Design of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Nima Madani

Degree project in Electrical Engineering Master of Science Stockholm, Sweden 2011

XR-EE-EME 2011:013

Design of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

NIMA MADANI

Master of Science Thesis in Electrical Machines and Power Electronics at the School of Electrical Engineering Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden, June 2011 Supervisor: Dr. Alija Cosic Examiner: Professor Chandur Sadarangani

XR-EE-EME 2011:013

Abstract
Dierent types of permanent magnet generators for wind power application have been subject of research during last two decades. In this thesis dierent topologies of electrical generators have been investigated for small scale vertical axis wind turbine application. A two stage induction generator is proposed as a alternative solution with respect to the cost of such a system. However, a biggest emphasis in the report has been put on the design of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) charsuitable for a small scale Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)The acteristics of PMSG makes it highly compatible for variable speed Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) without any pitch mechanism. Chapters 2 and 3 summarize a thorough literature survey on wind energy systems and corresponding electrical machines. The principles of wind aerodynamics is preceded by a review on wind turbine characteristics and challenges with emphasis on VAWT s. Further dierent topologies of electrical machines with focus on PMSG s including Permanent Magnet (PM) congurations, dierent windings and thermal behavior is presented. In chapter 4 a brief review on an alternative solution which includes an Induction Generator (IG) for xed speed WECS is given. Next, In chapters 5, 6 and 7, a PMSG is designed and the design is veried by means of Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis and thermal modeling. Chapter 5 describes an analytical optimisation of a longitudinal, inner rotor, radial ux, surface mounted PMSG with concentrated winding and natural air cooling system. Cost of active material is chosen as the optimisation criterion. Concepts like "constraints", "requirements", "parameters" (including material, geometry and winding) and procedure of the design are described here. In chapter 6, a FEM model of the optimised machine is developed and the results are illustrated. The iron losses, calculated in this chapter are utilised in thermal analysis in chapter 7 . Thermal model developed is based on a lumped parameter circuit . It ensures the safe thermal behavior of the machine in nominal operation mode. Keywords: vertical axis wind turbine, permanent magnet machines, permanent magnet generator, Finite Element Method, fractional concentrated winding

Referat
Olika typer av permanentmagnetgeneratorer fr vindkraftapplikation har varit freml fr forskning under de senaste tv decennierna. I denna rapprt har olika typer av elektriska generatorer underskts fr smskalig vertikalaxelvindkraftverkstillmpning. Utifrn kostnasdhnsyn fr ett sdant system, en dubbellindad asynkrongenerator fresls som en allternativ lsning. Emellertid, har den strsta vikten i raporten lagts p underskningen och design av en permanentmagnetsynkrongenerator fr en smskalig vertikalaxelvindkraftverk. Egenskaper hos permanentmagnetsynkrongenerator (PMSG) lmpar sig vldig bra fr variabelhastighet vindenergysystem utan pitch mekanismen. I kapitel 2 och 3, presenteras en grundlig genomfrd litteraturstudie p vindkraftsystem och motsvarande elektriska maskiner. Principerna fr vindaerodynamik fregs av en genomgng p vindturbin egenskaper och utmaningar med tonvikt p vertikalaxelvinkraftverk. Vidare, presenteras olika topologier av elektriska maskiner med fokus p permanentmagnetsynkrongeneratorer inklusive permanentmagnet(PM) kongurationer, olika typer av lindningar och termiskt beteende. I kapitel 4 ges en kort versikt av en alternativ lsning, vilken omfattar en dubbellindanasynkmronenerator. Drefter i kapitel 5, 6 och 7, ges analytisk underskning och design av en permanensynkrongenerator, vilken sedan understds och verieras med hjlp av Finita Element Metoden (FEM) och termisk modellering. Kapitel 5 beskriver ett analytiskt optimiserings process av en longitudinell, inre rotor, radial des, permanetmagnetsynkrongenerator med ytmonterade magneter, koncentrerad lindning och en naturlig luftkylning systemet. Kostnadden av aktivt material har valts som ett optimering kriterium. Begrepp som begrnsningar", "krav", parametrar"(inklusive material, geometri och lindningar) och arbetsde fr design r beskrivna hr. I kapitel 6, ges en beskrivning av den utvecklade FEM-modell av den optimerade maskinen och resultaten presenteras tydligt. Jrnfrluster berknade i detta kapitel, utnyttjas vidare i den termiskanalysen i kapitel 7. Den termiska modellen baseras p punktvis frdelade parameterkretsen. Detta garanterar en sker drift av maskinen vid nominell last. Nyckelord: vertikalaxelvindkraftverk, permanentmagnet maskiner, permanentmagnet generator, Finita Element Metoden, koncentrerad lindning

Acknowledgment
During past seven months I have had the most fascinating time working on this thesis. So I would like to express my gratitude for the people who made this great time. This work has been possible by guidance of my examiner professor Chandur Sadarangani throughout the entire work. His condence in me to tackle this task is highly appreciated. Next appreciation goes to my supervisor Dr. Alija Cosic who provided me with assistance whenever I needed it. I am grateful of his eort towards guiding me along the way. I also feel thankful of my friends and ocemates for their friendship. Shagh Nategh and I spent a lot of time on our long discussions. Moreover, I had a nice time with Sergio, Xiaohu, Roberto, Arif,... . EME sta are appreciated for their help whenever I turned to them: including Peter Lnn, Eva Pettersson, Andreas Krings, Naveed Malik, .... I, additionally, would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and siblings. Endless love of my father, who is my hero, and my mother made it possible for me to bear the distance. I wish the best for my little sister and my brother in their lives in return of their support during this period. I, moreover, had a great time in Uppsala with my aunt and my cousins that I will never forget. Stockholm Midsummer 2011 Nima Madani

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

List of Symbols aP M A Acu bs 0 bts Bm Br0 Br,m Brs Bts Brr B ccu cF E cP M Cb Cf Cp dF E Di,min Di,min,f ailure Di,min,normal Dm Dy E f fs temperature coecient of remanence ux density of PM material wind turbine swept area copper area per slot stator slot opening stator tooth width maximum of airgap ux density remanence ux density of PM material at 20 C remanence ux density of the magnet at working temperature peak fundamental stator yoke ux density peak fundamental stator teeth ux density peak fundamental rotor yoke ux density peak fundamental airgap ux density cost coecient for copper cost coecient for steel sheet cost coecient for PM material empirical bearing coecient empirical friction coecient power coecient (aerodynamic eciency) thickness of lamination generators minimum shaft diameter generators minimum shaft diameter in failure conditions generators minimum shaft diameter in normal conditions average diameter of generators bearing generators outer diameter kinetic energy of a uid mass in wind turbine frequency stator slot ll factor K 1 m2 m2 m m T T T T T T T
Euro kg Euro kg Euro kg w.sec rad.m3 w sec 3 kg .( rad )

m m m m m m

w.sec kg

Hz

J hrr hrs hss hsw I kcoil kexcess kh kj kkey kf ailure knormal lav lF E lm L m Mbend nn nr ns p Pbearing Pmech Pn Pwind Pwindage Pcu Pcucs Pcuew PF E q Qs r R Rcu Rth T T0 Tn

current density rotor yoke height stator yoke height stator slot height stator slot wedge height rms value of nominal current end winding coecient Excess loss coecient Hysteresis loss coecient Stacking factor correction factor for strength weakening of the shaft due to the key slot safety factor under failure conditions safety factor under normal conditions average length of half a turn of the winding coil stator core length magnet thickness generators airgap cylinder length mass ow in wind turbine bending moment acting on generators shaft generators base speed generators rated speed number of turns per slot number of poles rotors bearing losses mechanical extracted power from wind turbine generators rated power available power in wind rotors windage losses total copper losses copper losses in coil sides copper losses in end windings iron losses calculated in FEM number of stator slots per pole per phase number of stator slots wind turbines rotor plane radius generators airgap cylinder radius phase winding resistance thermal resistance temperature average temperature of ambient generators rated torque magnet angle

A m2

m m m m A
w ( T )1.5 m3 sec w.sec T 2 m3

m m m m
kg sec

N.m rpm rpm w w w w w w w w w m m C/w C C N.m electrical

mech mech e r cu F E P M perm yield s m

geometrical correction factor blade pitch angle geometrical correction factor undercut angle airgap length eective airgap length eciency wind velocity tip speed ratio relative permeability of the magnet air mass density copper resistivity steel sheet materials mass density PM materials mass density classical loss coecient (conductivity) permissible strength of shaft material yield strength of shaft material slot pitch wind turbines rotor tip angular speed mechanical angular speed of generators rotor

m m %
m sec

kg m3

.m
kg m3 kg m3 ( 1 .m ) N m2 N m2

m
rad sec rad sec

List of Abbreviations AC Alternative Current BLAC Brushless Alternative Current DC Direct Current DFIG Double Fed Induction Generator DOL Direct Online EMF Electro-Motive Force FEM Finite Element Method HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IG Induction Generator IPM Interior Permanent Magnet LCM Least Common Multiple

MMF Magneto-Motive Force MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking PM Permanent Magnet PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine PWM Pulse Width Modulation RFPM Radial Flux Permanent Magnet rpm Rotation Per Minute rms Root Mean Square SCIG Squirrel Cage / Short Circuit Induction Generator SCIM Squirrel Cage / Short Circuit Induction Machine SG Synchronous Generator SMPM Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet VAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbine WECS Wind Energy Conversion System WRIG Wounded Rotor Induction Generator WRIM Wounded Rotor Induction Machine WRSG Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator

Contents
Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Wind Energy Systems 2.1 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Working Principle of VAWT . . . . . . 2.3 Mechanical Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Fixed Speed or Variable Speed . . . . . 2.3.2 Geared or Direct Driven . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Operation Sequence and Control . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Operation Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Comparison Between VAWTs and HAWTs . . . 2.5.1 Design: Yaw Mechanism . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Design: Axis of Direction . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Design: Direct Drive . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Design: Wind turbine construction . . . 2.5.5 Design: Structural Mechanics . . . . . . 2.5.6 Aerodynamics: Performance . . . . . . . 2.5.7 Aerodynamics: Power Control . . . . . . 2.5.8 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Vibrations in Wind Energy Systems . . . . . . 2.6.1 Torsional Vibrations of the Drive Train 2.7 Noise Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 2 5 5 7 7 10 10 11 11 11 12 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 19

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3 Electrical Machines for Wind Energy Systems 3.1 Dierent Topologies of Electrical Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 DC Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.4

3.5

3.1.2 Induction Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Synchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . PM Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Radial Flux or Axial Flux . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Longitudinal or Transversal . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Inner Rotor or Outer Rotor . . . . . . . . . PM Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Surface Mounted Magnets . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Inset Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Buried Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Distributed Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Concentrated Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Single Layer Concentrated Non-Overlapping Thermal Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Consequences of Temperature Rise . . . . . 3.5.2 Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Heat Transfer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.4 Losses in PMSG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Induction Generator 4.1 Fixed Speed Induction Generator . . . . . . 4.2 Selection of Induction Motor as Generator . 4.2.1 Temperature Rise . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Two Step Fixed Speed Induction Generator 4.4 Self Excited Induction Generator . . . . . .

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5 Analytical Design of PMSG 5.1 Design Requirements and Constraints . . . . . 5.1.1 Mechanical Calculation: Minimum Shaft 5.2 Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Winding (Concentrated) . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Design Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 FEM Simulation of PMSG 6.1 Initial Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Results of FEM Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Iron Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 Thermal Modeling of PMSG 7.1 Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Steady State Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Conclusions and Further Work 8.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Further Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Datasheet of M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB Bibliography List of Tables List of Figures

69 69 72 73 73 73 77 79 82 83

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Background

Energy demands of the modern society has made the way open to invest great amount of technological eort and capital to renewable energies. Figure 1.1 shows the amount of annual capital investment in new renewable energies (excluding large scale hydro power, traditional biomass) between 2004 and 2009. The values include energy converted into electricity and heat. Wind energy is one of the renewable energies which has attracted a lot of interest in recent years. By end of 2009, the capacity of wind energy power plants has reached 158 gigga watts worldwide. The interest in producing electricity puts certain demands on the electrical machines and drives. Mechanical energy from re-

Figure 1.1. Annual capital investment in new renewable energies between 2004 and 2009 in US Dollars [1].

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2. Renewable energy share of global energy consumption by 2008 [1].

newables injected to electrical machines is not controllable. This challenge has led to many technological advancements in induction machines and permanent magnet synchronous generators. The author, however,would like to emphasize that there is a great room for growth in renewable energies 1 . So far wind energy contributes to 0.3 % of global energy consumption.

1.2

Objective

Main objective of this thesis is to design a suitable permanent magnet synchronous generator working with a vertical axis wind turbine. Wind energy conversion system consisting of above mentioned elements works on a variable speed principle. In small scale wind turbines, blade pitch mechanism usually is not applied. Instead, a power electronics converter compensate variation for the wind variation and thus it contributes to high power coecient. The corresponding topology of PMSG is a surface mounted machine with concentrated winding. This type of winding suits for low speed applications since implementing high number of poles is easy. The major benet of high pole numbers is eradication of gearboxes. Gearboxes result in lower availability of the entire system and they cause high amount of non-user friendly audible noise. Reduction of magnetic noise by the machine is targeted at the design stage. Additionally, the chosen topology can be easily scaled by increasing the length of the machine. Of paramount, at the design stage, objective function is to reduce manufacturing expenses and cost of active material.

1.3

Contents

This section describes the contents of each chapter.

1

see Figure 1.2.

1.3. CONTENTS

Chapter 2 gives an in depth knowledge of wind energy concepts and terminology for electrical designer. The emphasis is on VAWT. Chapter 3 reviews the principles of rotating electrical machines for wind speed application. The emphasis is on PMSG. Chapter 4 oers an alternative option for PMSG. Chapter 5 illustrates analytical design stage with optimisation. Chapter 6 veries the optimised PMSG with the help of FEM analysis. Chapter 7 investigates thermal behavior of the optimised machine. Chapter 8 clinches the work, conclusions and further suggested work are given here.

Chapter 2

Wind Energy Systems

Wind energy systems have been subject of research for decades. They consist of wind turbines and electrical generators. The rst section covers the basics of VAWT . Initially in this section, aerodynamics of wind turbines are presented. Subjects like control, dynamic vibration and noise emission in VAWT are covered. Furthermore, a separate section is dedicated to a comparison between Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) and VAWT . The role of a wind energy system is to capture mechanical energy in the airow and convert it to electrical energy. Usually it consists of a wind turbine rotor, for the former purpose, and an electrical machine working as generator for the latter. The variation in the wind speed is one of the factors that aects the specications of wind energy systems. In other words design of the wind systems components demands special consideration. The amount of accessible mechanical energy depends on the size of the wind turbine and the wind regime of the site.

