12 > DefenceReviewAsia

The Type 90 serving in the JGSDF is a capable tank but it was designed primarily to take on a
Russian amphibious invasion during the Cold War. (Gordon Arthur)
MBTs
TANKED UP REGIONAL MAIN
BATTLE TANK PROGRAMMES
Gordon Arthur / Hong Kong
U
p until recently there were some
commentators, and even some
militaries, who predicted the
days of the main battle tank
(MBT) were numbered. A classic
example is Canada, which decided to retire
its tank feet and instead rely on LAV III 8x8
armoured vehicles. A Mobile Gun System (MGS)
variant armed with a 105mm gun was to take on
the quasi-tank role. However, counterinsurgency
operations in Afghanistan caused a swift about-
face, with Canada despatching Leopard C2 tanks
to the land-locked country in October 2006.
This was followed by a decision in February
2007 to borrow 20 Leopard 2A6M tanks from
Germany, and to purchase 100 Leopard 2s from
the Netherlands. Afghan combat experience
has demonstrated manifold advantages of the
MBT. The 25mm cannon of the Canadian LAV
III proved totally inadequate when dealing with
thick mud walls in Afghanistan, plus the MBT
offers better mobility than wheeled vehicles in
soft terrain and when negotiating watercourses.
Furthermore, the heavier armour of the Leopard
offers better protection against improvised
explosive devices (IED), the insurgent weapon of
choice.
The fact that several countries (Canada,
Denmark and USA) have deployed MBTs
to Afghanistan a country with notoriously
challenging tank terrain shows these are still
viable military weapon systems. Asias love affair
with the MBT is still growing, unlike the waning
passion of many European countries. Indeed,
there are ongoing indigenous MBT programmes
in China, India, Japan and South Korea, while
other countries like Malaysia and Singapore
have recently obtained MBT feets for the frst
time. In terms of MBT production, the Chinese
ZTZ99 and ZTZ96, Indian T-90S and Pakistani
Al-Khalid are dominating international markets,
calculated to account for 60.38% of all new
production through till 2017.
EAST ASIA
Technologically advanced Japan has forged its
own path in MBT production. In service are the
Type 74 and Type 90, products of a bygone Cold
War era. Japan inducted 341 Type 90 MBTs,
but one disadvantage is its strategic mobility/
transportability in the small and crowded country.
Because of its 50-ton weight, these tanks are only
deployed in two regions Hokkaido and Mount
Fuji.
Japan started developing the Type 10 in
2001, which tips the scales at just 44 tons.
This Mitsubishi Heavy Industries design
DRA May 2012.indd 12 30/05/12 1:47 PM
www.defencereviewasia.com < 13
MBTs
www.defencereviewasia.com < 13
offers a number of improvements, including
greater road and rail mobility. Introduction
of the Type 10 will allow eventual retirement
of the ageing Type 74. After taking note of
lessons learned by countries like the USA in
Iraq, Japanese designers sought a balance of
mobility; frepower; armour protection; and
command, control, communications, computers
and intelligence (C4I). A new 120mm L/44
smoothbore gun is ftted and it can fre a newly
developed APFDS round that offers improved
penetration. A remotely controlled .50-cal M2HB
machine gun is mounted atop the turret. The Type
10 was unveiled in February 2008, and funding
for 13 units was approved in the FY2010 budget.
It is expected 68 units will be funded through
to FY2015. Like the Type 90, it operates with
a three-man crew thanks to the ftment of an
autoloader.
The Type 10 was designed with asymmetric
warfare in mind and its modular armour system
can be arranged according to threat levels. This
allows easy replacement of damaged modules,
and offers protection levels equal to the heavier
Type 90, and even enhanced protection on the
fanks. Its battle management system (BMS)
allows instant communication with other vehicles
and headquarters. A 1,200hp diesel engine
coupled to a continuously variable transmission
(CVT) allows the tank to theoretically
drive as fast in reverse as it does forwards.
Like its predecessors, the Type 10 features
hydropneumatic suspension that enables the
vehicle to kneel and tilt.
South Korea is another country to create its
own tank designs. The Hyundai Rotem K1 and
K1A1 were developed with assistance from
General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS),
designer of the M1 Abrams. Some 1,500 K1/
K1A1 tanks were produced. Even though the
capabilities of South Koreas tank feet surpass
those of North Korea, the country felt the need to
develop an even more capable design known as
the K2. Full introduction of the K2 Black Panther
will allow the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA)
to retire its M48A5 feet. Original plans called for
400+ K2s, but budgetary pressures will cause this
number to be slashed. Induction of the 55-ton K2
has been delayed by reliability problems with the
locally produced 1,500hp engine from Doosan
DST and automatic transmission from S&T
Dynamics. Prototypes featured MTU-890 engines
and RENK transmissions, so there is a possibility
South Korea could resort to imported power
packs if local industry does not come through.
