UNIT 3 PLANNING AND DESIGN OF LOWCOST RURAL HOUSING

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3 . 2 Planning of Rural Houses

3.2.1 Types of Rural Houses 3.2.2 NBO Type Designs 3.2.3 Minimum Standards for Rural Housing

3.3 Components of Rural Houses

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 Lime Mortar and Concrete Building Wall with Stabilised Mud Blocks Economical Doors and Windows The Roof Flooring with Local Materials Rural Sanitary Latrines

3.4 Treatment of Thatched Roofs

3.4.1 Antiseptic Treatment for Protection against Fungi and lnsects and Fire Retardant Treatment 3.4.2 Mud Coated Thatches

3.5 Water Proofing of Mud Walls

3.5.1 Non-erodableMud plaster 3.5.2 Cement Lime Plastering 3.5.3 Spraying with Water-proofing Solutions

3.7 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineers, with a diploma or degree, would have already studied in detail the properties of building materials, such as bricks, lime, cement, concrete, timber, steel, etc., and their use in the construction of a variety of buildings in the urban areas of our country. But planning and design of buildings, which are generally the prerogative of architects, are also being demanded from the engineers; and in the Units 1 and 2 of this Block, illformation on site selection and orientation of different types of buildings and certain planning principles have been presented which are bound to help the engineers who are working in the semi-urban and rural areas. Having reached self-sufficiency in food and clothing, provision of shelter to the millions of India has been receiving the attention of the State and Central Governments, for the past two decades. Nearly 75 percent of the people of India, live in 557,000 odd villages, and most of them are housed is non-permanent buildings of mud and thatch, and without ally sanitary facilities. The impact of our formal housing programmes in the rural areas has not been commensurate with whatever limited resources were made available to them. In this unit, required data is presented to highlight the magnitude of the rural housing problem, minimum standards for rural housing are specified, and unorthodox and yet-to-be proved methods of construction with mud, bricks, lime, stones, thatch etc. are described wilh a view to promote self-reliance and participation of the rural people in solving their housing problems with the help of engineers. You as a Civil Engineer can be a major catalyst in building up local technical and managerial capabilities, and this is one of the ways to solve the rural housing problem.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to plan mass housing projects in rural areas,

Manning of Buildings

select locally available materi$ls, combine them with a minimum of factory-made materials, and proportion rural housing components, prepare plan, elevation and cross-sections of rural houses, design sanitary system for rural houses, identify activities for self-help housing and train youngmen in the villages to be self-employed in their own habitat, and develop project proposals for starting rural industries which are oriented to promote mass housing.

3.2 PLANNING OF RURAL HOUSES

The magnitude of the problem of housing is ,indeed, gigantic as you will discover from the following data : Based on population projections, it is estimated that India's population will increase from 684 million in 1981 to about 1000 million by the year 2001. This high rate of growth of population, which is of the order of 2.4 percent per annum, is bringing pressure on an already critical housing situation. The population of India in the year 1991 was about 850 million and the proportion of rural population was approximately 72.5 percent. Nearly 612 million people live in 557,000 odd vilIages of this country. For purposes of classification, rural houses have been divided into three categories, namely permanent, semi-permanent and non-permanent (requiring frequent renewals). Their percentages in the rural areas are 27 : 33 : 40 (NBO), approximately. The average size of the rural household is 5.5 persons. Nearly 92 percent of the &a1 houses have no sanitary facilities. India is one of the most thickly populated nations of the world, with an average of more than 210 persons per sq km. The land area is 329 million sq km,and 56% is covered by cultivation, 17% by forests, 10% by water bodies, 5% by meadows and 10% by wastelands and less than 3% is covered by human settlements. Official statistics (NBO, 1988) indicate, that there is a construction backlog of over 19.3 million units in rural areas and 9.2 million units in urban areas. In addition, 2 million houses are required each year for the increasing population.

"

3.2.1 Types of Rural Houses

The design of rural houses is closely related to the local climatic conditions. India has wide variations in climatic conditions such as the perennial snows of the Northern Himalayas, the hot dry desert of Western Rajasthan and thus, we have different types of traditional buildings in the different regions. Based on their characteristic terrain, building resources i-qd climate, our country can be divided into the following regions : 1 (i) Himalayan region, (ii) Northem plains, (iii) Central uplands, (iv) Western arid plains, (v) Peninsular plateau, (vi) Coastal regions, and (vii) North-eastern region. The use of traditional materials from the local natural resource base has shaped the predominant modes of house construction in rural India. Locally-built forms have evolved over a long period of time to meet the climatic and socio-economic needs of these regions and hence, a wide range of house types can be found throughout the rural areas as follows : Over 40 % of the rural houses in India are built with thatch and timber roofs. Over 70% of the houses in north-eastem states, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu

and Kashmir and the majority of rural houses in Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh are of this type. Over 55 % of the rural housess in India are built with mud, unburnt bricks and wood as the predominant walling materials. About 70% of houses in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh are having walls of these materials. Over 30 % of the rual houses in India are built with stones, fired bricks and other permanent materials suitable for walls. Over 50% of the houses in Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh are built with stones and bricks. Over 50% of roofs in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are roofed with tiles. In Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan, slates and other stones form the permanent roofing materials. The average area of the houses and households in rural and urban regions are as under (NBO, 1974) : (4) The rural houses had an average area of 40.38 sq m with 5.17 persons per household. This number has increased to 5.5, since. (ii) The urban houses had an average area of 32.64 sq m with 4.74 persons per household. Regarding the number of rooms in a given type of house, the following data were collected (NBO, 1971) percentage-wise :
No. of Room per House

Planning and Design o f Low-CostRural Housing

Rural

Urban

One room Two rooms Three rooms Four or more

28.5 12.1 12.1

26.9 11.4 11.6

Regarding toilet facilities the following data are available (NBO, 1974)
Facility

Rural

Urban

Flush Septic tank Services Other types None Not recorded

Total

0.48 1.73 2.50 2.28 92.40 0.61

100.0

20.08 13.92 30.25 2.56 33.01 0.18

100.0

The present unsatisfactory state of shelter and quality of environment in rural areas is an cxtensio~i of the problems of (Aromar Ravi, 1990) : (i) high population growth, (ii) increased rural in~poverishment and unemployment, (iii) differential priorities accorded to industrial 'uld urban growth, (iv) low levels of access to social services and linkages, (v) nlarginalisation of women and under privileged classes, and (vi) an alarming deterioration in the quality of physical environment. Among Ule inajor problems faced in finding feasible solutions to the rural housing are : (i) the breaking down of traditional systems of building, (ii) a lack of adequate technology, building skills, and trained people to help improve the quality of locally built environment, and

Planning of Buildings

(iii) the lack of access to modem building materials, mainly due to non-dffordability. The potential role of professional design by qualified engineers in the rural-house construction process, was not considered as important till the mid-seventies. The major problems facing this area at the moment, inspite of our belated efforts are (Aromar Ravi, 1990) as follows : (i) a lack of knowledge and non-availability of information on appropriate building/constructiontechnology with local materials, (ii) limited existing agencies which adopt a building design to local needs and simultaneously carry out large-scale programmes, (iii) a lack of trained personnel and institutions that are capable of supprtiilg construction, design and repair work in the areas of rural house building, (iv) an inadequate understanding of local resources and design practices, which is a necessary condition for any successful attempt to upgrade them, and (v) a lack of adequate production and distribution systems to popularise innovative systems of design. P The new approach to planning, analysis, design and construction of rural houses would have to be on the following premise : (i) a well designed housing development programme will depend on promoting self-reliance and participation of the people by building up local technical and managerial capability, (ii) an improvement in the built-up environment of the rural poor can be a major catalyst for socio-economic development, (iii) the internal sector(which includes self-employed engineers) has an important and long-term role to play, provided the necessary support systems are available, (iv) to reach the full potential that improved shelter has to offer to the nation, the approvals must necessarily be based on self-financing and variable approach, (v) the major accelerator of improvement in the informal sector is access to information which will provide the ability to restructure the use of available materials, energy,tools and organisational metllods to create new options and alternatives, (vi) any widely acceptable and lasting solution must be low-cost, (vii) better and more appropriate materials of construction which will generate technologies compatible with local needs and resources shall be utilised. (viii) a level of specifications that is appropriate to the level of investment available, and little or no over loads as incurred by formal agencies shall be defied.

3 . 2 . 2 NBO Type Designs

National Buildings Organisation (NBO) was set up by the Government of India under the Ministry of Works and Housing in 1954 as an advisory and coordinating body for all technical matters concerning building and housing. The NBO provides technical guidance in planning and designing of houses, economical use of materials and appropriate construction techniques and sends printed materials on request. Of particular interest to us is the typical '8esign of a house for the poor, which is based on the minimum-needs concept for a plot area of 85 sq m, which is being allotted by the Government to the landless rural families. The house has a plinth area of 20 sq m housing one room with a covered cooking place and an open platform. A sanitary latrine and a washing platform are also provided. The house design allows for construction of another room at a later stage. Based on this typical design, clusters of demonstration houses have been built in several regions of the country. Typical details of two such clusters are furnished in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. These clusters are really based on the concept of aided self-help and are characterised by innovations in walling, roofing and flooring, even though locally available materials were utilised. An important environmental improvement is the provision of a sanitary latrine for each house, wherever feasible.