2.1

Wind Turbine Aerodynamics

The amount of the kinetic energy in the air ow can be determined based on the size of wind turbine and the wind speed. The elementary momentum theory gives an explaination of energy conversion in ideal circumstances. The amount of the kinetic energy of a uid mass m with a mass density , moving at a velocity through the area A is 1 2 (2.1) E = m 2 and the mass ow is m =A (2.2) The power available in the wind is equal to the amount of energy yield passing per second. 1 Pwind = E m = A 3 (2.3) 2 It is obvious that a small variation in the wind speed inuences the available wind power drastically. It was rst in 1922, the German engineer Betz showed that 5

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 2.1. Power coecient versus tip speed ratio [3].

the amount of extractable energy from an air stream is limited. It was shown that, in a free air stream, the maximum energy is extracted if the wind speed is reduced by three times far behind the turbine in comparison to in front of it. The maximum extractable power becomes then, 16/27 of available wind power [2]. For steady state analysis of aerodynamic conversion, a power coecient diagram is used. As mentioned, it is not possible to capture all the power in the air ow as this would result in air standstill immediately after the wind turbine. Aerodynamic eciency represents a ratio of captured power and available wind power. In wind power terminology, it is more known as the power coecient. Betz factor is the maximum value for the power coecient. The power coecient Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle . Equation 2.3 above, is modied according to equation 2.4. Pmech = Cp .Pwind = where 1 A Cp (, ) 3 2 (2.4)

r (2.5) is the rotor tip angular speed and r is the rotor plane radius. Blade pitching means that the rotor blades are rotated along their axis, in order to control the amount of the absorbed power. 1 In wind turbines which are not equipped with the control of the blade pitch, power coecient is merely function of the tip speed ratio. Figure 2.1 shows a typical power coecient diagram. Power coecient is maximum at the optimum tip speed ratio i.e. in order to capture the maximum energy, the wind turbine rotor has to be run at this ratio. When the wind turbine rotor is run at other tip speed ratios, eddies will develop at the blade tip. This phenomenon reduces the captured energy and it is called stall. It explains the drop of the power coecient at other tip speed ratios. =
1

see section 2.4.2

2.2. WIND TURBINES

It can be observed from the power coecient diagram in Figure 2.1, that the wind turbine is not self starting. For low values of the tip speed ratio, the value of the power coecient is negative. Many lift based wind turbines require a minimum tip speed ratio before they can start to absorb the power [4]. Accordingly, in order to start up the wind turbine rotor, energy has to be supplied. There are dierent ways to do so, one is to utilise an auxiliary self starting turbine like for example Savonious wind turbine. Another is certain modication in the design of the wind turbine. Furthermore, electrical starting of wind turbine is yet another possibility. The generator is, then, fed by the grid for a short duration of time and works as a motor in order to start the wind turbine. In this solution the wind power plant cannot operate as a stand alone unit.

2.2

Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are categorised based on two dierent criteria; First due to their aerodynamic function; second based on their design. Considering the aerodynamic performance, wind turbines are divided into drag based and lift based. The rotors which utilise the drag force of the wind are recognised as low speed turbines. However, in some turbines, the possibility of employing the lift force is also provided. The lift based turbines are recognised as high speed rotors. These are capable of capturing higher amount of the wind power compared to their drag based counterparts and therefore they are the most common solution today. Due to the second criterion, wind turbines are classied based on their axis of rotation. It is more common to distinguish wind systems as HAWT or VAWT. HAWT s have beneted from technological advancements in the aircraft engineering because of the blades propeller like design. For instance, to achieve more lift forces, blade shapes optimisation are proposed and applied. Power coecients up to 0.5 of HAWT s have been reported. Todays VAWT s have reached power coecient up to 0.4 at maximum. Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 show a H rotor VAWT and an installed HAWT respectively. Simplicity of the design of the VAWT s is benecial, especially the possibility to accommodate some of the drive train components on the ground together with absence of the yaw system 2 . Some disadvantages of the system are the lower optimum tip speed ratio, inability to self start and inability to implement blade pitching for power control purposes. In some of the researchers opinion the VAWT power coecient can exceed that of HAWT s . A comparison between HAWT s and VAWT s is presented in section 2.5.

2.2.1

Working Principle of VAWT

Figure 2.4 shows a horizontal plan of a VAWT . The hub is assumed to be located at the centre of the coordinate system. The area with a positive value on
2

see section 2.3 and section 2.5.1

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 2.2. An H rotor VAWT [3].

y-axis in Cartesian coordinate system is dened as upwind region and the remaining area is dened as the downwind region. The angle of attack is the relative angle between the chord line of the blade cross section and the wind direction. This angle, seen by the blades in the upwind region, is negative. Since the angle of attack is negative, the lift force vectors produced on the blade section will point inwards the rotor. The force can be decomposed into two dierent components, a tangential and a normal. The former is along the tangent of the blade and the latter is perpendicular to the blade. Moreover, the lift force will be created in downwind region. Here the angle of attack is positive, the consequent lift force vectors will point outwards the rotor. Tangential lift forces, originated from upwind and downwind regions, contribute to the torque production in the rotor. The normal forces lead to thrust along the wind direction.
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2.2. WIND TURBINES

Figure 2.3. A 450 kw HAWT with 37 m rotor diameter (Bonus) [2].

Figure 2.4. Horizontal plan of a VAWT [5].

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

2.3

Mechanical Drive Train

The term "mechanical drive train" stands for all rotating parts of the wind system from the rotor hub to the rotor of the generator. In conventional power plant technology, two requirements by mechanical drive are met: First equity of input power to the generator with the amount of needed power by the load; Second matching the speed levels of the prime mover with the speed of the generator. In wind systems, however, mechanical drive train does not meet neither of these requirements. The power production depends on the available wind resource which is not controllable. Furthermore, wind speed is far from rated speed of the conventional generators. The drive trains are classied according to implementation of a wind system in order to compare their characteristics. Each drive type possesses specic advantages and disadvantages, such as aerodynamic and dynamic performance, controllability, reliability, maintenance , etc.

2.3.1

Fixed Speed or Variable Speed

In xed speed wind systems, the rotor speed is determined by the grid frequency and its variation is limited to around 1% of the nominal speed. Usually, the xed speed wind systems is designed in such a way that it has its optimum wind speed equal to site mean wind speed. No means for power control is applied and the advantage is simplicity of operation. Disadvantages are low eciency of wind energy system in other wind conditions aside from the mean wind speed, and severe dynamics performance. Since no control method is implemented, any uctuations of power i.e. disturbances in the grid and/or turbulence in the wind, are passed through the system without any damping. This reduces the quality of the delivered power to the grid and also causes mechanical stress on the wind turbine rotor. Weak power systems are sensitive to low power quality delivered by such wind systems. The eciency of electrical machines varies with varying electrical load conditions. Therefore most of the xed speed wind energy systems are designed in a way to provide the generator with high load. This can be achieved by means of two generators with dierent ratings. Another solution is to have two windings with dierent pole numbers in the same generator. In Variable Speed wind systems, power electronics converters keeps the rotor speed and the grid frequency apart. Therefore it is possible to vary the rotor speed independent of the grid frequency. Hence, the variation in the input power will result in the rotor speed variation. The output power from wind system will be slightly lower than the input power which results in more stable and smooth delivered power to the grid. The power quality of these wind energy systems is much better compared to their xed speed counterparts. Furthermore, they have lower noise in low wind conditions [6]. In variable speed systems, the wind turbine is operated in a wider speed range, keeping the tip speed ratio at the optimum. The advantage is higher energy capture, however, the disadvantage is more complicated control method [7].
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2.4. OPERATION SEQUENCE AND CONTROL

2.3.2

Geared or Direct Driven

Wind energy systems can be distinguished based on whether or not they include gearboxes. Wind turbine rotors are capable of rotating at tens of rotations per minute. However, the conventional electrical machines runs at much higher speeds e.g. hundreds of Rotation Per Minute (rpm) . The role of a gearbox is to transfer mechanical energy from low speed to high speed; A step up gearbox is used then. Implementation of a gearbox has its own disadvantages, e.g. maintenance, installation complication, cost of equipment, audible noise and losses. The gearbox is one of the reasons for audible noise in wind energy systems. The losses in the gearbox are comparable to the losses in the electric machine. Newly designed wind systems are usually adapted for gearless operation. This solution has become more reliable, more ecient and less noisy. The main disadvantage is a need for a special designed generator which tends to be bulky. Due to the possibility of employing power electronics converters, gearless, or in other words, direct driven systems can suite for variable speed applications [8]. Converters oer the possibility to operate the generator at low speeds. Although the converters are source of losses, controllability is a huge advantage compared to the gearboxes. Knowledge about construction and operation of gearboxes alleviates their aftermath. Gearboxes are divided into two dierent congurations; Parallel shaft or spur gear which has a simpler mechanical construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 5 in each stage; Planetary or helical gearbox which has more complicated mechanical construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 12 in each stage. HAWT s run typically at 20rpm and usually requires more than one stage. Tooth ank friction and oil ow are the origins of power losses in the gearboxes. The average amount of losses depends on the gear ratio and the type of the gear. It is estimated as approximately 2% of full power per stage for parallel shaft gears and as 1% of full power per stage for planetary gears. In practice precise dimensioning of gearbox is of importance. Otherwise maintenance and operation will experience many problems and the lifetime will be aected.

2.4
2.4.1

Operation Sequence and Control

Operation Sequence

Operation sequence of the wind turbine is determined by means of three threshold points. Cut in velocity CI which is the wind speed the wind turbine starts to deliver output power. For instance, in VAWT s captured power for low wind speeds is negative, and the cut in velocity has to be chosen at values greater than the wind speed at which power coecient becomes positive.
11

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

The rated wind velocity R is the wind speed at which the captured power reaches the generator rated power. The cut out velocity CO is the highest wind speed at which the wind energy system is able to operate mechanically safe. Typically this is less than 25 m/s . As a result, operation sequence of a wind turbine is divided into, at least, four regions. Region 1, at which the wind speed is less than the cut in speed. In this region, captured power does not suce to compensate the internal consumption and losses. Hence the turbine is parked and is not run. Region 2, at which the wind speed is between the cut in speed and the rated speed. It is sometimes called sub-rated region and the wind turbine is controlled using Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in order to achieve the optimum tip speed ratio. MPPT is introduced thoroughly in subsection 2.4.2 . Region 3, at which the wind speed is between rated speed and cut out speed. In this region, there are various control options, namely constant rotor speed, constant rotor torque and constant rotor power. The rst two, comes with the risk of torque and current overload and they need additional control measures for overload protection. In the latter two, the speed does not reach to the rated speed, therefore constant rotor power is proposed [9] . Region 4, at which the wind speed exceeds the cut out speed and the wind turbine is shut down.

2.4.2

Control

The purpose of the control is: Limiting the torque and the power experienced by the drive train in order to increase lifetime. Maximising the energy yield for various conditions. Drive train suers from fatigue caused by aerodynamic and structural loads. The structural strength of the wind turbine can be maintained up to a certain wind speed. In addition, another limiting factor is the rated power of the generator. The rated power of the generator is reached at rated wind speed of the turbine. Energy yield depends on the available wind power of the site as well as power capture by the wind turbine. The energy available in the wind is uncontrollable since it depends on the wind regime of the site. However, the power capture by the wind turbine can be maximised by the control method. There are four dierent ways to inuence the rotor captured power and the turbine loads. They are:
12

2.4. OPERATION SEQUENCE AND CONTROL

Angle of attack (blade pitching) Flow velocity (variable speed rotor) Blade size (variable blade length) Blade section aerodynamics The rst two methods are implemented in most of all modern HAWT s and the work principle behind the control of the power coecient. They are introduced in the following subsections. The working principle behind the variable diameter blade is the control of the swept area that is useful for minimising the load during high wind speeds. Control of blade section aerodynamics is implemented by means of active ow control. This state of the art method is growing rapidly and has the potential to be implemented on large scale HAWT s [10] . Generally, control can be implemented in either active or passive way, depending on utilisation of external energy. Yaw mechanism, blade pitching and variable speed rotors are examples of contemporary active control methods. Blade Pitching In a conventional control method of HAWTs the pitch angle of the rotor blade is changed mechanically. Blade pitching means that the blades are turned along their longitudinal axis with the help of an active mechanical device. In this way, the angle of attack and thereby also the absorbed power varies. The angle of attack can be changed in two dierent ways either by decreasing or increasing it. Both cases reduce the captured power, provided that the angle of attack is in a condition where the power coecient is at the maximum. The former requires higher blade pitching for the same dierence in the power coecient. Hence, the output power is controlled more precisely. Fixed-speed-xed-blade VAWTs suer from high demands on the self stall regulation property. Usually, small scale VAWT s are not equipped with the blade pitching control for simplicity reasons. In xed blade VAWTs, at which the rotor speed is kept constant, the more the wind speed increases, the larger the angle of attack becomes. Thus the amount of stall will increase as well. In xed speed wind systems, which are connected to the grid directly, the rotor speed is constant and accordingly the self regulatory stall is always present. From the wind system components point of view, there are several demand points which are listed below. Aerodynamic load will be large. Therefore the stiness and mechanical strength of the turbine has to be high. Overload capacity of the generator has to be high. Either the wind turbine rotor should have high starting torque or additional measures for starting should be provided. This is because self starting by means of pitching the blades is not provided.
13

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

As a result, application of xed blade VAWTs with variable speed wind systems rather than with the xed speed systems are proposed. The VAWTs power coecients optimum is transferred to the lower tip speed ratios compared to HAWTs, which according to E. Hau, is their major disadvantage. As the speed of the VAWT is lower, in order to achieve the same power, VAWTs require higher torque rate. This might increase the stiness requirements on VAWT s [2] . Maximum Power Point Tracking The maximum Power Point Tracking is a control method which controls the wind turbine rotor speed by controlling torque of the generator. The blade pitching drive is a mechanical equipment which has a delay in response time in rapidly changing wind conditions. Thus in gusty and turbulent winds, it can inuence the energy yield and subsequently causes mechanical stress on the turbine. However, in order to maximise the power production, the rotor speed of the generator can be controlled electrically. MPPT techniques, accordingly, are developed in an attempt to achieve the maximum power coecient. This is usually done by adapting the rotor speed to the optimum tip speed ratio. Rotor speed of an electrical machine can be controlled by means of the dierence in its input power and output power. The output power of the generator, in a variable speed wind system is controlled with the help of a power electronics converter. If the speed of the rotor needs to be increased, the output power is kept lower than captured power. On the other hand, when the rotor deceleration is required, the output electric power is maintained higher compared with the captured power. There are dierent ways of making the wind speed reference for MPPT . The simplest one is to measure the wind speed by anemometers that is send it to the controller. However, there are several issues associated with the wind speed measurement. Generally, measuring the wind speed at a distant place in a large wind system comes with a certain time delay. In small VAWT s, anemometers, which are installed nearby are provided. However, lack of quick response time can be inuential on reliability, since small VAWT s are usually installed in areas with turbulent winds. Sensorless MPPT method is a control method without the wind speed measurement. There are several dierent approaches for implementation of of such control method such as constant output power, xed voltage and the wind speed prediction. Usually, autoregressive statistical models are used for prediction of the wind speed, based on the historical data [11]. Captured energy from each set of data is used for predicting the wind speed at the next time frame. The accuracy of the wind speed prediction depends on many factors including the length of the sampling time frame. The shorter the sampling time frame, the higher the accuracy of wind speed prediction. One of the major considerations when selecting control method is its easy implementation. Short computation time and low sensitivity to parameter adjustment
14

2.5. COMPARISON BETWEEN VAWTS AND HAWTS

is a benet.