Offcials have stated the ROKA will not deploy
the K2 until 2013.
The K2 has all the bells and whistles. It
possesses a 120mm L/55 main gun and an
autoloader that reduces the crew to three. It will
feature indigenously designed hard-kill and soft-
kill active protection systems (APS). The latter
is fully developed while the former has been
undergoing four-season feld testing. It is reported
the APS can intercept attacks 0.2-0.3 seconds
after detection. A Hyundai Rotem spokesman
told Defence Review Asia the company will
be targeting K2 export sales in South America,
South Asia and the Middle East. One spinoff
for South Koreas defence industry has been
involvement in Turkeys Altay MBT programme.
Approximately 20 engineers are supporting
Otokar with the Altays basic development,
120mm gun and protection system.
Although production is focusing on the K2,
Hyundai Rotem has also been developing an
upgrade package for the K1A1. This package
includes BMS, GPS, identifcation friend-foe
(IFF) system, and drivers thermal viewer
and camera. The ROKA has been testing the
modernised K1A1.
While on the topic of the Korean peninsular,
the US Armys 2nd Infantry Division has
replaced its M1A1 AIM Abrams with the
latest M1A2 SEP version. This was done
simultaneously with the update of the M2A2
Bradley feet to the newer M2A3 confguration.
The 2nd Infantry Division has two combined-
arms battalions based north of Seoul, each
equipped with 29 M1A2 tanks.
Taiwan depends heavily on the M48 MBT,
with an estimated feet of 450 CM11 Brave
Tiger tanks. These hybrids were created by
installing M48 turrets onto M60A3 chassis.
The original 90mm gun was replaced with a
license-built 105mm M68A1 gun, and their fre
control systems (FCS) were modernised with
a ballistic computer and Raytheon AN/VSG-
2 Tank Thermal Sight (TTS). Taiwans most
sophisticated tank is the M60A3 TTS, with some
480 examples being procured in 1996-97. Taiwan
still operates some 50 M41D tanks in its army,
while the Marine Corps has M41A3s. As an
island territory crisscrossed by steep mountains
and numerous rivers, Taiwan is not ideal tank
country. For the time being, Taiwan is focusing
on inducting its CM32 8x8 armoured personnel
carrier (APC) and any modernisation of its
tank feet has been placed on the backburner.
Realistically, because of the threat of Chinese
The Hyundai Rotem K1A1 features a 120mm main gun, the same as
that found on the American Abrams. The K2 will eclipse its capabilities.
(Gordon Arthur)
DRA May 2012.indd 13 30/05/12 1:47 PM
14 > DefenceReviewAsia
economic sanctions, the only country with the
potential to supply new MBTs to Taiwan would
be the USA.
China has been making giant leaps forward in
the capabilities of its tank feet. The latest MBT
type in service is the NORINCO Type 99A1.
It is based on the ZTZ99 that entered service
in 2001, and it features signifcant advances in
explosive reactive armour (ERA) protection.
It has a 125mm ZPT98 main armament and
an autoloader that reduces the crew to three.
The ZTZ99 has never been offered for export.
The latest version under development is the
ZTZ99A2, which has improved ERA, modifed
rear hull, new panoramic commanders sight,
upgraded FCS, digital BMS and APS similar
to the Russian Arena. A prototype ftted with a
140mm smoothbore gun has also been tested.
Because of the expense involved in this top-
end ZTZ99 (estimated at USD2 million each),
the backbone of Peoples Liberation Army (PLA)
armoured divisions is the Type 96 MBT. The
ZTZ96 is the largest MBT production programme
globally, with an estimated 1,500+ tanks in
service at the present time after production
commenced in 1997. The newest version
unveiled in 2006 is the ZTZ96G that incorporates
ERA modules and weighs 41.5 tonnes. It is
reported the ZTZ96 has been deployed in Tibet
since 2010.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
The Malaysian Army has been transforming into
a conventional force under the auspices of the
The pride of Chinas MBT inventory is the Type 99A1, an example of which is seen here participating in Beijings 2009
military parade. (Gordon Arthur)
MBTs
DRA May 2012.indd 14 30/05/12 1:48 PM
www.defencereviewasia.com < 15
Army 2 10 Plus 10 plan. In 2003, Malaysia
ordered its frst ever MBTs from Poland in the
shape of the Bumar Labedy PT-91M Pendekar.
