener hokma como algo puramente potencial o como mera informacin sin usar. Sabio es el que conoce la voluntad de Dios para cada situacin que le toque vivir y la pone por obra.

okmah es esencialmente un alto grado de conocimiento y habilidad en cualquier dominio.

La Sabidura combina la capacidad de razonar, discernir y el ingenio con el conocimiento, es decir informacin comunicable (Fox).
.El diccionario hebreo espaol del AT editado por Alonso Schockel nos dice sobre la palabra hokma, sabidura:

La raz hkm designa la esfera sapiencial, es decir la esfera de la razn, inteligencia, saber destreza () Cualidades naturales de conocer, juzgar, hacer. De conocer: inteligencia, talento, perspicacia, penetracin, inteligencia, ingenio. De Juzgar: Sensatez, cordura, juicio, razn, sentido, seso. De hacer: habilidad, maa. Cualidades adquiridas: De conocer: saber, sabidura, cultura, erudicin. De juzgar: prudencia, ponderacin, tino, tacto, acierto, cautela. De hacer: destreza, mtodo, experiencia, pericia, idoneidad, solvencia. El adjetivo (hakam) () en muchos casos domina el sentido de sensatez, cordura; es poco frecuente el sentido de saber intelectual (Citado por Morla). Los mandamientos de Dios hacen sabia a la persona sabia (Sal 19,7) Es bonito ver que la raz hebrea kal que nuestras Biblias traducen por hacer sabio (Pro 16,23) o comprender (Pro 1,3; 21,16) tambin significa triunfar, el cual es un efecto de la sabidura (Dt 29,8; Is 52,13). Lo mismo es cierto de la palabra hebrea t (Harris).
Inteligencia, comprensin (hebreo Binah) En hebreo binah, el verbo byn significa comprender. En el AT vemos que hokma, sabidura aparece relacionada con Binah comprensin (Pro 4,5. Cf. 1,2; 2,3; 3,5), la cual es la facultad de discernimiento e interpretacin intelectual, el ejercicio de esa facultad y el producto en hechos y palabras de esa facultad. Binah incluye a la razn, la facultad intelectual usada en resolver problemas y deducir verdades, como tambin intelecto, la habilidad de entender significados y percibir relaciones y causas. Binah es un poder mental y una actividad (Fox). Binah, comEsta palabra aparece 38 veces en el AT Hebreo y el Libro que ms veces lo emplea es precisamente Proverbios con 14 veces, y el segundo lugar lo tiene otro Libro Sapiencial como es Job con 9. El equivalente griego de binah es synesis, comprensin, y es Sircides quien tiene el primer lugar en toda la Biblia griega con 30 pasajes. Es de singular importancia Dt 4,6 refirindose a los mandamientos de la Alianza, Dios le dijo a Israel: Los guardarn y los pondrn en prctica, pues de esta manera se pondr a prueba vuestra sabidura y vuestra inteligencia (hebreo binah griego synesis) a los ojos

5 de los pueblos, que, cuando tengan noticia de todos estos preceptos, dirn: "En verdad, esta gran nacin es un pueblo sabio e inteligente". (Dt 4,6). Ser sabio, tener inteligencia es conocer la voluntad de Dios manifestada en Sus mandamientos y ponerlos por obra (Tambin Os 14,9 (10)) El no tener binah, comprensin de la realidad a la luz de la Palabra de Dios es terrible, pues el que no tiene comprensin sufrir el Juicio de Dios (Is 27,11; Os 4,14) y es que la Palabra de Dios nos da comprensin (Jer 9,11). Es posible obtener comprensin de la propia experiencia y de la observacin de la creacin, obra de Dios (Is 40,21). En el Salmo 119 una y otra vez Dios nos recuerda que nos da entendimiento en sus mandamientos (vv.34.73.125.130.144.169) (Ringgren). La inteligencia, la comprensin nos permite obtener: 1) un corazn con justicia y el derecho, la rectitud y todo buen camino (= conducta buena) (Pro 2:9; cf. 28,5; 29,7), 2) sabidura (Pro 10,23), 3) paciencia (Pro 14,29), 4) guardar la ley (Pro 28,7), y 5) rechazar el mal (Job 28,28) (Fretheim). El sustantivo inteligencia, comprensin en el AT aparece sobre todo en los Libros Sapienciales y de las 39 veces que aparece en el AT 19 veces aparece con la palabra hokma, sabidura. El Evangelio segn san Mateo se diferencia en particular del Evangelio de Marcos porque Mateo destaca que la inteligencia, la comprensin es la caracterstica de los discpulos de Jess. As, a diferencia de Marcos, los discpulos si pudieron entender el Discurso en Parbolas de Jess, y solo en el Evangelio segn san Mateo Jess nos dice que la razn por la que la semilla de la Palabra dio fruto es porque es el que oye la palabra y la entiende (griego sunieis, latn intellegit) y da fruto, ciento, sesenta y treinta por uno" (Mt 13,23). De hecho es Mateo el autor sagrado del NT que ms veces emplea el verbo suniemi, entender con 9, y tiene un destacado tercer lugar en toda la Biblia griega. Entender en el EvMt implica poder ver el Reino de Dios en la vida diaria (Mt 13,11-13). Sabidura es la forma en que la voluntad de Jaweh y el hecho que acompae al hombre (su salvacin) se acerca al hombre. Sabidura es la esencia de lo que el hombre necesita para una vida correcta y lo que Dios le concede. Su aconpaamiento
As el ttulo original hebreo del Libro de Eclesistico o Sircida es hokmat Yeshua ben Sira, ben Eleazar: Sabidura de Jess nieto de Sir, hijo de Eleazar. En la versin griega del Libro de los Proverbios sofia, sabidura ocupa un destacado octavo lugar del total de 631 sustantivos que emplea, y es til conocer los 7 lugares que le anteceden: hombre, camino, Seor, corazn, hijo, vida, palabra y luego viene sabidura.