2.5

Comparison Between VAWTs and HAWTs

A comparison between VAWTs and HAWTs is presented below, both in terms of design and performance aspects [8]. Furthermore, detailed description is given for some aspects mentioned earlier in the text

2.5.1

Design: Yaw Mechanism

Unlike the VAWTs , the HAWTs are in need of a yaw mechanism. The function of yaw mechanism is to direct the rotor in the wind direction in order to maximise the aerodynamic eciency. It includes an electrical motor as a drive mechanism and a control system, which detects the wind direction and command the mechanism to rotate. The main disadvantages are need for maintenance and the cost of the equipment, installation and operation. Additionally, there is a delay in rotation of of the nacelle in the right direction due to the time response. VAWTs, on the other hand, do not need yaw mechanism, while they are omnidirectional and they can rotate in both directions. This property makes VAWT s highly suitable for locations where the wind is gusty or turbulent like mountainous areas and urban neighborhoods.

2.5.2

Design: Axis of Direction

Some advantages and considerations for VAWT s come with vertical axis of rotation. Usually, HAWTs drive train is located in nacelle on top of the tower. This increases mechanical stress on the tower, which requires strong foundation. In VAWTs, a part of the drive train i.e. the generator and the control equipment can be located on the ground. The mechanical power is transferred via a long shaft from the hub to the generator, which has many advantages. The generator size and weight will have low priority as a design constraint. However, torsional vibrations of the long shaft with high torque might become a problem. A long airgap might be a remedy. The disadvantage of this is that it might inuence the machine design, which makes the machine costly. A dynamic analysis is proposed.

2.5.3

Design: Direct Drive

VAWTs are more suitable for direct drive applications compared with the HAWTs. Electric machine in direct drive wind system usually operates with low speed and high torque. For a constant power rating and constant torque density of a machine, weight is positively correlated with the torque rating. Consequently design with higher torque in direct drive will have more weight. In HAWT s higher weight of the machine in direct drive puts more mechanical stress on the tower. Unlike HAWTs, this is not an issue for a VAWT, as the machine is located on the ground.
15

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

2.5.4

Design: Wind turbine construction

Construction of the blades for VAWTs is easier compared with that of HAWTs [3]. One reason is that the blades of a HAWT are supported at their root by connection to the hub and they have to be sti and self-supportive. Furthermore, they are twisted along their length for aerodynamical purposes, i.e. to increase the power capture. This makes the mechanical construction of blades tougher. On the other hand VAWT s blades are connected to the hub in their middle point. Additionally, the VAWT s blades are straight and not twisted along their length, which makes manufacturing of the blades much easier.

2.5.5

Design: Structural Mechanics

HAWT s and VAWT s are both subject to dierent mechanical stresses. The blades of HAWT suer from cyclic reversing gravity loads as well as periodical loads due to wind shear. Meanwhile, the blades of VAWT s are associated with bending moments caused by centripetal acceleration. Torque ripple is generally higher in VAWTs compared with HAWTs. This alleviates, in variable speed applications, with higher number of blades and higher size of the wind turbine rotor.

2.5.6

Aerodynamics: Performance

Aerodynamic eciency of commercialised HAWT s is higher compared with their VAWT counterparts. A measure for this is the power coecient, which typically for HAWT is between 0.4 and 0.5, while for VAWT this is typically 0.4 . HAWTs have been subject of research for decades and the design optimisation has progressed. It seems that development of wind power plant technology, with more emphasis on HAWT, has made it possible to reach higher values of the power coecient. HAWTs can start at low wind speeds; On the other hand, VAWTs have poor starting characteristics and they require to be started by other means.

2.5.7

Aerodynamics: Power Control

HAWT and VAWT can use dierent methods to control the power ow. Power control is a necessity otherwise wind turbine rotors might be damaged mechanically in high wind speeds e.g. 25 m/s . Unlike HAWTs which use blade pitching for power control, the small VAWT s use electrical machine to control the absorbed power, since implementation of blade pitching does not suit their scale. The dierence between the input power and the output power from the generator can either accelerate or decelerate the wind turbine rotor speed.

2.5.8

Noise

VAWTs have lower noise compared with that of HAWTs [3]. There are two different sources of noise; First is aerodynamic noise generated by the blades; Second,
16

2.6. VIBRATIONS IN WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

the mechanical noise generated from the drive train. In general, VAWTs have lower aerodynamic noise which is strongly related to the wind turbine rotor speed. In wind systems with power control, rotor speeds are controlled by the optimum tip speed ratio. HAWTs optimum tip speed ratio value is typically between 5 and 7 while it is 4 for VAWTs.

2.6

Vibrations in Wind Energy Systems

Wind systems are prone to vibrations because of slender and elastic construction. Cyclically alternating forces can be origins of excitation of vibrations and possible resonances, which can lead to vibration of either one component or entire wind system. Therefore, in the design stages the vibrational modes of entire wind system and its subsystems have to be analysed in order to assure dynamic stability. Main dynamic vibrational behaviours are: Aeroelastic instability of the rotor blades. Torsional vibrations of the drive train. Dynamics of yaw system (limited to HAWT s). Vibration of the entire wind turbine.

2.6.1

Torsional Vibrations of the Drive Train

The frequency response of the system is a major criterion to determine the dynamics of its vibrations and it gives information about all natural frequencies. Natural frequency is called eigen frequency in the subject of dynamics. Since resonance might occur in the natural frequencies, they are sometimes also referred as resonant frequency. Therefore, it has to be ensured that natural frequencies of the system or of its components are far from the applied excitation frequencies, during the design stage. Dynamics of the mechanical drive train of the wind systems is inuenced by forced torsional vibrations. The vibrations depend on dierent characteristics of participating masses, namely Mass moment of inertia. Damping constant. Rotational stiness. Depending on the number of degrees of freedom, the system has one or more eigen frequencies. In a drive train modeled with one degree of freedom, value of damping ratio is proportional to the damping constant and inversely proportional to the mass moment of inertia and the eigen frequency. The damping ratio determines amount of damping the system intrinsically has. When, in systems with low damping,
17

CHAPTER 2. WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

resonance occurs, amount of angular displacement might be dramatic that leads to fatigue or fracture. A dynamic analysis of mechanical drive train components is proposed. Dynamics of drive trains components i.e. electrical machine, shaft and gearbox inuence torsional vibrations of each other and also the drive train entirely. In [12], the vibration of electromagnetic origin is presented for PMSG s, and essential vibration modes with shape of possible deections are distinguished. The gearbox, in geared system, aects the damping of the system severely. A complete dynamic study is out of scope of this work. However, the author emphasizes that this study is vital to guarantee a noise free performance and an acceptable lifetime.

2.7

Noise Emission

Wind system noise emission is of signicance especially in populated areas. In the eld of acoustics, it is measured by sound pressure level in dB (A). The acceptable noise level is subject of technical design specications, standards and legislations. However, for small scale wind systems, its main signicance is in customer satisfaction. The amount of acceptable sound pressure level is legislated, based on the time (day/night) and surrounding type (variation from fully residential to fully industrial). Generally, amount of accepted sound pressure level in industrial surroundings is higher compared with the residential surroundings. It is also higher for days than nights. Aerodynamic noise of wind systems is less problematic as the wind speed increases. High wind speed contributes to ambient noise, when the wind collides with obstacles,but it also contributes to high aerodynamic noise of the wind system. However, on a lower scale it increases 2.5 dB (A) per 1 m/s increase in the wind speed, where on the other hand wind turbine noise increases only 1.0 dB (A) per 1 m/s increase in the wind speed. In low wind speeds, wind turbine noise is higher compared with the ambient noise. As the wind speed increases, the ambient noise starts to exceeds the wind turbine noise. When discrepancy of these noises reaches to 6 dB (A), then the wind turbine noise is no longer contributing to perceptible increase in sound pressure level. Generally speaking, at wind speeds higher than 10 m/s, wind turbine aerodynamic noise cannot be perceived.

18

Chapter 3

Electrical Machines for Wind Energy Systems

3.1 Dierent Topologies of Electrical Machines

This chapter deals with dierent topologies of electrical machines for VAWT. In the text, Direct Current (DC) and induction generators precede synchronous generators. This chapter, furthermore, discusses "Design of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine". Therefore the emphasis is put on various congurations of PMSG . In sections 3.2 and 3.3, dierent categories of PM synchronous machines are described. In section 3.4, implementable winding techniques with their eect on performance are given. Final section focuses on thermal analysis of PM machines.

3.1.1

DC Generators

The application of DC generator in wind energy systems is not widely spread, mostly because of the high maintenance requirement of brushes and commutator and a need of a full scale inverter in order to get connected to the Alternative Current (AC) grid. Usually, DC generators are restricted to non-grid-connected wind energy systems with small DC loads, i.e. battery chargers [2].

3.1.2

Induction Generators

Induction generator consumes reactive power which leads to a poor power factor of the machine. The power factor of smaller induction machines is lower compared to larger ones. The consumption of reactive power is penalised by many grid operators, since it causes losses in the grid. Some solutions are oered for active or passive compensation of reactive power. They include capacitor banks 1 or condensers 2 .
1 2

passive solutions active solution

19

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Hence these solutions are costly. Fixed Speed Fixed speed wind energy systems including conventional Squirrel Cage / Short Circuit Induction Generator (SCIG) and a gearbox have been in use for decades. A big advantage is simplicity in operation and control of the system, however, there are also some disadvantages. In general, the wind is gusty and turbulent particularly in urban areas, which very often varies the speed of the rotor and as a result a lower average eciency is gained. Normally, dynamic disturbances are unavoidable in operation of the wind systems. They can occur in the turbine, e.g. variation in the shaft power, and in the grid, e.g. short circuits. However, in xed speed systems the damping is low. Disturbances from the turbine and the grid inuence each other harshly. Inrush current is, furthermore, an issue in wind systems with large induction machines. Figure 3.1 shows a block diagram of a typical xed speed wind system including conventional SCIG gearbox and a transformer. A xed speed IG solution including gearbox is suggested in chapter 4 Multi speed IG is suggested for improving the average eciency in areas with gusty and turbulent winds. An electrical machine with usually two speed steps is chosen. First step works in partial load conditions with low wind speeds while the second works in full load conditions with high wind speeds. There are dierent waysof such a system implementation. One solution, which also is the simplest one, is to have one IG with two dierent windings and two dierent numbers of poles. The second and more common solution is to utilise two induction machines. In both implementations, it will be possible to improve the average eciency as well as the average power factor. The latter solution has been used in Danish wind systems during 80s and 90s [13]. Still, a complicated control system for switching between the steps remains an issue. Furthermore, cost of two windings in the former solution and cost of two IG s in the latter makes the multi speed wind systems more expensive. Double Fed Induction Generator Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is a variable speed wind system including induction machine where also the rotor is connected to the grid. Part of the power is either provided from the grid or delivered to the grid through the rotor. This power is called the slip power. Frequency of the slip power is varied in such a way that the rotor eld frequency is maintained constant. Variation of the frequency of the slip power is established by means of two power electronics back to back converters. Bidirectional ow of the power in the back to back converters gives the opportunity to work in subsynchronous mode as well as oversynchronous mode. Back to back converter in DFIG consists of one machine-side-converter, a DC link capacitor and a grid-side-converter. Role of the machine-side-converter is to control the speed or the torque of DFIG and the machine power factor, while
20

3.1. DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Figure 3.1. Block diagram of a xed speed wind energy system including a conventional SCIG, a gearbox and a transformer [2].

the role of the grid-side-converter is to minimise DC link capacitors voltage ripple. Figure 3.2 shows block diagram of a typical DFIG including a transformer. The benet with this solution is the possibility of utilisation of conventional induction generators in a wider speed range and still obtain high eciency. Because the converter is connected to the rotor, it only has to carry part of the power instead of entire rated power. Thus, the converter in DFIG is dimensioned in accordance to the required speed range. Usually the operating speed range does not exceed 40 % of the synchronous speed. In most of the wind systems on the market today, this is 30 %. In [14], it has been shown that the converter rated at 30 % of generator rated power is adequate for control of wind turbine rotor within a reasonable speed range. In other applications which will be introduced later on, the converter is dimensioned for the full power. Thus the cost and the losses of the converters in DFIG are lower in comparison to full power converters. This might be an issue for large wind systems. Other advantage is that the reactive power can be controlled independently from the active power. It means that DFIG can operate close to the unity power factor. The drawbacks with conventional DFIG s with gearbox are [2]: High maintenance due to the slip rings. Limited capability of supplying reactive power. High torques in the machine during faulty conditions. Additional measures are required to limit the start-up current. Moreover, the most complex control, especially regarding converters in wind systems are related to DFIG , which makes them essentially more economical for large wind systems rather than small systems.
21

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.2. Block diagram of a typical DFIG including a transformer [2].