Fitted with a Polish ERA package and Sagem
SAVAN 15 FCS, the frst 45.3-ton examples
were shipped in August 2007. The country
specifed a number of modifcations such as
new 1,000hp PZL-Wola Type S-1000R engines
and RENK ESM350M transmissions, and their
integration caused initial diffculties. However,
a total of 48 tanks are now serving with the
11th Royal Armoured Regiment, which was
declared fully operational on 1 September 2010.
While additional MBTs would be desirable, any
decision has been indefnitely deferred while
other assets are prioritised for procurement.
Singapore followed suit soon after in 2006
when it procured ex-German Army Leopard
2A4 MBTs. A total of 66 refurbished Leopards
were purchased, as well as 30 platforms for
spare parts. These tanks have since been updated
with advanced modular armour from IBD, mine
protection, and bar armour ftted on the hull
and turret rear. Because of the small size of its
territory, Singapore performs much of its armour
training externally in countries such as Australia.
Introduction of the modern Leopard 2 will allow
Singapore to gradually retire its AMX-13 SM1
feet that was upgraded by ST Kinetics beginning
in 1988.
Media reports have debated Indonesias
planned acquisition of 100 second-hand Leopard
2A6 tanks from the Netherlands. The latter,
as part of cost-cutting measures, is selling off
its entire tank feet. The Indonesian military is
beneftting from a more generous defence budget
after years of underfunding, but a potential deal
has met opposition from both Dutch lawmakers
and Indonesian parliamentarians. Although
Indonesia needs a modern tank, it is questionable
whether the sprawling archipelagic country with
underdeveloped road networks can accommodate
the 57.6-ton vehicle. So far the government
has allocated US $280 million for the deal. It is
unclear how serious the Dutch government is,
but it is insisting any sale must be Government-
to-Government. Negotiations continue, and if
they are successfully concluded, this would
give Indonesia its frst ever MBT. Alternatively
Indonesia has the option of buying tanks directly
from Germany.
Thailand is also modernising its MBT feet. In
September 2011 the Thai government signed a
contract for 49 T-84 Oplot MBTs from Ukraine
for an estimated US $240 million. This followed
earlier contracts for BTR-3E1 8x8 APCs, and it
has further cemented Thai-Ukrainian military
cooperation. There was some controversy over
the selection of the Oplot with its autoloader
system, with local media reports suggesting
servicemen actually preferred the South Korean
K1A1. Up to 200 Oplots could eventually join the
feet to allow retirement of decades-old M41A3
tanks.
SUBCONTINENT
India and Pakistan feld very large armoured
formations, with the Rajasthan plains providing
ideal terrain for tank combat. India, via the
Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), has worked on the indigenous Arjun for
40 years but it was not until 2004 that the Indian
MBTs
DRA May 2012.indd 15 30/05/12 1:48 PM
SECURITY OF DEPLOYED FORCES. Wherever in the world, situations arise in which interventions inevitably
have to be made and force has to be applied, all while trying to avoid collateral damage. Thousands of soldiers
depend on the quality of their training and the reliability of their equipment. We are proud that partners in the
Asia region have selected us for our outstanding capabilities to protect armed forces in these confict zones.
And to bring them safely back home. www.cassidian.com
DEFENDING WORLD SECURITY
MAJOR CONFLICTS WORLDWIDE: 28
SOLDIERS IN ACTION: 530,000
ONE PARTNER FOR SECURITY SOLU TIONS
DRA-14&15KHL.indd 2 31/05/2012 2:30 PM
14 > DefenceReviewAsia
economic sanctions, the only country with the
potential to supply new MBTs to Taiwan would
be the USA.
China has been making giant leaps forward in
the capabilities of its tank feet. The latest MBT
type in service is the NORINCO Type 99A1.
It is based on the ZTZ99 that entered service
in 2001, and it features signifcant advances in
explosive reactive armour (ERA) protection.
It has a 125mm ZPT98 main armament and
an autoloader that reduces the crew to three.
The ZTZ99 has never been offered for export.
The latest version under development is the
ZTZ99A2, which has improved ERA, modifed
rear hull, new panoramic commanders sight,
upgraded FCS, digital BMS and APS similar
to the Russian Arena. A prototype ftted with a
140mm smoothbore gun has also been tested.