As a civil engineer, if your know-how can be made available with a view to plan, design and build a cluster of 15 to 20 houses in a village, you will be instrumental in changing the life style of that village.
Table 3.1 :Demonstration House in Karnataka Plinth area Accommodation

Planning and Design of Low-Cost Rural Housing

25.8 m2 2.61 m x 2.74 m

Room ktchen Verandah Bath Room

Specifications

1.22 m x 1.53 m Rough stone in mud mortar for filling, and locally available stone, hammer dressed in mud mortar upto the plinth. Burnt brick in mud mortar. Mangalore tiles on jungle wood rafters and purlins. Gravel flooring with cow dung leaping. Jungle wood frames and seasoned wood shutters, brick jali for windows. Mud plastering with white washing inside and composite lime mortar pointing outside. Rs. 97.00 per m2 in the year 1977. Sanitary latrine with a septic tank.
Table 3.2 :Demonstration House in Rajasthan

Foundation and Plinth

Superstructure Roofing Flooring Joinery Finishing Cost Sanitation

Plinth area Accommodation

21.6 m2 2.74 m x 3.96 m 1.83 m x 2.74 m 1.52 m x 1.20 m Random rubble masonry in mud mortar. Coursed stone masonry in mud mortar. Stone slabs roofing, cement mortar, 1:4 pointing on joints, lime terracing. Mud gobar flooring over consolidated murrum. Jungle wood for doors. Cement mortar 1:3 pointing on walls. Rs. 143.00 per m2 in the year 1979. No provision.

Room Kitchen Bath Room

Specifications

Foundation and Plinth Superstructure Roofing Flooring Joinery Finishing Cost Sanitation

3.2.3 Minimum Standards for Rural Housing

It has been stated earlier that the specifications for rural housing should be commensurate with the investment thaf the rural people could afford. An attempt has been made by NBO to suggest minimum standards for the lowest-income families, both in urban and rural areas, in keeping with their economic capabilities, social needs and level of technological development.

Planning of Buildings

Housing in the rural areas is not a problem of shelter alone. It has to be viewed in the perspective of a variety of basic needs, both physical and social, of the people to whom shelter is to be provided. The four main areas in which the work of laying down progressive standards are as under : (i) Dwellings :governing land use aspects such as residential density and requirement of open spaces; built-up space needs; structural and constructional requirements etc. (ii) Essential services :includes potable water supply, sanitary latrine, drainage etc. (iii) Community Facilities :such as educational buildings, health buildings, community spaces etc. (iv) Public Utilities :providing for transport and communication facilities, power supply, disposal of wastes etc. Standards f& Rural Housing Simple guidelines for rural areas recommended by the National Buildings Organisation (NB 0 ) are as under : (A) Density The density should not exceed 150 houses per hectare (24 houses per acre). (B) Area of Plots The minimum plot area proposed for the landless labourers is 6.1 m x 13.71 m (20' x 45'). This will allow an open space of 2.44 m (8') in the front and 5.83 m (17.38') at the back. At at future date, if the house is to be extended by one more room, a part of the rear open space can be utilised for this purpose. (C) Coverage Not more than 50 percent of the plot area. @) Set-back
A front set-back of 2.44 m (87, with a set-back of 2.3 m (7.5') on at least one side. to give a 4.5 m (15') open space between two houses. (E) Roads

4.5 to 6.1 m wide roads and 7.6 m to 12.2 m wide main village road. Service and back lanes should be avoided. (F) Open Spaces 1.21 hectares of open space for a village with 200 houses; the space should be increased suitably depending upon the size of the village. (G) Essential Services For ensuring a good quality of life, minimum standards conforming to local conditions should be stipulated as under : (i) Water Supply : A covered masonry well, fulfilling sanitation requirements may be provided to serve a cluster of 2040 houses, (ii) Sanitary Latrines : Built-in latrines in individual houses need to be provided with own sanitary method of disposal of excreta adopted to prevent environmental pollution. The latrine may be of the dug-well type with water-seal. Bore-hole type latrines are not recommended, because of their short life, and (iii) Drainage : Surface drainage in villages should be provided and kept in running condition, through proper maintenance for disposal of rain water and waste water emerging from kitchens, bath rooms, etc. / l (H) Community Facilities In addition to the construction of houses and provision of essential services, it should be ensured that adequate community facilities are provided to serve a cluster of nearby villages, as under :
(i) Educational Buildings :Generally, a rural school in India is intended to cater to a population of 200 houses and is located at a distance of not more 2 km from nearby villages,

(ii) Health Buildings :Primary health centres in India shall cater to a population of 50,000, and one sub-centre for every 5000 population is to be located within a 10 km distance. District rural hospitals of 30 beds are to be provided by upgrading one in every 4 primary health centres with specialised services in surgery, medicine, opthalmology, gynaecology and anesthesia, and (iii) Community Space :Community buildings may be grouped on one side of the open space so that the space would have a multipurpose use. Undue economy while providing community spaces will be counter productive.

~lanm'ag and Design of LOW-cost Rural ~ w s i n g

(I) Public Utilities

Transport and communication, power supply and disposal of wastes are the utilities, which will fulfill the social requirements of rural communities. These utilities shall serve the following purposes : (i) Transport and Communication :All weather roads and transport vehicles are essential for fast moving goods and passenger traffic, as also radio, television and telephones, (ii) Power Supply :Street lights and at least one electronic bulb to every house in the rural areas have been provided in some of the states, and (iii) ~ i s ~ o sof a lWastes :The provision of sanitary latrines and disposal of excreta should be given priority. Besides this, sanitary method of disposal of animal waste and garbage should be given due attention. Compost pits, rock-pits and bio-gas plants should be built in large numbers. Smokeless Chullahs must to be provided in every house. The buildihg bye-laws should regulate these developments with the fullest participation and cooperation of the local people for whom these are intended. These minimum standards should in the beginning be considered as targets to be achieved for the betterment of the rural community. Proper guidance and technical advice to the people and the community should be provided on the basis of surveys and studies of the given local situation.

SAQ 1
(a) The population, households and housing stock over the census years 1961,1971 and 1981 are listed in Table 3.3. Draw graphs for households and housing stock in rural and urban areas and record your observations regarding backlog in housing. Table 3.3 :Population and Housing Data (millions)
SI. No. Item Description

(1)

Population Rural Urban Households Rural Urban Residential Housing Units Rural Urban

360.3 78.9

439.1, 109.1

525.5 159.1

1
1

(b) NBO has made available the following datii (NBO, 1987) regarding percenbge distribution of households with reference to wall materials. Draw pie-charts for m a l and urban households.

Planning ot Buildings

Material Grass, leaves. wood and bamboo Mud and Unburnt bricks Burnt bricks Stone Others
Total

Rural 13.64 57.00 17.63 10.73

Ilrban 7.69 22.1 9

53.92

8.10

(c) NBO has made available the following data (NBO, 1987) regarding percentage distribution of households with refererice to roof materials. Draw pie-charts for rural and urban households. Material Grass, leaves, thatch, wood, mud, unbumt bricks and bamboo xles, slale and shingle Corrugated iron and other metal sheets and A. C. sheets Brick, stone or lime Cement, PCC, RCC Others Total Rural 45.38 38.64 4.43 6.38 1.85
3.32
100.00

Urban 17.22 30.16 12.13 16.96 19.96 3.57

100.00

Activity 1
A1 . Proceed to a typical village of less than 200 households near your place of worwresidence, study the layout of a house which is representative of the majority of the houses in this village and draw the plan view of this house with approximate dimensions. Write down the specifications of the foundation, wall, flooring, roof etc. as shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3. A2. Develop a modified proposal as per NBO type design for landless rural people. Indicate the changes in the specifications which will result in a greater durability of a house. A3. Proceed to the nearest village of less than 200 households and survey the exciting provisions for :
I

(a) Water supply (b) Sanitary latrines (c) Drainage (d) Educational facilities (e) Health facilities
(f) Community space
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(g) Transport facilities (h) Communication (Radio, TV,-Phone) units (i) Power supply

( j ) Disposal of wastes
Write a short note on the availability or otherwise of each of the above facilities.

3.3 COMPONENTS OF RURAL HOUSES

Foundation, basement, flooring, walling, doors and windows, a & roofing are the important components of a rural house; plasteringlfinishing are also important. National Buildings Organisation of India and the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee have published a variety of handouts, based on their research, to popularise new methods and materials and also to improve existing methods of construction. We shall study some of these materials and methods which are of immediate applicability to the rural areas.

Planning and Design of Low-Cost Rural Ho~lrring

3.3.1 Lime Mortar and Concrete

Lime has been used in India as a material of construction from very ancient days. Due to the variability of the quality of limestone from region to region and in the methods of burning, slaking, storing and using lime, construction with lime has been discouraged to a large extent by engineers. The Central Building Research Institute of Roorkee has evolved a design of efficient lime kilns, (CBRI, 1981) and the Bureau of Indian Standards has come out with a large number of specifications for the manufacture and use of lime (IS 1971, IS 1974 and IS 1980) in mortar, concrete and water-proofing roof finish~s. The time has come for reviving the use of lime in the rural and semi-urban areas, since lime-stone is one raw material which is available in plenty in India, even though it has wide variations in cornpostion. Cement manufacture is energy and capital intensive and its replacement by lime, in addition to being economical, encourages manufacture of lime in a very large number of small-capacitykilns in rural areas. In this section, you will be learning about the use of lime in the rural buildings, and a few definitions of commonly used terms are essential which are as follows : The calcined material, major part of which is calcium oxide (CaO) in natural association with a relatively small amount of magnesium oxide (MgO) and which is capable of slaking with water. The lime which has high CaO content and is dependent for setting and hardening oddly on the absorption of carbon dioxide (Cot) from the atmosphere.
A dry powder obtained by treating quick-lime with water, enough to satisfy its chemical affinity for water. It consists essentially of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and some magnesium hydroxide Flg(OH)2].