No es posible comprender la sabidura sin lo que es el Temor del Seor Hubard: El sabio adopt a la frase Temor del Seor como la expresin ms precisa y abarcante de la tarea del creyente. Incluye en ella la religiosa y el amor al prjimo. Une tanto a la Alianza con la creacin y de una dimensin divina a la responsabilidad social. La fidelidad a todas las obligaciones y caridad en todas las relaciones resultan ser ms qmaneras astutas de mantener la paz en la comunidad. Ellas son reflejos del character del nico, verdadero, Dios vivo.
Temor de Dios es la disposicin nacida de comprenderse a s mismo como criatura contingente en manos de Dios (Morla).

1. BNH UNDERSTANDING; MBN DISCERNING MAN; NBN ASTUTE MAN, SENSIBLE MAN Binah designates the faculty of intellectual discernment and interpretation, the exercise of that faculty, and the product thereof, in words or deeds. Unlike tebunah, binah is not
necessarily practical, though it may be brought to bear in pragmatic decisions. See the later section on tebunah. For the differences between binah and okmah, see the discussion of the latter. Knowledge produced by binah, whether ones own or anothers, is itself binah. Binah in this sense is sometimes the object of ada know and lamad learn (Isa 29:24; Job 38:4; 1 Chr 12:33). In Daniel, binah refers to a special kind of knowledge, namely, the interpretation of esoteric messages (1:20). Binah can also refer to a particular interpretation, as in Dan 8:15, where Daniel prays for binah of a vision and receives the explication from Gabriel. A mebin (understanding, intelligent person) is one who has (or can impart) binah. The mebin is perceptive and can interpret signs. Daniel says, I was puzzled about the vision and e n mebin there was no one who could understand [or explain] it (8:27). Lady Wisdom says that the mebin sees that her words are all honest (8:9a). The faculty in question is not the competence to succeed in life or get things done but the ability to discern the true nature of a message. The mebin can interpret mens spirits (Prov 28:11) and quickly gets the point of a rebuke (Prov 17:10). A nabon is the possessor of either binah or tebunah. Binah is ascribed to the nabon in Isa 29:14 and Deut 4:6, and a nabon is able to analyze puzzling situations (e.g., Gen 41:39; Hos 14:10; cf. Prov 15:14; 19:25; Sir 31[34]:26 Heb). Thus the nabon is astute. He may also have practical good sense, that is to say, tebunah; see, for example, the use of nabon in Gen 41:33 and Deut 1:13. A slight difference between nabon and akam is suggested by Prov 16:21a: The wise of heart (kam leb) is called nabon. The kam leb has the faculty of gaining expertise, even before he has particular knowledge; such a one is called nabon. Thus nabon can refer to one who has the capability of gaining binah. This is supported by Prov 14:6b, but knowledge comes easily to the nabon; compare 15:14.