Because of the expense involved in this top-
end ZTZ99 (estimated at USD2 million each),
the backbone of Peoples Liberation Army (PLA)
armoured divisions is the Type 96 MBT. The
ZTZ96 is the largest MBT production programme
globally, with an estimated 1,500+ tanks in
service at the present time after production
commenced in 1997. The newest version
unveiled in 2006 is the ZTZ96G that incorporates
ERA modules and weighs 41.5 tonnes. It is
reported the ZTZ96 has been deployed in Tibet
since 2010.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
The Malaysian Army has been transforming into
a conventional force under the auspices of the
The pride of Chinas MBT inventory is the Type 99A1, an example of which is seen here participating in Beijings 2009
military parade. (Gordon Arthur)
MBTs
DRA May 2012.indd 14 30/05/12 1:48 PM
www.defencereviewasia.com < 15
Army 2 10 Plus 10 plan. In 2003, Malaysia
ordered its frst ever MBTs from Poland in the
shape of the Bumar Labedy PT-91M Pendekar.
Fitted with a Polish ERA package and Sagem
SAVAN 15 FCS, the frst 45.3-ton examples
were shipped in August 2007. The country
specifed a number of modifcations such as
new 1,000hp PZL-Wola Type S-1000R engines
and RENK ESM350M transmissions, and their
integration caused initial diffculties. However,
a total of 48 tanks are now serving with the
11th Royal Armoured Regiment, which was
declared fully operational on 1 September 2010.
While additional MBTs would be desirable, any
decision has been indefnitely deferred while
other assets are prioritised for procurement.
Singapore followed suit soon after in 2006
when it procured ex-German Army Leopard
2A4 MBTs. A total of 66 refurbished Leopards
were purchased, as well as 30 platforms for
spare parts. These tanks have since been updated
with advanced modular armour from IBD, mine
protection, and bar armour ftted on the hull
and turret rear. Because of the small size of its
territory, Singapore performs much of its armour
training externally in countries such as Australia.
Introduction of the modern Leopard 2 will allow
Singapore to gradually retire its AMX-13 SM1
feet that was upgraded by ST Kinetics beginning
in 1988.
Media reports have debated Indonesias
planned acquisition of 100 second-hand Leopard
2A6 tanks from the Netherlands. The latter,
as part of cost-cutting measures, is selling off
its entire tank feet. The Indonesian military is
beneftting from a more generous defence budget
after years of underfunding, but a potential deal
has met opposition from both Dutch lawmakers
and Indonesian parliamentarians. Although
Indonesia needs a modern tank, it is questionable
whether the sprawling archipelagic country with
underdeveloped road networks can accommodate
the 57.6-ton vehicle. So far the government
has allocated US $280 million for the deal. It is
unclear how serious the Dutch government is,
but it is insisting any sale must be Government-
to-Government. Negotiations continue, and if
they are successfully concluded, this would
give Indonesia its frst ever MBT. Alternatively
Indonesia has the option of buying tanks directly
from Germany.
Thailand is also modernising its MBT feet. In
September 2011 the Thai government signed a
contract for 49 T-84 Oplot MBTs from Ukraine
for an estimated US $240 million. This followed
earlier contracts for BTR-3E1 8x8 APCs, and it
has further cemented Thai-Ukrainian military
cooperation. There was some controversy over
the selection of the Oplot with its autoloader
system, with local media reports suggesting
servicemen actually preferred the South Korean
K1A1. Up to 200 Oplots could eventually join the
feet to allow retirement of decades-old M41A3
tanks.
SUBCONTINENT
India and Pakistan feld very large armoured
formations, with the Rajasthan plains providing
ideal terrain for tank combat. India, via the
Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), has worked on the indigenous Arjun for
40 years but it was not until 2004 that the Indian
MBTs
DRA May 2012.indd 15 30/05/12 1:48 PM
SECURITY OF DEPLOYED FORCES. Wherever in the world, situations arise in which interventions inevitably
have to be made and force has to be applied, all while trying to avoid collateral damage. Thousands of soldiers
depend on the quality of their training and the reliability of their equipment. We are proud that partners in the
Asia region have selected us for our outstanding capabilities to protect armed forces in these confict zones.