Lime containing small quantities of silica and alumina and a little iron oxide which are in combination with some of the calcium oxide content, giving a putty of mortar on wetting, which has the property of setting and hardening under water. Building limes can also be classified as under : Class A : Eminently hydraulic lime used for h c t u r a l purposes. Class B : ~e&-hydrauliclime used for mortar for masonry work. Class C : Fat-lime used mainly for a finishing coat in plastering, whitewashing and with suitable pozzolana such as surki to ppluce artificial hydraulic mortar.
Pozzolana . Siliceous materials which, while in itself possessing no-cementitious properties, will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide even at ordinary temperatures to form a compound possessing cementitious properties, e.g. surki and flyash. Lime Mortar for Use in Buildings Though lime mortar has been used extensively in conshktion work, from time immemorial, its advantages and potential for use in specific situations have not been precisely assessed and appreciated. Workability, an importkt property, is the

Harming of Buildings

working consistency of a mortar or plastering mix as judged by the worker from its behaviour during application. A mortar is said to have suitable workability when it is easy to spread without separation of water or segregation of the solid material of the mix. The grade of masonry mortar, expressed in ~tmrr?,that is, its strength at the age of 28 days as found from cube specimens of 5 cm or 7 cm size, also an important property of a mix. Eminently, hydraulic limes and semi-hydraulic limes corresponding to Class A and Class B types are suitable as masonry mortars, whereas fat-limes corresponding to Class C will require mixing with surki or flyash. Common mix proportions of lime mortars are given in Table 3.4. Table 3.4 :Mix Proportions for Lime Mortars Part by Volume Description of Mortar Limecement Lime-cement Limecement Lime 1 A*
2B

Cement 1 1 1

Pozzolana

Sand
6 9

Comp. Strength at 28 days (~lmm) '

Hardening time (min) 14 14 14 14

28

3 to 5
2 to 3

3B or 3C
1C 1B

1
-

12
2

0.7to1.5 0.7 to 1.5 0.5to0.7

Lime-Pozzolana Lime

* Note : Letters stand for lime classification.

Lime Plastering Lime plasters are characterised by high workability and are generally suited for indoor surfaces. They are not suitable for exterior surfaces in areas of heavy raidall, very damp places and in places where extreme water tightness is required. In such places, 1C : 1 : 6 lime-cement-sand combination mortar is recommended. Lime plastered surfaces are especially suitable for receiving finishes, such as white wash, colour wash, and distemper because of the good adhesive proprieties of lime plastered surfaces. However, where cement based paints are to be applied, lime plastered surfaces are not suitable. Metals in contact with lime plaster are liable to corrosion as the plaster is not impervious to the movement of moisture. As a general rule, any coat of plaster shall not be stronger than the-base of the previous coat. Each coat may not be more than 15 mm thick and the second coat not more than 10 mm. Range of the number of coats normally employed for different backgrounds are as follows : brickwork, 1 or 2; stone work, 2 or 3; concrete blocks, 1 or 2; wood laths, 2 or 3; soffits and ceilings, 1 or 2. The plaster may crack due to one or more of the following reasons : (a) quick drying of the mortar due to hot weather and low humidity or inadequate curing, (b) when a strong mix has been applied on a weak background, (c) lack of proper raking of joints, and (d) discontinuity in background, such as change from wall to ceiling, from concrete to brickwork etc. The plaster may develop surface crazing due to excessive shrinkage caused by drying. Crazing may be avoided by : (a) use of well graded sand, (b) thorough grinding of mortar and thorough mixing of different ingredients, (c) observance of adequate time intervals between successive coats, and (d) avoidance of quick drying in initial stages. Lime Mortar for Masonry As a general rule lime mortar gains strength slowly and has low ultimate strength compared to cement mortar. Lime Inortar for masonry consists of an intimate mixtures of lime as binder and sand, burnt claytsurki, cinder as fine aggregate in

the proportion of 1 : 2 or 3. The main advantage of lime mortar lies in its good workability, good water retentivity and low shrinkage. Masonry in lime mortar has, thus, better resistance against rain penetration and is less liable to cracking, though its strength is much less than masonry made in cement mortar.
Cement Lime Mortar

Plaoning and Desi$n of JAW-cost R I I Housing ~

It has the good qualities of cement, as well as lime mortar, that is meaum strength along with good workability, good water retentivity, freedom fromaacks and good resistance against rain penetration. Commonly adopted proportions of combination mortar are IC : IL : 6 s and 1C : 2L : 9 s where C stands for cement and L for lime of Class A or B.
Optimum Mortar Mixes

In Table 3.5, optimum mortar mixes for obtaining maximum masonry strength with bricks of different strengths are given. Table 3.5 : Optimum Mortar Mixes for Bricks of Different Strengths
Brick Strength (NImm2) Mortar Mixes by Volume (Cement :Lime :Sand) Use in Masonry Buildings

Below 5 5.1 to 14 15 to 25
Lime Concrete

1:0:6 1:2:9 1:0:5 1: 1:6 1:0:4 1 : 0.5 : 4.5

1 to 2 storeys 2 to 3 storeys 3 to 4 storeys.

Lime concrete, in spite of its low strength, can be used in several situations in rural construction, such as in wall foundations, under-floor finishes and for roof-terracing work. Lime concrete is found to have many desirable properties and advantages in building construction. Properly prepared, compacted and laid,lime concrete is durable under normal exposures. Lime concrete poses considerable resistance to sulphate attack, and can be used in foundations and areas in which soil contains considerable quantities of soluble sulphates or where sub-soil water table is high. It also undergoes negligible volume change after setting and initial shrinkage. Workability of lime concrete will be generally satisfactory, if well graded aggregates are used in the proportions recommended in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 :Recommended Mixes for Lime Concrete Volume Proportion of Mortar Coarse Aggregate Proportion of Mortar to Coarse Aggregate

Situations

Foundation

1 L*: 2 s 1C:3L:12S 1 L*: 2 s 1C:3L:12S 1 L* : 2 S 1C :2L:12S

Stone or broken bricks(5Omm) Stone or broken bricks(50mm) Broken brick or cinder (20 to 25 mm)

40 to 50 parts of mortar to 100 parts of aggregate

II

Base Concrete Levelling course or cushioning layer under floor

It

* Grade A Lime

Planting of Buildings

SAQ 2
(a) List the reasons as to why lime ha$ become unpopular in recent years in building construction. List the reasons for reviving the use of lime in rural areas. Caclined lime (Cd)) hardens by either combining with carbon dioxide (C02) or by hydration with water (Hz<)).Give the chernical equations for these processes. Explain the action of Pozzolanic materials in lime mortar. What is generally available in the market is C grade lime and shell Itme. They are generally used for while washing. For the use of C grade lime as tnortar, find the proportion of lime-pazzolana-sand or lime-cement-sand tc~ give 0.7 to 1.5 ~ l r n r n compressive ~ strength in 14 days. What is the advantage of lime plastered surfaces vis-a-v~s surface finishes ? List Lhe reasons for cracking of lime plaster. List the reasons for surface crazing of linle plaster. Most of the rural houses are single storey buildings; low strength bricks and lime mortar are adequate. Suggest a suitable lime mortar mix for rural buildings. It is economical to use lime-brick jelly concrete for foundation and flooring. Suggest a mix proportion using C grade lime for foundation. Recent sutdies show that 1 cement : 1 C grade lime : 6 sand is a good construction mortar for various purposes. List the advantages of using such a mortar in rural housing.

Activity 2
Al. Proceed to the nearest lime kiln in your locality and list the activities involved ' in the process of burning limestone or sea shells to yield quick lime. ~ 2 Locate . a housing site and list the activities involved in the slaking of lime for use as mortar or white washing.
a

3.3.2 Building Wall with Stabilised Mud Blocks

The conventional method of constructing mud walls by the rural people~includes adding water to the available soil and piling lumps of the resulting mud, one over the another, until the wall is raised up. The mud wall is plastered with the paste of the same soil inixed with small quantities of cowdung and straw. This method of raising the wall facilitates early deterioration, and the wall often is not strong enough to support a roof. This is why the roof is independently supported by 6 or more bamboo or casurina posts. This type of wall construction should, therefore, be discouraged. Soil is used as a construction material in two other types of construction, namely, rammed earth and adobe or sundried bricks or blocks. In the rammed earth type of construction the soil is rammed between wooden moulds to construct a solid mass of wall with the help of side shuttering. The shuttering can be n~oved horizontal1y or vertically until the wall is completed. When earth is rammed into a confined space at the optimum moisture content, its resistance to erosion by rain is increased. Furthermore, the wall will be of uniform thickness and attain verticality. But, experience shows that point or such a wall may crack under concentrated loads coining from the thatch or tiled roofs. This type of construction with mud is best avoided. Thc term adobe originated from the spanish word meaning a building material consisting of loam, straw and such other materials. In adobe type of construction, the usual practice is to mould the earth into blocks and build the wall with these blocks. This method provides for the shrinkage of these small units (blocks) to take place before being laid into a wall. This type of construction is quite popular in Mexico and some South American countries. However, indian construction practice has, for some reason, avoided adobe constructions.