3.1.3

Synchronous Generators

The synchronous machines have many advantages over induction machines. One of them is a higher eciency. It is because the magnetising current is not a part of the stator current. In induction machines reactive power for rotor excitation is carried by stator winding as well as the active power for conversion. Accordingly, synchronous generators will have better eciency and better power factor. In variable speed wind systems, usually, the synchronous generators are connected to the grid via a power electronic converter. The amount of deliverable active power from Synchronous Generator (SG) depends on rating of a converter in Volt-Amperes and the power factor of SG . Thus, for the same rating of the converter, the closer the power factor gets to unity, the more active power can be delivered. Additionally the rotor speed does not depend on the electrical load conditions. In wind systems it is more convenient to control the rotor speed merely based on the wind speed. The other advantage is that they can have longer air gaps compared to induction machines. In induction machines, the airgap length is kept small to limit the magnetisation current and to improve the power factor [15] . In synchronous machines, on the other hand, it is desirable to have a longer airgap as it helps to reduce armature reaction and the synchronous reactance which in turn improves the stability. Fixed speed wind systems with SG have the same disadvantages as their IG counterparts. The dynamics of the grid and the wind turbine are transferred to each other without considerable damping which can lead to the loss of synchronism with the grid. Since the rotation speed is determined by the frequency of the grid, the system becomes even more sensitive. In addition, there is also need for starting and synchronising equipment too. The signicance of a variable speed wind systems equipped with a SG lies in their capability to meet the aerodynamic requirements in the widest speed range. To keep the tip speed ratio at its optimum, the wind turbine rotor speed varies proportional to the wind speed. This, unlike IGs, provides rotor speed independency from load
22

3.1. DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

conditions. Wide operational speed range, from zero to rated speed, is benecial for control purposes. Operational advantages of a SG with power electronics converters are numerous, like for example voltage regulation which is handled by the grid-side-converter. Another advantage is that dynamic disturbances of the grid and the wind turbine are isolated from each other and SG is not at risk of losing synchronism. Furthermore, starting and synchronising equipment is not needed as this is taken care of by power electronics converter. The only advantage of IGs over SGs is that the converter is not dimensioned for full power. However, with recent decrease in cost of power electronic components, this is not of concern anymore. Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG) s have been scope of research for many years. The main advantage of WRSG over PMSG is that it intrinsically can produce reactive power and subsequently regulate the voltage. Thus it is possible to control the power factor according to electrical load conditions. In power production WRSG injects the reactive power to compensate loads reactive power consumption. Nonetheless the WRSG has not gained popularity among the wind turbine manufacturers. It is mainly because that the brushes for DC excitation in WRSG require maintenance. Mechanical vulnerability of rotor windings arising from rotation leads to winding insulation damage. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Self excitation brings about various benets. One is the elimination of the rotor copper losses. Hence PMSG s are more ecient compared to WRSG s. Unlike WRSG no external power supply is needed. The maintenance is eliminated since brushes and slip rings as well as the rotor windings are removed. The common issue with WRSG is the relation between the frequency induced and the mechanical speed of the rotor. When the wind speed changes, the rotor speed and thereby the frequency of the induced voltage changes. However, in variable speed applications with PMSG this is usually not of concern since the generator is connected to the grid through a converter that will adapt the frequency of the induced voltage to the grid frequency. One other consideration is that, unlike WRSG, the eld provided by magnets is not controllable. Thus, it is not possible to regulate the voltage and the reactive power. In variable speed wind systems, this is, usually, not an issue since the grid-side-converter regulates the output voltage and the power factor is determined by the grid. Lower maintenance requirements and thus lower cost are the main reasons why PMSGs are proposed with variable speed wind systems. Yet another issue that needs to be considered is the risk of demagnetisation of magnets due to the temperature rise; the magnets can be partially or fully demagnetized. In partial demagnetisation the magnetic properties are weakened. In full
23

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

demagnetisation magnetic properties are completely lost and they require remagnetisation which is a tedious task and in some cases impossible and a new rotor is required. Thus a thermal study is suggested to guarantee that the magnet working temperature is, in any conditions, preserved low. Additionally, the partial demagnetisation is usually a case during a short circuit where some parts of the magnets are exposed to high opposing magnetic elds. In [16] it is shown that PMSG s are more suitable for gearless applications compared to WRSG s. In comparison of PMSG and WRSG and varying the number of poles, it can be shown that once the number of poles reaches high values, the rotor yoke height of WRSG becomes thicker. Consequently, weight and size of WRSG surpasses that of PMSG.

3.2

PM Synchronous Machines

A direct drive wind energy systems cannot employ a conventional high speed (and low torque) electrical machines. Hartkopf et al. in [17] has shown that the weight and size of electrical machines increases when the torque rating increases for the same active power. Therefore, it is essential task of the machine designer to consider an electrical machine with high torque density, in order to to minimise the weight and the size. In [18] and [19], it has been shown that PM synchronous machines have higher torque density compared with induction and switched reluctance machines. Thus a PMSG is chosen for further studies in this work. However, since the cost eectiveness of PMSG is an important issue, low manufacturing cost has to be considered as a design criterion in further steps. There are a number of different PMSG topologies; some of them are very attractive from the technical point of view. However, some of the state of the art topologies suer from complication in manufacturing process which results in high production costs. PM excitation oers many dierent solutions. The shape, the size, the position, and the orientation of the magnetisation direction can be arranged in many dierent ways. Here, presented topologies include those of which are investigated for low speed applications or variable speed applications. This list encompasses radial or axial ux machines, longitudinal or transversal ux machines, inner rotor or outer rotor machines and interior magnet or exterior magnet machines. Slotless machines are not presented here.

3.2.1

Radial Flux or Axial Flux

Airgap orientation can be identied in two dierent ways. Here a hypothetical normal vector to the airgap is adopted along the ux direction. The axis of the machines is assumed to be along the length of the machine in the cylindrical coordinate system. Relation of the normal vector with the axis of the machine decides the radial or axial topology. If the normal vector is perpendicular to axis, machine is called radial. If the normal vector is parallel with the axis, the machine is called axial.
24

3.2. PM SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure 3.3. Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical radial ux PMSG [21].

Radial Flux Machines Radial ux machines are conventional type of PMSG s. The manufacturing technology is well established which makes the production cost lower compared with the axial one [20]. Furthermore, they are very exible for scaling, as the higher power ratings of the machine are achieved by increasing the length of the machine. In other words completely new design and completely new geometry can be avoided. They are extensively used in ship propulsion, robotics, traction and wind systems. Figure 3.3 shows cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical radial ux PMSG . Axial Flux Machines Various axial ux topologies have been proposed in recent years and their pros and cons are categorised. Generally, in axial ux machines length of the machine is much smaller compared with radial ux machines. Their main advantage is high torque density, so they are recommended for applications with size constraints especially in axial direction. They have found application in gearless elevator systems, and they are rarely used in traction, servo application, micro generation and propulsion systems [22]. Figure 3.4 shows cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical axial ux PMSG . One of the disadvantages with the axial ux machines is that they are not balanced in single rotor single stator edition. Usually, for a better performance the rotor is sandwiched between two stators or vice versa. Unlike radial ux machines,
25

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.4. Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical axial ux PMSG [21].

the stator windings are located in the radial direction. A circumferentially laminated stator is required for reduction of iron losses, which complicates manufacturing process [23]. Scaling of axial ux machine is another drawback. Unlike radial ux machines, any increase in length is accompanied by increase in airgap diameter. Hence, to increase the power rating a new design and a new geometry is needed [24]. One other way to increase the power rating is by increasing number of stators and rotors. This, however, makes the machine costly.

3.2.2

Longitudinal or Transversal

In transversal ux machines, the plane of ux path is perpendicular to the direction of rotor motion. The use of transversal ux machines can be proposed in applications with high torque density requirement [22]. One attractive property of the transversal ux machines is that the current loading and the magnetic loading can be adjusted independently. They are proposed for wind systems, free piston generators for hybrid vehicles and ship propulsion [22]. Figure 3.5 shows a fraction of a typical transversal ux PMSG. Both PMSGs in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are of longitudinal type. One drawback of transverse PMSG is high leakage ux which results in poor power factor. To achieve lower ux leakage, number of poles has to be decreased which in turn reduces torque density. The task of the designer is to nd a compromise between the ux leakage and the torque density of the machine. Further26

3.2. PM SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure 3.5. Fraction of a typical transversal ux PMSG [22].

more the major drawback with rotational ones is relatively dicult manufacturing process. Yet another drawback is that, in rotating transverse PMSG, mechanical construction is weak due to large number of parts.

3.2.3

Inner Rotor or Outer Rotor

The rotor surrounds the stator in outer rotor machines. In these machines, the magnets are usually located on the inner circumference of the rotor. Accordingly, for the same outer diameter of the machine, in the outer rotor machine the rotor has higher radius compared with the stator and it can be equipped with higher number of poles for the same pole pitch [21]. Another advantage is that the magnets are well supported despite the centrifugal force. Furthermore a better cooling of magnets is provided. Outer rotor machines are common for small HAWT turbines, where sometimes the hub carrying the blades is directly xed to the rotor [25]. However, the inner rotor machines are a more common solution present on the market today. In small machines, the main contributions to the losses are copper losses and therefore the stator winding has the highest temperature rise in the active material of the machine. Hence, it is more benecial to put the stator winding, rather than the magnets, closer to the housing, where the cooling properties are good. This causes less temperature rise for the same amount of losses. Figure 3.6 shows an inner rotor PMSG and an outer rotor PMSG .
27

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.6. Inner rotor PMSG (left) and an outer rotor PMSG (right) [26].

Figure 3.7. A surface mounted rotor for a PMSG [15].

3.3

PM Congurations

The PMSG can be divided into dierent topologies depending on the magnet arrangement on the rotor. These are introduced below. However, it should be mentioned that the rotor congurations are not restricted to the given examples, e.g. in interior magnets various congurations are implementable.

3.3.1

Surface Mounted Magnets

A common topology is where the magnets are mounted on the surface of the rotor, sometimes referred to as exterior magnet, but, more known as Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet (SMPM) machine. The magnets are glued and/or bandaged to the rotor surface in order to withstand the centrifugal force. Usually, the magnets are oriented or magnetised in radial direction and more seldom in circumferential direction. The direct and quadrature reactances are almost equal. Construction of the rotor core in SMPM is the easiest among dierent PM congurations due to simple rotor geometry. Figure 3.7 shows a surface mounted rotor for a PMSG.
28

3.3. PM CONFIGURATIONS

Figure 3.8. Two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs [15].

3.3.2

Inset Magnets

In inset magnet machines, rotor core of SMPM machine is modied with iron interpoles. Iron interpoles are protrusions of rotor core wherever magnets are not present on the surface. Interpoles cause saliency and the inductances in direct and quadrature directions are dierent. In these machines, part of the torque is reluctance torque and the torque density is higher compared to SMPM . The magnets are radially magnetised. The ux leakage is higher in comparison to SMPM which results in lower power factor. Therefore, in direct drive application, the inverter utilisation is lower compared to geared applications. This topology is not common in gearless wind systems. Figure 3.8 shows two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs.

3.3.3

Buried Magnets

In this conguration the magnets are put inside the rotor and therefore it is referred to as Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) machine. There are many dierent ways in achieving interior magnet conguration. The magnets can be magnetised in radial direction as well as circumferential direction. The thickness of iron bridges between the magnets has to be designed carefully to avoid saturation. Again, the inductance in quadrature axes is dierent from that in direct axes direction. Figure 3.9 shows six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs. The main advantage of this PM conguration is that weak PM material such as ferrite can be used. Another advantage is magnetic protection against short circuit conditions [15]. It is because in faulty conditions, iron bridges between magnets get saturated which prevents high reverse demagnetising eld to reach the magnets. This topology is suggested for high speed applications due to mechanical strength of the rotor against the centrifugal force. Burying magnets in production stage is a complicated process. Moreover a nonferromagnetic shaft is vital, otherwise a large part of magnets ux penetrates the shaft, which is located nearby, and it will not be utilised for magnetisation of the
29

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.9. Six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs [15].

airgap. Like inset magnet machines, the ux leakage is high which reduces the power factor, the eciency and the inverter utilisation. In [21] , F. Libert studies two dierent buried magnet topologies and concludes that both gives rise to manufacturing problems. One is called V-shaped buried magnet design and the other is called tangentially magnetised buried magnet design. The author also mentions some saturation problems when the number of poles is high. This is a common problem for the buried magnet topologies. If the number of poles increases, the distance between magnets decreases (when rotor core diameter is kept constant). Therefore, the narrow iron bridges get saturated more easily. Figure 3.10 shows cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design (left) and a tangentially buried magnet design (right).

3.4

Winding

The windings can be divided into overlapping and non-overlapping categories. Over lapping windings can be wound either distributed or concentrated. Non overlapping windings can be wound solely in concentrated way. Figure 3.11.a) shows a distributed overlapping winding with Qs = 24 and q = 2 for a four pole machine. Figure 3.11.b) shows a concentrated overlapping winding with Qs = 12 and q = 1. Figure 3.11.c) shows a double layer concentrated non-overlapping winding with Qs = 6 and q = 0.5, which is the traditional concentrated winding. Figure 3.11.d)
30

3.4. WINDING

Figure 3.10. Cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design (left) and a tangentially buried magnet design (right) [21].

shows a single layer concentrated non-overlapping winding with the same values of Qs and q as Figure 3.11.c). The term overlapping is usually omitted. For instance "overlapping distributed winding" is almost always referred to as distributed winding. In this text, on the other hand, "concentrated winding" stands for "double layer concentrated nonoverlapping winding".

3.4.1

Distributed Winding

Distributed winding has been used for Brushless Alternative Current (BLAC) machines for decades. One of the advantages of distributed winding is that it can give high value of winding factor when q is high and the full pole pitch is chosen. Nonetheless, it has some drawbacks, like for instance its long end windings. End windings do not contribute to induction of the phase voltage. The role of end windings is limited to carry the current from one coil to the other. Thus, end windings are associated with copper losses and it is desired that the end windings are as short as possible. In distributed winding, when the coil sides are far from each other, the copper losses will be higher and the axial length of the machine will be longer. Thus distributed winding reduces the eciency of the machine. If the size of the machine is a critical design parameter, the concentrated winding should be considered.

3.4.2

Concentrated Winding

In concentrated winding the coil turns are concentrated around one tooth and therefore it will benet from short end windings due to non-overlapping property. Another advantage is better heat conductivity between the winding and the tooth. Furthermore, segmentation of stator core teeth is possible [28]. In this way, the windings can be pre-pressed and the coils can be made with rectangular shape, which, in turn, will give high slot ll factor and high torque density. Concentrated winding exhibits high fault tolerance on SMPM s and is associated with increase in leakage inductance [29]. Implementation of concentrated winding
31

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.11. Windings in low speed PMSG a) distributed overlapping winding. b) concentrated overlapping winding. c) double layer concentrated non-overlapping winding. d) single layer concentrated non-overlapping winding [27].

increases leakage inductance which in turn limits high currents in short circuit conditions. In fact in faulty conditions, the excitation eld of WRSG is reduced to protect the machine. However, excitation of PMSG is not controllable. Hence, introduction of higher ux leakage may be an advantage. In addition, due to nonoverlapping property, coils are physically and thermally seperated in a better way compared with distributed windings. This reduces the risk of phase to phase short circuit in the event of damaged winding insulation. Furthermore, the torque ripple in SMPMs with high pole numbers and concentrated windings is reduced [21]. Higher ux weakening capability is another characteristics of concentrated winding.
32

3.4. WINDING

Fractional Slot Winding One disadvantage with traditional concentrated winding, where q = 0.5 , is a lower winding factor compared with distributed winding. The reason is that the slot pitch is 2/3 of the pole pitch and, neglecting the ux leakage due to iron saturation, only 2/3 of the magnet ux is linked to the stator. As a consequence, winding factor drops to 0.866 and torque rating of traditional concentrated winding is reduced by the same factor. To cope with this drawback, fractional slot concentrated winding are suggested, which utilises any feasible combination of p and Qs . Thus, it is possible to have higher winding factors with higher torque density. In applications where weight and size are critical design parameters, the fractional winding may be of interest. F. Magnussen in [20] and F. Libert in [21] have studied numerous slot pole number combinations of fractional slot winding and have categorised them regarding their parasitic eects. It has been reported that selection of pole and slot numbers has to be chosen very carefully because of the parasitic eects that arises with certain combinations. These parasitic eects include, cogging torque, radial magnetic forces and alternating magnetic elds with high frequency. The disadvantage with radial forces is vulnerability to magnetic noise, while high frequency magnetic ux leads to eddy current losses in the rotor and the magnets. Some counter active measures have been suggested by F. Magnussen like: magnet segmentation, rotor core lamination and high mechanical rigidity of core [20] 3 . In [21] F. Libert has studied fractional slot winding in terms of winding factor, harmonic content of Magneto-Motive Force (MMF) , torque ripple, cogging torque and magnetic forces. The study have been carried out on the design with pole numbers between 4 and 80 and slot numbers between 6 and 90. Slot pole number combinations are divided in few categories and general conclusions are drawn for each category. The categories where Least Common Multiple (LCM) is high, enjoys from the biggest reduction in cogging torque. The highest LCM is achieved where slot pole numbers have values very close to each other, i.e. p = Qs 1 . However, the machines with these combinations are asymmetrical. This gives rise to radial forces and magnetic noise. The author, ultimately, suggests that the slot-pole number combinations with high winding factors and with symmetrical winding layouts have to be chosen. IPM s with concentrated winding have lower torque density than that with distributed winding. Concentrated winding decreases saliency ratio in IPM and accordingly the reluctance torque reduces as well. This means that an IPM with concentrated winding will have lower peak torque and also lower torque density. Reduction of torque density can be compensated with additional iron laminations in axial direction as the length of the machine become shorter due to concentrated windings; This, however, is costly [30] .

see section 3.5.4

33

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

3.4.3

Single Layer Concentrated Non-Overlapping Winding

An advantage of a single layer concentrated windings is simpler automatised winding process and better fault tolerance compared to their double layer counterparts. They use every other tooth for winding which results in the simpler automatized winding. The better fault tolerance comes with better physical and electrical separation between coil turns. Although the benets with this winding looks attractive, the double layer windings are actually more common today. It is mostly because single layer winding suers from longer end windings and higher inductance.