And to bring them safely back home. www.cassidian.com
DEFENDING WORLD SECURITY
MAJOR CONFLICTS WORLDWIDE: 28
SOLDIERS IN ACTION: 530,000
ONE PARTNER FOR SECURITY SOLU TIONS
DRA-14&15KHL.indd 3 31/05/2012 2:30 PM
CRUISE MISSILES
16 > DefenceReviewAsia
Singapore is small but its military is very capable. The Leopard 2A4 can circumnavigate
the entire country several times on a single tank of fuel! (Gordon Arthur)
Army grudgingly signed off on an acquisition
of 124 Arjun tanks. In 2010 a comparison test
against the T-90S fnally granted some semblance
of self-respect for the Arjun. The DRDO has
been working on an improved Arjun Mk.II that
features 93 modifcations such as an infrared
jammer, panoramic sight with night vision, ERA,
navigation system, improved tracking and the
ability of its 120mm gun to fre the Israeli Laser
Homing Attack (LAHAT) missile. The Mk.II is
considerably heavier at 66 tons, and it will be
powered by an indigenous 1,500hp engine. The
DRDO is also collaborating with Elbit Systems
on a laser-warning receiver. A total of 124 Arjun
Mk.IIs were ordered on 9 August 2010, and the
frst should be introduced in 2014/15. The unit
cost is estimated at US $8 million apiece.
Because of incessant delays with the Arjun,
India turned to Russia in the interim and
purchased the T-90S Bhishma that had the
advantage of logistics commonality with the
T-72. Follow-on batches of the T-90M are
now being assembled locally by the Heavy
Vehicles Factory at Avadi in Tamil Nadu. The
T-90M includes Western technology such as the
Thales Catherine thermal sight and an Israeli
environmental control system, as well as Russian
Kaktus K-6 ERA. The frst locally produced
T-90Ms were inducted on 24 August 2009 and
full-rate production continues. Up to 1,000 T-90
tanks are expected to be eventually inducted and
their survivability is to be improved with the
addition of a hard-kill APS. A request for 1,657
systems to be retroftted on the T-90S was issued
in April 2008, and one contender that responded
was Saab Avitronics with its LEDS-150 system.
The bulk of the Indian Armys tank feet
comprises some
1,900 T-72M1
Ajeya vehicles and
these are being
upgraded via
Project Rhino. One
of the T-72s main
disadvantages is
its night blindness,
so the army is
exploring how to
include a Thermal
Imaging Standalone
System (TISAS)
within an integrated
FCS. To this end
Raytheon has partnered with Larsen & Toubro to
offer a stabilised sight assembly. The full Project
Rhino upgrade includes a Drawa-T FCS, Tadiran
radios, muzzle reference system, gyro-based
navigation system, upgraded gun stabilisation,
ERA package and new 1,000hp engine. However,
this blue-ribbon standard is not being applied
to the complete feet. Because of the age of the
T-72M1 feet, a replacement will be needed
around the 2020 mark. The DRDO is currently
conducting feasibility studies on the 50-ton
Future Main Battle Tank (FMBT) that is slated as
its replacement.
Pakistan relies primarily on Chinese-sourced
tanks, but it turned to Ukraine for 320 T-80UD
MBTs that were delivered from 1997 onwards.
However, it has been collaborating closely with
Chinese industry on the MBT 2000, known
locally as the Al-Khalid. This MBT, based on
the Chinese Type 90-IIM, entered service in
2001, and the Pakistan Army is expected to
eventually induct some 600 examples. It features
a 125mm gun with an autoloader, and is powered
by a Ukrainian 1,200hp KMDB 6TD-2 diesel
engine. At 46 tonnes it is lightweight compared
to Western tank designs, but it incorporates
technology such as ERA and Varta APS
(derived from the Russian Shtora). Incidentally,
Bangladesh also decided to acquire 44 MBT 2000
tanks from China, with delivery due over the next
two years.
An upgraded Al-Khalid I began testing in
2009, with improvements including increased
ammunition storage, enhanced FCS, faster
autoloader, Varta electro-optical jammer, and
Sagem thermal imager. It is believed an Al-
Khalid II is in the early developmental stage as
well, with redesigned turret, upgraded modular
armour and 1,500hp power pack. Two prototypes
are thought to exist.
The strength of MBT programmes shows that
Asia is not fully following the European trend
towards lighter and more mobile military forces.
Instead, a signifcant number of platforms are
being acquired across the region via indigenous
designs, licensed production or second-hand
imports from European countries. Asian
militaries continue to tank up. v
India opted for domestic development of the Arjun, but the programme has proved
costly and failed to deliver a workable solution until recent times. (Gordon Arthur)
MBTs
DRA May 2012.indd 16 30/05/12 1:48 PM