2. DAAT KNOWLEDGE; YDA KNOWLEDGEABLE MAN Daat is the broadest of the wisdom words. It appears that everything designated by any of those words could also be called daat. It is broader even than English knowledge,

insofar as it includes minimal acts of awareness and innate intellectual capacities apart from learned information and skills. Daat is cognition itselfany cognition, from minimal awareness to elevated sagacity. Daat can be knowledge of specific facts, propositions, or entities, such as good and evil (Gen 2:9); God (Hos 4:1; 6:6; Prov 2:5); or Gods ways (Isa 58:2; Job 21:14). Daat lohim knowledge of God means knowing him to the extent of understanding his manifest behavior and demands. As the broadest of the wisdom words, daat encompasses the entire range of knowledge. Because of its scope, daat can refer to cognition too elementary to be called okmh, even minimal acts of cognition and awareness of the obvious. Derivatives of y-d- can signify awareness. For example: one who kills another bibli-daat unawares, unintentionally (Deut 4:42; cf. Deut 19:4; Josh 20:3; Job 9:5; Jer 50:24; Ps 35:8; Prov 5:6), or sins unintentionally (Lev 5:18). Daat includes ordinary, easily accessible

knowledge that all can have, if they do not deliberately refuse it. The psalmist of Ps 119 does not claim to have okmah or even ask for it. He seeks daat and good discernment (ub taam) as a reward for faithfulness and study of the commandments (v 66). Jobs assertion, al dateka ki lo er a, you know that I am not wicked (Job 10:7), means that Bildad is aware of a fact, one that requires no learning to know that of which he is cognizant, even against his will. One cannot have okmah involuntarily. Knowledge of God is not erudition in theological esoterica or divination. (The exception is daat el on, Num 24:16, as noted later.) It is awareness of how God behaves in human affairs, and it is available to all and required of all. Daat lohim is equivalent to daat derakay, knowledge of my [Gods] ways (Isa 58:2). Having knowledge of God is required of all, which is not true of okmah. See the excursus Knowledge of God, at 2:5. Daat can be knowledge on the high end of the spectrum and overlap okmah, both as erudition and as sagacity in living. This usage is specially frequent in Wisdom literature; for example, For the Lord gives wisdom (okmah), from his mouth is knowledge and good sense [daat utebunah] (2:6). Compare 1:7 with 9:10. They are indistinguishable in Qohelet (see, e.g., 1:16 and 12:9). Though we are accustomed to consider okmah as the word epitomizing the wisdom taught in Proverbs, daat occurs almost as frequently as okmah in Proverbs (41 times to 43 times) and means wisdom no less than okmah does. Daat can be knowledge beyond ones scope: Knowledge is too wondrous for me, so lofty I cannot attain it (Ps 139:6); Agur says the same of okmah (Prov 30:3a). Daat can refer to esoteric wisdom such as the diviners (Isa 44:25) or Enochs (Sir 44:16; cf. 1 Enoch 68:1; 82:1; Jub 4:17).41 Daat el on, knowledge of [i.e., from) the High One, is accessible only to the seer (Num 24:16). It is erudition in Dan 1:4 and 12:4. Daat can refer to the artisans skill (e.g., Exod 31:3; 35:31) and be indistinguishable from okmah in that sense. But the word itself does not imply an unusual degree of erudition. Though daat can almost always be translated knowledge and refers to the process of cognizance or the objects of knowledge, it can occasionally refer to an innate faculty, a capacity one may have prior to gaining knowledge. Deutero-Isaiah says, And [the idol maker] lacks the intelligence [daat] and good sense [tebunah] to say, Half of it I burnt (44:19; cf. Jer 10:14). Wisdom would not be required to deduce something so obvious. Sir 3:25 says that daat is a precondition for okmah.

eah is essentially deliberation: careful thinking and planning, the resolution arrived at by
such thinking, and the capacity for such thought. A plan spoken to others (e.g., Job 29:21; Prov 12:15) is advice or counsel, as eah is usually glossed. Deliberation with others is consultation (Judg 20:7; 2 Kgs 18:20; Isa 8:10; 29:15). But an eah is not necessarily spoken to others (see, most clearly, Ps 13:3; Prov 20:5; Isa 46:10). Though plan or advice is usually a good gloss for eah, these notions are not inherent in the words lexical meaning. The noun oe, however, as a professional designation, seems always to refer to an adviser.

3. H PLANNING, DESIGN; Y ADVISER, PLANNER

4. OKMH EXPERTISE, WISDOM; KM EXPERT, WISE MAN

41

Daat is esoteric knowledge, hidden from man, in 1QS 11.6; cf. 10.24.