Sun-dried bricks are popular in India for semi-permanent buildings in certain areas. Sun-dried bricks are moulded from clay and dried in the sun. These are, however, incapable of withstanding the softening and erosive action of rain water. Tests have indicated that if coal tar is added at the rate of 0.5 to 1 percent (by weight of soil) to the clay, both the erosion resistance and compressive strength of walls stand improved. This brings us to the concept of stabilisation of soil with small quantities of tarhitumen or limelcement. Stabilized Mud Blocks
An appropriate type of chosen soil, when compacted at optimum moisture content, can be made strong and durable by the addition of a stabilizing agent. Stabilisation enables the soil to retain its shape and a significant proportion of its strength even when wetted to the point of saturation. Various types of stabilising agents have been used. Some of them are substances which act as water-proofing agents; the most important of these being bitumen, asphat and certain resins. Also, there are admixtures which acquire and retain rigidity on the addition of water and provide a rigid skeleton to the compacted soil; of this type, portland cement is the most commonly used. There is now a large fund of experience with cement as a stabilising medium. Moreover, there are substances such as lime whicli react chemically and physically with certain constituents of the soil and strengthen it.

Planning and Design o f Low-CostRuml Housing

The quantity of cement added to soil for stabilisation varies from 2.5 to 5 percent by volume. Sandy soils require less amount of cement for stabilisation, while clayey soils need more. It has been found that the use of 1% lime and 1% cement in a stabilised soil mass gives better results than the addition of 2.5% cement. Out of the various industrial organic products tried so far, the use of molasses (jaggery) has been found to be the most effective for improving the compressive strength and reducing Ule permeability of soils. For stabilisation purposes, the total quantity of inaterial normally added to the soil mass is 5% by weight. It is important to note that naturally available rurai building materials such as mud can be improved by the addition of small quantities of costlier factory made materials. This is cost and energy wise, cheaper than using burnt bricks. Here, it is important to note that the load coining from thatched and tiled roofs on the wall does not require the use of high-strength blick masonry made in lime or cement mortar. Stabilised soil is generally made into blocks of 30 cm x 15 cm x 10 cm or 30 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm in a hand operated block-making press, such as the Ellson Block Master, which is made by Kathiawar Metal mn Works Ltd., Rajkot, and its cost is of the order of Rs. 15,000. More recently, an improved version has been designed and marketed by Aeroweld Industries, B-9 HAL Industrial Estate, Bangalore - 560 037. The size of the blocks is 30.5 cm x 14.4 cm x 10 cm or 23 cm x 19 cm x IOcm. One such machine can be utilised to make 300 - 500 blocks per day by four unskilled workmen. Average number of blocks required for a two-roomed house is about 2500. If these macliines can be hired out to the house builder for one week, he can make the required number of blocks for building his rural house. The compressive strength of these blocks varies from 1.5 to 3.5 ~ l r n m 'which is adequate to carry the weight of tiled-roofs. These houses can be plastered with combination mortar of 1 cement : 1 lime : 6 sand on the outside and then, white washed. On the inside, stabilised mud plaster can be used. As a civil engineer, you can acquire one such machine and propagate this system of construction in rural areas. . .
\

(;I,

T,l\t

lliffcrciit types of cc3nstruction of a wall with mud.

! b)

h011 st;~hll~sation w~th small quantities of

different factory made building m;rtcnals helps in the followii~g m m ~ e r mark : true or false :
(I)

Water-proofing Improves with bitumen.

!TI (TI
(T)

(F)

(2) R~gidity 1s provlded by hydrated cement.

(3) So111s strengthened with 11me.
"

(F)
(F)

".
I

rhc number of lnud hlocks (30 cm x 15 cm x 10 cm size) required for a

t . , . , ~1,

I, : ~ - rt ,i ~r u , ~ lIII)U\L 'IL~

W rnnny blocks can be made per day by four unskilled ' What rc thr compre&?i\t.\u;j~gih of such hlocks 7

3.3.3 Economical Doors and Windows

TradiMnal doors and windows have three important components, the frame, the shutter and-the fixtures. The frame and shutter are normally made from well seasoned wood and the fixtures are made of iron, anodised metals or aluminum. Increasing scarcity and high cost of good timber has considerably increased the utility of precast R.C.C. door and window frames, which are not only durable but also markedly economical and easy to produce. Many enterprising people who have been making cement articles and selling them in semi-urban areas have also started manufacturing R.C.C door and window frames.
Materials Used

Cement concrete, M200 grade, with well graded coarse and fine aggregates should be used for making these frames. The maximum nominal size of aggregate should not exceed 10 mm. Mild steel bars are normally, used as reinforcement.
Section of Frames

The cross section of frames is usually 100 mm x 60 mm or 70 mm x 75 mm for single shutter doors. Three bars of 6 mm diameter are provided as minimum reinforcement. The bars should be held firmly by means of 3 mm diameter steel wires spaced at not more than 300 mm centre to centre. A concrete cover of 12 mm should be provided for the main bars.
Moulds

Properly. seasoned timber of good quality should be used for preparing the moulds. They should be stiffened suitability to prevent loss of shape. Fix-up devices and hold fasts should be incorporated in the mould at the casting stage itself. The moulds for doors q d windows can be for individual members of the frame or for the whole frame.
Casting and Curing

It is preferable to cast the horizontal and vertical members of the frame separately, as it will avoid difficulties in transport and handling. One of the main reinforcement bars has a suitable projection, or a separate bar may be placed centrally in the vertical member to locate itself into holes provided at the corresponding points in the horizontal member at the top. The horn projections of the horizontal member are optional. After pouring concrete into the mould.it should be vibrated with mechanical vibrators. The frames nlay be removed from the mould, 24 hours after casting. They should be cured under water for at least 4 days followed by maturing period of 24 days at a covered place before they are ready to be used.
Fixing Devices and Holdfasts

The frames should be held in position with the help of holdfasts which are inserted at the time of casting the frames. The projecting portion of the holdfasts should be firmly embedded in the wall with concrete. Arrangemeilts are to be made in the frame for receiving tower bolts etc. A 6 rnrn thick M.S plate, long enough to project out of the frame at the appropriate place, is welded to one of the main reinforcement bars. This projected portion has a hole to receive the tower bolt which is fixed to the door leaf.
Erection

The vertical members should be held in position with the help of suitable supports and the horizontal member is placed over them. The joints between the members are grouted with cement-sand slurry (1:2), and neatly pointed flush. The assembled frame should be plumbed correctly before the holdfasts are fixed in the walls with cast-in-situ concrete. Shutters should be fixed to frames with the help of hardwood blocks which are bolted to the styles (verticals) of the R.C.C frame. Hard wood blocks 150 mn long and 45 or 50 mnl x 30 i m cross section, with holes to allow insertion of two 6 Inn1 diameter, M. S. bolts, rnay be used for fixing the shutters. Suitable spacers should be kept in the mould at the hinge positions, while casting the frames, with the help of 6 mm diameter M. S. bolts, nuts and washers.

Fixing Shutters

Special Considerations The cast members of the frames should be handled with care to avoid cracking a ~ d damage to edges which cannot be repaired satisfactorily. Hammering of any kind should be avoided while fixing the frames and shutters. The quality and surface finish of the frames can be improved by vibration and use of well prepared moulds. I l ~ frame c IIUY be painted.

Flanning and Design of Low-Cost Rural Housing

Activity 3 A1 . Sketch the elevation of the wooden frame of a single-leaf door i11your
residence. Mark the dimensions. Sketch the details of fixing devices used, as also the various types of bolts and door-stoppers. A2. Assuming that you will be using 100 mm x 60 mm concrete frame, sketch the provisions to be made for fixing the shutter hinges and accommodating the tower bolts and door stoppers. A?. Sketcll the plan view and cross sections of a wooden mould (for repetitive casting) for the vertical members of a door frame. Similarly, sketch the detiiils of the top horizontal member. A4. Sketch the reinforcement cages to be used for the vertical members and the top horizontal inember of a reinforced concrele door frame. A5. Sketch the frame and fixture details of a RCC window of 80 cm x 100 cm size with horizontal bars of 12 mm diameter at 8 cm intervals. The window should have three styles (verticals).

3.3.4 The Roof

A variety of materials and techniques have been adopted for the construction of roofs of houses in rural areas. The thatched roof, roofs with a variety of tiles, stonelslate roofs and the brick terrace can all be seen in our villages. But most of the villagers are forced to adopt thatched roofs since the raw material and labour are locally available at a low cost. But thatched roofs are becoming increasingly expensive due to shortage of bamboo and also because of the need for frequent replacement, say once in 2 or 3 years. Furthermore, there i~ the ever present threat of fire and damage caused by cyclones etc. The cost of the roof accounts for 25 to 40 percent of the total cost of construction of rural houses. It is the dream of every villager to own a house which is built durably with burnt-brick used in walls and tiles for the roof. Flat roofs are preferred even in nual areas in many Northern States where the weather is hot and dry. This is because a terrace or even a first floor is available to accommodate the need of a growing family for more space. Corrugated roofing sheets, such asA.C. Sheets. G.I. Sheets and Everest light weight roofing sheets are not popular, as they conduct a lot of heat into the house in the summer months. while the R.C.C flat roof is ideally suited, the technology of its economical design and construction is beyond the conceptualisation and capabilities of rural artisans, and besides, such a roof is very costly. All over the world, provision of an economical flat roof for rural houses has always been a challenging problem. In this section, we will describe a new kind of roofing system, namely, the brick-panel roofing, which has the advantages of prefabrication, use of locally available burnt bricks and a minimum need of cement and steel reinforcement. It results in a 30 to 40 percent saving over the conventional R.C.C. flat roof and provides ample scope for unaided self of maintenance. help, It also needs rniniinu~n Description of Brick-panel Roofing This roofing system consist? of brick panels of rectangular shape, which are laid over reinforced concrete joists (Figure 3.1). A weathering course is also required as i n the case of terraccd and reinforced concrete roofs.

