Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
=
1
(3.1)
If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,
pressure) in change (the dp ds
s
p
=
(3.2)
elevation) in change (the dz ds
s
z
=
(3.3)
speed) in change (the dV ds
s
V
=
(3.4)
Thus, after multiplying Equation 3.1 by ds,
or 0 = + + = gdz VdV
dp
VdV gdz
dp
(3.5)
Integration of this equation gives:
= + + constant gz
V dp
2
2
(3.6)
The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For
the special case of incompressible flow, = constant, and Equation 3.6 becomes
the Bernoullis Equation.
constant
2
2
= + + gz
V p
(3.7)
Restrictions:
i. Steady flow
ii. Incompressible flow
iii. Frictionless flow
iv. Flow along a streamline
SOLTEQ
(3.8)
Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
= Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head
The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head
(h), velocity head (hv ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these
terms is known as the total head (h
*
). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid
flow through a pipe, the total head h
*
at any cross section is constant. In a real flow
due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties, the
results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are
considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum,
z = 0, and thus, all the z values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
Constant = = +
*
h
g
v
g
p
2
2
(3.9)
This represents the total head at a cross section.
For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h
*
i,
where i represents the cross sections at different tapping points.
3.3 Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressures
The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoullis equation, Equation
3.7, is the thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. The
static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by an instrument moving
with the flow. However, such a measurement is rather difficult to make in a
practical situation.
As we know, there was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This
fact makes it possible to measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall
SOLTEQ
(3.10)
SOLTEQ
p p
V
o
=
2
(3.14)
Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a
point, Equation 3.14 would give the local flow speed.
Small hole
Flow
To manometer or
pressure gage
Figure 5: Measurement of Stagnation Pressure
0
SOLTEQ
|
|
\
|
= +
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
A
A
g
Z Z
p p
(3.17)
Ideally,
2 / 1
2 1
2 / 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
2 1
2 1
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
\
|
= =
Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A V A Q
i
(3.18)
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less
than that given by equation (3.18) because of frictional effects and consequent
head loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2 1
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
\
|
=
Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A C Q
d a
(3.19)
In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an
experimentally determined discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the
coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is
determined as follow:
i
a
d
Q
Q
C = (3.20)
Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.
SOLTEQ