It should be remembered that okmah, though translated wisdom, does not have exactly the same meaning as the English word, which was previously defined. But it is the word that Wisdom literature most often uses in designating the intellectual and moral quality it sets as its goal. The following observations define the meaning that okmah has in the language as a whole. . This duality makes it difficult to find a single English gloss for okmah because English (as well as a set of modern assumptions about the nature of intelligence) tends to distinguish, perhaps too sharply, between knowledge and intelligence. In the Bible, there is an assumption that gaining the former enhances the latter. The nearest English equivalent that encompasses its semantic range is expertise. The akam is the possessor of okmah, an expert. Expertise has different connotations from okmah, insofar as the former tends to be confined to a narrow range of functions, whereas okmah can extend to knowledge in a broad domain. However, with the proviso that one may be an expert in right living and good character, the two terms are comparable. For stylistic reasons, a translator might prefer to vary the rendering in accordance with context, and wisdom is often best because it allows the richer range of connotation that okmah often possesses. The domains of knowledge in which okmah may manifest itself include (a) Craftsmanship (skill) (e.g., Exod 35:31; 36:4; Isa 40:20, and often elsewhere in the HB). This includes professional proficiencies, such as in lamenting (Jer 9:16) and business (Ezek 28:5). (b) Knowledge gained through the study of books and lore (learning; erudition if extensive) (e.g., Jer 8:8; 9:22; Qoh 1:16; Dan 1:4; Sir 14:20; 51:15). This includes the magical and mantic arts (e.g., Exod 7:11; Isa 47:10; Esth 1:13). (c) The ability to understand the implications of situations and interpret signs and text (perceptiveness, astuteness, reasoning ability) (e.g., 2 Sam 14:20; Jer 9:11; Hos 14:10; Ps 107:43; Job 34:34; Qoh 8:1; Sir 3:29). (d) Skill in devising stratagems and plans (cleverness) (e.g., 2 Sam 14:2; 20:16; Jer 18:18; Job 5:13; Qoh 4:13). (e) Good judgment in practical and interpersonal matters (good sense, prudence; equivalent to tebunah) (e.g., 1 Kgs 5:9; Job 39:17; Qoh 2:3; 7:10; Sir 11:1). This usage is closely related to the next category but does not necessarily entail moral virtue. (f) Wisdom, knowledge of right livingright in both the ethical and pragmatic senses. This aspect of wisdom is close to English sagacity. These domains overlap, and more than one may pertain in a single occurrence of the word.

Inborn talent apart from acquired knowledge can be called okmat leb (e.g., Exod 31:6; 35:25; 36:8; Prov 10:8; cf. Exod 35:25).

Proverbs consistently applies the word okmah to wisdom as manifest in the skill and knowledge of right living in the enriched sense (see category f). This is because the sages are making strong claims for the powers of human expertise. Wisdom of this sort may be manifest in numerous aspects of behavior, such as practical and interpersonal matters (e.g., Prov 10:14; 11:30; 12:18; 16:14; 31:26); cleverness (14:8; 21:30); the reasoning (e.g., 4:7, first occurrence;42 24:3; 29:15); learning (e.g., 1:5, 6
HB Hebrew Bible (including Aramaic portions)
42

The first step to wisdom is: get wisdom! I take this to mean that to attain the universally desired faculty of okmah (including reasoning, cleverness, intelligence, and so on) one must first absorb the teachings. This sentence plays on the word okmah; compare Sir 38:24.

[akam = learned man]; 4:7, second occurrence; 14:6; 16:16); the words that convey knowledge (e.g., 1:7; 3:13; 5:1; 10:31; 30:3); ethical-religious attitudes (9:10; 15:33 and often). But these distinctions are matters of emphasis, and usually okmah refers to these qualities all together. Proverbs teaches that there is a global intellectual powerwisdom that can be called upon in all endeavors and that is inherently righteous and almost always effective. The sages of Proverbs are aware that the word okmah can refer to an expertise that is not wise, but it denies its actuality: There is no okmah or knowhow [tebunah] or planning [eah] against the Lord (21:30), none, that is, that can defy Gods will.

5. MeZIMMH SHREWDNESS, CIRCUMSPECTION, DISCRETION The notion common to derivatives of z-m-m is hidden, private thinking; the notions of

planning and scheming (the meaning given in the lexicons) are extensions of the primary sense. Sometimes mezimmot are not actually schemes, that is, secret plans for achieving something, but just hidden thoughts (e.g., Ps 10:4; Job 21:2728). Since scheming requires keeping ones thoughts secret, the faculty of mezimmah is often employed for immoral and harmful ends (e.g., Ps 10:2; 21:12; 37:7; Sir 44:4). But mezimmot are not intrinsically evil. Gods own plans are called mezimmot (Jer 23:20; 51:11; Job 42:2). In Proverbs, too, the connotations of mezimmah can be both negative (12:2; 14:17; 24:8) and positive (2:11; 5:2; 8:12). In the latter usage, mezimmah is circumspection or discretion. The verb zamam has a corresponding semantic range.