Plan~ti~ig of Buildings
Wooden box mould

Joinb filled with 1:2:4 cement concrete. appr. 30-60 mm wide

Bricks. laid flat 220 X 110 X 75 mm

figure 3.1 :Roofing Panels

Brick Panels Brick panels consist of good quality country bricks (5 to 7 ~ l m m compressive ~ strength) placed in rows within a rectangular wooden framework/mould with two or three, 6 inm, reinforcement bars placed in the joints. The joints are filled with 1:2:4 cement concrete, using baby jelly (stone chips of 5 mm or less). The top surface is finished with cement mortar of 1:5 proportion, 10 rnm thick. These panels are eventually placed upside down, thus avoiding plastering of the underside of the roof, which therefore, avoids wastage of mortar that would otherwise occur.
\

A good level ground is prepared for accommodating a day's productioil of brick panels, polythene sheets are spread, moulds are placed in position,and filled, and the brick panel is made. The side forms can be removed within minutes and reused. The panels can be removed within 24 hours and cured for 14 days, then stacked near the building site. The panels weigh 50 to 60 kg and two men can handle these panels. R.C. Joists The reinforced concrete joists, which will support the brick panels can be fabricated in another yard. The reinforcement mesh consists of longtitudinal bars and triangular stirrups of appropriate sizes, depending on the size of the room as shown in Figure 3.2.
/-

Cast-in-situ Joint

,-

t - - s tn

RCC
Brick panels

100

Mortar

tin~sh 10 m m Precast RC(1 Joist

Figure 3 . 2 :Brick Panel System

Thc mesh is placed in wooden inoulds, and concrete (1 : 2 : 4) with 12 mni stone aggregates, is placed and consolidated in the mould. Framework can be stripped after 3 hours. The joists are water-cured for 14 to 21 days and stacked near the building site. Assembly When adequate number of joists and brick panels are ready and the brick walls of the room have been built upto the required height, the assembly of brick pailel roo1 is undertaken. First and foremost, the precast joists are lifted and placed at suitable iiltervals over the wall and this may require the efforts of four men. A single pole derrick will be of great help to place, the brick panels in position sequentially. Upto this stage, the problem is seen as one of prefabrication, which descrves to he iiitroduced to the rural people.

It is to be realised that costly and time consuming form work has been avoided. Furthermore, the use of semi-skilled labour (or, self help) further reduces the cost. The joints between brick panels have to be properly handled. Reinforcement bars of 6 mm diameter and 550 mm long are placed perpendicular to the direction of the joists, at least one per panel and tied to the joist reinforcement. Concrete of 1:2:4 proportion with baby jelly (5 rnm stone aggregate) is placed and consolidated in the joints.
Screed Concrete

Planning ~d Dcsign (*I h w - c o s t RIIA Housing

The most important aspect of brick-panel roofing is the placement of screed concrete which intergrates the brick panels and joists and acts as a structural element which resists the bending compression of the system. The screed concrete is of the ,same proportion as the concrete which may be used in the joints. Its thickness is 3 cm and it should be cured for 21 days.
Weathering Course

It must be realised that bricks and even concrete allow the passage of water (they being porous to some extent) and this reduces their durability. A weathering course over these surfaces is thus, important. Two coats of hot bitumen are first applied over the screed concrete. Broken brick-jelly and lime-surki mortar of 2 : 1 : 1 proportion, by volume, are mixed and laid for 7L cm thickness, starting from one comer and proceeding diagnoally to the
2

opposite comer. Proper slope should be given with reference to roof drainage. the lime concrete surface, one layer of bumt-clay terracing tiles shall be laid over a thin layer of lime mortar and joints finished with the same lime mortar. This weather proofing layer must be cured for 14 to 21 days and the proofing of brick panel is now complete.
011

Precautions

The brick-panel roofing is a relatively new process to the rural artisans and hence, requires constant care and control by engineers, if one is to popularise this roofing system Following aspects, therefore, assume importance : (i) First and foremost, the bricks should be well burnt, strong and of low water-absorption quality, say less than 20%. (ii) The brick panels should be made under the supervision of a skilled mason and should be moulded to uniform size and shape. (iii) The R.C.C. joists are the main load carrying members, arid should be cast in proper moulds under the supervision of an engineer. (iv) The transportation and erection of brick panels and joists should be done without causing damage to the units. (v) As in any prefabrication process, the joists be propped at mid-span before assembling the brick panels and laying the screed concrete, and the props may be removed only after the screed concrete has attained its full strength. (vii) The limeconcrete weathering course is to be laid to proper slope to expedite drainage and should be tamped to its maximum density by wooden tampers. -. The main advantage of brick-panel roofing is that it can be assembled rapidly with the help of a supervisor, two masons and four unskilled workmen. Locally available bricks, baby jelly, brick jelly and small amounts of reinforcement bars are utilised, with iiegligible use of timber (for making moulkQ only). Thcre are essentially three sizes of rooms of low cost houses - 1.15 m, 2.17 m, and 3.3 m wide, but tlie length may vary. NBO recommends the requirement of reinforcements as shown in Table 3.7. The hrick panel roof incorporates many teclmical, aesthetic and economical features, which are ideally suited to rural mass-housing projects. It is time that innovations in construction are introduced to the local artisans and brick-panel roofing has many inilovative ideas.

Planning of Buildings

Table 3.7 :Technical Details of Bllck Panel Roofing

I Spans (mm) I Item

1150

2170

3300

Brick Panels Joist size* Reinforcement at Bottom Reinforcement at Top Stirrups 2 Nos. 10 mm diameter bars

m x 1040 mm (18 bricks) 560 i

2 Nos. 10 m y and 1 No. 6 m m diameter bars 1 No. 6 mn dia. 6 mm dia. at 23 cms.

3 Nos. 12 mm diameter bars

1 No. 6 mm dia. 6 mm dia. at 23 cms

1 No. 6 nun dia, 6 mm dia. at 15 cms.

* 130 mm width and 100 nun depth.

(a) List the components of brick panel roofing. of a brick panel roof, iliclusive of the depth of tlie (b) What will be the th~ckness joists ?

---

Activity 4
A1 . Proceed to the nearest village of less than 200 households and list the different types of floors that have been adopted and report on their durability as well as the shortcomings, if any. A2. Find out from the local mason as to how a mud floor is laid and write out the specifications for adoption in the mass-housing schemes sponsored by the government agencies.

3.3.5 Flooring with Local Materials

Several methods are available for flooring in rural houses, such as: (1) Overlaying with 18 mm, Surki-Cement mortar of 1 cement : 0.125 surki : 5 sand, over brick-jelly concrete of 1 lime : 1.5 of well ground surki, with aggregate about twice the volume of mortar. (2) Brick-on-edge flooring with cement mortar pointing. (3). 25 mm cement concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 proportion over a base of 100 & thick sand and 75 mm thick lime concrete of brick jelly and 40% lime mortar.
(4) Mudcowdung leaping over rammed earth. Wherever lime and bricks are readily available the first three types of flooring may be preferred as these may not require replacement or repair often. If the building is built with mud-wall or unburnt clay bricks or stabilized mud block wall, then it is better to use mud, cow-dung leaping over rammed earth for which rural people have adequate experience. But frequent replacement is-inevitable. At least the bath-room and kitchen shall have the third type of flooring to ensure a degree of water-tightness.

3.3.6 Rural Sanitary Latrines

Proper disposal of human waste is an important part of environmentalsanitation, since the intestinal infections, so common to man, are tranmittedd by faecal discharge of sick persons through carriers of disease such as flies, drinking water, contaminated food sold I on the roadside, etc.

--

To control the spread of such diseases it is only necessary to provide a barrier between the source of infection (the excreta) and the susceptable host (the human being) by preventing faecal matter from coming into direct contact with men or with their food or with their drinking water:
A sanitary latrine of the pour-flush type and a disposal pit are not expensive but are effective in controlling faecal borne diseases and are easy to build in rural areas. Every rural household should have one such latrine, since the cost of building it is far less than the cost of medial care otherwise necessary; and there will be less loss of man power and human life due to faecal borne disease (NBO, 1989).

Plawing and Design of JAW-costRUA Housing

Essential Parts The essential parts of a sanitary latrine as are (Figure 3.3) :
(1) Pan,

(2) Trap, (3) Lead-off Pipe, (4) Plate or Slab with Foot-rest, and (5) Pit. The length of the pan is 430 mm. The width of the front portion of the pan is 130 i m and the width at the widest part is 200 mm. The depth of the front portion of the pan should be at least 75 mm so as to serve as urine splash guard. There is uniform slope from front to back at 25 degree gradient. Lower pan opening shall be 75 mm in diqneter. The trap can be 70 to 75 rnrn in diameter. However, upper opening of the trap which is connected to the pan should be 75 mm. Experience has shown that a trap having 75 mm diameter gives a high velocity flush with large masses of faecal matter. The recommended depth of water seal is 20 mm.