3.5

Thermal Behaviour

There are dierent sources of losses in electrical machines i.e. iron losses, copper losses, etc. The losses give rise to temperature, which has dramatic inuence on performance and lifetime of electrical machines. Hence, study of thermal behaviour of an electrical machine is vital. The temperature rise in the machine is strongly dependent on the load. In wind systems, the speed and the torque are very often lower compared with the ratings of the machine and varies with the wind conditions. The advantage is that the average temperature rise will be lower in comparison to the rated operating point. However, in order to guarantee high performance and long lifetime in any operation condition, the thermal calculations are performed based on the rated operation. In the following subsections, consequences of temperature rise are presented and dierent cooling systems are discussed. A brief introduction to heat transfer theory is given, while more detailed theory is left for the reader. The most emphasis is put on introduction of sources of losses in the last subsection.

3.5.1

Consequences of Temperature Rise

Performance Thermal loading determines pretty much the power rating of the electrical machine. Values such as current density are often limited to a certain value depending on the cooling conditions in an electrical machine. This bounds current loading and respectively torque rating of the electrical machine. In other words, even if it is possible to manufacture more compact machines with higher torque densities, cooling capability restricts further reduction in the size. Lifetime The lifetime of an electrical machine is also aected by the so called thermal ageing, which inuences the insulation. One of the requirements on winding insulation is to transfer the heat and to tolerate thermal stresses during normal and
34

3.5. THERMAL BEHAVIOUR

Insulation Class A E B F H

Hot Spot Temperature in C 105 120 130 155 180

Table 3.1. Dierent classes of an insulation material due to IEC 85.

faulty conditions. Commercially available insulation material can tolerate limited temperature rise. Table 3.1 summarizes standardised temperature rise categories. Acceptable lifetime is expected, if the insulation material working temperature conforms to above conditions. On the other hand, due to an empirical law, lifetime of an insulation material halves with every 10 K extra temperature rise above the nominal temperature. Temperature inuences magnet characteristics and it can increase risk of demagnetisation. Figure 3.12 shows B-H curve of a typical PM material for dierent temperatures. The coercivity and remanence ux density decrease when the temperature increases. The knee point also moves upwards. The working point shifts on working line of the magnetic circuit downwards when the temperature increases. Given a high enough temperature and an improperly designed magnetic circuit, the working point will drop below the knee point, where the magnet loses its magnetic properties. If the machine is to be run again, PM has to be remagnetised, which is a complicated and tedious task. Overload increases the risk of demagnetisation. In these conditions the temperature exceeds the rated value and the remanence ux density of magnet decreases. If the magnetic circuit is not properly designed, PM magnetic ux will reduce remarkably. In order to compensate the reduction of the magnetic ux, the control unit will tend to increase the current in the stator winding, since the load torque should be kept the same. As a result, copper losses in the windings are increased and the temperature raises more in the windings and eventually in the magnets. This leads to even higher reduction of remanence ux density. In theory, reoccurrence of this cycle can eventually lead to demagnetisation of the magnets. However, in order to avoid demagnetisation during overload conditions, protection equipment against over-temperature condition is oered. Among PMSGs, Inset magnet machines and SMPMs are more vulnerable and are at a greater risk of demagnetisation compared to their IPM counterpart. Iron bridges around the magnets in IPMs saturates during faulty conditions and they counteract penetration of strong reverse eld into the magnets. However, the temperature rise can still be high, because the magnets are buried and the cooling of magnets is more dicult.
35

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 3.12. A typical magnet characteristics curve [20].

3.5.2

Cooling System

Cooling system facilitates dissipation of the heat, which will reduce temperature rise in the machine. Usually electrical machines are forced cooled by air or water. In air cooled machines a fan forces the air along the airgap. In water cooled machines the pump forces the water through tubes that are located in ducts. There are dierent possibilities for putting the ducts inside the machine, they can be located axially or spirally. Moreover, they can be located within the mantel (frame) or in the stator core. Putting ducts in stator core provides better heat transfer, however, it inuences the manufacturing process of the stator laminations. Kylander has developed an analytical model for thermal analysis of induction machines based on experimental results [31]. The model introduces thermal resistances. Lindstrm has developed a thermal model for a PMSG [32].

3.5.3

Heat Transfer Theory

Heat transfer is a result of a dierence in the temperature. The heat is always transferred from higher temperature towards the lower temperature. It occurs in three dierent forms namely conduction, convection and radiation.
36

3.5. THERMAL BEHAVIOUR

Conduction Heat transfer through a substance is dened as conduction. The substance can be in any state: gas, liquid or solid. To measure conductive property of a material thermal conductivity is introduced. Usually the value of the thermal conductivity of materials lies in the range between 0.026 W/m/K for air and 427 W/m/K for silver [33]. Conduction is modeled by Fouriers law which also can be applied when heat is generated inside the body. However, when the time variation of conduction is considered, specic heat capacity of the body, which represents thermal capacity, is also introduced. In steady state analysis, however, this is neglected. In the eld of electrical machines, conduction is the most common form of heat transfer in both steady state and transient conditions. Convection Heat transfer from a heat source by means of uid movement is dened as convection. Fluid ow is caused by an external force either in natural or in forced conditions. In the former, discrepancy in uid density creates the force; In the latter the force is caused by a pump or a fan. To measure convective property of a uid, heat transfer coecient is introduced. Average heat transfer coecient of a uid lies in a range between 6 W/m2 /K for natural air convection and 120, 000 W/m2 /K for condensing of steam [33]. Estimation of this value is complicated, since it depends on many variables like geometry of the surface, temperature dierence, ow mechanical characteristics and physical characteristics of uid i.e. viscosity. Convection is explained by Newtons law of cooling. In the eld of electrical machines, convection is the second most common form of the heat transfer in the steady state, but it does not play a remarkable role in transient conditions. Radiation Heat transfer by means of radiation does not need any substance. Thermal radiation is a function of couple of parameters as reectivity, temperature dierence, emissivity and geometry. It is modeled by Stefan Boltzmans law. In electrical machines the amount of radiation is negligible.

3.5.4

Losses in PMSG

The main function of an electrical generator is to convert energy from mechanical into electrical. However, a part of energy is lost during this process which is referred to as losses. In electrical machines losses are divided into two categories i.e. normal losses and stray losses. Stray losses are additional losses that arises in an electrical machine aside from the normal losses considered in usual performance calculations for motor eciency [15]. The main part of the stray losses are usually caused by eddy currents due to the leakage ux.
37

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

The normal losses involve copper losses in stator windings, iron losses in stator and mechanical losses such as friction. The iron and the copper losses are the biggest contributors to the losses in PMSG . One advantage of PMSG over IG is elimination of the copper losses in the rotor, namely slip loss [34] . Estimation of normal losses is easy and the corresponding knowledge is well established. On the other hand estimation of stray losses is complicated as they depend on many parameters. This complication might lead to inaccuracy in the calculations of the thermal behaviour of the machine. A thorough discussion of losses is presented in order to improve a better perspective over variety of origins of losses. Stator Core Losses Various phenomena associated with variation of magnetic ux results in the stator core losses. Among them, the rotational and excess losses are probably less well known while the hysteresis and eddy current are more familiar. Here, hysteresis and eddy currents losses are introduced rst together with Epstein frame test. Then, the two former are presented. Finally counteractive measures are suggested. Eddy currents are induced in the stator iron due to variation of magnetic eld based on the Faradays Law and they create losses based on the Ohms Law. The amount of losses depends on the time rate of change of magnetic ux density. Assuming sinusoidal variation of magnetic ux density, eddy currents loss will depend on electric properties of material as well as applied eld, including frequency and maximum value of magnetic ux density. Hysteresis losses are caused by magnetic properties of ferromagnetic material in a time varying magnetic eld. The amount of these losses depends mostly on the magnetic properties of the material but also on the applied eld, including its frequency and maximum value of magnetic ux density. To estimate the iron losses in the stator, the results from Epstein frame test are used in analytical calculation. Accurate prediction of iron losses is much more dicult in comparison to copper losses. Accordingly, steel manufacturers provide the machine designer with results from the Epstein frame test. In this test the iron losses of steel material, subjected to various magnetic ux densities (in terms of amplitude and frequency) are measured. Simplied analytical models are developed to estimate the iron losses in electrical machines based on the results of Epstein frame test. These analytical methods are validated by means of comparison to experiments on similar machines or FEM simulations. Angular direction of magnetic eld is, usually, constant in the stator. But it varies in regions of stator where the teeth and the yoke are connected to each other. This results in rotational loss. In the region where it exists, it adds to the core losses. Excess loss is not a well-known phenomenon. In order to include the eect of rotational and excess losses, the value of estimated core losses is, usually, multiplied by a correction factor. Calculated results of core losses may dier from the experimental results for a number of reasons. Applied eld in the machine is assumed to be uniformly
38

3.5. THERMAL BEHAVIOUR

sinusoidal in dierent physical points and the magnetic properties of the material are assumed to be uniform. However, in real machines these conditions are not prevailing perfectly. A waveform of the magnetic ux density is non sinusoidal and non uniform. Inuence of harmonics, which results in non sinusoidal magnetic ux density, on the core losses will be introduced later in the text. Furthermore, the magnetic property of material varies when it is subjected to mechanical stresses during manufacturing e.g. punching. There are various solutions available in order to reduce the core losses. Some more common are laminated core with thin iron lamination, high resistivity and alloyed contents like silicon. These measures reduce eddy current losses. Another solution in order to reduce the iron losses is to reduce nominal frequency. However, the frequency is proportional to the rotor speed and to the number of poles. As the rotor speed is determined by the application, the frequency, therefore, cannot be chosen arbitrarily. Furthermore, increasing the number of poles reduces the pole pitch which in practice cannot be chosen too short. Laminations are annealed after they are stamped or cut, in order to compensate the manufacturing stresses. Variation of magnetic characteristics in cut edges is then avoided. Mechanical Losses Mechanical losses are relatively small in comparison to other losses especially in low speed applications. It encompasses two parts, namely windage and bearing. Windage losses are caused by mechanical friction of air and rotor surface. It depends on various parameters and phenomena and it is quite complicated to calculate more accurately. For instance it depends on gas properties and the prevailing gas ow characteristics. In electrical machines the gas ow is mostly turbulent in high speed applications and it is laminar in low speed application. An experimental equation in [35] gives a rough estimate of windage loss.
3 4 Pwindage = Cf m R L

(3.1)

where is the mass density of the gas, m is the mechanical angular speed of rotor and R and L are radius and length of the airgap cylinder respectively. Cf is the friction coecient which is empirically determined. Mechanical loss in the bearings depends on parameters like bearing type, lubricator physical characteristics, shaft mechanical load and rotor speed, where lubricator characteristics are dependent on the temperature. An experimental equation in [35] gives a rough estimate of bearing loss.
3 Pbearing = Cb Dm m

(3.2)

Dm is the average diameter of bearing and Cb is the bearing coecient, which again is an empirical factor.
39

CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Stray Losses Stray losses are divided into stray no-load losses and stray load losses. Generally, the former is represented by permeance variation and the latter is represented by leakage ux. Space harmonics origin is due to the non-sinusoidal distribution of windings, saliency and slotting eect in an electrical machine. Time harmonics are generated by power electronics converters operated with electrical machines. High frequency of parasitic eects results in induction of eddy current in metal parts. Active material of the machine like stator conductors, rotor core and rotor permanent magnets are prone to stray losses. In the following, stray losses are introduced based on the location of losses. First AC winding losses are discussed, second stray losses in permanent magnets are described and nally stray losses in rotor core are mentioned. Stator Winding Eddy currents are induced in the stator windings in the form of skin and proximity eects. If the source of varying applied eld is the winding itself, the phenomenon is called skin eect. If the source of varying applied eld is an external origin like rotor magnets, the phenomenon is called proximity eect. Eddy currents originating from skin and proximity eects in machines will give rise to non uniform current density distribution within the conductor, i.e. less concentration in the centre and more concentration on the circumference. As a consequence, eective cross section area for the current will be lower compared with the available cross section. This leads to higher AC resistance and higher losses. Permanent Magnets Eddy currents losses can be induced in permanent magnets in certain conditions. As mentioned, certain slot pole number combinations in concentrated winding design will result in space harmonics. This inuence is more pronounced in high speed machines with high frequency. F. Sahin in [35] suggests an analytical estimation of eddy current losses in permanent magnets. In order to reduce these losses a proposed solution is magnet segmentation. In general no load stray losses caused by permeance variation can be reduced by increasing the airgap length or by using magnetic wedges. Rotor Iron Eddy currents losses can be induced in rotor core in certain conditions. In absence of parasitic eects, the magnetic ux density in the rotor iron is constant. Harmonics, e.g. created by the slotting eect, distort magnetic ux in the rotor. However, in SMPM machines, eective airgap is large and these losses are insignicant [12]. Again these losses are more pronounced in high frequency machines, but
40

3.5. THERMAL BEHAVIOUR

it should be mentioned that a careful selection of slot pole number combination in concentrated winding is mandatory.