6. MSR DISCIPLINE, CORRECTION, EDUCATION The core notion conveyed by musar is the teaching of the avoidance of faults. In line with its root-meaning, y-s-r punish, inflict, musar is originally, and usually, a lesson intended to correct a moral fault. The goal of musar is always (except for the ironic use in

Prov 16:22b) a moral insight or a quality of moral character. (Sira extends this realm into what we would probably consider decorum or good manners rather than morality.) As Malbim (commenting on 1:2) observes, musar is always given by a superior to an inferior, who is morally obligated but not forcibly compelled to listen and learn. Musar is used only of authoritative correction and discipline, never of counsel such as one might offer a superior (that would be eah). Musar is basically correction, whether by verbal rebuke or by physical punishment. This is clear, for example, in Job 5:17: Happy is the man whom God chastises [ okiennu]; do not despise the musar of Shadday. Outside Proverbs and Ben Sira, there is always a prior failing that calls for correction. Musar requires repentance: And [God] opens their ear for musar, and he says that they should repent [ye ubun] of iniquity (Job 36:10). This is usually the case in Proverbs too, where musar is frequently parallel to or conjoined with tokaat chastisement and synonyms (3:11; 5:12; 6:23; and often). Musar means punishment in, for example, Prov 22:15 and 23:13. The phrase tokeot musar the chastisement of musar in Prov 6:23 shows that musar is a verbal lesson that gives chastisement. Prov 8:33 probably refers to correction; compare 13:18. As a means to knowledge, musar may take the form of punishment, ranging from a beating (Prov 13:24; 22:15; 23:13), to personal affliction, perhaps in the form of illness (Prov 3:11; Job 5:17), to national calamity (Ps 50:17). Or it may be a verbal reprimand and
= equals; i.e., the same as or virtually the same as

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warning (e.g., Jer 7:28; 17:23; Prov 12:1; 13:18). Prov 23:12 also speaks of punishment, as the next verse shows. The frequency with which musar parallels tokaat reproof and gaarah rebuke indicates that it never entirely loses the connotation of chastisement or its connection with the root-meaning of y-s-r, punish. The corrective lesson may come from ones own experience of punishment (e.g., Jer 2:30; Job 5:17), from observing it (Ezek 5:15; Prov 24:32), or, less frequently, from hearing words of correction (e.g., Jer 7:28; Zeph 3:2). The word occasionally has an extended sense in Proverbs and Ben Sira, where it may mean admonition or preemptive correction, a warning given prior to the failure. The man who observes the sluggards field in disrepair takes musar (Prov 24:32) so as to avoid the defect himself. Ben Siras lesson [musar] about both wine and bread (34:12) does not chastise the reader but admonishes him to avoid failings such as greed; similarly 41:14. Since the correction can precede the violation, the word can become nearly synonymous with okmah, as in Prov 1:2, 3, 8. In Sir 6:22 (For musar is like its name43), musar designates the entire process of attaining wisdom, which Sira describes as arduous (6:23 31). Musar can refer to the substance of the teaching conveyed by correction. In Prov 4:13 (Take hold of musar, dont let go. Guard it, for it [hi] is your life), musar is identified with okmah (and treated as feminine); see v 11. Sira says that Solomon overflowed with musar (47:14), meaning the teaching he imparted. Other examples: Prov 8:10; Sir 41:14; 42:8; 50:27. This usage belongs to later texts and show an extension of the earlier meaning. A further extension of the term occurs when the lesson to which musar refers does not even contain admonitions. This is the case in Prov 4:1 and 13. The term then means simply moral teaching or the like; thus too in 8:10; 19:20 (// eah); and Sir 47:14.

ormah is the talent to devise and use adroit and wily tactics in attaining ones goals,
whatever these may be. ormah (noun) and arum (adj.) are commonly used of guile (Gen 3:1) and scheming (Exod 21:14; Josh 9:4). Even the devices of the wise can be called ormah (Job 5:13, with the variant orem). In Proverbs, ormah and the cognate verbs refer to cunning used legitimately (1:4; 8:5). Lady Wisdom attests to the respectability of ormah by declaring her proximity to it (8:12) and offering to teach it (8:5). Outside Proverbs, ormah and its cognate verb and adjective are applied to morally valid intelligence only in Sir 6:32, in the Manual of Discipline (1QS X 24; XI 6), and in the Damascus Covenant (X 34, where the ormah is divine). In Proverbs, ormah is not native cunning but rather the shrewdness that a peti (uneducated, naif) lacks and must acquire (1:4; 8:5). If a peti sees a scoffer beaten, he will arim, wise up, from -r-m (19:25).

7. ORMH CUNNING; RM CUNNING PERSON

The parallel line suggests that Sira parses musar as set apart, from s-w-r: and it is not present [nekoah] to many people.
43

// parallel to

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8. KEL DISCRETION, GOOD SENSE; MAKL DISCREET MAN, MAN OF GOOD SENSE A distinct meaning of ekel is regard, that is to say, the way others see one (Ps 111:10;44 Prov 3:4; Sir 35:2; possibly 1 Sam 25:3); this is discussed at 3:4. When ekel refers to a
kind of wisdom, its core meaning is insight, the ability to grasp the meanings or implications of a situation or message. ekel is consequently discernment or prudence, the ability to understand practical matters and interpersonal relations and make beneficial decisions. It later comes to include intellectual understanding and unusual expertise. This intellectual power is not an inherently ethical virtue. It may be used for deceit (Dan 8:25, if correct). The addition of ob good (Prov 13:15; 2 Chr 30:22) suggests that ekel is not inevitably used for the best. Usually, however, it is. A mans ekel gives him patience (Prov 19:11) and avoids much social conflict. Job accuses his interlocutors of lacking good sense (Job 17:4). A fool despises the ekel of anothers words. This is probably their prudence rather than a deep intellectual penetration. When possessed by officials, ekel can save a city (Sir 10:3b). Being the antithesis of unrestrained (parua; 10:3a), ekel involves prudence and self-control. In line with this usage, the makil is a prudent person, such as a son who stores up provisions during the summer (Prov 10:5), a man reserved in speech (Prov 10:19), and a good wife (Prov 19:14; Sir 26:13; cf. 14:35; 17:2). These are not deep intellectual qualities or learning, but the common sense accessible to all. In Amos 5:13, the makil is the cautious man concerned for his personal well-being, not the insightful or gifted one. In later texts, the insight of ekel extends to the intellectual understanding or decoding of messages, including more rarefied intellectual expertise. It refers to interpretation in Neh 8:8, where the insight (ekel) imparted to the people is not the method or ability to interpret, but the purport or message communicated by the text. In Daniel, the makil is the man who can interpret events (12:10) and teach others (11:33, using the same verb). ekel in later usage refers also to sagacious words, such as Ben Sira advises the banquet master to conceal at a banquet rather than interfering with the music (Sir 35:3f.). Expressing ones ekel in v 3 is rephrased as titakkam, show yourself wise, in v 4. This is not simple discernment or prudence, which Sira would not counsel to conceal in any circumstance. It is, rather, ones erudition or profound thought, which one might be tempted to put on display during a banquet. When Sira says that no ekel (// kol dabar) is hidden from God (42:20), he is definitely referring to the more recondite realms of knowledge. The LXX glosses the word by k bernsis (steering or navigation) in Prov 1:5; 11:14; and 24:6, and uses the verb kybernan in Prov 12:5.45 The LXX (followed by most
Ps 111:10 is disputable, but ekel there probably refers to the good regard of others, as in Prov 3:4, where it is a synonym of en favor.
44

9. TABLT STRATEGY, GUIDANCE

LXX Septuagint (ed. Rahlfs) LXX lacks Prov 20:18; k bernsis is supplied from Theod in Job 37:12a. In Sir 37:17, the Greek (alloises) does not correspond well to the MT.
45

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scholars) is implicitly deriving the word from ebel rope (of a ship) or obel sailor, hence navigational skills, hence skill in making ones way through life, or knowing the ropes (McKane 1970: 266). Tabulot is translated by desmoi in Sir 35:16a, so that whether or not the etymology is correct, an association between this word and rope could be made (and see n. 46). Nevertheless, the etymology and the noun pattern are uncertain. The Peshitta (= Targum) renders the term abstractly, mdabranuta leadership, guidance.46 A derivation from ebel, rope, would allow equally well the gloss designs (thus Dhorme 1967: 566). The notion of design, plan fits the various contexts better than steering, guidance. Tabulot are stratagems or designs that can be put to any purpose, such as in waging war (11:14 = 24:6 // eah). They are something that an intelligent man can learn from reading the book of Proverbs (1:5). As the parallel line ( i ma akam we osep leqa) indicates, tabulot is a more sophisticated level of knowledge than the guidance that the callow youth will gain (1:4). Tabulot are in themselves ethically neutral. They may even be used in cheating (12:5b [// ma ebot- plans]). This is one of the few instances where Proverbs concedes the existence of mental powers that might be put to bad uses. Sir 37:17 recognizes that the effects of tabulot can be for good or evil.

10. TeBNH GOOD SENSE, COMPETENCE; MBN INTELLIGENT, SENSIBLE (MAN); NBN SENSIBLE MAN Binah and tebunah often occur together (in that order) in reference to the same teachings.

But an examination of the contexts where each is used alone indicates a distinction: Tebunah is the pragmatic, applied aspect of thought, operating in the realm of action; it aims at efficacy and accomplishment, whereas binah is the conceptual, interpretive activity of thought (and the outcome of such thought). It operates in the realm of meaning and aims at insight and comprehension. Tebunah is the competence to deal with the exigencies of life, and it generally implies a follow-up in action, or at least the expectation of one. Tebunah does not require an understanding of causes, significances, and implications, though one may certainly have both. In short, tebunah is know-how, whether in the execution of a particular task or in social relations generally. English competence may be the closest equivalent of tebunah. In the realm of everyday activities, good sense is an appropriate gloss. The man of tebunah in Proverbs is competent in human relations; he is patient (14:29; 17:27), quiet (11:12), and reserved (18:2). He draws out other peoples thoughts (20:5). He walks the straight path (15:21) and enjoys behaving wisely (10:23). These virtues are in the realm of attitudes and social skills rather than intellectual penetration and comprehension.

11. TIYYH RESOURCEFULNESS, COMPETENCE, WITS Tu i ah (which appears almost exclusively in Wisdom literature) denotes clear, efficient

thinking in the exercise of power and practical operations. It is used in determining a course
46 Shupak (1993: 31314) considers the term equivalent to Egyptian s, knot, hence utterance. wise saying. But s does not mean rope, and tabulot does not mean saying. Targum The ancient Aramaic translation of the Bible; see the introduction to the Textual Notes.

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of action and dealing with difficulties rather than in comprehending intricacies or deducing conclusions. It is thus aligned with tebunah rather than binah. Tu i ah also refers to decisions and strategies produced by such thinking. Tu i ah spoken to others is a form of counsel (Job 26:3). In this regard, it is a close synonym of eah. Tu i ah confers power, personal and political. These powers are deployed particularly in dealing with conflict or crisis, or at least a tension. It is usually associated with words for help, strength, aggression, and defense (Job 5:12; 6:13; 12:16; 26:3; Prov 2:7; 3:21 [cf. 22]; Prov 18:1; several of these are in a context of strife). It is also used of Gods providential control of history (Isa 28:29). Crafty, tricky men may possess this faculty. The sages esteemed tu i ah for the protection it provides the wise (Prov 2:7; 3:21).
2 3

The Hebrew Bible Today

An Introduction to Critical Issues
Steven L. McKenzie M. Patrick Graham editors Wisdom is also invested with a certain degree of transcendence in the wisdom literature: each book acknowledges that wisdom is something that can be partially grasped but never completely apprehended by the human mind. Wisdom is attainable in part through human effort (Prov. 4:57) and as a gift from God (Prov. 2:6), but it is unattainable in its entiretyexcept by God (Eccl. 3:11 Job 28:23). The speakers in Proverbs 19 are convinced that the torah* (instruction) of wisdom is congruent with the torah of God, because God is the ultimate source of the assumed and observable regularities from which wisdom draws its conclusions. Thus, respect for God's revelation is said to be both the origin and the goal of wisdom thinking (Prov. 1:7 2:15). They also insist that whoever finds wisdom "finds life and obtains favor from the LORD," while those who hate wisdom "love death" (Prov. 8:3536). They consider wisdom congruent with righteousness, equate wickedness with folly, and identify Wisdom's way of living with the LORD's way (Prov. 8:12 21). But the speakers in the shorter sayings sections (Proverbs 1029) make only a few explicit theological statements. Sayings such as, "The human mind may devise many plans, but it is the purpose of the LORD that will be established" (Prov. 19:21) and "No wisdom, no understanding, no counsel, can avail against the LORD. The horse is made ready for the day of battle, but the victory belongs to the LORD" (Prov. 21:3031 see also Prov. 16:9 19:21 20:24) are far outnumbered by statements that have no explicit theological content. There is a certain degree of conditionality included in the collection that is not apparent when individual retributive sayings are looked at in isolation. Not every proverb assumes that the righteous prosper and the wicked fade away. The wise also admit that poverty is sometimes due to injustice rather than indolence (Prov. 13:23) and that riches can be gained in various evil ways (e.g., Prov. 16:8 21:6 28:6). But taken as a whole, the book of Proverbs leaves the reader with the overwhelmingly optimistic impression that human beings have the ability and the opportunity to make choices that have relatively predictable outcomes in their lives. Furthermore, the speakers in Proverbs are confident that "the teaching of the wise is a fountain of life, so that one may avoid the snares of death" (Prov. 13:14). However, the sage whose voice we hear in the book of Ecclesiastes is not convinced that there really are predictable relationships between acts and their consequences "under the sun." His own observations lead him to believe that there are no guaranteed outcomes in human life. Qohelet (the Hebrew name for the primary speaker in Ecclesiastes) is convinced by his experiences in life that there is no positive correlation between moral behavior and prosperity or between immoral behavior and poverty. In his own lifetime Qohelet has seen that "there are righteous people who
2

Fox, M. V. (2008). Proverbs 1-9: A new translation with introduction and commentary (30). New Haven; London: Yale University Press.
3

Fox, M. V. (2008). Proverbs 1-9: A new translation with introduction and commentary (29). New Haven; London: Yale University Press.

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perish in their righteousness, and there are wicked people who prolong their life in their evildoing" (Eccl. 7:15) and that ''under the sun the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, nor bread to the wise, nor riches to the intelligent, nor favor to the skillful but time and chance happen to them all" (Eccl. 9:11). Qohelet uses the Hebrew word for "vapor" (often translated "vanity") to describe everything "under the sun." He values wisdom and acknowledges that "wisdom excels folly as light excels darkness. The wise have eyes in their heads, but fools walk in darkness" (2:1314a). However, unlike the speakers in Proverbs, Qohelet acknowledges that "the same fate befalls all of them . . . the wise die just like fools" (2:14b, 16b). His own reflections on human experience lead him to think that God has put unpredictability into the structure of the world, so that people cannot guarantee happiness or long lives for themselves through their own efforts (Eccl. 3:9 11). Thus he concludes that anyone who fears God will simply avoid extremes, knowing that the future cannot be known (Eccl. 7:1318). And, since life (like everything else under the sun) is as brief as a vapor, Qohelet advises people against toiling long hours trying to secure some distant goal of happiness for themselves. Rather than urging people to work in order to pile up riches for themselves and their heirs (as Proverbs does), Ecclesiastes encourages people to "eat and drink and find enjoyment in their toil," as God has intended for them to do (Eccl. 2:24 3:12, 22 5:18, etc.). The book of Job also challenges the optimistic assumption that there is a consistent link between human behavior and the quality or length of human life. The narrative with which the book of Job begins describes Job as an admirable, faithful worshiper of the LORD (Job 1:1, 8 2:3). It is clear from the introduction that Job has done nothing to deserve the tragedy and suffering that affects him and his family. But the "friends" who come to "comfort" Job in his misery represent the predominant proverbial opinion that God guarantees a world order in which wise and faithful choices lead to happiness, prosperity, and long life. Job's friends ignore the nuances in Proverbs. They assume that Job's suffering is clear evidence of wrongdoing on somebody's part (e.g., Job 4:78). But Job's experience as an innocent sufferer and his observations that the wicked often "live on, reach old age, and grow mighty in power" (21:7) lead him to question the proverbial principle of retributive justice. If behavior and prosperity are as closely linked as Proverbs and Job's friends claim, then Job wants to know why the wicked and their children "spend their days in prosperity" and die peacefully in old age (Job 21:13a). The proverbial assertion that ''the evil have no future the lamp of the wicked will go out" (Prov. 24:20) is echoed by Job's friend Bildad (Job 18:5). But Job asks, "How often is the lamp of the wicked put out?" (Job 21:17). "Have you not asked those who travel the roads, and do you not accept their testimony, that the wicked are spared in the day of calamity, and are rescued in the day of wrath?" (Job 21:2930). In the final scene of the book, God says to the three friends "you have not spoken of me what is right, as my servant Job has" (Job 42:7). Thus the compiler of Job highlights the problems posed by the presence of tragedy and suffering in the lives of even the wisest and most faithful. The theory of retribution (the idea that righteousness brings material rewards and wickedness brings punishment) does not adequately explain what happened to Job. Thus the book of Job is often called a "theodicy" (meaning "an effort to interpret the origin, nature, meaning and resolution of suffering and evil within one's larger theological perspective." 4)

So also A.B. Davidson, 'Sirach's Judgment of Women', ExpTim 6 (1894-95), pp. 402-404 (p. 402): 'The judgment of JesusbenSira... regarding women is popularly supposed to be very damnatory. This opinion is scarcely justified. Sirach believes that there are bad women and good women, and if the badness of a bad woman be something as bad as can be, the goodness of a good woman is something superlatively good... They pretty well balance one another.'Citado por

McKinlay

The answer to the question given by the 'creator of all' in v. 8 not only resolves the question of 'where', but also sets a boundary for the identity of the 'who'. This creator, moreover, gives orders to Wisdom; now it is plain that there is one creator and it is Yahweh, not Wisdom.18 She is under orders, not giving orders. The female figure who claimed so much in vv. 4-6 has come down to earth, and is seen for who she is: the one sent by God to Jacob. McKinlay

The warnings against consorting with prostitutes, virgins/young

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women, or one's own maidservant (9:3.4.5.6-7; 41:20b.21c.22ab) seem to represent a new development compared with what Mosaic law (Balla