The lead off pipe is to be used when the squatting plate is set off from the pit. It should be 75 mm in diameter. The pit is of 750 mm diameter or 750 rnrn square and 2000 mm or 3000 mm depth. This pit will eventually fill up and should be closed with earth and a new pit is to be used (Figure 3.3). If a filled pit is covered with earth and left unutilised, the faecal matter matures in a year or so and can be utilised as a fertilizer. While the first filled pit is maturing,,a second pit is dug and the lead off pipe should be

Planning of Buildings

switched to drain into the second pit. The minimum distance between the two pits should be 100 cm clear. In loose soil, brick-work lining is essential for the pit.

PLAN
Figure 3.4 :Arrangements of Pits

The slab or squatting plate is of cement concrete with the minimum dimension of 900 mm square, but it can be larger. It is 50 mm thick at the outer edge. There is a 1 2 mm slope towards the pan so that the slab is 38 mm thick at the pan opening in the centre. The slope is necessary to drain off all water from the plate into the Pan. The overall length of the footrest is 350 mm and its back edge extends to 75 mm beyond the outer rim of the pan, at its widest diameter. The inner edge of the footrest continues forward along the rim of the pan and then angles off for a distance of 130 mm. The front edge is 145 mm wide and forms a right angle with the outer edge of the footrest. The minimum height of the footrest is 12 mm. The back portion is raised slightly (12 mm) as to give a slope which makes for a more comfortable squatting position. Superstructure

The specifications of a structure vary according to the means of the family. An ordinary structure can be constructed with bamboo posts at four comers and with bamboo matting as walling, with a bamboo matting door in the front. The floor ot the latrine should be such that it can be washed and kept clean. The clear height of the roof should be, at least 2 m. A more permanent brick construction is, however, always preferable. Construction The pan, the trap, the squat-plate and the lead-off pipe can be manufactured at a central place from where they may be supplied to a number of villages. A number of State Governments give subsidies to defray the cost of pan, trap and squathrig plate. Latrine Location There is a minimum safe distance between the latrine and a source of water supply. Many factors such as slope and the level of ground water and soil perineability are to be considered. Recommended safe distance between the drinking water well and the latrine is 15 m. A latrine is more likely to be kept clear1 if it is located close to the house or other buildings which it serves.

Planning a ~ Design d of

Activity 5
Conduct a survey in the nearest village of less than 200 households regarding the number and types of latrines available and record the desirability or objection to the provision of such latrines in their house sites.

Low-Cost Rural Housing

3.4 TREATMENT OF THATCHED ROOFS

It has been stated earlier that nearly 612 million people of India live in its 557,000 and odd villages, and over 40 percent of the rural houses are built with thatch and timber roofs. Tliese houses are cotlstantly exposed to fire hazards. The continued action of fungi and bacteria reduces the durability of the roofing materials and thus, the roofs require frequerlt replacements.
The continuous maintenance cost required for these rural houses can be crippling to the surviv:il of the poor householders who may have only some sort of cottage industry such as weaving for livelihood. Even though the National Buildings Organisation has been pioneering the use of chemicals to improve the fire-resistance of thatches, there is very little of preservative treatment for thatches, straw, grass, palm leaves etc. available in practice.
A number of terms such as fire-proof, fire-retardant and fire-resistant materials are in use and they have been used interchangeably. A material which is fire-proof is rare indeed, and the word 'fire-proof' connotes total unaffecectness by f i e . On the other hand, fire-retardant and fire-resistant materials have drastically lower inflammability; they bum slowly and do not spread the fire rapidly; but they too are substantially altered and eventually consumed by the fire. The .words 'resist' and 'retard' imply partial but not complete barrier to fire; but this barrier may save lives and may delay the spread of fire until help arrives.

Fires occur quite frequently in villages due to the fact that cheap fuel in the form of loose combustible materials such as dry leaves, dry twigs and sticks giving rise to flying embers; md fires also spread due to the fact that rural houses are built with low ceilings. When such fires occur, inore often than not, they spread fast engulfing the entire village, causing loss of or injury to human lives and cattle and damage to property. Yet no effort has been made to adopt fire-retardant treatments to existing thatched roofs. You as a rural engineer, can render a valuable service by popularising fire retardant treatments which are really simple, cheap and effective (CBRI, 1981).

3.4.1 Antiseptic Treatment for Protection against Fungi and Insects

and Fire Retardant Treatment

Preservat~ve treatment may extend the service life of grass and palmyra thatches from 3 to 12 years. Besides treating the thatch, it is also necessary to treat the bamboos which are used for supports and the framework, and also the ropeslstrings that will be used for binding. Proportioil of ingredients of the treatment is as follows : (1) Fertiliser grade diammonium phosphate (2) Sodium fluoride 99-95% (by weight) 0.05% (by weight)

Purpose Dian~nonum phosphate acts as a fire-retardant chemical and Sodium fluoride as an insecticide as well as fungicide. As these chemicals are water-soluble, it is advisable to paint the thatch with the fire-retardant and then apply water-repellent paint over the treated thatch. Procedure (a) Impregnation of Thatch : Dry the thatch material by spreading it out in the sui~. Prepare a 14% solution in water of the above combination of chemicals. Irninerse the thatch material in this chemical solution and leave it to soak for 10 to

Planning of Buildings

12 hours. Again dry it in the sun by spreading it out. Similarly, treat the bamboos and ropeslstrings. Assemble the thatch roof in the customary manner. (b) Protection Against Leaching : To make the treatment durable, the upper surface of the thatch is to be coated or sprayed with a fire-retardant and water-repellent paint. The following chemicals are required to prepare such a paint : (1) Zinc oxide 15% by weight (2) Mica Powder 15% by weight (3) Talc Powder (4) Chlorowax * (5) Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion 15% by weight 30% by weight 25% by weight

(6) Spirit in a quantity adequate to give the desired consistency for brushinglspraying.

* (Containing not less than 40% Chlorine)

Take Zinc oxide, Mica powder and Talc powder in BS 300 mesh size that is passing 53 micron sieve and mix thoroughly and add 30% Chlorowax to the above mixture in small lots and make a homogeneous paste. At this stage, add 25% polyvinyl acetate emulsion to the paste gradually and again mix till homogeneity is achieved. Add spirit which serves as a thinner, in sufficient quantity, for brushinglspraying. Store this paint in an air-tight container and apply the same to the roof. Cost of lhatment Ordinarily, a rural house has 25 m2 of area and the area of thatched roof will be about 32 m2. To make a roof of this size fire-retardant, the cost will be of the order of Rs. 2501- and this will, in addition, increase the life of the roof by about 10 years.

Activity 6
Prepare a fire-retardant solution, as discussed above, to coat a 30 cm x 30 cm coconut leaf matting and then place on it a fire-stand (4 cm x 4 cm x 2 cm wooden block) which had been set on fire in a charcoal stove. Observe the spread of fire on the treated and also an untreated coconut leaf matting and compare the performances.

3.4.2 Mud Coated Thatches

Existing roofs can be made fire-retardant by coating them with a layer of specially prepared mud, provided the rafters (of bamboo) supporting the roof can take the additional weight of mud layer. Materials Required Mud, chopped straw, cow dung, bitumen; kerosene and paraffin wax. Preparation of Mud Add 64 kg of chopped straw to 1 cubic meter of mud, taken from a pond, while the mud should have 25 to 30 percent of clay and the rest may be silt or sand. This mixture must be kept wet for 1 week and should be frequently mixed with a shovel and kneaded by foot or otherwise. Preparation of Bitumen Bitumen of 801100 grade is melted in a tar drum and added to kerosene gradually in the proportion of 100 : 20, and then 1 part by weight of paraffin wax in molten form is added and mixed well. Mixing Bitumen with Mud To the mud already prepared, the bitumen mix (as discussed above) is added, at the rate of 25% by weight and well mixed with shovel and then kneaded. This mix is now ready for application over the thatched roof.

Application over Roof

PIrlnninp ; u ~ d I)esign of law-Cost Wumi Housilrg

The water-proof mud plaster prepared (described as above) is applied with trowel as a flrst coat of 10 to 15 mrn at the top and 10 mm at the bottom of the thatched roof. When this has dried, a second coat of 10 mm is applied at the top to close the cra~ing of the first coat. When this has also dried up, two coats of cow dung-mnudbitun~en.in the proportion of 4 : 4 : 1. with required bitumen-kerosene m the ratio of 1 : 2 is brushed on in two coats. To make the roof appear white, white-wash mixed wlth animal glue may be applied.
Ct~t

Such an application will increase the durability of the roof to 618 years costing only Rs. 8001- for a house of 25 m2 plinth area.

3.5 WATER PROOFING OF MUD WALLS

Most of the houses In villages are built with sun-dried bricks or blocks or with lump-mud. Mud walls are usually sought to be protected against damage from rain by applying mud plaster. consisting of local soil or mud, collected from village ponds, and mixed with chopped straw and rendered with cowdung slurry. While this conventional method is cheap, it ccm7t withstand even a few hours of driving rain and the wall gets eventually damaged after the rain. What we require is a plastering treatment which will improve the durability of mud houses upto 10 to 12 years. It is to be realised that the mud plaster should be non-erodable and secondly, it should be water proof. If the plaster allows water to penetrate into the wall, then the plaster will separate from the wall while drying, due to differentla1 shrinkage. Other methods are also described as alternatives.