41

Chapter 4

Induction Generator
A multiple step xed speed WECS including induction generator is already proposed in section 3.1.2. In order to work as xed speed wind system, the system has to be operated at speeds higher than synchronous speed. Induction machine is able to start in Direct Online (DOL) mode. DOL means that an induction machine, which is at standstill, is able to accelerate when it is directly connected to the grid. Another benet in xed speed WECS with induction generator is less mechanical stress on the drive train compared with synchronous machine. Usually, the induction generator is operated between the synchronous speed and just above the synchronous speed. The dynamic disturbances in the grid and from the wind turbine will be reected in the variation of the slip i.e. the speed of the machine. One disadvantage with the induction generator is reactive power consumption. Therefore, induction generators require some form of reactive power compensation. This can be provided with introduction of capacitor banks. Some control of the capacitor banks should be implemented due to the power variation of the load. However, this may add some extra cost. Another disadvantage with the induction generator is their so called inrush current. During starting, the current in induction machine is high, which may cause some damage to the windings.

4.1

Fixed Speed Induction Generator

Fixed speed wind turbine is still a popular concept in the rapidly growing global wind market. Figure 4.1 shows the market share of installed xed speed WECS in large wind turbine market. The cost of power produced by WECS is a function of capital cost, system reliability and the energy yield. According to the theory, energy yield of variable speed WECS is higher compared with the xed speed one. However a lower capital cost and higher reliability makes the xed speed WECS an attractive solution. Values between 4 % - 20 % have been reported for the increase in energy yield by utilizing variable speed instead of xed speed systems. The reason for variation in the reported values is the methodologies adopted by dierent researchers. Therefore, in this chapter a more cost eective xed speed 43

CHAPTER 4. INDUCTION GENERATOR

Figure 4.1. Time variation of market share of yearly installed power of xed speed WECS (including induction generator, capacitor banks, soft starter and output transformer) [37].

WECS is to be veried. One possible topology for xed speed WECS is an induction generator connected to the line where the load is located in between. The grid maintains the voltage and the frequency and provides the machine with magnetizing current which is associated with reactive power consumption. As a result, the machine is capable of production of active power. The power produced by the generator may exceed the power consumption by the load and the remaining power can be injected to the grid. However, there should be an agreement between the grid operator and the owner of the generator how to regulate the injected power [36].

4.2

Selection of Induction Motor as Generator

Induction machines are the most prevalent motors on the market. Therefore, in order to utilise an induction machine as generator a few considerations has to be taken into account.
44

4.3. TWO STEP FIXED SPEED INDUCTION GENERATOR

4.2.1

Temperature Rise

A higher permissible temperature rise has to be considered due to the special requirements by the application as well as distinction between performance in motor and in generator mode. The required lifetime of the machine is 100, 000 hours. The main constraint on working lifetime of an induction machine is the thermal ageing of the windings insulation material. However, the guaranteed working lifetime of an insulation material according to the standards, regardless of insulation class, is 20, 000 hours. Therefore a 25 C safety margin is suggested to guarantee the required lifetime.

4.2.2

Eciency

Eciency of the induction motor working as generator is lower for the same slip. Therefore, it is recommended that high eciency induction motors are chosen for generator applications. In order to increase the eciency of the induction machine, thinner iron lamination together with the lower loss density material can be used and also copper with high conductivity properties in windings.

4.2.3

Size

It is suggested that the power rating of the induction machine should be around 25 % higher compared with the power rating of the wind turbine. Eciency of an induction machine is maximum at the rated slip. For a small scale induction machine this can be around 80 % . Therefore the size of the induction motor should be selected in such a way that at full load, the machine works at 80 % of its rating [38]. This ensures that the temperature rise, while working either as a motor or as a generator is the same. For instance, if a 12 kW induction generator is to be used, size of the induction machine is 15 kW . One should consider that in motor operation mode, the hot spot is in the stator winding, since the power losses in the stator winding are the major fraction of the losses in the machine. In generator operation mode, the corresponding power loss has to be provided from the shaft power and later on delivered to the stator winding via the rotor and the airgap. This causes some additional copper losses in the rotor and therefore further temperature rise in the rotor [38]. Hence, for the same temperature rise in the machine, the induction generator has to be derated.

4.3

Two Step Fixed Speed Induction Generator

Multiple step xed speed WECS is proposed to increase energy yield of xed speed wind system. Rotation speed of the wind turbine in a xed speed WECS including an induction generator is determined by the induction machines operating range. Therefore in a single step xed speed system, selection of a gear ratio is of concern. Since the rotation speed will be maintained independent of the wind speed,
45

CHAPTER 4. INDUCTION GENERATOR

the tip speed ratio will vary quite often. This means that the power coecient deviates from its optimum value. The choice of the wind speed corresponding to the optimum tip speed ratio inuences selection of gear ratio and vice versa. If a low gear ratio is selected, the rated wind speed is at a high wind speed and for low wind speeds the power coecient is low. On the contrary, if a high value for gear ratio is chosen, the machine rotates slowly and the rated wind speed is at a low wind speed and then power coecient drops for high wind speeds [39] . The concept of two step induction machine aims to have high value of power coecient for both low and high wind speeds. With a two step induction generator, it is possible to adapt the rotation speed of the system to the prevailing wind speed for the same gear ratio. Therefore, the variation of the tip speed ratio is halved. Two step induction generators with two dierent windings have two dierent pole numbers. The low speed step works at low wind speeds while the high speed step is at high wind speeds. The list of functions that have to be provided in a multiple step WECS is: Measurement of wind speed and direction. Starting command to the machine (to start as a motor). Switching command (between the two steps) to the generator. Mechanical brake for the wind turbine. Overload protection. Command of switching in the electrical load. However a multiple step IG working in a WECS suers from [40]: Switching transients when changing poles. High torque peaks with machines designed for low rated slip and high losses with machines designed for high rated slip. Lower energy yield in comparison to variable speed WECS.

4.4

Self Excited Induction Generator

It is suggested that a two step xed speed WECS is equipped with a capacitor bank. A simulation study has been done by S.S. Murthy et al considering inrush current, reactive power and eciency of a single step 55 kW induction generator together with a xed speed wind system [39] . The results shows that during start of the electrical machine, the motor inrush current reaches to 6 p.u. and it lasts for almost 1 second. For the steady state analysis reactive power and eciency are studied for dierent wind speeds. A consistent reactive power, around 0.7 p.u. , is required from the grid even though the wind speed is very low. Subsequently, the
46

4.4. SELF EXCITED INDUCTION GENERATOR

Figure 4.2. The operating zones of induction machine [41].

produced active power is very low, around 0.03 p.u. . The power factor, therefore, is very low and varies between 0.043 and 0.67. The eciency is very poor and varies between 20% and 40% . For the case study above, it is obvious that the power factor is too low at low load conditions. Thus, the power factor correction in some way is required. A brief discussion on this solution, which sometimes is entitled self excited induction generator, is presented below. However, in order to minimise the cost of the system, the nal solution with a two step induction generator proposed in this report does not include a capacitor bank. Requirements on self excited induction generator for application as wind generator are: High eciency. Low voltage regulation. Low harmonic contents. Figure 4.2 shows the operating zones of the induction machine optimised for working either as a generator or as a motor. Induction generator works in both saturated and unsaturated operating zone. On the other hand the motor works only in unsaturation mode. The diagram is drawn with magnetizing reactance on the horizontal axis and the ratio of back Electro-Motive Force (EMF) and frequency on vertical axis.

47

Chapter 5

Analytical Design of PMSG

This chapter treats analytical design of a longitudinal, inner rotor, radial ux, surface mounted PMSG with concentrated winding. Selection of the machine topology is supported by the discussion in chapter 3. Initially, design requirements and constraints are presented in section 5.1. The selection of design parameters is described in section 5.2 and then the design procedure is followed. In the last section, the design objectives are discussed .

5.1

Design Requirements and Constraints

Table 5.1 shows the requirements which has to be fullled by the generator.

5.1.1

Mechanical Calculation: Minimum Shaft Diameter

The shaft must be able to withstand the high torque in the machine. The mechanical calculations for minimum shaft diameter guarantees the safe transfer of the mechanical power from the machine to the turbine. Rated torque of the machine Rated power Rated speed Base speed Airgap length Cooling system Cogging torque Outer diameter Lifetime Eciency Minimum shaft diameter Pn nr nn Dy Di,min 12 kW 100 rpm 90 rpm 1.5 mm Natural air convection around 1% <2m 100, 000 hours around 94 % > 0.1269 m

Table 5.1. Design requirements and constraints.

49

CHAPTER 5. ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PMSG

Correction factor for strength weakening of the shaft due to the key slot Geometrical correction factor Load dependant correction factor Safety factor under normal conditions Yield strength of shaft material Permissible strength of shaft material Safety factor under failure conditions
Table 5.2. diameter.

kkey mech mech knormal yield perm kf ailure

4 1 1 2 2.2 108 N/m/m 4.4 107 N/m/m 12

Mechanical parameters involved in determination of minimum shaft

is Tn =

Pn 2nn 60

12kw
2 90rpm 60

= 1273N m

(5.1)

1 The bending moment acting on the shaft is chosen to be 10 of the rated torque. 1273 N m Therefore Mbend = = 127 . 3 N m There are two dierent values for mini10 mum shaft diameter which should both be met; one for normal conditions and the other for failure conditions. The minimum shaft diameter in normal conditions is

Di,min,normal =

32 perm mech

2 Mbend + 0.75(mech knormal Tn )2

(5.2)

And the minimum shaft diameter in failure conditions is Di,min,f ailure =

3

16kf ailure kkey Tn yield mech

(5.3)

Table 5.2 shows the parameters used in equations 5.2 and 5.3 1 . Consequently, Di,min,normal = 0.1269 m and Di,min,f ailure = 0.1123 m

5.2

Design Parameters

Selection of the design parameters is essential for this work. In the following subsections, they are categorised and justications are presented. The main criteria for selections are the cost and the electromagnetic performance.

5.2.1

Material

Active material of the machine includes permanent magnet, steel sheet for the rotor and stator laminations and copper for windings. Suitable materials are chosen to provide sucient electromagnetic performance and average cost.
1

For a better introduction of these parameters, see section 7.1.1 in [15]

50

5.2. DESIGN PARAMETERS

Remanence ux density at 20 C Temperature coecient of remanence ux density Mass density

Br 0 aP M P M

1.2 T 0.0009 1/K 7700 kg/m3

Table 5.3. Characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP.

Permanent Magnet VACODYM 655 AP by Vacuumschmelze GmbH is chosen as the permanent magnet material. The characteristics of this material are given in Table 5.3. The vendor produces VACODYM 2 series as well as VACOMAX 3 series. The coice of VACODYM is because of its high energy density. VACODYM is produced in dierent shapes and they are classied in three main categories: HR (High Remanence) TP (Transverse Pressed) AP (Axial Pressed) VACODYM AP series was chosen since it can have arc segment shape. Figure 5.1 shows magnetic characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP. Iron M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB is chosen as steel material for stator and rotor laminations. Selection of this material is fullled as a trade o between cost and electromagnetic performance. Table 5.4 shows the characteristics of M400 50A. Detailed datasheet is given in appendix A . Figure 5.2 shows the magnetic characteristics of M400 50A.

5.2.2

Geometry

Table 5.5 shows the design parameters corresponding to the geometry. These are called independent geometry parameters, since their values are independently chosen from other geometry parameters. Figure 5.3 shows typical geometry of the machine. Some of the independent geometry parameters can be seen in Figure 5.3. The geometry variables determined by optimisation are the six rst independent geometry parameters. The rest of the independent geometry parameters are selected by the designer and selection criterion of the important ones is described in the present chapter.
2 3

NdFeB base cobalt base

51

CHAPTER 5. ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PMSG

Figure 5.1. Magnetic characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP.

thickness Mass density

F E

0.5 mm 7700 kg/m3

Table 5.4. Characteristics of M400 50A.

5.2.3

Temperature

Insulation class E is selected for the insulation material. Table 5.6 shows the nominal temperatures.

5.2.4

Winding (Concentrated)

Based on the discussions presented in section 3.4.2 fractional slot double layer concentrated winding is chosen. Table 5.7 shows the winding parameters. Selected pole slot combination is done in accordance to discussion presented in section 3.4.2, for instance: Winding factor is as high as 0.945 . The machine is symmetrical with 8 similar sectors. Least Common Multiple is as high as 576.
52

5.2. DESIGN PARAMETERS

1.5 Flux density (T)

0.5

0 0

2000

4000

6000 8000 Magnetic field in [A/m]

10000

12000

Figure 5.2. Magnetic characteristics of M400 50A.

Stator tooth width Stator yoke height Rotor yoke height Stator slot height Airgap diameter Magnet thickness Stator slot wedge height Number of poles Number of stator slots Magnet angle Airgap length Undercut angle Stator slot opening

bts hrs hrr hss D lm hsw p Qs bs 0

Table 5.5. Independent parameters in machine geometry.

53

CHAPTER 5. ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PMSG

Figure 5.3. Typical geometry of an inner rotor surface mounted PMSG [21].

Maximum hot spot temperature Ambient temperature Permitted average temperature

120 C 20 C 70 C

Table 5.6. Nominal temperatures in the machine.

Connection type Number of poles Number of stator slots Stator slot ll factor Nominal line-line voltage

p Qs fs

Wye 64 72 0.5 400 V

Table 5.7. Winding parameters of the machine.

54

5.3. DESIGN PROCEDURE

Figure 5.4. Flowchart showing the optimisation procedure of PMSG.

5.3

Design Procedure

Figure 5.4 shows the owchart followed for optimisation of PMSG. In the rst step, design requirements and constraints are introduced. In the next step, design parameters like characteristics of chosen material, winding parameters, etc are introduced. In this step, still the design variables are not assigned any value. Magnetic design is the rst step after assigning the values to the airgap diameter
55

CHAPTER 5. ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PMSG

Peak fundamental airgap ux density Stator yoke ux density Stator teeth ux density Rotor yoke ux density Current density

B (T ) Brs (T ) Bts (T ) Brr (T ) J (A/mm2 )

(0.2, 1.2) (1.1, 1.5) (1.5, 2.0) (1.3, 1.6) (3.0, 5.0)

Table 5.8. Design limitations suggested by J. Pyrhnen in [42].

and airgap ux density. The magnet thickness can be calculated by Bm = Br,m 1 e 1 + r lm (5.4)

where Bm is the maximum airgap ux density, Br,m is the remanence ux density of the magnet at the working temperatures of the machine. r is the relative permeability of the magnet, e is the eective airgap length and lm is the magnet thickness. The stator and the rotor yoke height together with the stator tooth width are determined, according to. Bm D (5.5) hrs = pkj Brs hrr = bts = Bm D pkj Brr (5.6) (5.7)

Bm s 2 (1 ) kj Bts D

In these equations kj is the stacking factor and s is the slot pitch. Table 5.8 includes design limitations of the ux density in various localities of the machine. The slot geometry can be calculated in this step. Table 5.8 , moreover, includes the limitations of the current density of a standard non salient pole synchronous machine4 . This is to ensure safe thermal behaviour of the machine.

5.4

Design Objective

Electrical machines can be designed for dierent purposes, thus the optimisation criterion will be dierent. Some of the criteria are presented below: torque per unit length eciency weight/size cost
4

see Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 in [42] for more information

56

5.4. DESIGN OBJECTIVE

D/B 0.245 m 0.440 m 0.635 m 0.830 m 1.025 m 1.220 m 1.415 m 1.610 m 1.805 m 2.000 m

0.3 T N/A 3.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.4 T N/A 3.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.5 T N/A 4.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.6 T N/A 4.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.7 T N/A 5.2 11.6 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.8 T N/A 5.4 12.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.9 T N/A N/A 12.1 21.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.0 T N/A N/A 11.9 21.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.1 T N/A N/A N/A 20.2 31.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.2 T N/A N/A N/A 18.8 29.3 42.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A

Table 5.9. Torque per unit length of considered machines in kNm.

The criterion torque per unit length has been used in the design of PMSG for this purpose5 . Here it is assumed that other specications like weight, size and cost will be minimised. Various machines are investigated with respect to the fundamental airgap ux density and the airgap diameter. Due to the violation of the restrictions mentioned in Table 5.8 some combinations in the design are, therefore, excluded. On the other hand, cost of active material, including permanent magnet, iron and copper, is also one of the criteria in the current application. Considering cost coecient of active material 6 as cF E = 1 Euro/kg ccu = 8 Euro/kg cP M = 220 Euro/kg The cost of active material for the machines shown in Table 5.9 is calculated and given in Table 5.10. The optimised machine for the highest torque per unit length is the one with airgap diameter of 1.22 m and airgap ux density of 1.2 T . However this machine is 12 times as expensive as the optimised machine for the lowest cost of active material which has airgap diameter of 0.635 m and airgap ux density of 0.7 T . In the following chapter results of simulation in a FEM software for the latter machine are presented. 7

see Table 5.9 The given values are typical. 7 Usually a second run of optimisation is suggested. In the second run the optimised machine is found for airgap diameters between 0.4400 m and 0.8300 m and airgap ux densities between 0.6 T and 0.8 T . The second run of optimisation led into a machine with total cost of active material of 1.04 kEuro which is only 20 Euro cheaper than the chosen machine. This disregarded machine had airgap diameters of 0.635 m and airgap ux density of 0.66 T .
6

57

CHAPTER 5. ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PMSG

D/B 0.245 m 0.440 m 0.635 m 0.830 m 1.025 m 1.220 m 1.415 m 1.610 m 1.805 m 2.000 m

0.3 T N/A 1.46 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.4 T N/A 1.23 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.5 T N/A 1.14 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.6 T N/A 1.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.7 T N/A 1.26 1.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.8 T N/A 1.50 1.18 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

0.9 T N/A N/A 1.46 1.29 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.0 T N/A N/A 2.11 1.74 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.1 T N/A N/A N/A 3.14 2.69 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1.2 T N/A N/A N/A 18.45 15.16 12.98 N/A N/A N/A N/A

Table 5.10. Total cost of active material of considered machines in kEuro.

58

Chapter 6

FEM Simulation of PMSG

This chapter presents the FEM model of the optimised machine in Chapter 5. The software used in the current work is Flux2D 10.4.1. In the rst section, some assumptions in the process of developing the FEM model are described. Further electromagnetic characteristics of the optimised machine are given in section 6.2. Last section shows the iron losses of the optimised machine. These iron losses are used in thermal analysis in Chapter 7 .

6.1

Initial Considerations

This section treats some considered assumptions for the development of the model in the software platform. It includes both technical and software aspects. Geometry Due to the symmetry,
1 8

of the machine is modeled.

Independent geometrical parameters as Table 5.5 are introduced to the model. Figure 6.1 shows geometry of the optimised machine. Mesh Mesh points are assigned as meshing tools. A parametric value is assigned to the points in order to have 5/10 points in each line element. Figure 6.2 shows meshed geometry of the model. Stator and rotor iron are of laminated steel sheet with stacking factor of 0.96 . Magnetic characteristics of the magnet are modeled by the relative permeability and the remanence ux density. In other words it diers from Figure 5.1 . A three-layer airgap is considered: One belonging to rotor mechanical set, one belonging to stator mechanical set and the last one of compressible air quality. An electrical circuit is made in Electriux .
1 2

Physics

1 2

Electriux is a trademark by Cedrat. see Figure 6.3.

59

CHAPTER 6. FEM SIMULATION OF PMSG

Figure 6.1. Representation of the machine geometry in Flux2D.

Solver

Flux2D, which is a two dimensional solver, is chosen for simulations. Study time limit is assigned to one electrical cycle with 50 points.

Initial rotor position is set to 7mech. . (see Figure 6.9 regarding nding the value of initial rotor position.) In Figure 6.3 Y-connection for the machine windings and the current sources is presumed. The current sources, with sinusoidal currents, model the electrical system connected to the machine. 4

6.2

Results of FEM Simulations

This section covers the simulation results in Flux2D model. Figure 6.4 illustrates distribution of the iso value lines of the ux and the color shade of the ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at no load operation mode. Figure 6.5a) shows induced voltage of the optimised machine in one electrical cycle and Figure 6.5b) shows its harmonics spectrum. As seen from Figure 6.5b) the back EMF spectrum shows very low harmonic contents. The peak fundamental phase EMF is 251 V .
3 Due to the short length of the machine compared to its radius, three dimensional simulations are suggested for future work. 4 Simulation with current sources containing Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) currents is suggested for future work.

60

6.2. RESULTS OF FEM SIMULATIONS

Figure 6.2. elements.

Representation of the machine geometry in Flux2D with the mesh

Figure 6.3. The electric equivalent circuit applied to the FEM model.

61

CHAPTER 6. FEM SIMULATION OF PMSG

Figure 6.4. Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at no load operation mode.

62

6.2. RESULTS OF FEM SIMULATIONS

Induced voltage Harmonic spectrum of induced voltage 300 250 200 Voltage (V) 0.005 0.01 0.015 time (sec) 0.02 150 100 50 0 0

200

100 Voltage (V)

100

200 0

5 10 Harmonic orders

15

Figure 6.5. Induced phase voltage (phase A) a) Time variation of induced voltage (left) b)Harmonic spectrum of induced voltage (right).

Figure 6.6 illustrates distribution of the iso value lines of ux and the color shade of ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at full load. Figure 6.7a) shows no load airgap ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec and Figure 6.8 shows its harmonics spectrum. As can be seen from the gure, the no load airgap ux density spectrum shows very low harmonic contents. This is strongly dependent on the pole and slot number combination5 . The peak value of the fundamental no load airgap ux density is 0.74 T which is 4 % lower compared to the expected value (0.77 T )6 . The sags in the waveform that can be observed from Figure 6.7a) represents the permeance variation caused by the slot openings. Their presence reduces the fundamental value. The order of harmonics with highest peak value are the 5th and the 7th. Figure 6.7b) shows the airgap ux density at nominal load. The peak fundamental value of the airgap ux density at nominal load is 0.72 T . It can be noted from Figure 6.7b) , that there are some spikes, these indicate a presence of the armature reaction caused by the currents in the windings. Figure 6.9 shows the torque of the optimised machine at DC current. The torque is maximum at = 7 mech. . Figure 6.10 shows the cogging torque. 7 The peak to peak value of the torque in Figure 6.10 is the absolute value of the cogging torque for the total machine which is 17.5 N m . Figure 6.11 shows the torque at nominal load. The peak to peak value of the torque in the bottom of Figure 6.11 is the absolute value of the torque ripple for the total machine which is 56 N m . The mean value of the torque is 1193 N m and it is 6 % lower compared with expected value (1273 N m ). The
see section 3.4.2. After optimisation, the magnet thickness was increased a bit in order to ensure the mechanical rigidity. Therefore, analytical value of the airgap ux density increased. 7 250 points is used in simulation of Figures 6.10 and 6.11 .
6 5

63

CHAPTER 6. FEM SIMULATION OF PMSG

Figure 6.6. Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at full load operation mode.

64

6.2. RESULTS OF FEM SIMULATIONS

No load airgap flux density 1 1

Full load airgap flux density

Airgap flux density (T)

Airgap flux density (T) 10 20 30 40 Position (mechanical degree)

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

1 0

1 0 10 20 30 40 Position (mechanical degree)

Figure 6.7. Airgap ux density a) At no load (left) b) At full load (right).

Harmonic spectrum of no load airgap flux density 0.8 Airgap flux density (T) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0 5 10 15 20 Harmonic orders 25 30

Figure 6.8. Harmonic spectrum of the no load airgap ux density.

DC current torque of the machine 1500 1000 Torque (Nm) 500 0 500 1000 1500 2 4 6 8 Position (mechanical degree) 10

Figure 6.9. DC-current torque.

65

CHAPTER 6. FEM SIMULATION OF PMSG

Cogging Torque of the machine 10 5 Torque (Nm) 0 5 10 0

4 6 8 Position (mechanical degree)

10

12

Figure 6.10. The total cogging torque in the machine.

Torque of the machine (full scale) Torque (Nm) 1000 500 0 0 1220 Torque (Nm) 1200 1180 1160 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Position (mechanical degree) 14 16 18

6 8 10 12 Position (mechanical degree) Torque of the machine (partial scale)

14

16

18

Figure 6.11. The total torque of the machine at nominal load (Full scale at the top and partial scale at the bottom).

amount of the cogging torque is 1.5 % and the amount of torque ripple is 4.7 % .

6.3

Iron Losses

This section describes calculation of iron losses in stator and rotor lamination in Flux2D. The Bertotti model is chosen in order to describe the iron losses in steel sheets. Equation 6.1 shows the relation between dierent components of the iron losses as a function of frequency and ux density. The electrical frequency is the same in all locations in the iron, however the ux density is dierent8 . Iron losses are given by equation PF E = kh f B 2 +
8 3 (dF E f B )2 + 8.67 kexcess (f B ) 2 6

(6.1)

For introduction of dierent components of iron losses, see section 3.5.4.

66

6.3. IRON LOSSES

W sec Hysteresis loss coecient ( T 2 m3 ) Classical loss coecient (conductivity) ( 1 m) W T 1.5 Excess loss coecient ( m ( ) ) 3 sec Thickness of lamination (m) Stacking factor Frequency (Hz )

kh kexcess dF E kj f

59.23 723 4.05 0.0005 0.96 48

Table 6.1. Losses coecients applied in FEM simulations.

4

x 10 4 Power Loss Density (w/m/m/m) 3 2 1 0 0

Iron Loss Density Fitted Curve

0.5 1 Applied Flux Density (T)

1.5

Figure 6.12. Fitted curve for iron loss density of M400 50A.

Iron Iron Iron Iron

losses losses losses losses

in in in in

rotor in no load stator in no load rotor in nominal load stator in nominal load

3W 117 W 9W 182 W

Table 6.2. Iron losses in rotor and stator of the optimised machine calculated in FEM simulations.

where kh and kexcess are hysteresis and excess loss coecients, dF E is the steel sheet thickness and is the steel sheet conductivity. Table 6.1 shows the loss coecients considered in FEM simulations. The rst three parameters are calculated based on the curve tting for given iron loss density in the iron material datasheet 9 . Figure 6.12 shows the tted curve for iron loss density of M400 50A. By introducing the loss coecients to FEM models, the iron losses in stator and rotor are calculated at no load and at nominal load conditions. These values, which are later used in thermal analysis, are shown in Table 6.2 .
9

see appendix A

67

Chapter 7

Thermal Modeling of PMSG

Loss of energy cannot be avoided in electrical machines. It is created in dierent parts of the machine in the form of copper, iron and mechanical losses. These losses have to be cooled away through dissipation of the heat: thus the thermal constraints inuence the rating of the machine. The problem that arises with temperature increase for example demagnetisation of the magnets in a PMSM. The insulation material is very sensitive to temperature. Its lifetime reduces with higher temperatures. Because of this the study on thermal behaviour of the machine is performed. The iron losses calculated in section 6.3 are used here. This chapter investigates the temperature rise in dierent parts of the machine by means of a simplied lumped parameter model based on the model developed in [32].

7.1

Thermal Model

A lumped parameter model is employed to model the thermal behavior of the machine. Similar to electrical circuit model, an equivalent thermal model including thermal resistances is adopted. The nodes are chosen at interface between dierent material or at loss generation points. Figure 7.1 shows chosen lumped parameter model for thermal analysis. The nodes are chosen as Node 0: coolant. Node 1: frame. Node 2: stator iron. Node 3: coil sides of winding. Node 4: end windings. Consequently, the model used in this chapter diers from the model in [32] in these regards: The stator iron losses in yoke and teeth are aggregated. 69

CHAPTER 7. THERMAL MODELING OF PMSG

Figure 7.1. Lumped parameter thermal model consisting of an electric equivalent circuit.

Loss type Iron losses in stator Copper losses in coil sides Copper losses in end windings

value in W 182 342 272

Table 7.1. Losses in lumped parameter thermal model in Figure 7.1 .

The rotor losses (iron losses and windage losses) and relevant thermal resistivities are neglected. The losses and thermal resistivity of magnets and bearings are neglected. Thermal capacitances of dierent materials are neglected. In other words a steady state analysis is performed. The ambient temperature is assumed to be 20 C . Considered losses of the machine in the thermal analysis are given in Table 7.1. The value of iron losses in the stator is calculated in section 6.3 by means of simulation in Flux2D. Total copper losses at nominal load is Pcu = 3Rcu I 2 I = 31.14/ 2 = 22.02 A
70

(7.1) (7.2)

7.1. THERMAL MODEL

Thermal resistance Rth1 Rth2 Rth3 Rth4 Rth5

value in C/W 2.4041 104 0.0058 0.0078 0.0150 0.0030

Table 7.2. Thermal resistances in Figure 7.1 .

where Rcu =
1

cu ((pL + (D + hss )kcoil )n2 s q) Acu

(7.3)

The resistivity of copper varies with temperature. cu = (2 108 )(1 + 0.004 (T 20)) (7.4)

Since the temperature of winding is not known, the expected value could be used. Considering class E , the hot spot temperature is expected to be lower than 70 C . Then cu = 2.4 108 m The coil side copper losses and the end winding copper losses are distinguished by lF E Pcucs = Pcu (7.5) lav Pcuew = (1 lF E )Pcu lav (7.6)

The resistances in Figure 7.1 represents thermal resistivities according to: Rth1 : Thermal resistance between the frame and the coolant. Rth2 : Thermal resistance between the frame and the stator yoke. Rth3 : Thermal resistance between the stator yoke and the stator teeth. Rth4 : Thermal resistance between the stator teeth and the coil sides. Rth5 : Thermal resistance between the coil sides and the end winding. They are calculated based on equivalent conductive and convective thermal resistances. They are in turn calculated based on geometry and thermal characteristics of the machine. A Matlab code is developed in this regard and the results from this code are presented here. Table 7.2 shows the values of thermal resistances in Figure 7.1.
1

For introduction of symbols see "list of symbols and abbreviations".

71

CHAPTER 7. THERMAL MODELING OF PMSG

Parts of the machine Frame Stator Coil sides End winding

Value in C 20 31 40 41

Table 7.3. Temperature in dierent parts of the machine.

7.2

Steady State Analysis

Considering average coolant temperature as a reference, the temperature in each node was computed. Table 7.3 shows the results. The hottest node in the machine is the end winding. In reality the temperature can be few degrees more or less in dierent locations in the end winding. The average temperature is much lower compared with the permissible temperature (70 C ). The major reason is very low current density of 2.54 A/mm2 which results in low copper losses. If the current density doubles, the copper losses increase by four times and the temperature rise in the end winding increases drastically. Moreover, time harmonic losses of power electronics converters are neglected in this analysis. Additionally, this model is a simplication of 13 node model introduced by Lindstrm and for more accurate results, it is suggested that a more advanced model is used. 2

For suggestions on future work, see chapter 8

72

Chapter 8

Conclusions and Further Work

8.1 Conclusions

In this work, a surface mounted, radial ux, inner rotor, longitudinal PMSG with concentrated winding and natural air cooling is optimised with respect to the cost of active material. Active material includes iron, copper and PM material. Selection of topology is based on easy manufacturing process. For instance, to scale up the machine for three times higher torque rating, the length of the machine can be increased by three times and a new design can be avoided. The optimisation objective function is set to minimise the cost of active material. Total active weight of the machine is limited to approximately 110 kg . From the requirements, the size limit on outer diameter of the machine is met by far. The shaft diameter is higher than the minimum permitted value 1 which represents mechanical continuous operation despite the high torque density. A FEM model is developed in Flux2D and the performance is veried. Results from FEM analysis show low harmonic contents in the induced voltage and the airgap ux density. Also by employing a concentrated winding a high winding factor of 0.945 is achieved. The torque ripple and the cogging torque are very low (respectively 4.7 % and 1.5 %) and the cogging torque agrees very closely with corresponding constraint (around 1 %). The eciency is 93.4 % at nominal load (magneto-static analysis) and it agrees with the value required by the application(94 %). The machine enjoys from low temperature rise which serves the purpose of very long lifetime well.

8.2

Further Work

Various tasks can be conducted based on the present design. The list below encloses the most interesting ones. 3D FEM analysis: The simulation software in this task has been Flux2D. In two dimension simulations, eect of end windings on electromagnetic analysis
1

see Table 5.1

73

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK

is presumed to be negligible. However, length of the optimised machine is much shorter than its radius. Therefore, presence of end windings on quantities like inductances can be pronounced. Hence, it is suggested that a three dimension FEM analysis is taken to ensure a good performance. Time harmonics: In the electrical modeling of FEM analysis, the load connected to the machine terminals are modeled by sinusoidal current sources. However, the machine is connected to the load/grid via converters. This means that time harmonics will be injected into the machine. Therefore, it is suggested that in the electrical modeling of FEM analysis, current sources including harmonics are introduced. Control method: Control method of the optimised machine is left out of the scope of the present work. However, it will be tremendous to investigate an appropriate control method. The decision, rst, can be made between the methods which either include or exclude wind speed measurement2 . The chosen control method can, moreover, inuence time harmonics introduced in the previous item. Wind analysis: Optimised machines performance is modeled only at full load operation mode. One of the reasons is that this ensures that the machine will always work in safe thermal behavior. However, the wind speed and direction is consistently varying, which makes the machine to work at loads lower than nominal load, and changes its direction of rotation frequently. It will be interesting to model the machine performance in realistic wind conditions. For instance, depending on site mean wind speed3 , it might be possible to increase the amount of copper in the machine. Advanced thermal analysis: The thermal model developed in this work is a simplication of the model introduced in [32] by Lindstrm. The assumptions applied in this model are mentioned in section 7.1. It is recommended that an advanced thermal modeling is conducted to observe a more accurate temperature pattern. Flux weakening capability: In the present work, base speed of the machine is assumed to be very close to the maximum permitted speed. Thus, a "constant power speed range" is not aimed at this work. However, it would be interesting to consider the eld weakening capability at the design stage. This requires a more accurate model of wind turbine torque speed diagram. When it comes to control of the machine, it is suggested that the torque trajectory of the wind turbine and the generator intersect each other in generators base speed. In other words, the wind turbine and the generator should have the same size.
2 3

For a brief introduction of control methods, see section 2.4.2 which is supposedly less than nominal speed

74

8.2. FURTHER WORK

Building a prototype: This work has focused on optimisation of a PMSG and verifying its electromagnetic and thermal performance via FEM and lumped parameter modeling, respectively. The models have authenticated that the machine works according to the expectations. The next step in this regard is building a prototype based on the proposed machine in this work. The advantages of validation of prototype performance are of practical and scientic type: 1. Investigation for cost reduction: The present model of the machine addresses eciency as high as 94 % and very low temperature rise. If these outstanding qualities are conrmed by measurements results, they open the way for making some more compromise between cost and performance. For instance, one possibility can be to replace copper with aluminum in the same design. This results in lighter weight and lower cost of the machine. On the other hand, it will decrease the eciency and will increase temperature rise. The tradeo can be fullled, if the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. 2. Control method implementation: The feasibility of a control method can be veried by means of testing the prototype together with a controller.

75

Appendix A

Datasheet of M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB

77

APPENDIX A. DATASHEET OF M400 50A BY SURAHAMMAR BRUK AB

Figure A.1. Datasheet of M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB.

78

Bibliography
[1] J. L. Sawin and E. Martinot. Renewable 2010: Global status report. Technical report, Renewable Energy Policy Network for 21st Century, September 201. [2] E. Hau. Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2000. [3] S. Eriksson. Direct driven generators for vertical axis wind turbines. PhD thesis, Uppsala Univ., Sweden, 2008. [4] J. Kjellin. Experimental vertical axis wind turbine system. PhD thesis, Uppsala Univ., Sweden, 2010. [5] P. Deglair. Analytical aerodynamic simulation tools for vertical axis wind turbines. PhD thesis, Uppsala Univ., Sweden, 2010. [6] K. Thorborg O. Carlson, J. Hylander. Survey of variable speed operations of wind turbines. In Europ. Wind Energy Conf, pages 406409, 1996. [7] E. Muljadi D.S. Zinger. Annulaized wind energy improvement using variable speeds. In IEEE trans. Industry applications, volume 33, pages 14441447, 1997. [8] M. Leijon S. Eriksson, H. Bernho. Evaluation of dierent turbine concepts for wind power. In renewable and sustainable energy reviews, volume 12, pages 14191434, 2008. [9] M. Andriollo et al. Control strategies for a vawt driven pm synchronous generator. In SPEEDAM, pages 804 809, 2008. [10] D. E. Berg S. Johnson, C.P. van Dam. Active load control techniques for wind turbines. In Sandia National Laboratories tech. report, 2008. [11] S. Islam K. Tan. Optimum control strategies in energy conversion of pmsg wind turbine system without mechanical sensors. In IEEE trans. On energy conversion, volume 19, 2004. [12] M. Wing J. F. Gieras. Permanent magnet motor technology: design and applications. Marcel Dekker Inc, Basel, Switzerland, 2 edition, 2002. 79

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[13] A. Petersson. Analysis, modeling and control of doubly-fed induction generators for wind turbines. PhD thesis, Chalmers Univ. of Tech., Sweden, 2005. [14] K.A. Nigim G.A. Smith. Wind energy recovery by a static schrebius induction generator. In IEE proc.-C Generation, transmission and Distribution, volume 128, 1981. [15] C. Sadarangani. Electrical machines: design and analysis of induction and permanent magnet motors. Royal Inst. of Tech., Stockholm, Sweden, 2006. [16] M.R.J. Dubois. Optimised permanent magnet generator topologies for direct driven wind turbines. PhD thesis, Delft Univ. of Tech., The Netherlands, 2004. [17] M. Hofmann T. Hartkopf and S. Jckel. Direct-drive generators for megawatt wind turbines. In Europ. Wind Energy Conf., pages 668671, 1997. [18] J.R. Hadji-Minaglou and G. Henneberger. Comparison of dierent motor types for electric vehicle application. In EPE Journal, volume 8, pages 46 55, September 1999. [19] P. Lampola. Directly driven, low-speed permanent-magnet generators for wind power applications. PhD thesis, Helsinki Univ. Tech., Finland, 2000. [20] F. Magnussen. On design and analysis of synchronous permanent magnet machines for eld weakening operation in hybrid electric vehicles. PhD thesis, Royal Inst. of Tech., Sweden, 2004. [21] F. Libert. Design, optimisation and comparison of permanent magnet motors for a low speed direct driven mixer. Lic. thesis, Royal Inst. of Tech., Sweden, 2004. [22] D. Svechkarenko. On design and analysis of a novel transverse ux generator for direct driven wind application. PhD thesis, Royal Inst. of Tech., Sweden, 2010. [23] D. Hanselman. Brushless permanent magnet motor design. US: The Writers Collective, 2 edition, 2003. [24] A. Grauers. Design of direct driven permanent magnet generators for wind turbines. PhD thesis, Chalmers Univ. of Tech., Sweden, 1996. [25] L. H. Hansen et al. Conceptual survey of generators and power electronics for wind turbines. Technical report, Riso national lab, Roskilde, Denmark, December 2001. [26] Emetor: a pmsm design tool. http://www.eme.ee.kth.se/emetor/emetor.php, June 2011.
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URL:

[27] A. M. El-Refaie. Fractional slot concentrated windings synchronous permanent magnet machines: opportunities and challenges. In IEEE trans. on Industrial electronics, volume 57, 2010. [28] C. Sadarangani F. Magnussen, P. Thelin. Performance evaluation of permanent magnet synchronous machines with concentrated and distributed windings including the eect of eld weakening. In PEMD, volume 2, pages 679 685, 2004. [29] N. Bainchi et al. Design considerations on fractional slot fault tolerant synchronous motors. In IEMDC, pages 902909, 2005. [30] M. Degner A. Munoz, F. Liang. Evaluation of interior pm and surface pm synchronous machines with distributed and concentrated windings. In IECON, pages 11891193, 2008. [31] G. Kylander. Thermal modelling of small cage induction motors. PhD thesis, Chalmers Univ. Technol., Gothenburg, Sweden, 1995. [32] J. Lindstrm. Development of an experimental permanent magnet motor drive. Lic. thesis, Chalmers Univ. Technol., Gothenburg, Sweden, 1999. [33] D. Svechkarenko. Thermal modeling and measurements of permanent magnet machines. Masters thesis, Royal Inst. of Tech., Sweden, 2004. [34] R. Bonert C. Mi, G. R. Slemon. Modeling of iron losses of permanent magnet synchronous motors. In IEEE trans. on Inductrial Applications, volume 39, 2003. [35] F. Sahin. Design and development of a high speed axial ux permanent magnet machine. PhD thesis, Eindhoven Univ. of Tech., The Netherlands, 2001. [36] G. McPherson and R. D. Laramore. An Introduction to Electrical Machines and Transformers. Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc, 2 edition, 1990. [37] L. H. Hansen A. D. Hansen. Market penetration of wind turbine concepts over the years. Technical report, Riso National Lab. Roskilde, Denmark, 2008. [38] N. Smith. Motors as Generators For Micro-Hydro Power. UK: Russel Press Ltd, 2 edition, 1997. [39] P. K. Goel S. S. Murthy, B. Singh and S. K. Tiwari. A comparative study of xed speed and variable speed wind energy conversion systems feeding the grid. In Int. Conf. on PEDS, pages 736743, 2007. [40] L. L. Freris. Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Cambridge, UK: Prentice Hall, 1 edition, 1990.
81

[41] V. Kinnares B. Sawetsakulanond. Design, analysis, and construction of a small scale self-excited induction generator for a wind energy application. In The 3rd Int. Conf. on Sustainable Energy and Environmental Protection: SEEP, volume 35 of 12, pages 49754985, 2009.

[42] V. Hrabovcova J. Pyrhnen, T. Jokinen. Design of Rotating Electrical Machines. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1 edition, 2010.

List of Tables
3.1 5.1 5.2 Dierent classes of an insulation material due to IEC 85. . . . . . . . 35 49 50 51 52 53 54 54 56 57 58 67 67 70 71 72

Design requirements and constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical parameters involved in determination of minimum shaft diameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Characteristics of M400 50A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Independent parameters in machine geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Nominal temperatures in the machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Winding parameters of the machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Design limitations suggested by J. Pyrhnen in [42]. . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Torque per unit length of considered machines in kNm. . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Total cost of active material of considered machines in kEuro. . . . . . . 6.1 6.2 Losses coecients applied in FEM simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron losses in rotor and stator of the optimised machine calculated in FEM simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Losses in lumped parameter thermal model in Figure 7.1 . . . . . . . . Thermal resistances in Figure 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperature in dierent parts of the machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

7.1 7.2 7.3

List of Figures

List of Figures
1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 Annual capital investment in new renewable energies between 2004 and 2009 in US Dollars [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Renewable energy share of global energy consumption by 2008 [1]. . . . Power coecient versus tip speed ratio [3]. . . . . . . . An H rotor VAWT [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 450 kw HAWT with 37 m rotor diameter (Bonus) [2]. Horizontal plan of a VAWT [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 6 8 9 9

Block diagram of a xed speed wind energy system including a conventional SCIG, a gearbox and a transformer [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Block diagram of a typical DFIG including a transformer [2]. . . . . . . 3.3 Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical radial ux PMSG [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical axial ux PMSG [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Fraction of a typical transversal ux PMSG [22]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Inner rotor PMSG (left) and an outer rotor PMSG (right) [26]. . . . . . 3.7 A surface mounted rotor for a PMSG [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design (left) and a tangentially buried magnet design (right) [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Windings in low speed PMSG a) distributed overlapping winding. b) concentrated overlapping winding. c) double layer concentrated nonoverlapping winding. d) single layer concentrated non-overlapping winding [27]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12 A typical magnet characteristics curve [20]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Time variation of market share of yearly installed power of xed speed WECS (including induction generator, capacitor banks, soft starter and output transformer) [37]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The operating zones of induction machine [41]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83

21 22 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31

32 36

4.2

44 47

List of Figures

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Magnetic characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP. . . . . . . . . . Magnetic characteristics of M400 50A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical geometry of an inner rotor surface mounted PMSG [21]. Flowchart showing the optimisation procedure of PMSG. . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

52 53 54 55 60 61 61 62 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 67

Representation of the machine geometry in Flux2D. . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of the machine geometry in Flux2D with the mesh elements. The electric equivalent circuit applied to the FEM model. . . . . . . . . Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at no load operation mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Induced phase voltage (phase A) a) Time variation of induced voltage (left) b)Harmonic spectrum of induced voltage (right). . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at full load operation mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Airgap ux density a) At no load (left) b) At full load (right). . . . . . 6.8 Harmonic spectrum of the no load airgap ux density. . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 DC-current torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 The total cogging torque in the machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 The total torque of the machine at nominal load (Full scale at the top and partial scale at the bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12 Fitted curve for iron loss density of M400 50A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Lumped parameter thermal model consisting of an electric equivalent circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70 78

A.1 Datasheet of M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB. . . . . . . . . . . . .

84