3.5.1 Non-erodable Mud Plaster (CBRI, 1983)

To make existing mud walls water proof, the following procedure is recommended :
Addition of Chopped Straw

Chopped straw of 20 mm length and 2 mm wide should be prepared in large quantilies. For every cubic metre of dry mud mortar, prepared as described in the earlier para, 64 kg of chopped straw is added and thoroughly mixed. The mix is shaped into a circular arc and water is filled in the centre space so as to keep it constantly wet for 10 to 15 days. The mortar is kneaded every day manually (by feet) and turned over by shovel, two or three times a day for a period of 10 to 15 days. The chopped straw will become soft by the above treatment and it will improve the cracking resistance of clay. Preparation of Bitumen Cut-back Bitumen of 80/100 grade penetration and kerosene oil are mixed in the ratio of 5 : I for preparing the cut-back, i.e. 53.25 kg of bitumen and 10.5 litres of kerosene oil for every cubic metre of soil. Bitumen IS slowly added to the kerosene oil which is kept in a separate container, keeping the whole mixture stirred until the whole of bitumen is added. 15 gm Beeswax is heated in a separate container and added to the bitumen mix and stirred thoroughly. The addition of wax increases the shelf life of the emulsion.

Planning of Buildings

Preparation of Non-erodable and Water-proof Mud Plaster The bitumen cut-back so prepared is added to the mud mortar prepared earlier. The required quantity of cut-back is taken from the container and it is spread over the heap of mud mortar umforrnly, and worked up with a spade several times to ensure its throughout mxing. When the plaster is ready for use it will show good workability, gloss and plasticity. Application of Mud Plaster The wall must be scrapped free of dirt by trowel to give it a uniform surface. Existing cracks must be filled with ordinary mud slurry and allowed to dry. Water should be sprinkled on the wall before the application of mortar. The plastering 1s commenced from the upper portion and the work should proceed towards the bottom. Apply the plaster in 12 mm to 15 mrn thickness with a wooden trowel and' finish smoothly. When the plaster is drying, sprinkle water occasionally. Application of Cowdung Slurry One part of cow dung and one part of soil are mixed and water is added to form a thick paste. To this paste, bitumen cut-back is added in the ratio of 1 : 24 by weight, and mixed thoroughly. Cow dung slurry is applied and finished with a wooden float. This coat is effective in filling the hair cracks and voids in the plaster and stops further development of cracks. Cost Due to the increasing cost of bitumen and kerosene the cost of this treatment may be as high as Rs. 10 per m2, A rural house may have normally 40 m2 of outside wall surface and the cost per household adds upto Rs. 400/-; however, the durability of the house will increase several fold.

3.5.2 Cement Lime Plastering

Combination mortars, consisting of cement, lime and sand are proving to be economical and effective in plastering mud walls. The recommended mortar proportions are as under : ( I ) 1 cement : 2 hydrated lime : 9 sand for plastering the interior surfaces of walls, (2) 1 cement : 1 lime: 6 sand for plastering of exterior surfaces of walls. It has already been stated that the plaster must be non-erodable and water-proof; and combination mortars, as listed above, are ideally suited for improving the durability of mud walls. While lime-plastered finishes are not suitable for external surfaces in heavy rainfall areas. At damp places and places whkre water tightness is required, cement-lime plaster is to be preferred. Lime and sand are first mixed for the entire day's requirement, and made into a stiff paste and kept in stock. Cement should then be mixed with the mortar batches, and used within two hours of addition of cement. Combination mortars are more workable than cement mortar and hence, they are preferred by masons.
Precautions Surface coatings applied to poorly prepared wall will soon peal off. Certain precautions are essential for the success of the process. The wall must be completely dry before combination mortar is applied as plaster. Surface dust and loose particles should be removed by a coir-brush or broom. The wall should be slightly wetted at the time of actual application of the plaster. Long and narrow grooves at 15 to 20 cm spacing will improve the bonding of theplaster to the wall.
e

'

SAQ 6
(a) What are the proportjons of combination mortar used for plastermg the (i) interior, and (ii) exterior surfaces of mud walls ?

(b) What is the proportion of clay, sand and silt which is appropriate for the preparation of mud mortar ?

Activity 7
Proceed to a semi-urban or a rural village and find out from a local mason the procedure he is adopting to plaster the walls of mud houses. Discuss the appropriateness of his process with particular reference to water proofing of mud walls.

nPnoing and Design of Low-Cost Rural Housing

3.5.3 Spraying with Water-proofing Solutions

The Central Building Research Institute of India has worked out a speedy, cheap and effective method of water-proofing existing mud walls. It consists of spraying a suitable material which gets absorbed in the wall and making it water proof. The absorbed material shows its water repellence, and it is durable against weathering.
Preparation of the Material Fifty litres of kerosene oil are taken in an empty tar drum (cut into half) of 100 litre capacity, and molten asphalt of 801100 grade is taken out in a small container and 25 kg of it is added to the kerosene oil in doses of small quantities. Each addition is followed by constant stirring till the asphalt is completely dissolved in oil. Theereafter, the solution is allowed to cool off and then, transferred to a 200 litre-capacity stopped barrel through a f i e sieve to exclude undissolved foreign matter which would otherwise choke the pumps during spraying. Spraying Equipment Pump which is used for spraying insecticides and pesticides for crop protectiou is suitable for asphalt spraying also. Highly efficient spraying is achieved with a ~lozzle orifice of 2 to 2.5 mm diameter and a discharge rate of about 5 kglmin. Surface Preparation It is advisable to repair the cuts and holes and apply a coat of mud-cow dung slurry onto the wall to seal off all the cracks on the surface before spraying. The wall should be allowed to dry fully before spraying begins. Old walls should be brushed with a wire brush to make the surface rough.

The prepared material should be sprayed twice or thrice, depending upon the porosity of the surfaces, at an interval of at least four hours on a sunny day, allowing the previous coat to be absorbed fully. The spraying should move horizontally, starting with the top of the wall. Spraying on the wall directly exposed to the sun should be avoided as otherwise it will evaporate without being absorbed at all. Two persons can spray an entire two-roomed rural house in a day. The black colour can be overcome by applying lime-wash mixed with animal glue.
Cost

Each square metre of the wall surface requires 1 kg of the water proofing material; and including white washing will cost Rs. 401- per m2. Thus, a small rural house can be made water proof by spending Rs. 1601- . But the process will have to be repeated after every 3 years. Precautions Inspite of the application of the above methods of water proofing, a mud house may fail due to the following reasons : (i) Driving rain and water logging at the base level are the common causes of deterioration of mud walls, and the base should be made of conventional brick work in cement mortar or of stone masonry, if necessary.

A ,

(ii) Water seeping through the top of the wall is another source of failure of the wall. The thatched roof should, therefore, be of 3 0 ' slope (or more) to quickly drain off the rain water.

SAQ 7
(a)
(h)

!
Why is chopped straw added to mud used for plastering ? Why is bitumen cut-back added to mud used for plastqing ?

Planning of Buildings
%*

Cc)

'&%j

!he coat 01 iO\s c!mg ciurry 1s needed n\ ~r Che ~icin-r:n!)d,tblc muJ p l a , ~ ~ :

id:

\\%at s t : the advantages of non-erodable nlud plaster compi~ed to simp!? spraying a wall with water proofing solution ?

3.5 SUMMARY
Solutions to the mass housing probleill of the rural areas should comprise the resourcefulness of the people, nationwide application of local mate ria!^ and skills, the social advantage of group work and the appropriate use of resources and technolog~cal blowhow available from the research institutions of the country. The durability of a mud wall is the main problem, particularly in rcspcct of its permeability and resultant loss of strength in driving rain. Methods. which you as a ri~ral engineer can popularise, have been discribed to overcome this pr,)blcm. Nearly 612 million people of India live in 557,000 and odd villages and over 40 percent of the rural houses are built with thatch and timber,foofs. These houses are constantly exposed to fire hazards. The continued action of fungi and bacteria reduces the durability of the roofing materials, and the roofs require frequent replacements. Continuous maintenance required by these rural hoiises car1 be crippling to the economic survival of the householders who have probably only some sort of cottage industry such as weaving to survive on, Even though the National Buildings Organisation has been pioneering the use of' chemicals to improve the fire-resistance of thatches, there is very little of preservative treatment for thatches, straw, grass, palm lcavcs elc. applied in practice.
A number of terms such as fire-proof, fire-retardent and l'irr-resistant matcrlr ci 1s are in use and they have been used interchangeably. A material which is fire proof is rale mdeed, and the word fire proof m a n s totaily unaffected by fire. On the other hand, fire-retardant and fire-resistant materials have drastically low inflammability; they burn slowly and do not spread the fire rapidly, but they too ark substantially altered and cvcntually consunled by fire. However, these materials act as partial barrier and may save lives by delaying the e help arrives. spread of f ~ r until

in villages due to the fact that cheap fuel used in the form of Fires occur quite f r e q ~ p t l y loose combustible materials such as dry leaves, dry twigs and sticks which give rise to flying burning embers, and alsrrctue$o the fact that rural houses arc built with low ceilings. When such fires occur, Inore often than not, h e y spread fast and conflagrations result engulfing entire villages, causing loss of or injury to hunmn lives and cattle and damage to property. Yet no effort has been made to adopt fire-retardent treatments to existing thatched roofs. You, as a rural engineer. can render a valuable service by popularising fire-retrading treatments which are really suitable, cheap and effective.

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1

(a)

Graph is to be drawn by the student. Backlog of housing is the dixerence between the number of households and the * number of existing housing units. These are, in millions, as follows :
'

1961

1971

1981

Rural Urban

3.4
0.9

3.5
0.6

6.9
1.3

The backlog is growing, much more so, in rural areas. (b) Student will draw the pie-charts, one each for rjraland urb'm houses. (c) Student will draw the pie-charts, one each for rural ,and urban houses.

SAQ 2

Planning m d Design of Idow-CostRural Housing

!a)

Reasons lor recent nun-popularity of lilac for building c~llstruction : (i) i Variability of limestone quality tiara region to region ill tile country, :md Vsiab~lEty in the quality ot illrlle nrislnp due t<:different melhoc3s adopted In dilfercnt parts oi ! h ! : c:)unlry fr)r burnmc. slak~ilg. stoii~lg and using !irne In cc~~istnic practice. t~~l~

(b) Reasons for reviving tlx use of lime ~nrural areas (i) It is a rnatenal widely available in the country, particularly in rural areas,
(ii) Ceinerlt ~nanai'ac:t.uril is energy iinil cap1ta! intensivt. Its replacenie~itby lime co11ixih1l:es to ecoIlcin;j: and, in addition, will encourage the establishment of a large rlurnber of small-capacity kilns in rural areas.
7

l-.cIr

!iard-niiig ~1 lime, tk~c che~lilcal eyuations are as hllows : CaO + \-120 --+ Ca(0Hiz

(i j

(ii) Ca(0H):

+ C 0 2 + CaCO3 + WzO where Ca(OHh is slaked or hydrated lime.

Action of poz~olsnic inaterials in lirne mortar: In a iinely d~vided form and in the preszncz of wstcr, pozzolanic materials react with Ca(OH)2 cvcn at ordinary temnperaLurrs to om\conlpullds possessin.p"cen~ent~tious propert~es. R'lii!e using T pyile lime (fat hme) in niamnry iiiurtar for achieving strength of 0.7 to 1.5 N/~III'. m 13 days. the reqt~~rzd hn~e (L)-pc~r~~iiana (P)-san,l ( S ) mortar is . Libcwiqe, the ~ecjuwd llmr (E)-c;emc:nt !C)-sand (Sj mortar
IS

3L : 1C . 12s
Advantage of lirrle plastered surfiices vis-a-vis surface fi~iishes is :

-JI

Gnid adhesits~l to timshes such as white wash, ic:lour w a ~ hdistemper . but. nciL rllcrt. is no such adhes~on to celr:cnr based paints,

Reasc?n:: for crack~ng, 11

(1;

lr

occuis, 111 lime plaster are :

rapid dryiiig of m ~ t a in r I ~ oand t dry weather,

(ii) inadequate wet cunng,

(hi) application of strong mix on a cnnlparatively weaker background or binder coat,

(iv) p!)(jr raking of joints of brickwork, and

(u) Jisionlinuity in thc hack~round wrfaces such as a wall meeting a slab, or heam. ctc. Keasc~ns Idr surfcaes crazing of Lime plastered surfaces are :
(i)

excessive shrinkage due to rapid drying,

(ii) po(i; gradation of sand that is used in mortar, (iu) non-ucifr)rn~ rnixi~~g of i i m and sand.
(IV)

nc:t allowing adequate time for lower coats to harden before applying furlitcr c ~ ~ i to? t s plaster. and rapid cL;ylny iin~nedma~cly 011 application. Chus drying the nloisture needed for !~arde~:inp chemical reacrjo~~s lo occur.
1 1 , : 1P : 3S

T111.st~itahle limrle-mortar rnix for mrid buildings is :

or 2L : 1C : 9S,

where. C' i$ cement, I, is lirne, S is sa~i(ld and P i s pozzolana.

Yllx pn~portlon for lime-brick hat (jelly) concretc, used for foundahon, using C c1:tss iirne i> . 1C : ?L : 12S, \vhere, C is cement, L is C-class lime and S is sand.

-Planning of Buildings

Advantages of lime-cement-sand mortar, having cement and C-class lime in equal proportions are : good qualities of both cement and lime such as (medium level) strength, good workability and water retentivity,-freedomfrom cracking and good resistance against rain penetration are obtained.
SAQ 3

'(4

Different types of wall construction with mud are : (1) piling lumps of mud, one over another, and shaping by hands, though not considered as a method leading to a good wall, (2) ramming moist earth (mud with a moisture content somewhat lower than that which makes the mud highly mouldable using bare hands), placed between wooden side shuttering or forms, (3) mixing earth with straw or similar fibrous materials and water, and moulding the same into blocks and building the wall with these blocks, (4) using sun dried bricks; the bricks themselves would have been made by moulding earth in proper moulds and drying them under the sun. Sometimes, the mud is strengthened (stabilised) against breaking down due to excessive action of water, using snisll amounts of coal tar, say, at less than one percent of the mud, (5) using stabilised mud blocks; stabilisation is done using either water proofing agents, such as bitumen, asphalt, resins, or cementitious materials such as cement or lime. The quantity of stabilising agent may vary 'from 2 to 5 percent by volume of the soil. True of False m.wers (1) Water-proofing improves with bitumen. - (True) (2) Rigidity is provided by hydrated cement. - (True) (3) Soil is strenthened by lime. - (True) Number of blocks required for a 2-roomed house is about 2500. Blocks which can be produced by 4 unskilled workmen per day using a brick-moulding machine, are 300 to 500. Compressive strength of such a block ranges from 1.5 to 3.5 ~ / m m ~ .

SAQ 4

(a) Components of brick-panel roofing are : (1) precast brick panel, 560 x 1040 mm (2) precast R.C.C joist, 130 x 100 rnm section (upto 3.3 m long) (3) cast-in-situ joists of R.C.C. (4) top screed cement concrete, 30 mm thick (5) lime-concrete weathering course, with varying thickness, 30 to 100 rnm, for giving slope. (b) Thickness of brick panel roof including joist thickness is about 215 mm. SAQ 5 (a) A classification of materials with respect to their fire-resistance is : (1) fire-proof (2) fire-retardant (3) fire-resistant Reasons for frequent fires in rural areas of the country are : (a) use of loose, easily combustible fuel for cooling the interiGrs etc. such as dried leaves, twigs and sticks which cause flying embers, and (b) low ceilings tnadeaf easily combustible materials such as thatch, bamboo splits etc. An insecticide - Sodium fluoride A fire-retardant - Sodium diammonium phosphate
,

Materials, which are used for application on thatched roofs for purposes of water prhfing are : zinc oxide, mica powder, talc powder, chloro-wax, poly-vinyl acetate emulsion, and spirit.
SAQ 6

Planning and Design of Low-Cost Rural Housing

(a) (i) Combination mortar for plastering interior surfaces of mud walls is : 1C : 2L : 9 s where, C is cement, L is hydrated lime and S is sand. (ii) Combination mortar for plastering exterior surfaces of mud walls is : 1C : 1L : 6 s The proportion of clay, sand and silt which is appropriate for the preparati~n of mud-mortar is as follows : clay silt sand
SAQ 7

25 to 30 percent 40 to 35 percent 35 percent

(a> Chopped straw is added to mud to impart resistance to cracking. (b) Bitumen cut-back is added to mud in order to promote inter-particle adhesion and to prevent a porous structure appearing on drying. Cowdung shrry coating is applied on nonerodable (and water proof) mud plaster to prevent occurence of hair cracks and to fill the hair cracks and voids when these have already occurred. Spraying is not long lasting and it protects the mud wall only for about 3 years. In addition, it cannot take the impact of heavy rain.

Pjanning of Buildings

FURTHER READING
NBC (19831, National Building Code ofIndia- 1983, Groups 1 & 2, Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, New Delhi - 110 002. (2) Koenigsberger, 0. H., Ingersoll, T. G., Alan Mayhew, Kolay, S. V., (1975), Manual of Tropical Housing and Building (Part I, Climatic Design), Orient Longman, New Delhi - 110 001. (3) Rirnsha, A., (19763, Town Plannin,g in Hot Climates, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
(1)

(4) Joseph De Chiara, Koppelman, L. E., (1978), Site Planning Standards, McGraw Hill Book Conlpany, New York, USA. (5) Kevin Lynch, (1971), Site Planning, The M.I.T. Press, USA. (6) NBO, (1987), Housing Statistics ict a Glance, National Building Organisation, Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi - 110 001. (7) Aromar Revi, (1990), Shelter in India, Sustainable Development Services, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi - 110 014. (8) CBRI, (1981), ManuJucture of Lime and Lime Products, Project Proposal No. 56> Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. (9) JS 162,5, (1971). Preparation of Lime Mortar for Use in Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards , New Delhi - 110 002. (10) IS 2541, (1974), Preparation and Use of Litne Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi - 110 002. (11) IS 3036, (1980), Lcxying Lime Concrete for Water-proofing Roof Finish, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi - 110 002. (12) CBRI, (1978), RCC Framesfor Doors and Windows, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. (13) NBO. (1989), Sanitary Latrines, National Buildings Organisations, Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi - 110 001. (14) CBRI, (1981), Fire Retardant Treatment of Thatch, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. (15) CBRI, (1983), Non-erodahk M L L Plaster ~ on Mud Wallfor Rural Houses, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. (16) CBRI, (I978), A New Technique of Water-proofingMud Wall, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkce.