Othello

1. Context

T HE MOST INFLUENTIAL WRITER in all of English literature, William Shakes eare !as "orn in #$%& to a su''essful mi((le) 'lass glo*e)maker in Stratfor()u on)A*on, Englan(+ Shakes eare atten(e( grammar s'hool, "ut his formal e(u'ation ro'ee(e( no further+ In #$,- he marrie( an ol(er !oman, Anne Hatha!a., an( ha( three 'hil(ren !ith her+ Aroun( #$/0 he left his famil. "ehin( an( tra*ele( to Lon(on to !ork as an a'tor an( la.!right+ 1u"li' an( 'riti'al a''laim 2ui'kl. follo!e(, an( Shakes eare e*entuall. "e'ame the most o ular la.!right in Englan( an( art)o!ner of the 3lo"e Theater+ His 'areer "ri(ge( the reigns of Eli4a"eth I 5rule( #$$,6#%078 an( 9ames I 5rule( #%076#%-$8, an( he !as a fa*orite of "oth monar'hs+ In(ee(, 9ames grante( Shakes eare:s 'om an. the greatest ossi"le 'om liment ". "esto!ing u on its mem"ers the title of ;ing:s Men+ Wealth. an( reno!ne(, Shakes eare retire( to Stratfor( an( (ie( in #%#% at the age of fift.)t!o+ At the time of Shakes eare:s (eath, literar. luminaries su'h as <en 9onson haile( his !orks as timeless+ Shakes eare:s !orks !ere 'olle'te( an( rinte( in *arious e(itions in the 'entur. follo!ing his (eath, an( ". the earl. eighteenth 'entur. his re utation as the greatest oet e*er to !rite in English !as !ell esta"lishe(+ The un re'e(ente( a(miration garnere( ". his !orks le( to a fier'e 'uriosit. a"out Shakes eare:s life, "ut the (earth of "iogra hi'al information has left man. (etails of Shakes eare:s ersonal histor. shrou(e( in m.ster.+ Some eo le ha*e 'on'lu(e( from this fa't an( from Shakes eare:s mo(est e(u'ation that Shakes eare:s la.s !ere a'tuall. !ritten ". someone else=Fran'is <a'on an( the Earl of O>for( are the t!o most o ular 'an(i(ates="ut the su ort for this 'laim is o*er!helmingl. 'ir'umstantial, an( the theor. is not taken seriousl. ". man. s'holars+ In the a"sen'e of 're(i"le e*i(en'e to the 'ontrar., Shakes eare must "e *ie!e( as the author of the thirt.)se*en la.s an( #$& sonnets that "ear his name+ The lega'. of this "o(. of !ork is immense+ A num"er of Shakes eare:s la.s seem to ha*e trans'en(e( e*en the 'ategor. of "rillian'e, "e'oming so influential as to affe't rofoun(l. the 'ourse of Western literature an( 'ulture e*er after+ Othello !as first erforme( ". the ;ing:s Men at the 'ourt of ;ing 9ames I on No*em"er #, #%0&+ Written (uring Shakes eare:s great tragi' erio(, !hi'h also in'lu(e( the 'om osition of Hamlet 5#%008, King Lear 5#%0&6 $8,Macbeth 5#%0%8, an( Antony and Cleopatra 5#%0%6?8, Othello is set against the "a'k(ro of the !ars "et!een @eni'e an( Turke. that rage( in the latter art of the si>teenth 'entur.+ A. rus, !hi'h is the setting for most of the a'tion, !as a @enetian out ost atta'ke( ". the Turks in #$?0 an( 'on2uere( the follo!ing .ear+ Shakes eare:s information on the @enetian)Turkish 'onfli't ro"a"l. (eri*es from The History of the Turks ". Ri'har( ;nolles, !hi'h !as u"lishe( in Englan( in the autumn of #%07+ The stor. of Othellois also (eri*e( from another sour'e=an Italian rose tale !ritten in #$%$ ". 3io*anni <attista 3iral(i Ain4io 5usuall. referre( to as Ainthio8+ The original stor. 'ontains the "are "ones of Shakes eare:s lotB a Moorish general is (e'ei*e( ". his ensign into "elie*ing his !ife is unfaithful+ To Ainthio:s stor. Shakes eare a((e( su orting 'hara'ters su'h as the ri'h .oung (u e Ro(erigo an( the outrage( an( grief)stri'ken <ra"an4io, Ces(emona:s father+ Shakes eare 'om resse( the a'tion into the s a'e of a fe! (a.s an( set it against the "a'k(ro of militar. 'onfli't+ An(, most memora"l., he turne( the ensign, a minor *illain, into the ar'h)*illain Iago+ The 2uestion of Othello:s e>a't ra'e is o en to some (e"ate+ The !or( Moor no! refers to the Islami' Ara"i' inha"itants of North Afri'a !ho 'on2uere( S ain in the eighth 'entur., "ut the term !as use( rather "roa(l. in the erio( an( !as sometimes a lie( to Afri'ans from other regions+ 3eorge A""ott, for e>am le, in his A Brief Description of the hole orld of #$//, ma(e (istin'tions "et!een D"la'kish MoorsE an( D"la'k NegroesEF a #%00translation of 9ohn Leo:s The History and Description of Africa (istinguishes D!hite or ta!n. MoorsE of the Me(iterranean 'oast of Afri'a from the DNegroes or "la'k MoorsE of the south+ Othello:s (arkness or "la'kness is allu(e( to man. times in the la., "ut Shakes eare an( other Eli4a"ethans fre2uentl. (es'ri"e( "runette or (arker than a*erage Euro eans as "la'k+ The o osition of "la'k an( !hite imager. that runs throughout Othello is 'ertainl. a marker of (ifferen'e "et!een Othello an( his Euro ean eers, "ut the (ifferen'e is ne*er 2uite so ra'iall. s e'ifi' as a mo(ern rea(er might imagine it to "e+ While Moor 'hara'ters a"oun( on the Eli4a"ethan an( 9a'o"ean stage, none are gi*en so maGor or heroi' a role as Othello+ 1erha s the most *i*i(l. stereot. i'al "la'k 'hara'ter of the erio( is Aaron, the *illain of Shakes eare:s earl. la. Titus Andronicus! The antithesis of Othello, Aaron is le'herous, 'unning, an( *i'iousF his final !or(s areB DIf one goo( (ee( in all

m. life I (i( H I (o re ent it to m. *er. soulE 5Titus Andronicus" @+iii+#,,6#,/8+ Othello, ". 'ontrast, is a no"le figure of great authorit., res e'te( an( a(mire( ". the (uke an( senate of @eni'e as !ell as ". those !ho ser*e him, su'h as Aassio, Montano, an( Lo(o*i'o+ Onl. Iago *oi'es an e> li'itl. stereot. i'al *ie! of Othello, (e i'ting him from the "eginning as an animalisti', "ar"arous, foolish outsi(er+

2.

Plot Overview

O THELLO "egins on a street in @eni'e, in the mi(st of an argument "et!een Ro(erigo, a ri'h man, an( Iago+ Ro(erigo has "een a.ing Iago to hel him in his suit to Ces(emona+ <ut Ro(erigo has Gust learne( that Ces(emona has marrie( Othello, a general !hom Iago "egru(gingl. ser*es as ensign+ Iago sa.s he hates Othello, !ho re'entl. asse( him o*er for the osition of lieutenant in fa*or of the ine> erien'e( sol(ier Mi'hael Aassio+ Unseen, Iago an( Ro(erigo 'r. out to <ra"an4io that his (aughter Ces(emona has "een stolen ". an( marrie( to Othello, the Moor+ <ra"an4io fin(s that his (aughter is in(ee( missing, an( he gathers some offi'ers to fin( Othello+ Not !anting his hatre( of Othello to "e kno!n, Iago lea*es Ro(erigo an( hurries "a'k to Othello "efore <ra"an4io sees him+ At Othello:s lo(gings, Aassio arri*es !ith an urgent message from the (ukeB Othello:s hel is nee(e( in the matter of the imminent Turkish in*asion of A. rus+ Not long after!ar(, <ra"an4io arri*es !ith Ro(erigo an( others, an( a''uses Othello of stealing his (aughter ". !it'h'raft+ When he fin(s out that Othello is on his !a. to s eak !ith the (uke, )<ra"an4io (e'i(es to go along an( a''use Othello "efore the assem"le( senate+ <ra"an4io:s lan "a'kfires+ The (uke an( senate are *er. s.m atheti' to!ar( Othello+ 3i*en a 'han'e to s eak for himself, Othello e> lains that he !ooe( an( !on Ces(emona not ". !it'h'raft "ut !ith the stories of his a(*entures in tra*el an( !ar+ The (uke fin(s Othello:s e> lanation 'on*in'ing, an( Ces(emona herself enters at this oint to (efen( her 'hoi'e in marriage an( to announ'e to her father that her allegian'e is no! to her hus"an(+ <ra"an4io is frustrate(, "ut a'2uies'es an( allo!s the senate meeting to resume+ The (uke sa.s that Othello must go to A. rus to ai( in the (efense against the Turks, !ho are hea(e( for the islan(+ Ces(emona insists that she a''om an. her hus"an( on his tri , an( re arations are ma(e for them to (e art that night+ In A. rus the follo!ing (a., t!o gentlemen stan( on the shore !ith Montano, the go*ernor of A. rus+ A thir( gentleman arri*es an( re orts that the Turkish fleet has "een !re'ke( in a storm at sea+ Aassio, !hose shi (i( not suffer the same fate, arri*es soon after, follo!e( ". a se'on( shi 'arr.ing Iago, Ro(erigo, Ces(emona, an( Emilia, Iago:s !ife+ On'e the. ha*e lan(e(, Othello:s shi is sighte(, an( the grou goes to the har"or+ As the. !ait for Othello, Aassio greets Ces(emona ". 'las ing her han(+ Wat'hing them, Iago tells the au(ien'e that he !ill use Das little a !e" as thisE han()hol(ing to ensnare Aassio 5II+i+#%/8+ Othello arri*es, greets his !ife, an( announ'es that there !ill "e re*eling that e*ening to 'ele"rate A. rus:s safet. from the Turks+ On'e e*er.one has left, Ro(erigo 'om lains to Iago that he has no 'han'e of "reaking u Othello:s marriage+ Iago assures Ro(erigo that as soon as Ces(emona:s D"loo( is ma(e (ull !ith the a't of s ort,E she !ill lose interest in Othello an( seek se>ual satisfa'tion else!here 5II+i+---8+ Ho!e*er, Iago !arns that Delse!hereE !ill likel. "e !ith Aassio+ Iago 'ounsels Ro(erigo that he shoul( 'ast Aassio into (isgra'e ". starting a fight !ith Aassio at the e*ening:s re*els+ In a solilo2u., Iago e> lains to the au(ien'e that eliminating Aassio is the first 'ru'ial ste in his lan to ruin Othello+ That night, Iago gets Aassio (runk an( then sen(s Ro(erigo to start a fight !ith him+ A arentl. ro*oke( ". Ro(erigo, Aassio 'hases Ro(erigo a'ross the stage+ 3o*ernor Montano attem ts to hol( Aassio (o!n, an( Aassio sta"s him+ Iago sen(s Ro(erigo to raise alarm in the to!n+ The alarm is rung, an( Othello, !ho ha( left earlier !ith lans to 'onsummate his marriage, soon arri*es to still the 'ommotion+ When Othello (eman(s to kno! !ho "egan the fight, Iago feigns relu'tan'e to im li'ate his Dfrien(E Aassio, "ut he ultimatel. tells the !hole stor.+ Othello then stri s Aassio of his rank of lieutenant+ Aassio is e>tremel. u set, an( he laments to Iago, on'e e*er.one else has gone, that his re utation has "een ruine( fore*er+ Iago assures Aassio that he 'an get "a'k into Othello:s goo( gra'es ". using Ces(emona as an interme(iar.+ In a solilo2u., Iago tells us that he !ill frame Aassio an( Ces(emona as lo*ers to make )Othello Gealous+ In an attem t at re'on'iliation, Aassio sen(s some musi'ians to la. "eneath Othello:s !in(o!+ Othello, ho!e*er, sen(s his 'lo!n to tell the musi'ians to go a!a.+ Ho ing to arrange a meeting !ith Ces(emona, Aassio asks the 'lo!n, a easant !ho

ser*es Othello, to sen( Emilia to him+ After the 'lo!n (e arts, Iago asses ". an( tells Aassio that he !ill get Othello out of the !a. so that Aassio 'an s eak ri*atel. !ith Ces(emona+ Othello, Iago, an( a gentleman go to e>amine some of the to!n:s fortifi'ations+ Ces(emona is 2uite s.m atheti' to Aassio:s re2uest an( romises that she !ill (o e*er.thing she 'an to make Othello forgi*e his former lieutenant+ As Aassio is a"out to lea*e, Othello an( Iago return+ Feeling uneas., Aassio lea*es !ithout talking to Othello+ Othello in2uires !hether it !as Aassio !ho Gust arte( from his !ife, an( Iago, "eginning to kin(le Othello:s fire of Gealous., re lies, DNo, sure, I 'annot think it, H That he !oul( steal a!a. so guilt.)like, H Seeing .our 'omingE 5III+iii+7?67/8+ Othello "e'omes u set an( moo(., an( Iago furthers his goal of remo*ing "oth Aassio an( Othello ". suggesting that Aassio an( Ces(emona are in*ol*e( in an affair+ Ces(emona:s entreaties to Othello to reinstate Aassio as lieutenant a(( to Othello:s almost imme(iate 'on*i'tion that his !ife is unfaithful+ After Othello:s 'on*ersation !ith Iago, Ces(emona 'omes to 'all Othello to su er an( fin(s him feeling un!ell+ She offers him her han(ker'hief to !ra aroun( his hea(, "ut he fin(s it to "e DItJoo littleE an( lets it (ro to the floor 5III+iii+-/#8+ Ces(emona an( Othello go to (inner, an( Emilia i'ks u the han(ker'hief, mentioning to the au(ien'e that Iago has al!a.s !ante( her to steal it for him+ Iago is e'stati' !hen Emilia gi*es him the han(ker'hief, !hi'h he lants in Aassio:s room as De*i(en'eE of his affair !ith Ces(emona+ When Othello (eman(s Do'ular roofE 5III+iii+7%$8 that his !ife is unfaithful, Iago sa.s that he has seen Aassio D!i e his "ear(E 5III+iii+&&&8 !ith Ces(emona:s han(ker'hief=the first gift Othello e*er ga*e her+ Othello *o!s to take *engean'e on his !ife an( on Aassio, an( Iago *o!s that he !ill hel him+ When Othello sees Ces(emona later that e*ening, he (eman(s the han(ker'hief of her, "ut she tells him that she (oes not ha*e it !ith her an( attem ts to 'hange the su"Ge't ". 'ontinuing her suit on Aassio:s "ehalf+ This (ri*es Othello into a further rage, an( he storms out+ Later, Aassio 'omes onstage, !on(ering a"out the han(ker'hief he has Gust foun( in his 'ham"er+ He is greete( ". <ian'a, a rostitute, !hom he asks to take the han(ker'hief an( 'o . its em"roi(er. for him+ Through Iago:s ma'hinations, Othello "e'omes so 'onsume( ". Gealous. that he falls into a tran'e an( has a fit of e ile s.+ As he !rithes on the groun(, Aassio 'omes "., an( Iago tells him to 'ome "a'k in a fe! minutes to talk+ On'e Othello re'o*ers, Iago tells him of the meeting he has lanne( !ith Aassio+ He instru'ts Othello to hi(e near". an( !at'h as Iago e>tra'ts from Aassio the stor. of his affair !ith Ces(emona+ While Othello stan(s out of earshot, Iago um s Aassio for information a"out <ian'a, 'ausing Aassio to laugh an( 'onfirm Othello:s sus i'ions+ <ian'a herself then enters !ith Ces(emona:s han(ker'hief, re riman(ing Aassio for making her 'o . out the em"roi(er. of a lo*e token gi*en to him ". another !oman+ When Ces(emona enters !ith Lo(o*i'o an( Lo(o*i'o su"se2uentl. gi*es Othello a letter from @eni'e 'alling him home an( instating Aassio as his re la'ement, Othello goes o*er the e(ge, striking Ces(emona an( then storming out+ That night, Othello a''uses Ces(emona of "eing a !hore+ He ignores her rotestations, se'on(e( ". Emilia, that she is inno'ent+ Iago assures Ces(emona that Othello is sim l. u set a"out matters of state+ Later that night, ho!e*er, Othello ominousl. tells Ces(emona to !ait for him in "e( an( to sen( Emilia a!a.+ Mean!hile, Iago assures the still)'om laining Ro(erigo that e*er.thing is going as lanne(B in or(er to re*ent Ces(emona an( Othello from lea*ing, Ro(erigo must kill Aassio+ Then he !ill ha*e a 'lear a*enue to his lo*e+ Iago instru'ts Ro(erigo to am"ush Aassio, "ut Ro(erigo misses his mark an( Aassio !oun(s him instea(+ Iago !oun(s Aassio an( runs a!a.+ When Othello hears Aassio:s 'r., he assumes that Iago has kille( Aassio as he sai( he !oul(+ Lo(o*i'o an( 3ra4iano enter to see !hat the 'ommotion is a"out+ Iago enters shortl. thereafter an( flies into a reten( rage as he D(is'o*ersE Aassio:s assailant Ro(erigo, !hom he mur(ers+ Aassio is taken to ha*e his !oun( (resse(+ Mean!hile, Othello stan(s o*er his slee ing !ife in their "e('ham"er, re aring to kill her+ Ces(emona !akes an( attem ts to lea( !ith Othello+ She asserts her inno'en'e, "ut Othello smothers her+ Emilia enters !ith the ne!s that Ro(erigo is (ea(+ Othello asks if Aassio is (ea( too an( is mortifie( !hen Emilia sa.s he is not+ After 'r.ing out that she has "een mur(ere(, Ces(emona 'hanges her stor. "efore she (ies, 'laiming that she has 'ommitte( sui'i(e+ Emilia asks Othello !hat ha ene(, an( Othello tells her that he has kille( Ces(emona for her infi(elit., !hi'h Iago "rought to his attention+

Montano, 3ra4iano, an( Iago 'ome into the room+ Iago attem ts to silen'e Emilia, !ho reali4es !hat Iago has (one+ At first, Othello insists that Iago has tol( the truth, 'iting the han(ker'hief as e*i(en'e+ On'e Emilia tells him ho! she foun( the han(ker'hief an( ga*e it to Iago, Othello is 'rushe( an( "egins to !ee + He tries to kill Iago "ut is (isarme(+ Iago kills Emilia an( flees, "ut he is 'aught ". Lo(o*i'o an( Montano, !ho return hol(ing Iago 'a ti*e+ The. also "ring Aassio, !ho is no! in a 'hair "e'ause of his !oun(+ Othello !oun(s Iago an( is (isarme(+ Lo(o*i'o tells Othello that he must 'ome !ith them "a'k to @eni'e to "e trie(+ Othello makes a s ee'h a"out ho! he !oul( like to "e remem"ere(, then kills himself !ith a s!or( he ha( hi((en on his erson+ The la. 'loses !ith a s ee'h ". Lo(o*i'o+ He gi*es Othello:s house an( goo(s to 3ra4iano an( or(ers that Iago "e e>e'ute(+

3.

Character List

Othello ) The la.:s rotagonist an( hero+ A Ahristian Moor an( general of the armies of @eni'e, Othello is an elo2uent an( h.si'all. o!erful figure, res e'te( ". all those aroun( him+ In s ite of his ele*ate( status, he is ne*ertheless eas. re. to inse'urities "e'ause of his age, his life as a sol(ier, an( his ra'e+ He ossesses a Dfree an( o en nature,E !hi'h his ensign Iago uses to t!ist his lo*e for his !ife, Ces(emona, into a o!erful an( (estru'ti*e Gealous. 5I+iii+7,#8+ Desdemona ) The (aughter of the @enetian senator <ra"an4io+ Ces(emona an( Othello are se'retl. marrie( "efore the la. "egins+ While in man. !a.s stereot. i'all. ure an( meek, Ces(emona is also (etermine( an( self) ossesse(+ She is e2uall. 'a a"le of (efen(ing her marriage, Gesting "a!(il. !ith Iago, an( res on(ing !ith (ignit. to Othello:s in'om rehensi"le Gealous.+ Iago ) Othello:s ensign 5a Go" also kno!n as an an'ient or stan(ar()"earer8, an( the *illain of the la.+ Iago is t!ent.)eight .ears ol(+ While his ostensi"le reason for (esiring Othello:s (emise is that he has "een asse( o*er for romotion to lieutenant, Iago:s moti*ations are ne*er *er. 'learl. e> resse( an( seem to originate in an o"sessi*e, almost aestheti' (elight in mani ulation an( (estru'tion+ Michael Cassio ) Othello:s lieutenant+ Aassio is a .oung an( ine> erien'e( sol(ier, !hose high osition is mu'h resente( ". Iago+ Trul. (e*ote( to Othello, Aassio is e>tremel. ashame( after "eing im li'ate( in a (runken "ra!l on A. rus an( losing his la'e as lieutenant+ Iago uses Aassio:s .outh, goo( looks, an( frien(shi !ith Ces(emona to la. on Othello:s inse'urities a"out Ces(emona:s fi(elit.+ Emilia ) Iago:s !ife an( Ces(emona:s atten(ant+ A '.ni'al, !orl(l. !oman, she is (ee l. atta'he( to her mistress an( (istrustful of her hus"an(+ Roderigo ) A Gealous suitor of Ces(emona+ Koung, ri'h, an( foolish, Ro(erigo is 'on*in'e( that if he gi*es Iago all of his mone., Iago !ill hel him !in Ces(emona:s han(+ Re eate(l. frustrate( as Othello marries Ces(emona an( then takes her to A. rus, Ro(erigo is ultimatel. (es erate enough to agree to hel Iago kill Aassio after Iago oints out that Aassio is another otential ri*al for Ces(emona+ ianca ) A 'ourtesan, or rostitute, in A. rus+ <ian'a:s fa*orite 'ustomer is Aassio, !ho teases her !ith romises of marriage+ ra!an"io ) Ces(emona:s father, a some!hat "lustering an( self)im ortant @enetian senator+ As a frien( of Othello, <ra"an4io feels "etra.e( !hen the general marries his (aughter in se'ret+ D#$e o% &enice ) The offi'ial authorit. in @eni'e, the (uke has great res e't for Othello as a u"li' an( militar. ser*ant+ His rimar. role !ithin the la. is to re'on'ile Othello an( <ra"an4io in A't I, s'ene iii, an( then to sen( Othello to A. rus+ Montano ) The go*ernor of A. rus "efore Othello+ We see him first in A't II, as he re'ounts the status of the !ar an( a!aits the @enetian shi s+ Lodovico ) One of <ra"an4io:s kinsmen, Lo(o*i'o a'ts as a messenger from @eni'e to A. rus+ He arri*es in A. rus in A't I@ !ith letters announ'ing that Othello has "een re la'e( ". Aassio as go*ernor+ 'ra"iano ) <ra"an4io:s kinsman !ho a''om anies Lo(o*i'o to A. rus+ Ami(st the 'haos of the final s'ene, 3ra4iano mentions that Ces(emona:s father has (ie(+ Clown ) Othello:s ser*ant+ Although the 'lo!n a ears onl. in t!o short s'enes, his a earan'es refle't an( (istort the a'tion an( !or(s of the main lotsB his uns on the !or( DlieE in A't III, s'ene i*, for e>am le, anti'i ate Othello:s 'onfusion of t!o meanings of that !or( in A't I@, s'ene i+

(.

)nal*sis o% Ma+or Characters

,.

Othello

<eginning !ith the o ening lines of the la., Othello remains at a (istan'e from mu'h of the a'tion that 'on'erns an( affe'ts him+ Ro(erigo an( Iago refer am"iguousl. to a DheE or DhimE for mu'h of the first s'ene+ When the. "egin to s e'if. !hom the. are talking a"out, es e'iall. on'e the. stan( "eneath <ra"an4io:s !in(o!, the. (o so !ith ra'ial e ithets, not names+ These in'lu(e Dthe MoorE 5I+i+$?8, Dthe thi'k)li sE 5I+i+%%8, Dan ol( "la'k ramE 5I+i+,,8, an( Da <ar"ar. horseE 5I+i+##78+ Although Othello a ears at the "eginning of the se'on( s'ene, !e (o not hear his name until !ell into A't I, s'ene iii 5I+iii+&,8+ Later, Othello:s !ill "e the last of the three shi s to arri*e at A. rus in A't II, s'ene iF Othello !ill stan( a art !hile Aassio an( Iago su ose(l. (is'uss Ces(emona in A't I@, s'ene iF an( Othello !ill assume that Aassio is (ea( !ithout "eing resent !hen the fight takes la'e in A't @, s'ene i+ Othello:s status as an outsi(er ma. "e the reason he is su'h eas. re. for Iago+ Although Othello is a 'ultural an( ra'ial outsi(er in @eni'e, his skill as a sol(ier an( lea(er is ne*ertheless *alua"le an( ne'essar. to the state, an( he is an integral art of @enetian 'i*i' so'iet.+ He is in great (eman( ". the (uke an( senate, as e*i(en'e( ". Aassio:s 'omment that the senate Dsent a"out three se*eral 2uestsE to look for Othello 5I+ii+&%8+ The @enetian go*ernment trusts Othello enough to ut him in full martial an( oliti'al 'omman( of A. rusF in(ee(, in his (.ing s ee'h, Othello remin(s the @enetians of the Dser*i'eE he has (one their state 5@+ii+7&,8+ Those !ho 'onsi(er Othello their so'ial an( 'i*i' eer, su'h as Ces(emona an( <ra"an4io, ne*ertheless seem (ra!n to him "e'ause of his e>oti' 2ualities+ Othello a(mits as mu'h !hen he tells the (uke a"out his frien(shi !ith <ra"an4io+ He sa.s, )DICes(emona:sJ father lo*e( me, oft in*ite( me, H Still 2uestione( me the stor. of m. life H From .ear to .earE 5I+iii+#-?6#-/8+ )Othello is also a"le to 'a ti*ate his eers !ith his s ee'h+ The (uke:s re l. to Othello:s s ee'h a"out ho! he !ooe( Ces(emona !ith his tales of a(*enture isB DI think this tale !oul( !in m. (aughter tooE 5I+iii+#?08+ Othello sometimes makes a oint of resenting himself as an outsi(er, !hether "e'ause he re'ogni4es his e>oti' a eal or "e'ause he is self)'ons'ious of an( (efensi*e a"out his (ifferen'e from other @enetians+ For e>am le, in s ite of his o"*ious elo2uen'e in A't I, s'ene iii, he rotests, DRu(e am I in m. s ee'h, H An( little "lesse( !ith the soft hrase of ea'eE 5I+iii+,#6,-8+ While Othello is ne*er ru(e in his s ee'h, he (oes allo! his elo2uen'e to suffer as he is ut un(er in'reasing strain ". Iago:s lots+ In the final moments of the la., Othello regains his 'om osure an(, on'e again, se(u'es "oth his onstage an( offstage au(ien'es !ith his !or(s+ The s ee'h that re'e(es his sui'i(e is a tale that 'oul( !oo almost an.one+ It is the tension "et!een Othello:s *i'timi4ation at the han(s of a foreign 'ulture an( his o!n !illingness to torment himself that makes him a tragi' figure rather than sim l. Iago:s ri(i'ulous u et+ -. Iago 1ossi"l. the most heinous *illain in Shakes eare, Iago is fas'inating for his most terri"le 'hara'teristi'B his utter la'k of 'on*in'ing moti*ation for his a'tions+ In the first s'ene, he 'laims to "e angr. at Othello for ha*ing asse( him o*er for the osition of lieutenant 5I+i+ ?67-8+ At the en( of A't I, s'ene iii, Iago sa.s he thinks Othello ma. ha*e sle t !ith his !ife, EmiliaB DIt is thought a"roa( that :t!i>t m. sheets H He has (one m. offi'eE 5I+iii+7%/67?08+ Iago mentions this sus i'ion again at the en( of A't II, s'ene i, e> laining that he lusts after Ces(emona "e'ause he !ants to get e*en !ith Othello D!ife for !ifeE 5II+i+-,%8+ None of these 'laims seems to a(e2uatel. e> lain Iago:s (ee hatre( of Othello, an( Iago:s la'k of moti*ation=or his ina"ilit. or un!illingness to e> ress his true moti*ation=makes his a'tions all the more terrif.ing+ He is !illing to take re*enge on an.one=Othello, Ces(emona, Aassio, Ro(erigo, e*en Emilia=at the slightest ro*o'ation an( enGo.s the ain an( (amage he 'auses+ Iago is often funn., es e'iall. in his s'enes !ith the foolish Ro(erigo, !hi'h ser*e as a sho!'ase of Iago:s mani ulati*e )a"ilities+ He seems almost to !ink at the au(ien'e as he re*els in his o!n skill+ As entertaine( s e'tators, !e fin( oursel*es on Iago:s si(e !hen he is !ith Ro(erigo, "ut the intera'tions "et!een the t!o also re*eal a streak of 'o!ar(i'e in Iago=a 'o!ar(i'e that "e'omes manifest in the final s'ene, !hen Iago kills his o!n !ife 5@+ii+-7#6-&-8+ Iago:s mur(er of Emilia 'oul( also stem from the general hatre( of !omen that he (is la.s+ Some rea(ers ha*e suggeste( that Iago:s true, un(erl.ing moti*e for erse'uting Othello is his homose>ual lo*e for the general+ He 'ertainl. seems to take great leasure in re*enting Othello from enGo.ing marital ha iness, an( he e> resses his lo*e for Othello fre2uentl. an( effusi*el.+ It is Iago:s talent for un(erstan(ing an( mani ulating the (esires of those aroun( him that makes him "oth a o!erful an( a 'om elling figure+ Iago is a"le to take the han(ker'hief from Emilia an( kno! that he 'an (efle't her 2uestionsF he is a"le to

tell Othello of the han(ker'hief an( kno! that Othello !ill not (ou"t himF he is a"le to tell the au(ien'e, DAn( !hat:s he then that sa.s I la. the *illain,E an( kno! that it !ill laugh as though he !ere a 'lo!n 5II+iii+7#08+ Though the most in*eterate liar, Iago ins ires all of the la.:s 'hara'ters the trait that is most lethal to OthelloB trust+ .. Desdemona Ces(emona is a more lausi"le, !ell)roun(e( figure than mu'h 'riti'ism has gi*en her 're(it for+ Arguments that see Ces(emona as stereot. i'all. !eak an( su"missi*e ignore the 'on*i'tion an( authorit. of her first s ee'h 5DM. no"le father, H I (o er'ei*e here a (i*i(e( (ut.E II+iii+#?/6#,0J8 an( her terse fur. after Othello strikes her 5DI ha*e not (eser*e( thisE II@+i+-7%J8+ Similarl., 'riti's !ho argue that Ces(emona:s slightl. "i4arre "a!(. Gesting !ith Iago in A't II, s'ene i, is either an inter olation not !ritten ". Shakes eare or a mere *ulgarit. ignore the fa't that Ces(emona is .oung, se>ual, an( re'entl. marrie(+ She later (is la.s the same 'hi(ing, almost mis'hie*ous !it in A't III, s'ene iii, lines %#6,&, !hen she attem ts to ersua(e Othello to forgi*e Aassio+ Ces(emona is at times a su"missi*e 'hara'ter, most nota"l. in her !illingness to take 're(it for her o!n mur(er+ In res onse to Emilia:s 2uestion, DO, !ho hath (one this (ee(LE Ces(emona:s final !or(s are, DNo"o(., I m.self+ Fare!ell+ H Aommen( me to m. kin( lor(+ O, fare!ellE 5@+ii+#776#7&8+ The la., then, (e i'ts Ces(emona 'ontra(i'toril. as a self)effa'ing, faithful !ife an( as a "ol(, in(e en(ent ersonalit.+ This 'ontra(i'tion ma. "e intentional, meant to ortra. the !a. Ces(emona herself feels after (efen(ing her 'hoi'e of marriage to her father in A't I, s'ene iii, an( then almost imme(iatel. "eing ut in the osition of (efen(ing her fi(elit. to her hus"an(+ She "egins the la. as a su remel. in(e en(ent erson, "ut mi(!a. through she must struggle against all o((s to 'on*in'e Othello that she is not too in(e en(ent+ The manner in !hi'h Ces(emona is mur(ere(=smothere( ". a illo! in a "e( 'o*ere( in her !e((ing sheets=is s.m"oli'B she is literall. suffo'ate( "eneath the (eman(s ut on her fi(elit.+ Sin'e her first lines, Ces(emona has seeme( 'a a"le of meeting or e*en rising a"o*e those (eman(s+ In the en(, Othello stifles the s ee'h that ma(e Ces(emona so o!erful+ Tragi'all., Ces(emona is a arentl. a!are of her imminent (eath+ She, not Othello, asks Emilia to ut her !e((ing sheets on the "e(, an( she asks Emilia to "ur. her in these sheets shoul( she (ie first+ The last time !e see Ces(emona "efore she a!akens to fin( Othello stan(ing o*er her !ith mur(er in his e.es, she sings a song she learne( from her mother:s mai(B DShe !as in lo*eF an( he ro*e( ma( H An( (i( forsake her+ She ha( a song of !illo!+ H + + + H An( she (ie( singing it+ That song tonight H Will not go from m. min(E 5I@+iii+-?6708+ Like the au(ien'e, Ces(emona seems a"le onl. to !at'h as her hus"an( is (ri*en insane !ith Gealous.+ Though she maintains to the en( that she is Dguiltless,E Ces(emona also forgi*es her hus"an( 5@+ii+#778+ Her forgi*eness of Othello ma. hel the au(ien'e to forgi*e him as !ell+

/.
4.

0hemes1 Moti%s 2 3*m!ols

0hemes

Themes are the fundamental and often uni#ersal ideas e$plored in a literary %ork! 15. 0he Incom6ati!ilit* o% Militar* 7eroism 2 Love

<efore an( a"o*e all else, Othello is a sol(ier+ From the earliest moments in the la., his 'areer affe'ts his marrie( life+ Asking Dfit (is ositionE for his !ife after "eing or(ere( to A. rus 5I+iii+-7&8, Othello notes that Dthe t.rant 'ustom + + + H Hath ma(e the flint. an( steel 'ou'h of !ar H M. thri'e)(ri*en "e( of (o!nE 5I+iii+--?6--/8+ While Ces(emona is use( to "etter Da''ommo(ation,E she ne*ertheless a''om anies her hus"an( to A. rus 5I+iii+-7%8+ Moreo*er, she is un ertur"e( ". the tem est or Turks that threatene( their 'rossing, an( genuinel. 'urious rather than irate !hen she is rouse( from "e( ". the (runken "ra!l in A't II, s'ene iii+ She is, in(ee(, Othello:s Dfair !arrior,E an( he is ha iest !hen he has her ". his si(e in the mi(st of militar. 'onfli't or "usiness 5II+i+#?/8+ The militar. also ro*i(es Othello !ith a means to gain a''e tan'e in @enetian so'iet.+ While the @enetians in the la. are generall. fearful of the ros e't of Othello:s so'ial entran'e into !hite so'iet. through his marriage to Ces(emona, all @enetians res e't an( honor him as a sol(ier+ Mer'enar. Moors !ere, in fa't, 'ommon la'e at the time+ Othello re(i'ates his su''ess in lo*e on his su''ess as a sol(ier, !ooing Ces(emona !ith tales of his militar. tra*els an( "attles+ On'e the Turks are (ro!ne(=". natural rather than militar. might=Othello is left !ithout an.thing to (oB the last a't of militar. a(ministration !e see him erform is the *ie!ing of fortifi'ations in the e>tremel. short se'on( s'ene of A't III+ No longer ha*ing a means of ro*ing his manhoo( or honor in a u"li' setting su'h as the 'ourt or the "attlefiel(, Othello "egins

to feel uneas. !ith his footing in a ri*ate setting, the "e(room+ Iago 'a itali4es on this uneasiness, 'alling Othello:s e ile ti' fit in A't I@, s'ene i, DIaJ assion most unsuiting su'h a man+E In other !or(s, Iago is 'alling Othello unsol(ierl.+ Iago also takes 'are to mention that Aassio, !hom Othello "elie*es to "e his 'om etitor, sa! him in his emas'ulating tran'e 5I@+i+?$8+ Ces erate to 'ling to the se'urit. of his former i(entit. as a sol(ier !hile his 'urrent i(entit. as a lo*er 'rum"les, Othello "egins to 'onfuse the one !ith the other+ His e> ression of his Gealous. 2ui'kl. (e*ol*es from the 'on*entional=DFare!ell the tran2uil min(E=to the a"sur(B &are%ell the plum'd troops and the big %ars That make ambition #irtue( O" fare%ell" &are%ell the neighing steed and the shrill trump" The spirit)stirring drum" th'ear piercing fife" The royal banner" and all *uality" +ride" pomp" and circumstance of glorious %ar(, -...!iii!/0/1/023 One might !ell sa. that Othello is sa.ing fare!ell to the !rong things=he is entirel. reo''u ie( !ith his i(entit. as a sol(ier+ <ut his !a. of thinking is some!hat Gustifie( ". its se(u'ti*eness to the au(ien'e as !ell+ Ariti's an( au(ien'es alike fin( 'omfort an( no"ilit. in Othello:s final s ee'h an( the ane'(ote of the Dmalignant an( + + + tur"ane( TurkE 5@+ii+7%-8, e*en though in that s ee'h, as in his s ee'h in A't III, s'ene iii, Othello (e en(s on his i(entit. as a sol(ier to glorif. himself in the u"li':s memor., an( to tr. to make his au(ien'e forget his an( Ces(emona:s (isastrous marital e> eriment+ 11. 0he Danger o% Isolation The a'tion of Othello mo*es from the metro olis of @eni'e to the islan( of A. rus+ 1rote'te( ". militar. fortifi'ations as !ell as ". the for'es of nature, A. rus fa'es little threat from e>ternal for'es+ On'e Othello, Iago, Ces(emona, Emilia, an( Ro(erigo ha*e 'ome to A. rus, the. ha*e nothing to (o "ut re. u on one another+ Isolation ena"les man. of the la.:s most im ortant effe'tsB Iago fre2uentl. s eaks in solilo2uiesF Othello stan(s a art !hile Iago talks !ith Aassio in A't I@, s'ene i, an( is left alone onstage !ith the "o(ies of Emilia an( Ces(emona for a fe! moments in A't @, s'ene iiF Ro(erigo seems atta'he( to no one in the la. e>'e t Iago+ An(, most rominentl., Othello is *isi"l. isolate( from the other 'hara'ters ". his h.si'al stature an( the 'olor of his skin+ Iago is an e> ert at mani ulating the (istan'e "et!een 'hara'ters, isolating his *i'tims so that the. fall re. to their o!n o"sessions+ At the same time, Iago, of ne'essit. al!a.s stan(ing a art, falls re. to his o!n o"session !ith re*enge+ The 'hara'ters cannot "e islan(s, the la. seems to sa.B self)isolation as an a't of self) reser*ation lea(s ultimatel. to self)(estru'tion+ Su'h self)isolation lea(s to the (eaths of Ro(erigo, Iago, Othello, an( e*en Emilia+ 12. Moti%s Motifs are recurring structures" contrasts" and literary de#ices that can help to de#elop and inform the te$t's ma4or themes! 13. 3ight and lindness

When Ces(emona asks to "e allo!e( to a''om an. Othello to A. rus, she sa.s that she Dsa! Othello:s *isage in his min(, H An( to his honours an( his *aliant arts H Ci( I m. soul an( fortunes 'onse'rateE 5I+iii+ -$06-$-8+ Othello:s "la'kness, his *isi"le (ifferen'e from e*er.one aroun( him, is of little im ortan'e to Ces(emonaB she has the o!er to see him for !hat he is in a !a. that e*en Othello himself 'annot+ Ces(emona:s line is one of man. referen'es to (ifferent kin(s of sight in the la.+ Earlier in A't I, s'ene iii, a senator suggests that the Turkish retreat to Rho(es is Da ageant H To kee us in false ga4eE 5I+iii+#/6-08+ The "eginning of A't II 'onsists entirel. of eo le staring out to sea, !aiting to see the arri*al of shi s, frien(l. or other!ise+ Othello, though he (eman(s Do'ular roofE 5III+iii+7%$8, is fre2uentl. 'on*in'e( ". things he (oes not seeB he stri s Aassio of his osition as lieutenant "ase( on the stor. Iago tellsF he relies on Iago:s stor. of seeing Aassio !i e his "ear( !ith Ces(emona:s han(ker'hief 5III+iii+&7?6&&08F an( he "elie*es Aassio to "e (ea( sim l. "e'ause he hears him s'ream+ After Othello has kille( himself in the final s'ene, Lo(o*i'o sa.s to Iago, DLook on the tragi' loa(ing of this "e(+ H This is th. !ork+ The o"Ge't oisons sight+ H Let it "e hi(E 5@+ii+7?767?$8+ The a'tion of the la. (e en(s hea*il. on

'hara'ters not seeing thingsB Othello a''uses his !ife although he ne*er sees her infi(elit., an( Emilia, although she !at'hes Othello eru t into a rage a"out the missing han(ker'hief, (oes not figurati*el. DseeE !hat her hus"an( has (one+ 1(. Plants Iago is strangel. reo''u ie( !ith lants+ His s ee'hes to Ro(erigo in arti'ular make e>tensi*e an( ela"orate use of *egeta"le meta hors an( 'on'eits+ Some e>am les areB DOur "o(ies are our gar(ens, to !hi'h our !ills are gar(enersF so that if !e !ill lant nettles or so! lettu'e, set h.sso an( !ee( u th.me + + + the o!er an( 'orrigi"le authorit. of this lies in our !illsE 5I+iii+7#?67--8F DThough other things gro! fair against the sun, H Ket fruits that "lossom first !ill first "e ri eE 5II+iii+7&/67$08F DAn( then, sir, !oul( he gri e an( !ring m. han(, H Ar. MO s!eet 'reatureN:, then kiss me har(, H As if he lu'ke( kisses u ". the roots, H That gre! u on m. li sE 5III+iii+&-$6&-,8+ The first of these e>am les "est e> lains Iago:s reo''u ation !ith the lant meta hor an( ho! it fun'tions !ithin the la.+ Ahara'ters in this la. seem to "e the ro(u't of 'ertain ine*ita"le, natural for'es, !hi'h, if left un'he'ke(, !ill gro! !il(+ Iago un(erstan(s these natural for'es arti'ularl. !ellB he is, a''or(ing to his o!n meta hor, a goo( Dgar(ener,E "oth of himself an( of others+ Man. of Iago:s "otani'al referen'es 'on'ern oisonB DI:ll our this estilen'e into his earE 5II+iii+7708F DThe Moor alrea(. 'hanges !ith m. oison+ H Cangerous 'on'eits are in their natures oisons, H + + + H + + + Not o . nor man(ragora H Nor all the (ro!s. s.ru s of the !orl( H Shall e*er me(i'ine thee to that s!eet slee E 5III+iii+7-/677%8+ Iago 'ulti*ates his D'on'eitsE so that the. "e'ome lethal oisons an( then lants their see(s in the min(s of others+ The organi' !a. in !hi'h Iago:s lots 'onsume the other 'hara'ters an( (etermine their "eha*ior makes his 'onni*ing, human e*il seem like a for'e of nature+ That organi' gro!th also in(i'ates that the min(s of the other 'hara'ters are fertile groun( for Iago:s efforts+ 1,. )nimals Iago 'alls Othello a D<ar"ar. horse,E an Dol( "la'k ram,E an( also tells <ra"an4io that his (aughter an( Othello are Dmaking the "east !ith t!o "a'ksE 5I+i+##?6##,8+ In A't I, s'ene iii, Iago tells Ro(erigo, DEre I !oul( sa. I !oul( (ro!n m.self for the lo*e of a guinea)hen, I !oul( 'hange m. humanit. !ith a "a"oonE 5I+iii+7#-67#78+ He then remarks that (ro!ning is for D'ats an( "lin( u iesE 5I+iii+770677#8+ Aassio laments that, !hen (runk, he is D". an( ". a fool, an( resentl. a "eastNE 5II+iii+-,&6-,$8+ Othello tells Iago, DE>'hange me for a goat H When I shall turn the "usiness of m. soul H To su'h e>suffli'ate an( "lo!e( surmisesE 5III+iii+#,&6#,%8+ He later sa.s that DIaJ horne( man:s a monster an( a "eastE 5I@+i+$/8+ E*en Emilia, in the final s'ene, sa.s that she !ill D la. the s!an, H An( (ie in musi'E 5@+ii+-$&6-$$8+ Like the re eate( referen'es to lants, these referen'es to animals 'on*e. a sense that the la!s of nature, rather than those of so'iet., are the rimar. for'es go*erning the 'hara'ters in this la.+ When animal referen'es are use( !ith regar( to Othello, as the. fre2uentl. are, the. refle't the ra'ism "oth of 'hara'ters in the la. an( of Shakes eare:s 'ontem orar. au(ien'e+ D<ar"ar. horseE is a *ulgarit. arti'ularl. a ro riate in the mouth of Iago, "ut e*en !ithout ha*ing seen Othello, the 9a'o"ean au(ien'e !oul( ha*e kno!n from Iago:s meta hor that he meant to 'onnote a sa*age Moor+ 1-. 7ell1 Demons1 and Monsters Iago tells Othello to "e!are of Gealous., the Dgreen)e.e( monster !hi'h (oth mo'kH The meat it fee(s onE 5III+iii+#?06#?#8+ Like!ise, Emilia (es'ri"es Gealous. as (angerousl. an( un'annil. self)generating, a Dmonster H <egot u on itself, "orn on itselfE 5III+i*+#$%6#$?8+ Imager. of hell an( (amnation also re'urs throughout Othello, es e'iall. to!ar( the en( of the la., !hen Othello "e'omes reo''u ie( !ith the religious an( moral Gu(gment of Ces(emona an( himself+ After he has learne( the truth a"out Iago, Othello 'alls Iago a (e*il an( a (emon se*eral times in A't @, s'ene ii+ Othello:s earlier allusion to Dsome monster in IhisJ thoughtE ironi'all. refers to Iago 5III+iii+###8+ Like!ise, his *ision of Ces(emona:s "etra.al is Dmonstrous, monstrousNE 5III+iii+&7#8+ Shortl. "efore he kills himself, Othello !ishes for eternal s iritual an( h.si'al torture in hell, 'r.ing out, DWhi me, .e (e*ils, H + + + H + + + roast me in sul hur, H Wash me in stee )(o!n gulfs of li2ui( fireNE 5@+ii+ -,&6-,?8+ The imager. of the monstrous an( (ia"oli'al takes o*er !here the imager. of animals 'an go no further, resenting the Gealous.) 'ra4e( 'hara'ters not sim l. as "rutish, "ut as grotes2ue, (eforme(, an( (emoni'+ 1.. 3*m!ols 5ymbols are ob4ects" characters" figures" and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts! 1/. 0he 7and$erchie%

The han(ker'hief s.m"oli4es (ifferent things to (ifferent 'hara'ters+ Sin'e the han(ker'hief !as the first gift Ces(emona re'ei*e( from Othello, she kee s it a"out her 'onstantl. as a s.m"ol of Othello:s lo*e+ Iago mani ulates the han(ker'hief so that Othello 'omes to see it as a s.m"ol of Ces(emona herself=her faith an( 'hastit.+ <. taking ossession of it, he is a"le to 'on*ert it into e*i(en'e of her infi(elit.+ <ut the han(ker'hief:s im ortan'e to Iago an( Ces(emona (eri*es from its im ortan'e to Othello himself+ He tells Ces(emona that it !as !o*en ". a -00).ear)ol( si".l, or female ro het, using silk from sa're( !orms an( (.e e>tra'te( from the hearts of mummifie( *irgins+ Othello 'laims that his mother use( it to kee his father faithful to her, so, to him, the han(ker'hief re resents marital fi(elit.+ The attern of stra!"erries 5(.e( !ith *irgins: "loo(8 on a !hite "a'kgroun( strongl. suggests the "loo(stains left on the sheets on a *irgin:s !e((ing night, so the han(ker'hief im li'itl. suggests a guarantee of *irginit. as !ell as fi(elit.+ 14. 0he 3ong 89illow: As she re ares for "e( in A't @, Ces(emona sings a song a"out a !oman !ho is "etra.e( ". her lo*er+ She !as taught the song ". her mother:s mai(, <ar"ar., !ho suffere( a misfortune similar to that of the !oman in the songF she e*en (ie( singing DWillo!+E The song:s l.ri's suggest that "oth men an( !omen are unfaithful to one another+ To Ces(emona, the song seems to re resent a melan'hol. an( resigne( a''e tan'e of her alienation from Othello:s affe'tions, an( singing it lea(s her to 2uestion Emilia a"out the nature an( ra'ti'e of infi(elit.+

25.
21.

)ct I1 scenes i;ii

3#mmar*< )ct I1 scene i

.n follo%ing him . follo% but myself6 Hea#en is my 4udge" not . for lo#e and duty" But seeming so for my peculiar end! Othello "egins on a street in @eni'e, in the mi(st of an argument "et!een Ro(erigo an( Iago+ The ri'h Ro(erigo has "een a.ing Iago to hel him in his suit to Ces(emona, "ut he has seen no rogress, an( he has Gust learne( that Ces(emona has marrie( Othello, a general !hom Iago ser*es as ensign+ Iago reassures Ro(erigo that he hates Othello+ Ahief among Iago:s reasons for this hatre( is Othello:s re'ent romotion of Mi'hael Aassio to the ost of lieutenant+ In s ite of Iago:s ser*i'e in "attle an( the re'ommen(ation of three Dgreat onesE of the 'it., Othello 'hose to gi*e the osition to a man !ith no e> erien'e lea(ing men in "attle+ As he !aits for an o ortunit. to further his o!n self)interest, Iago onl. reten(s to ser*e Othello+ Iago a(*ises Ro(erigo to s oil some of Othello:s leasure in his marriage ". rousing Ces(emona:s famil. against the general+ The t!o men 'ome to the street outsi(e the house of Ces(emona:s father, <ra"an4io, an( 'r. out that he has "een ro""e( ". Dthie*es+E <ra"an4io, !ho is a @enetian senator, 'omes to the !in(o!+ At first, he (oesn:t "elie*e !hat he hears, "e'ause he has tol( Ro(erigo to sta. a!a. from his (aughter "efore an( thinks Ro(erigo is merel. s'heming on'e again in or(er to see Ces(emona+ Iago s eaks in inflammator. terms, *ulgarl. telling the senator that his (aughter an( Othello are ha*ing se> ". sa.ing that the. are Dmaking the "east !ith t!o "a'ksE 5I+i+##,8+ <ra"an4io "egins to take !hat he hears seriousl. an( (e'i(es to sear'h for his (aughter+ Seeing the su''ess of his lan, Iago lea*es Ro(erigo alone an( goes to atten( on Othello+ Like <ra"an4io, Othello has no i(ea of Iago:s role in Ro(erigo:s a''usations+ As Iago (e arts, <ra"an4io 'omes out of his house, furious that his (aughter has left him+ Ce'laring that his (aughter has "een stolen from him ". magi' D'harms,E <ra"an4io an( his men follo! Ro(erigo to Othello+ 22. 3#mmar*< )ct I1 scene ii Iago arri*es at Othello:s lo(gings, !here he !arns the general that <ra"an4io !ill not hesitate to attem t to for'e a (i*or'e "et!een Othello an( Ces(emona+ Othello sees a art. of men a roa'hing, an( Iago, thinking that <ra"an4io an( his follo!ers ha*e arri*e(, 'ounsels Othello to retreat in(oors+ Othello stan(s his groun(, "ut the art. turns out to "e Aassio an( offi'ers from the @enetian 'ourt+ The. "ring Othello the message that he is !ante( ". the (uke of @eni'e a"out a matter 'on'erning A. rus, an islan( in the Me(iterranean Sea 'ontrolle( ". @eni'e+ As Aassio an( his men re are to lea*e, Iago mentions that Othello is marrie(, "ut "efore he 'an sa. an. more, <ra"an4io, Ro(erigo, an( <ra"an4io:s men arri*e to a''ost Othello+ <ra"an4io or(ers his men to atta'k an( su"(ue Othello+ A struggle "et!een <ra"an4io:s an( Othello:s

follo!ers seems imminent, "ut Othello "rings the 'onfrontation to a halt ". 'alml. an( authoritati*el. telling "oth si(es to ut u their s!or(s+ Hearing that the (uke has summone( Othello to the 'ourt, <ra"an4io (e'i(es to "ring his 'ause "efore the (uke himself+ 23. )nal*sis< )ct I1 scenes i;ii

The a'tion of the first s'ene heightens the au(ien'e:s anti'i ation of Othello:s first a earan'e+ We learn Iago:s name in the se'on( line of the la. an( Ro(erigo:s soon after!ar(, "ut Othello is not on'e mentione( ". his name+ Rather, he is am"iguousl. referre( to as DheE an( Dhim+E He is also 'alle( Dthe MoorE 5I+i+$?8, Dthe thi'k)li sE 5I+i+%%8, an( Da <ar"ar. horseE 5I+i+##78=all names signif.ing that he is (ark)skinne(+ Iago la.s on the senator:s fears, making him imagine a "ar"arous an( threatening Moor, or nati*e of Afri'a, !hose "estial se>ual a etite has turne( him into a thief an( a ra ist+ ;no!ing nothing of Othello, one !oul( e> e't that the au(ien'e, too, !oul( "e se(u'e( ". Iago:s ortrait of the general, "ut se*eral fa'tors kee us from "elie*ing him+ In the first la'e, Ro(erigo is 'learl. a atheti' an( Gealous 'hara'ter+ He a(ores Ces(emona, "ut she has marrie( Othello an( seems una!are of Ro(erigo:s e>isten'e+ Ro(erigo (oesn:t e*en ha*e the a"ilit. to !oo Ces(emona on his o!nB he has alrea(. a eale( to <ra"an4io for Ces(emona:s han(, an( !hen that fails, he turns to Iago for hel + Ri'h an( ine> erien'e(, Ro(erigo naO*el. gi*es his mone. to Iago in e>'hange for *ague "ut unfulfille( romises of amorous su''ess+ The fa't that Iago imme(iatel. aints himself as the *illain also re ares us to "e s.m atheti' to Othello+ Iago e> lains to Ro(erigo that he has no res e't for Othello "e.on( !hat he has to sho! to further his o!n re*engeB DI follo! him to ser*e m. turn u on himE 5I+i+&-8+ Iago e> li'itl. (elights in his *illain., al!a.s ti ing the au(ien'e off a"out his lotting+ In these first t!o s'enes, Iago tells Ro(erigo to shout "eneath <ra"an4io:s !in(o! an( re(i'ts e>a'tl. !hat !ill ha en !hen the. (o so+ On'e <ra"an4io has "een rouse(, Iago also tells Ro(erigo !here he 'an meet Othello+ <e'ause of the (ramati' iron. Iago esta"lishes, the au(ien'e is for'e( into a osition of feeling intimatel. 'onne'te( !ith Iago:s *illain.+ In man. !a.s, Iago is the (ri*ing for'e "ehin( the lot, a la.!right of sorts !hose ma'hinations ins ire the a'tion of the la.+ His self)'ons'ious falseness is highl. theatri'al, 'al'ulate( to sho'k the au(ien'e+ Iago is a 'lassi' t!o)fa'e( *illain, a t. e of 'hara'ter kno!n in Shakes eare:s time as a DMa'hia*elE=a *illain !ho, a(hering all too literall. to the tea'hings of the oliti'al hiloso her Ma'hia*elli, lets nothing stan( in his !a. in his 2uest for o!er+ He is also reminis'ent of the sto'k 'hara'ter of @i'e from me(ie*al moralit. la.s, !ho also announ'es to the au(ien'e his (ia"oli'al s'hemes+ After ha*ing "een re are( for a assionate an( ossi"l. *iolent ersonage in Othello, the 2uiet 'alm of Othello:s 'hara'ter =his (ismissal of Ro(erigo:s allege( insult an( his skillful a*oi(an'e of 'onfli't=is sur rising+ In fa't, far from resenting Othello as a sa*age "ar"arian, Shakes eare im li'itl. 'om ares him to Ahrist+ The moment !hen <ra"an4io an( his men arri*e !ith s!or(s an( tor'hes, ti e( off to Othello:s !herea"outs ". Othello:s (islo.al frien(, *i*i(l. e'hoes 9ohn #,B#6##+ In that 3os el, Ahrist an( his follo!ers are met ". offi'ers 'arr.ing s!or(s an( tor'hes+ The offi'ers !ere informe( of Ahrist:s !herea"outs ". 9u(as, !ho reten(s to si(e !ith Ahrist in the ensuing 'onfrontation+ When Othello a*erts the *iolen'e that seems imminent !ith a single senten'e, D;ee u .our "right s!or(s, for the (e! !ill rust :emE 5I+ii+%08, he e'hoes Ahrist:s 'omman( to 1eter, D1ut u th. s!or( into the sheathE 59ohn #,B##8+ Ho!e*er, !hereas Ahrist:s 'alm restraint is (ue to his resigne( a''e tan'e of his fate, Othello:s is (ue to his sense of his o!n authorit.+ <ra"an4io t!i'e a''uses Othello of using magi' to se(u'e his (aughter 5in I+i+#?-6#?7 an( I+ii+?76,08, an( he re eats the same 'harge a thir( time in front of the (uke in A't I, s'ene iii+ E*en though Shakes eare:s au(ien'e !oul( ha*e 'onsi(ere( elo ement !ith a no"leman:s (aughter to "e a serious, ossi"l. im risona"le offense, <ra"an4io insists that he !ants to arrest an( rose'ute Othello s e'ifi'all. for the 'rime of !it'h'raft, not for elo ing !ith his (aughter !ithout his 'onsent+ <ra"an4io:s ra'ism is 'lear=he 'laims that he sim l. 'annot "elie*e that Ces(emona !oul( "e attra'te( to the Moor unless her reason an( senses !ere "lin(e(+ Ket, it is ossi"le that <ra"an4io is not "eing sin'ere+ He ma. feel that he nee(s to a''use Othello of a 'rime more serious than elo ement "e'ause he kno!s the (uke !ill o*erlook Othello:s infra'tion other!ise+

2(.
2,.

)ct I1 scene iii

3#mmar*

But here's my husband" And so much duty as my mother sho%ed To you" preferring you before her father" 5o much . challenge that . may profess Due to the Moor my lord!

The (uke:s meeting !ith his senators a"out the imminent Turkish in*asion of A. rus takes an une> e'te( turn !hen a sailor arri*es an( announ'es that the Turks seem to ha*e turne( to!ar( Rho(es, another islan( 'ontrolle( ". @eni'e+ One of the senators guesses that the Turks: 'hange of 'ourse is inten(e( to mislea( the @enetians, "e'ause A. rus is more im ortant to the Turks an( far more *ulnera"le than Rho(es+ This guess ro*es to "e 'orre't, as another messenger arri*es to re ort that the Turks ha*e Goine( !ith more for'es an( are hea(ing "a'k to!ar( A. rus+ This militar. meeting is interru te( ". the arri*al of <ra"an4io, Othello, Aassio, Iago, Ro(erigo, an( offi'ers+ <ra"an4io (eman(s that all state "usiness "e ut asi(e to a((ress his o!n grie*an'e=his (aughter has "een stolen from him ". s ells an( otions ur'hase( from 'harlatans+ The (uke is initiall. eager to take <ra"an4io:s si(e, "ut he "e'omes more ske ti'al !hen he learns that Othello is the man a''use(+ The (uke gi*es Othello the 'han'e to s eak for himself+ Othello a(mits that he marrie( Ces(emona, "ut he (enies ha*ing use( magi' to !oo her an( 'laims that Ces(emona !ill su ort his stor.+ He e> lains that <ra"an4io fre2uentl. in*ite( him to his house an( 2uestione( him a"out his remarka"le life stor., full of harro!ing "attles, tra*els outsi(e the 'i*ili4e( !orl(, an( (ramati' re*ersals of fortune+ Ces(emona o*erhear( arts of the stor. an( foun( a 'on*enient time to ask Othello to retell it to her+ Ces(emona !as mo*e( to lo*e Othello ". his stor.+ The (uke is ersua(e( ". Othello:s tale, (ismissing <ra"an4io:s 'laim ". remarking that the stor. ro"a"l. !oul( !in his o!n (aughter+ Ces(emona enters, an( <ra"an4io asks her to tell those resent to !hom she o!es the most o"e(ien'e+ <ra"an4io 'learl. e> e'ts her to sa. her father+ Ces(emona, ho!e*er, 'onfirms that she marrie( Othello of her o!n free !ill an( that, like her o!n mother "efore her, she must shift her rimar. lo.alt. from father to hus"an(+ <ra"an4io relu'tantl. resigns himself to her (e'ision an( allo!s the 'ourt to return to state affairs+ The (uke (e'i(es that Othello must go to A. rus to (efen( the islan( from the Turks+ Othello is !illing an( rea(. to go, an( he asks that a ro riate a''ommo(ations "e ro*i(e( for his !ife+ The (uke suggests that she sta. !ith her father, "ut neither Ces(emona nor <ra"an4io nor Othello !ill a''e t this, an( Ces(emona asks to "e allo!e( to go !ith Othello+ The 'ou le then lea*es to re are for the night:s *o.age+ The stage is 'leare(, lea*ing onl. Ro(erigo an( Iago+ On'e again, Ro(erigo feels that his ho es of !inning Ces(emona ha*e "een (ashe(, "ut Iago insists that all !ill "e !ell+ Iago mo'ks Ro(erigo for threatening to (ro!n himself, an( Ro(erigo rotests that he 'an:t hel "eing tormente( ". lo*e+ Iago 'ontra(i'ts him, asserting that eo le 'an 'hoose at !ill !hat the. !ant to "e+ D1ut "ut mone. in th. urse,E Iago tells Ro(erigo re eate(l. in the aragra h that s ans lines 7-/67$#, urging him to follo! him to A. rus+ Iago romises to !ork e*er.thing out from there+ When Ro(erigo lea*es, Iago (eli*ers his first solilo2u., (e'laring his hatre( for Othello an( his sus i'ion that Othello has sle t !ith his !ife, Emilia+ He la.s out his lan to 'heat Ro(erigo out of his mone., to 'on*in'e Othello that Aassio has sle t !ith Ces(emona, an( to use Othello:s honest an( unsus e'ting nature to "ring him to his (emise+ 2-. )nal*sis The !ar "et!een the Turks an( @enetians !ill not ro*e to "e a maGor art of the la.+ Ho!e*er, the Turks: DfeintE=in !hi'h the. reten( to sail to!ar( Rho(es to mislea( the @enetians into thinking that the. !ill not atta'k A. rus=has a s.m"oli' signifi'an'e+ Throughout the la., (e'e tion is one of Iago:s maGor !ea ons, an( his atta'ks on other 'hara'ters are arti'ularl. (e*astating "e'ause his enemies (on:t kno! that he is atta'king them+ Othello is "oth an outsi(er an( an insi(er in @enetian so'iet.+ His ra'e, h.si'al a earan'e, an( remarka"le life histor. set him a art from the other @enetians, an( ins ire <ra"an4io:s fears that Othello is some sort of !it'h (o'tor+ At the same time, the (uke an( other 'hara'ters treat him as an essential art of the @enetian state+ When Othello an( the others enter, the (uke gets straight to "usiness, telling Othello that the. must imme(iatel. em lo. him against the Ottoman Turks+ Onl. after

(eli*ering these t!o lines (oes the (uke noti'e <ra"an4io, an(, e*en then, he a'kno!le(ges him in a rather (emeaning fashion, sa.ing, DI (i( not see .ou+ Wel'ome, gentle signorE 5I+iii+$08+ <ra"an4io:s length. 'alls for Gusti'e are met onl. !ith the (uke:s (esire to hear more from Othello, an( on'e Othello has (eli*ere( his long an( "eautiful s ee'h a"out !ooing Ces(emona, the (uke feels the su"Ge't is 'lose(+ As "oth a h.si'al an( a oliti'al resen'e, Othello o*ersha(o!s <ra"an4io+ Shakes eare fleshe( out the fantasti' (etails of Othello:s ast life ". (ra!ing on a num"er of an'ient an( Renaissan'e tra*el !riters+ Othello 'learl. atta'hes great im ortan'e to the image of himself as a uni2ue an( heroi' figure, an( it is also im ortant to him that he ha*e a remarka"le life stor. !orth. of re eate( telling+ Not onl. (oes he 'laim that Ces(emona fell in lo*e !ith him "e'ause of his stor., he sa.s that he fell in lo*e !ith her "e'ause of her rea'tion to his stor.+ Ces(emona 'onfirms or *ali(ates something a"out Othello:s self)image, !hi'h ma. suggest !h. her faithfulness is of su'h all)'onsuming im ortan'e to him+ Ces(emona herself a ears remarka"l. for!ar( an( aggressi*e in Othello:s a''ount, arti'ularl. in relation to Renaissan'e e> e'tations of female "eha*ior+ She D(e*ourIsJ u E his (is'ourse !ith a Dgree(. ear,E an( is the first of the t!o to hint at the ossi"ilit. of their lo*ing one another 5I+iii+#&,6#&/8+ E>a'tl. ho! for!ar( !e shoul( imagine Ces(emona to "e is some!hat un'ertain+ Mo(ern te>ts of the la. are "ase( u on one of t!o earl. e(itions of Shakes eare:s la.s, the Puarto e(ition an( the Folio e(ition+ 5Puarto an( Folio refer to t!o (ifferent si4es of "ooks+8 In the Puarto, Othello sa.s, DM. stor. "eing (one, H She ga*e me for m. ains a !orl( of sighs,E !hereas in the Folio, he sa.s, DShe ga*e me for m. ains a !orl( of kissesE 5I+iii+#$?6#$,8+ In "oth e(itions, Othello is am"iguous a"out !hether he or Ces(emona la.e( the more a'ti*e role in the 'ourtshi , !hi'h 'oul( mean that he is some!hat un'omforta"le=either em"arrasse( or u set=!ith Ces(emona:s aggressi*e ursuit of him+ In A't I, s'ene ii, lines#&/6#$&, for instan'e, he sa.s that he o"ser*e( that Ces(emona !ante( him to retell his tale, so he foun( a !a. to get her to ask him to tell it, an( then he 'onsente(+ This seems an unne'essaril. 'om li'ate( !a. of (es'ri"ing !hat ha ene(, an( suggests either that Othello !as un'ertain !hi'h of them la.e( the lea(ing role or that he !ants to insist that his o!n role !as more a'ti*e than it a'tuall. !as+ When Ces(emona finall. enters an( s eaks for herself, she (oes in(ee( seem outs oken an( asserti*e, as !ell as generous an( (e*ote(+ In her s ee'h a"out her D(i*i(e( (ut.E as a !ife an( a (aughter, Ces(emona sho!s herself to "e oise( an( intelligent, as 'a a"le of lo*ing as of "eing lo*e(, an( a"le to !eigh her 'om eting lo.alties res e'tfull. an( Gu(i'iousl. 5I+iii+#,08+ In arguing for her right to a''om an. Othello to A. rus, she insists u on the D*iolen'eE an( un'on*entionalit. of her atta'hment to Othello 5I+iii+-&,6-&/8+ In (e'laring DI (i( lo*e the Moor to li*e !ith him,E she frankl. insists on the se>ual nature of her lo*e 5I+iii+-&,8+ She is sa.ing that she isn:t 'ontent to mar*el at Othello:s storiesF she !ants to share his "e(+ As the lot rogresses, Ces(emona:s se>ual aggressi*eness !ill u set Othello more an( more+ In e> laining her lo*e for Othello, she states that she Dsa! Othello:s *isage in his min(,E !hi'h might mean either that she sa! a (ifferent fa'e insi(e him than the one the rest of the !orl( sees, or DI sa! him as he sees himself,E su orting the i(ea that she *ali(ates or u hol(s Othello:s sense of self+

2..
2/.

)ct II1 scenes i;ii

3#mmar*< )ct II1 scene i

On the shores of A. rus, Montano, the islan(:s go*ernor, !at'hes a storm !ith t!o gentlemen+ 9ust as Montano sa.s that the Turkish fleet of shi s 'oul( not sur*i*e the storm, a thir( gentlemen 'omes to 'onfirm his re(i'tionB as his shi tra*ele( from @eni'e, Aassio !itnesse( that the Turks lost most of their fleet in the tem est+ It is still un'ertain !hether Othello:s shi has "een a"le to sur*i*e the storm+ Ho e lifts as *oi'es offstage announ'e the sighting of a sail offshore, "ut the ne! shi turns out to "e 'arr.ing Iago, Emilia, Ces(emona, an( Ro(erigo+ Ces(emona (isem"arks, an( no sooner (oes Aassio tell her that Othello has .et to arri*e than a frien(l. shot announ'es the arri*al of a thir( shi + While the 'om an. !aits for the shi , Aassio an( Ces(emona tease Emilia a"out "eing a 'hatter"o>, "ut Iago 2ui'kl. takes the o ortunit. to 'riti'i4e !omen in general as (e'e ti*e an( h. o'riti'al, sa.ing the. are la4. in all matters e>'e t se>B DKou rise to la. an( go to "e( to !orkE 5II+i+##,8+ Ces(emona la.s along, laughing as Iago "elittles !omen, !hether "eautiful or ugl., intelligent or stu i(, as e2uall. (es i'a"le+ Aassio takes Ces(emona a!a. to s eak !ith her ri*atel. a"out Othello:s arri*al+ Iago noti'es that Aassio takes Ces(emona:s han( as he talks to her, an(, in an asi(e, Iago lots to use Aassio:s han()hol(ing to frame him so

that he loses his ne!l. gaine( romotion to lieutenant+ DWith as little a !e" as this I !ill ensnare as great a fl. as Aassio,E he asserts 5II+i+#%/8+ Othello arri*es safel. an( greets Ces(emona, e> ressing his (e*otion to her an( gi*ing her a kiss+ He then thanks the A. riots for their !el'ome an( hos italit., an( or(ers Iago to unloa( the shi + All "ut Ro(erigo an( Iago hea( to the 'astle to 'ele"rate the (ro!ning of the Turks+ Iago tells the (es on(ent Ro(erigo that Ces(emona !ill soon gro! tire( of "eing !ith Othello an( !ill long for a more !ell)mannere( an( han(some man+ <ut, Iago 'ontinues, the o"*ious first 'hoi'e for Ces(emona !ill "e Aassio, !hom Iago 'hara'teri4es o*er an( o*er again as a Dkna*eE 5II+i+-7#6-7/8+ Ro(erigo tries to argue that Aassio !as merel. "eing olite ". taking Ces(emona:s han(, "ut Iago 'on*in'es him of Aassio:s ill intentions an( 'on*in'es Ro(erigo to start a 2uarrel !ith Aassio that e*ening+ He osits that the u roar the 2uarrel !ill 'ause in the still tense 'it. !ill make Aassio fall out of fa*or !ith Othello+ Left alone onstage again, Iago e> lains his a'tions to the au(ien'e in a solilo2u.+ He se'retl. lusts after Ces(emona, artiall. "e'ause he sus e'ts that Othello has sle t !ith Emilia, an( he !ants to get e*en !ith the Moor D!ife for !ifeE 5II+i+-,%8+ <ut, Iago 'ontinues, if he is una"le to get his re*enge ". slee ing !ith Ces(emona, Ro(erigo:s a''usation of Aassio !ill make Othello sus e't his lieutenant of slee ing !ith his !ife an( torture Othello to ma(ness+ 24. 3#mmar*< )ct II1 scene ii A heral( announ'es that Othello lans re*elr. for the e*ening in 'ele"ration of A. rus:s safet. from the Turks, an( also in 'ele"ration of his marriage to Ces(emona+ 35. )nal*sis< )ct II1 scenes i;ii

Like A't I, s'ene ii, the first s'ene of A't II "egins !ith em hasis on the limitations of sight+ DWhat from the 'a e 'an .ou (is'ern at seaLE Montano asks, an( the gentleman re lies, DNothing at all+ It is a high)!rought floo(E 5II+i+#6-8+ The em hasis on the limitations of h.si'al sight in a tem est foresha(o!s !hat !ill, after A't III, "e'ome Othello:s meta hori'al "lin(ness, 'ause( ". his assion an( rage+ Similarl., on'e the h.si'al threat that the Turks ose has "een eliminate(, the more s.'hologi'al, less tangi"le threat ose( ". inner (emons assumes (ramati' re'e(en'e+ The la. e>tinguishes the e>ternal threat !ith almost ri(i'ulous s ee(+ The line DNe!s, la(sN Our !ars are (one,E is all that is nee(e( to (ismiss the lot in*ol*ing the Turks 5II+i+-08+ It is as though one kin( of la. en(s at the en( of A't II, s'ene ii, an( another "eginsB !hat seeme( to "e a oliti'al trage(. "e'omes a (omesti' trage(.+ Whereas the a'tion of the la. "egan on the streets of @eni'e an( ro'ee(e( to the 'ourt an( then to the "ea'hes of A. rus, it no! mo*es to the assage!a.s of Othello:s resi(en'e on the islan( an( ultimatel. en(s in his "e('ham"er+ The effe't is almost 'inemati'=like a long an( gra(ual 'lose)u that restri'ts the *isi"le s a'e aroun( the tragi' hero, em hasi4ing his meta hori'al "lin(ness an( s.m"oli4ing his im risonment in his o!n Gealous fantasies+ This e*er)tightening fo'us has le( man. rea(ers to 'hara'teri4e the la. as D'laustro ho"i'+E The "anter "et!een Iago an( Ces(emona 'reates a ner*ous, un'omforta"le atmos here, in art "e'ause their le*it. is ina ro riate, gi*en that Othello:s shi remains missing+ The rh.ming 'ou lets in !hi'h Iago e> resses his misog.nisti' insults len( them an eerie, alienating 2ualit., an( Ces(emona:s a'ti*e en'ouragement of Iago is some!hat u44ling+ On'e again, Ces(emona esta"lishes herself as an outs oken an( in(e en(ent !oman=she (oes not (e en( u on her hus"an(:s resen'e either so'iall. or intelle'tuall.+ Ho!e*er, Ces(emona (oes not suggest that she has an. interest in 'heating on her hus"an(+ Iago himself tells us that he !ill make a mountain out of the molehill re resente( ". Aassio:s hol(ing of Ces(emona:s han(+ Although Iago *er"all. a"uses !omen in this s'ene= resuma"l. "e'ause it is safe for him to (o so=his real resentment seems to "e against those 'hara'ters !ho ha*e a higher so'ial 'lass than he has, in'lu(ing Aassio an( Ces(emona+ Iago resents Aassio for "eing romote( ahea( of him, an( Aassio:s romotion is likel. (ue to his higher 'lass status+ At the "eginning of the la., Iago argue( that he ought to ha*e "een romote( "ase( u on his !orth as a sol(ier, an( he e> resse( "itterness that DI Jreferment goes ". letter an( affe'tion, H An( not ". ol( gra(ationE 5I+i+7$67%8+ In A't II, s'ene i, Aassio 'ontri"utes to Iago:s anger ". taunting the ensign a"out his inferior statusB DLet it not gall .our atien'e, goo( Iago, H That I e>ten( m. manners+ :Tis m. "ree(ing H That gi*es me this "ol( sho! of 'ourtes.E 5II+i+#006#0-8+ Not long after!ar(, Iago makes fun of Ro(erigo for "eing D"aseE 5meaning lo!er 'lass8, e*en though the la. (oes not in(i'ate that Ro(erigo is, in fa't, of lo!er status than Iago 5II+i+-#-8+

In the solilo2u. that 'on'lu(es A't II, s'ene i, Iago on'e again e> lains 2uite 'learl. !hat he inten(s to (o, (es ite his 'omment that his lan is D.et 'onfuse(E 5II+i+-/,8+ At the same time, his statements a"out !hat moti*ates him are ha4. an( 'onfusing+ Is he moti*ate( ". lust for Ces(emona, en*. of Aassio, or Gealous. o*er his !ife:s su ose( affair !ith OthelloL He e*en thro!s in a "i4arre arentheti'al sus i'ion that Aassio might also ha*e sle t !ith his !ife 5II+i+-/&8+ It is as though Iago mo'ks the au(ien'e for attem ting to (etermine his moti*esF he treats the au(ien'e as he (oes Othello an( Ro(erigo, lea(ing his listeners D". th: nose H As asses are Ile(JE 5I+iii+7,767,&8+ For ea'h of Iago:s a'tions, he 'reates a momentar. an( unim ortant Gustifi'ation+

31.
32.

)ct II1 scene iii

3#mmar*

Othello lea*es Aassio on guar( (uring the re*els, remin(ing him to ra'ti'e self)restraint (uring the 'ele"ration+ Othello an( Ces(emona lea*e to 'onsummate their marriage+ On'e Othello is gone, Iago enters an( Goins Aassio on guar(+ He tells Aassio that he sus e'ts Ces(emona to "e a tem tress, "ut Aassio maintains that she is mo(est+ Then, (es ite Aassio:s rotestations, Iago ersua(es Aassio to take a (rink an( to in*ite some re*elers to Goin them+ On'e Aassio lea*es to fet'h the re*elers, Iago tells the au(ien'e his lanB Ro(erigo an( three other A. riots, all of !hom are (runk, !ill Goin Iago an( Aassio on guar( (ut.+ Ami(st all the (runkar(s, Iago !ill lea( Aassio into 'ommitting an a'tion that !ill (isgra'e him+ Aassio returns, alrea(. (rinking, !ith Montano an( his atten(ants+ It is not long "efore he "e'omes into>i'ate( an( !an(ers offstage, assuring his frien(s that he isn:t (runk+ On'e Aassio lea*es, Iago tells Montano that !hile Aassio is a !on(erful sol(ier, he fears that Aassio ma. ha*e too mu'h res onsi"ilit. for someone !ith su'h a serious (rinking ro"lem+ Ro(erigo enters, an( Iago oints him in Aassio:s (ire'tion+ As Montano 'ontinues to suggest that something "e sai( to Othello of Aassio:s (rinking ro"lem, Aassio 'hases Ro(erigo a'ross the stage, threatening to "eat him+ Montano ste s in to re*ent the fight an( is atta'ke( ". Aassio+ Iago or(ers Ro(erigo to lea*e an( D'r. a mutin.E 5II+iii+#&08+ As Montano an( others attem t to hol( Aassio (o!n, Aassio sta"s Montano+ An alarm "ell is rung, an( Othello arri*es !ith arme( atten(ants+ Imme(iatel. taking 'ontrol of the situation, Othello (eman(s to kno! !hat ha ene(, "ut "oth Iago an( Aassio 'laim to ha*e forgotten ho! the struggle "egan+ Montano insists that he is in too mu'h ain to s eak an( insists that Iago tell the stor.+ At first Iago feigns relu'tan'e to in'riminate Aassio, em hasi4ing the fa't that he !as 'hasing after Ro(erigo 5to !hom Iago (oes not refer ". name8 !hen the fight "et!een Aassio an( Montano "egan, an( suggesting that the unkno!n man must ha*e (one something to u set Aassio+ Othello falls into Iago:s tra , stating that he 'an tell that Iago softene( the stor. out of honest affe'tion for Aassio+ Othello (ismisses Aassio from his ser*i'e+ Ces(emona has "een a!akene( ". the 'ommotion, an( Othello lea(s her "a'k to "e(, sa.ing that he !ill look to Montano:s !oun(+ Iago an( Aassio remain "ehin(, an( Aassio laments the ermanent (amage no! (one to his re utation ". a 2uarrel !hose 'ause he 'annot e*en remem"er+ Iago suggests that Aassio a eal to Ces(emona, "e'ause she 'omman(s Othello:s attention an( goo(!ill+ Iago argues that Ces(emona:s kin(hearte(ness !ill rom t her to hel Aassio if Aassio entreats her, an( that she !ill ersua(e Othello to gi*e Aassio "a'k his lieutenantshi + When Aassio lea*es, Iago Gokes a"out the iron. of the fa't that his so)'alle( *illain. in*ol*es 'ounseling Aassio to a 'ourse of a'tion that !oul( a'tuall. hel him+ He re eats !hat he tol( Aassio a"out Ces(emona:s generosit. an( Othello:s (e*otion to her+ Ho!e*er, as Iago remin(s the au(ien'e, he (oes the most e*il !hen he seems to (o goo(+ No! that Aassio !ill "e s en(ing time !ith Ces(emona, Iago !ill fin( it all the easier to 'on*in'e Othello that Ces(emona is ha*ing an affair !ith Aassio, thus turning Ces(emona:s *irtue to D it'hE 5II+iii+-7&8+ Ro(erigo enters, u set that he has "een "eaten an( angr. "e'ause Iago has taken all his mone. an( left Ro(erigo nothing to sho! for it+ Iago 'ounsels him to "e atient an( not to return to @eni'e, remin(ing him that the. ha*e to !ork ". their !its+ He assures Ro(erigo that e*er.thing is going a''or(ing to lan+ After telling Ro(erigo to go, Iago finishes telling the au(ien'e the lot that is to 'omeB he !ill 'on*in'e Emilia to s eak to Ces(emona on Aassio:s "ehalf, an( he !ill arrange for Othello to !itness Aassio:s suit to Ces(emona+ 33. )nal*sis

The "ra!l in A't II, s'ene iii, foresha(o!s A't @, s'ene i, !here Aassio is sta""e( an( Ro(erigo is kille( in a 'ommotion outsi(e a "rothel+ Aassio:s 'omments a"out his o!n (rinking, along !ith Othello:s !arning to Aassio at the s'ene:s o ening, sho! that )Aassio is re(is ose( to li'entiousness, an( Iago, al!a.s skillful at mani ulating human frailties, 'a itali4es on Aassio:s ten(en'. to get himself into trou"le in situations in*ol*ing leasures of the flesh+ Further e*i(en'e of Iago:s skill as a mani ulator is his a"ilit. to make Ro(erigo *irtuall. in*isi"le in the s'ene+ On'e Aassio has 'hase( him a'ross the stage an( sta""e( Montano, no one gi*es a se'on( thought to the man !ho ma. or ma. not ha*e "egun the fight+ No one seems to ha*e an. i(ea !ho Ro(erigo is 5e*en though he is al!a.s onstage, e*en in the 'ourt s'ene of A't I, s'ene iii8, an( Aassio 'annot e*en remem"er !hat the. )2uarrele( a"out+ When, in the mi((le of the 'ommotion of A't II, s'ene iii, a slee . Ces(emona enters an( asks, DWhat:s the matter, (earLE Othello is the 'onsummate gentle hus"an(B DAll:s !ell no!, s!eeting+ H Aome a!a. to "e(E 5II+iii+-7$6-7?8+ Othello an( Ces(emona:s marriage a ears to "e sheltere( from outsi(e for'es+ Othello has Gust sto e( the "ra!l, unishe( Aassio, an( taken 'are of MontanoF he is no! rea(. to return home !ith his !ife+ <. !a. of a olog. to his ne! "ri(e for the in'on*enien'es of her ne! !a. of life, he sa.s, DAome Ces(emona+ :Tis the sol(iers: life H To ha*e their "alm. slum"ers !ake( !ith strifeE 5II+iii+-&#6-&-8+ This is the last time !e !ill see the 'ou le so ha .+ The ne>t time Othello sen(s Ces(emona to "e( is at the "eginning of A't I@, s'ene ii, !hen he is re aring to kill her+ At the "eginning of the s'ene, Othello sa.s to Ces(emonaB DAome, m. (ear lo*e, H The ur'hase ma(e, the fruits are to ensue+ H The rofit:s .et to 'ome :t!een me an( .ouE 5II+iii+,6#08+ This 'omment seems to in(i'ate that the 'ou le has not .et 'onsummate( their marriage=the D ur'haseE is the !e((ing, an( the DfruitsE are the se>+ Alternati*el., Othello 'oul( "e sa.ing that he an( Ces(emona ha#e 'onsummate( their marriage=Dthe ur'haseE is Ces(emona:s *irginit., an( Dthe fruitsE 'oul( "e leasant se> as o ose( to the ain of the 'onsummation+ Iago has no! interru te( Othello:s 'onGugal efforts t!i'e+ Iago:s s ee'hes 'learl. sho! him to "e o"sesse( !ith se>+ For instan'e, !hen Othello "ursts onto the s'ene an( (eman(s to kno! !hat is going on, Iago ans!ers ". 'om aring the art. to a "ri(e an( groom un(ressing for "e( 5II+iii+#%76#%$8+ He seems to take great leasure in re*enting Othello from enGo.ing marital ha iness+ Some rea(ers ha*e suggeste( that Iago:s true, un(erl.ing moti*e for erse'uting Othello is his homose>ual lo*e for the general+ In a((ition to (isru ting Othello:s marriage, he e> resses his lo*e for Othello fre2uentl. an( effusi*el., an( he seems to hate !omen in general+ As Othello "reaks u the "ra!l, he (eman(s, DAre !e turne( Turks, an( to oursel*es (o that H Whi'h hea*en hath for"i( the OttomitesLE 5II+iii+#$76$&8+ Othello, himself an DotherE on the insi(e of @enetian so'iet., an( one !ho !ill ultimatel. u set the or(er of that so'iet., 'alls attention to the otential for all e>ternal threats to "e'ome internal+ It is that otential !hi'h Iago !ill )'ontinuall. e> loit+

3(.
3,.

)ct III1 scenes i;iii

3#mmar*< )ct III1 scene i

In an effort to !in Othello:s goo( gra'es, Aassio sen(s musi'ians to la. musi' "eneath the general:s !in(o!+ Othello sen(s his ser*ant, a 'lo!n, or easant, to tell the musi'ians to go a!a.+ Aassio asks the 'lo!n to entreat Emilia to 'ome s eak !ith him, so that he 'an ask her for a''ess to Ces(emona+ When the 'lo!n lea*es, Iago enters an( tells Aassio that he !ill sen( for Emilia straighta!a. an( figure out a !a. to take Othello asi(e so that Aassio an( Ces(emona 'an 'onfer ri*atel.+ After Iago e>its, Emilia enters an( tells Aassio that Othello an( Ces(emona ha*e "een (is'ussing his 'ase+ Ces(emona has lea(e( for Aassio, "ut Othello !orries that Montano:s influen'e an( o ularit. in A. rus !oul( make Aassio:s rea ointment im ra'ti'al, no matter ho! mu'h Othello 'ares for his former lieutenant+ Emilia allo!s Aassio to 'ome in an( tells him to !ait for Ces(emona+ 3-. 3#mmar*< )ct III1 scene ii

Iago, Othello, an( a gentleman !alk together at the 'ita(el+ Othello gi*es Iago some letters to (eli*er an( (e'i(es to take a look at the to!n:s fortifi'ation+ 3.. 3#mmar*< )ct III1 scene iii

This %as her first remembrance from the Moor" My %ay%ard husband hath a hundred times ooed me to steal it" but she so lo#es the token! ! ! !

Ces(emona, Aassio, an( Emilia enter mi()'on*ersation+ Ces(emona has Gust *o!e( to (o e*er.thing she 'an on Aassio:s "ehalf !hen Othello an( Iago enter+ Aassio 2ui'kl. (e arts, rotesting to Ces(emona that he feels too uneas. to (o himself an. goo(+ Othello asks !hether it !as Aassio he sa! lea*ing the room, an( Iago res on(s that surel. Aassio !oul( not "eha*e like a guilt. man at Othello:s a roa'h+ Ces(emona entreats Othello to forgi*e Aassio an( reinstate him as lieutenant+ Othello assures her that he !ill s eak to Aassio, "ut he ans!ers e*asi*el. !hen she tries to set a meeting time+ She 'riti'i4es Othello for res on(ing to her re2uest so gru(gingl. an( hesitantl., an( he tells her that he !ill (en. her nothing "ut !ishes to "e left to himself for a little !hile+ Alone !ith Othello, Iago "egins his insinuations of an affair "et!een Aassio an( Ces(emona ". remin(ing Othello that Aassio ser*e( as Othello an( Ces(emona:s go)"et!een (uring their 'ourtshi + Othello asks Iago !hether he "elie*es Aassio to "e honest, an( Iago feigns relu'tan'e to ans!er+ Iago lants in Othello:s min( thoughts of a(ulter., 'u'kol(r., an( h. o'ris., until Othello s'reams at the ensign to s eak his min(+ Iago suggests that Othello o"ser*e his !ife 'losel. !hen she is !ith Aassio+ Othello tells Iago to ha*e Emilia !at'h Ces(emona !hen she is !ith Aassio+ Iago a ears to retreat from his a''usations an( suggests that Othello lea*e the matter alone+ <ut he has alrea(. ma(e his oint+ <. himself, Othello muses that his !ife no longer lo*es him, ro"a"l. "e'ause he is too ol( for her, "e'ause he is "la'k, an( "e'ause he (oesn:t ha*e the manners of a 'ourtier+ DShe:s gone,E he laments 5III+iii+-?#8+ Ces(emona an( Emilia enter to inform Othello that he is e> e'te( at (inner+ Othello sa.s that he has a ain in his forehea(, an( Ces(emona offers to "in( his hea( !ith her han(ker'hief+ Othello ushes her han(ker'hief a!a., telling her that it is too small+ The han(ker'hief (ro s to the floor, !here it remains as Othello an( Ces(emona e>it+ Emilia, sta.ing "ehin(, i'ks u the han(ker'hief, remarking that her hus"an( has aske( her to steal it at least a hun(re( times+ Iago enters, an( Emilia teases him !ith the romise of a sur rise+ He is e'stati' !hen she gi*es it to him, an( sen(s her a!a.+ As Iago gleefull. lots to lant the han(ker'hief in Aassio:s room, Othello enters an( flies into a rage at him+ Othello (e'lares that his soul is in torment, an( that it !oul( "e "etter to "e (e'ei*e( 'om letel. than to sus e't !ithout roof+ He (eman(s that Iago "ring him *isual e*i(en'e that Ces(emona is a !hore+ Iago rotests that it !oul( "e im ossi"le to a'tuall. !itness Ces(emona an( Aassio ha*ing se>, e*en if the t!o !ere as lustful as animals+ He romises that he 'an ro*i(e 'ir'umstantial e*i(en'e, ho!e*er+ First, he tells Othello that !hile Aassio an( Iago !ere sharing a "e(, Aassio 'alle( out Ces(emona:s name in his slee , !rung Iago:s han(, kisse( him har( on the li s, an( thre! his leg o*er Iago:s thigh+ This stor. enrages Othello, an( Iago remin(s him that it !as onl. Aassio:s (ream+ Iago then 'laims to ha*e !itnesse( Aassio !i ing his "ear( !ith the han(ker'hief Othello ga*e Ces(emona as her first gift+ Furious, Othello 'ries out for "loo(+ He kneels an( *o!s to hea*en that he !ill take his re*enge on Ces(emona an( Aassio, an( Iago kneels !ith him, *o!ing to hel e>e'ute his master:s *engean'e+ Othello romotes Iago to lieutenant+ 3/. )nal*sis< )ct III1 scenes i;iii

Haply for . am black" And ha#e not those soft parts of con#ersation That chamberers ha#e6 or for . am declined .nto the #ale of years7yet that's not much7 5he's gone!

The timing of e*ents is *er. im ortant in A't III+ Iago anti'i ates an( mani ulates the other 'hara'ters so skillfull. that the. seem to "e a'ting simultaneousl. of their o!n free !ill an( as Iago:s u ets+ For e>am le, it takes onl. the slightest

rom ting on Iago:s art to ut Othello into the ro er frame of min( to "e 'onsume( ". Gealous.=Iago e> loits Aassio:s (is'omfort u on seeing Othello ". inter reting it as a sign of guilt+ Iago:s inter retation of Aassio:s e>it, 'om"ine( !ith Ces(emona:s *igorous a(*o'ating on Aassio:s "ehalf, 'reates sus i'ion in Othello:s min( e*en "efore Iago rom ts Othello+ Othello manifests his 'onfusion a"out his !ife ". telling her that he !ishes to "e left alone, an( ". s urning her offer of hel !hen he tells her that he feels un!ell+ When Ces(emona a(*o'ates on Aassio:s "ehalf, she initiates the first real onstage 'on*ersation she has ha( !ith her hus"an( throughout the la.+ She also (is la.s her strong, generous, an( in(e en(ent ersonalit.+ In a((ition to his "urgeoning sus i'ion, Othello:s moo(iness ma. also result from his (islike of Ces(emona herself+ Onl. on'e Ces(emona has left (oes Othello re'o*er some!hatB DE>'ellent !ret'hNE he sa.s affe'tionatel.+ D1er(ition 'at'h m. soul H <ut I (o lo*e thee, an( !hen I lo*e thee not, H Ahaos is 'ome againE 5III+iii+/#6/78+ Othello seems far more 'omforta"le e> ressing his lo*e for Ces(emona !hen she is a"sent+ 1erha s this is "e'ause her resen'e makes him 'ons'ious of her 'laim u on him an( of his o"ligation to honor her re2uests, or erha s this is "e'ause he is more in lo*e !ith some i(ea or image of Ces(emona than he is !ith Ces(emona herself+ The lines Gust 2uote( in(i'ate ho! mu'h his image of her means to himB if he sto s lo*ing her, the entire uni*erse sto s making sense for him, an( the !orl( is re(u'e( to DAhaos+E 3i*en ho! mu'h is at stake for Othello in his i(ea of Ces(emona, it is remarka"le ho! he "e'omes 'om letel. 'onsume( ". Gealous. in su'h a short time+ Moreo*er, it takes *er. little e*i(en'e to 'on*in'e him of her unfaithfulness+ All Iago has to (o to Othello is make him (ou"t Ces(emona, an( Gealous. s rea(s like a *irus until he reGe'ts her a"solutel.+ Nota"l., Iago, too, has no e*i(en'e that Othello has sle t !ith Emilia, "ut the sus i'ion or (ou"t seems to ha*e "een suffi'ient to make him s urn Emilia an( erse'ute Othello+ As Othello sa.s, DITJo "e on'e in (ou"t H Is on'e to "e resol*e(E 5III+iii+#,76#,&8+ Othello soon learns, ho!e*er, that to "e on'e in (ou"t is to "e ne#er resol*e(+ He lea*es the stage "riefl. after the e iso(e in !hi'h he reGe'ts Ces(emona:s han(ker'hief, at !hi'h oint he seems resol*e( that his !ife no longer lo*es him+ A mere fort. lines later, he returns, an( all he 'an think a"out is garnering roof of her infi(elit.+ The ara(o> in Othello:s situation is that there are fe! things=the nature of frien(s, enemies, an( !i*es in'lu(e(=that a human "eing 'an kno! !ith 'ertaint.+ Most relationshi s must "e a''e te( "ase( on faith or trust, a 2ualit. that Othello is un!illing to e>ten( to his o!n !ife+ All Iago reall. has to (o to ro*oke Othello is to remin( him that he (oesn:t kno! for 'ertain !hat his !ife is (oing or feeling+ Iago:s a(*i'e that Othello DIlJook to IhisJ !ife+ O"ser*e her !ell+ + + +E a ears harmless at first, until one 'onsi(ers ho! out of the or(inar. it is for a hus"an( to Do"ser*eE his !ife as if she !ere a s e'imen un(er a mi'ros'o e 5III+iii+-0#8+ For a man to treat his !ife as a ro"lem to "e sol*e( or a thing to "e kno!n, rather than as a erson !ith a 'laim u on him, is sim l. in'om ati"le !ith the (a.)to)(a. "usiness of "eing marrie(+ Othello:s reGe'tion of his !ife:s offering of h.si'al sola'e 5*ia the han(ker'hief8, an( his termination of the e>'hange in !hi'h Ces(emona argues for Aassio, there". asserting a marital right, 'learl. (emonstrate this in'om ati"ilit.+ Ironi'all., Iago (oesn:t ha*e to ro*e his o!n fi(elit. to Othello for Othello to take e*er.thing Iago suggests on faith+ On the 'ontrar., Othello a'tuall. infers that Iago hol(s "a'k more (amning kno!le(ge of Ces(emona:s offenses out of his great lo*e for Othello+ Again an( again, Iago insists that he s eaks out onl. "e'ause of this lo*e+ His 'laim, DM. lor(, .ou kno! I lo*e .ouE 5III+iii+#-#8 e*en e'hoes 1eter:s insistent !or(s to Ahrist, DLor(, thou kno!est that I lo*e theeE 59ohn -#B#$6#?8+ Othello:s reGe'tion of Ces(emona:s offer of her han(ker'hief is an em hati' reGe'tion of Ces(emona herself+ He tells her he has a ain Du onE his forehea( an( (ismisses her han(ker'hief as Dtoo littleE to "in( his hea( !ith, im l.ing that in*isi"le horns are gro!ing out of his hea(+ Horns are the tra(itional s.m"ol of the 'u'kol(, a hus"an( !hose !ife is unfaithful to him+ Othello:s in(ire't allusion to these horns suggests that the thought of "eing a 'u'kol( 'auses him ain "ut that he is not !illing to 'onfront his !ife (ire'tl. !ith his sus i'ions+ The en( of A't III, s'ene iii, is the 'lima> of Othello! Aon*in'e( of his !ife:s 'orru tion, Othello makes a sa're( oath ne*er to 'hange his min( a"out her or to soften his feelings to!ar( her until he ena'ts a *iolent re*enge+ At this oint, Othello is fi>e( in his 'ourse, an( the (isastrous en(ing of the la. is una*oi(a"le+ Othello engages Iago in a er*erse marriage 'eremon., in !hi'h ea'h kneels an( solemnl. le(ges to the other to take *engean'e on Ces(emona an( Aassio+ 9ust as the la. re la'es the se'urit. of ea'e !ith the an>iet. of (omesti' strife, Othello re la'es the se'urit. of his marriage !ith the hateful aranoia of an allian'e !ith Iago+ Iago:s final !or(s in this s'ene 'hillingl. mo'k the language of lo*e an( marriageB DI am .our o!n fore*erE 5III+iii+&,-8+

34.

)ct III1 scene iv

(5.

3#mmar*

Ces(emona or(ers the 'lo!n to fin( Aassio an( "ring him the message that she has ma(e her suit to Othello+ As the 'lo!n (e arts, Ces(emona !on(ers to Emilia !here her han(ker'hief might "e+ Othello enters an( tells Ces(emona to gi*e him her han(+ She (oes so, an( he 'hastises her for her han(:s moistness, !hi'h suggests se>ual romis'uit.+ He then asks her to len( him her han(ker'hief+ When Ces(emona 'annot ro(u'e the han(ker'hief he !ants to see, Othello e> lains the han(ker'hief:s histor.+ An Eg. tian sor'eress ga*e it to his mother an( tol( her that it !oul( make her (esira"le an( kee Othello:s father lo.al, "ut if she lost it or ga*e it a!a., Othello:s father !oul( lea*e her+ Othello:s mother ga*e him the magi' han(ker'hief on her (eath"e(, instru'ting him to gi*e it to the !oman he (esire( to marr.+ Ces(emona is unsettle( ". the stor. an( sa.s that she has the han(ker'hief, "ut not !ith her+ Othello (oes not "elie*e her+ As he a''uses her, (eman(ing DThe han(ker'hiefNE !ith in'reasing *ehemen'e, she entreats for Aassio as a !a. of 'hanging the su"Ge't+ After Othello storms off, Emilia laments the fi'kleness of men+ Aassio an( Iago enter, an( Aassio imme(iatel. 'ontinues !ith his suit to Ces(emona for hel + Ces(emona tells Aassio that his timing is unfortunate, as Othello is in a "a( humor, an( Iago romises to go soothe his master+ Emilia s e'ulates that Othello is Gealous, "ut Ces(emona maintains her 'on*i'tion that Othello is u set ". some oliti'al matter+ She tells Aassio to !ait !hile she goes to fin( Othello an( "ring him to talk !ith his former lieutenant+ While Aassio !aits, <ian'a, a rostitute, enters+ She re riman(s him for not *isiting her more fre2uentl., an( he a ologi4es, sa.ing that he is un(er stress+ He asks her to 'o . the em"roi(er. of a han(ker'hief he re'entl. foun( in his room onto another han(ker'hief+ <ian'a a''uses him of making her 'o . the em"roi(er. of a lo*e gift from some other !oman, "ut Aassio tells her she is "eing sill.+ The. make a lan to meet later that e*ening+ (1. )nal*sis

In this s'ene, the time s'heme of the la. "egins to unra*el+ When <ian'a talks to Aassio, she sa.s, DWhat, kee a !eek a!a.,E suggesting that Aassio has "een on the islan( for at least a !eek 5III+i*+#%,8+ <ut the la. has onl. re resente( three (a.s thus farB the first (a. in @eni'e, the (a. of the arri*al an( re*els in A. rus, an( the (a. that "egins at the "eginning of A't III an( 'ontinues until the en( of the la.+ Ariti's an( e(itors ha*e name( this ro"lem the D(ou"le time s'hemeEB t!o se arate time frames o erate simultaneousl.+ This in'onsisten'. is some!hat (isorienting=like Othello, the au(ien'e feels stu'k in a 'haoti' !orl(+ The e*ents onstage are not onl. "e.on( our 'ontrol, the. (ef. logi'al un(erstan(ing+ For instan'e, it is (iffi'ult to un(erstan( ho! Ces(emona 'oul( ha*e ha( time to 'ommit a(ulter.+ From the moment it is intro(u'e( into the lot, the han(ker'hief gi*en to Ces(emona ". Othello "e'omes the la.:s most im ortant s.m"ol+ As a 'harme( gift gi*en to Othello ". his mother, the han(ker'hief re resents Othello:s m.sterious an( e>oti' heritage, a heritage that he has re u(iate( as a Ahristian an( @enetian 'iti4en+ More imme(iatel., to Othello the han(ker'hief re resents Ces(emona:s 'hastit., an( her gi*ing it a!a. is a sign that she has gi*en her "o(. a!a.+ In A't III, s'ene iii, Iago mentions that the han(ker'hief:s mu'h)(is'usse( em"roi(er. is a (esign of stra!"erries+ The image of stra!"erries on a !hite "a'kgroun( re'alls the "loo(stains on a !e((ing sheet that ro*e a "ri(e:s *irginit.F moreo*er, the (.e use( to 'olor the stra!"err. attern a'tuall. 'onsists of the reser*e( "loo( of (ea( *irgins+ Thus, the han(ker'hief suggests a num"er of (ifferent inter retations+ <. ositioning the han(ker'hief in Aassio:s lo(ging, Iago as goo( as 'on*i'ts Ces(emona of unfaithfulness+ An( !hen, in the follo!ing s'ene, <ian'a is foun( to "e in ossession of the han(ker'hief, instru'te( to 'o . the em"roi(er., Ces(emona seems no "etter than a rostitute herself, 'arelessl. allo!ing !hat !as on'e a s.m"ol of Othello:s uni2ueness to "e asse( aroun( an( re li'ate(+ Othello has 'on*in'e( himself that Ces(emona has lost her *irtue "e'ause she has lost a s.m"ol of that *irtue+ Emilia, !ho "etra.s her ri*ilege( osition as Ces(emona:s atten(ant ". gi*ing Iago the han(ker'hief, is an elusi*e 'hara'ter+ Emilia seems to "e'ome lo.al to her hus"an( in a !a. she hasn:t "een in the astB she (e'i(es to gi*e Iago the han(ker'hief after ha*ing (enie( his re2uest Da hun(re( times,E an( she lies to Ces(emona a"out not kno!ing the han(ker'hief:s !herea"outs+ Ket later, in A't I@, s'ene ii, Emilia !ill attem t to 'on*in'e Othello of Ces(emona:s lo.alt.+ She seems (ee l. ske ti'al of an( kno!le(gea"le a"out men in general+ She imme(iatel. re'ogni4es that Othello is Gealous, (es ite Ces(emona:s rotests, an( her 'omment that Gealous. Dis a monster H <egot u on itself, "orn on itselfE 5III+i*+#$%6 #$?8 e'hoes Iago:s earlier remark that Gealous. Dis the green)e.e( monster !hi'h (oth mo'k H The meat it fee(s onE

5III+iii+#?06#?#8+ Iago mentions at the "eginning of the la. that he sus e'ts his !ife of unfaithfulness, an( on one le*el Iago an( Emilia seem to !ork out their 'onfli't *i'ariousl. through Othello an( Ces(emona+ <ut Emilia also 'omments that men Dare all "ut stoma'hs, an( !e are all "ut foo(+ H The. eat us hungril., an( !hen the. are full, H The. "el'h usE 5III+i*+#006 #0-8+ This 'omment su orts a rea(ing of Othello:s Gealous. as a !a. of Gustif.ing his reGe'tion of Ces(emona+ A't III, s'ene i* assumes the "i4arre sha e of a er*erte( trial+ From the moment he enters, Othello la.s the role of the rose'utor, (eman(ing that Ces(emona ro(u'e the han(ker'hief an( a''using her of "eing a !hore+ Instea( of (efen(ing herself against her hus"an(:s a''usations, Ces(emona res on(s ". a(*o'ating Aassio:s 'ase, a ealing to Othello as a Gu(ge of Aassio:s 'hara'ter+ The result is a shouting mat'h, !herein hus"an( an( !ife 'om letel. fail to 'ommuni'ate, Othello re eate(l. s'reaming DThe han(ker'hiefNE !hile Ces(emona enumerates Aassio:s no"le 2ualities, all of !hi'h Othello takes as testimon. against her+ He oints to her moist han( as e*i(en'e of her inherentl. las'i*ious nature+ Finall., the han(ker'hief itself is the strong 'ir'umstantial roof that Iago romise( him+ <. this oint, the lot unfol(s !ithout an. further assistan'e from Iago, although he is still in*ol*e( in mani ulating it in some !a.+ He has thus far "een so 'areful to inform the au(ien'e of his e*er. lan that it seems like he must ha*e anti'i ate( e*er. turn in the roa(+ As !ith the 'hara'ters onstage, Iago:s o!er !ith the au(ien'e lies in his a"ilit. to make them "elie*e he kno!s more than he (oes+

(2.
(3.

)ct I&1 scene i

3#mmar*

Othello an( Iago enter in mi()'on*ersation+ Iago goa(s Othello ". arguing that it is no 'rime for a !oman to "e nake( !ith a man, if nothing ha ens+ Iago then remarks that if he !ere to gi*e his !ife a han(ker'hief, it !oul( "e hers to (o as she !ishe( !ith it+ These ersistent insinuations of Ces(emona:s unfaithfulness !ork Othello into an in'oherent fren4.+ He fo'uses o"sessi*el. on the han(ker'hief an( kee s um ing Iago for information a"out Aassio:s 'omments to Iago+ Finall., Iago sa.s that Aassio has tol( him he has lain !ith Ces(emona, an( Othello DIfJalls (o!n in a tran'eE 5I@+i+&# stage (ire'tion8+ Aassio enters, an( Iago mentions that Othello has fallen into his se'on( fit of e ile s. in t!o (a.s+ He !arns Aassio to sta. out of the !a. "ut tells him that he !oul( like to s eak on'e Othello has gone+ Othello 'omes out of his tran'e, an( Iago e> lains that Aassio sto e( ". an( that he has arrange( to s eak !ith the e>)lieutenant+ Iago or(ers Othello to hi(e near". an( o"ser*e Aassio:s fa'e (uring their 'on*ersation+ Iago e> lains that he !ill make Aassio retell the stor. of !here, !hen, ho!, an( ho! often he has sle t !ith Ces(emona, an( !hen he inten(s to (o so again+ When Othello !ith(ra!s, Iago informs the au(ien'e of his a'tual intention+ He !ill Goke !ith Aassio a"out the rostitute <ian'a, so that Aassio !ill laugh as he tells the stor. of <ian'a:s ursuit of him+ Othello !ill "e (ri*en ma(, thinking that Aassio is Goking !ith Iago a"out Ces(emona+ The lan !orksB Aassio laughs u roariousl. as he tells Iago the (etails of <ian'a:s lo*e for him, an( e*en makes gestures in an attem t to (e i't her se>ual a(*an'es+ 9ust as Aassio sa.s that he no longer !ishes to see <ian'a, she herself enters !ith the han(ker'hief an( again a''uses Aassio of gi*ing her a lo*e token gi*en to him ". another !oman+ <ian'a tells Aassio that if he (oesn:t sho! u for su er !ith her that e*ening, he !ill ne*er "e !el'ome to 'ome "a'k again+ Othello has re'ogni4e( his han(ker'hief an(, 'oming out of hi(ing !hen Aassio an( <ian'a are gone, !on(ers ho! he shoul( mur(er his former lieutenant+ Othello goes on to lament his har(hearte(ness an( lo*e for Ces(emona, "ut Iago remin(s him of his ur ose+ Othello has trou"le re'on'iling his !ife:s (eli'a'., 'lass, "eaut., an( allure !ith her a(ulterous a'tions+ He suggests that he !ill oison his !ife, "ut Iago a(*ises him to strangle her in the "e( that she 'ontaminate( through her infi(elit.+ Iago also romises to arrange Aassio:s (eath+ Ces(emona enters !ith Lo(o*i'o, !ho has 'ome from @eni'e !ith a message from the (uke+ Lo(o*i'o irritates Othello ". in2uiring a"out Aassio, an( Ces(emona irritates Othello ". ans!ering Lo(o*i'o:s in2uiries+ The 'ontents of the letter also u set Othello=he has "een 'alle( "a'k to @eni'e, !ith or(ers to lea*e Aassio as his re la'ement in A. rus+ When Ces(emona hears the ne!s that she !ill "e lea*ing A. rus, she e> resses her ha iness, !hereu on Othello strikes her+ Lo(o*i'o is horrifie( ". Othello:s loss of self)'ontrol, an( asks Othello to 'all "a'k Ces(emona, !ho has left the stage+

Othello (oes so, onl. to a''use her of "eing a false an( romis'uous !oman+ He tells Lo(o*i'o that he !ill o"e. the (uke:s or(ers, 'omman(s Ces(emona to lea*e, an( storms off+ Lo(o*i'o 'annot "elie*e that the Othello he has Gust seen is the same self)'ontrolle( man he on'e kne!+ He !on(ers !hether Othello is ma(, "ut Iago refuses to ans!er Lo(o*i'o:s 2uestions, telling him that he must see for himself+ ((. )nal*sis

With Othello striking his !ife in u"li' an( storming out inarti'ulatel., this s'ene is the re*erse of A't II, s'ene iii, !here, after 'alming the DTurk !ithinE his "ra!ling sol(iers, Othello gentl. le( his !ife "a'k to "e(+ No!, insofar as Turks re resente( sa*ager. in earl. mo(ern Englan(, Othello has e> ose( his o!n inner Turk, an( he "rutall. or(ers his !ife to "e(+ Iago:s lies ha*e not onl. misle( Othello, the. ha*e shifte( him from his status of 'ele"rate( (efen(er of @eni'e to 'ultural outsi(er an( threat to @enetian se'urit.+ Lo(o*i'o:s arri*al from @eni'e ser*es as a remin(er of ho! great Othello:s transformation has "een+ As he stoo( "efore the senate at the "eginning of the la., he !as a great h.si'al as !ell as *er"al resen'e, to!ering a"o*e <ra"an4io in stature an( in elo2uen'e, arresting the e.es an( ears of his eers in the most oliti'al of u"li' s a'es, the 'ourt+ After a short time in A. rus, Iago has manage( to "ring a"out Othello:s Dsa*age ma(nessE 5I@+i+$-8+ Othello loses 'ontrol of his s ee'h an(, as he !rithes on the groun(, his mo*ements+ Othello:s tran'e an( s!oon in this s'ene resent him at the greatest ossi"le (istan'e from the no"le figure he !as "efore the senate in A't I, s'ene iii+ The a'tion of the la. takes la'e almost !holl. in Iago:s !orl(, !here a earan'es, rather than truth, are !hat 'ount+ <e'ause of Iago:s ma'hinations, Aassio is erfe'tl. la'e( to seem to gi*e e*i(en'e of a(ulter., an( Othello is erfe'tl. la'e( to inter ret !hate*er Aassio sa.s or (oes as su'h+ Throughout the la., Othello has "een o"li*ious to s ee'h, al!a.s sure that s ee'h masks hi((en meaning+ Othello:s o"session !ith a earan'es is the reason !h. he is 'ontent to %atch Aassio:s su ose( 'onfession, (es ite the fa't that 'onfessions are hear( rather than seen+ He also turns Lo(o*i'o:s letters=!hi'h announ'e that Othello has "een re la'e( ". Aassio as go*ernor of A. rus in the same manner in !hi'h he "elie*es Aassio has re la'e( him in the "e(room=into Do'ular roofE that he is "eing su lante(+ A. rus ser*es as a 'ontrast to @eni'e, a la'e !here the normal stru'tures an( la!s go*erning 'i*il so'iet. 'ease to o erate+ Su'h a !orl( is 'ommon !ithin Shakes eare:s la.s, though far more re*alent in his 'ome(ies+ In A Midsummer 8ight's Dream an( As 9ou Like .t" for e>am le, the forest fun'tions as an unstru'ture(, mallea"le !orl( in !hi'h the 'hara'ters 'an transgress so'ietal norms, !ork out their 'onfli'ts, an( then return to so'iet. !ith no harm (one+ In the first a't of Othello" A. rus is 'learl. not su'h a !orl(F it is a territor. of @eni'e, to !hi'h Othello an( 'om an. are 'alle( as a matter of state+ As soon as the Turkish threat has "een eliminate(, ho!e*er, the 'hara'ters seem to lose their 'onne'tion to @enetian so'iet., an(, !ith its festi*ities an( (runken re*elr., A. rus then seems to ha*e more in 'ommon !ith the alien, astoral !orl(s of man. of Shakes eare:s 'ome(ies+ At man. oints, in fa't, the lot of Othello resem"les those of Shakes eare 'ome(ies in that it is "ase( u on misre'ognition an( Gealous.+ The resem"lan'es to 'ome(. suggest that the misun(erstan(ings of the la. !ill "e re'ogni4e( an( all !ill li*e ha il. e*er after+ <ut A. rus, unlike the forest of A Midsummer 8ight's Dream" is still 'onne'te( to @enetian so'iet., an( the arri*al of Lo(o*i'o strengthens the @enetian resen'e an( remin(s Othello of the ne'essit. of safeguar(ing his so'ietal an( oliti'al re utation+ A. rus, then, "e'omes a sort of tra , a false es'a e, in !hi'h the so'ietal norms that seem to ha*e (isa eare( reemerge to 'a ture the transgressors+ This me'hanism of 'a ture that e>erts its for'e o*er the 'hara'ters of A. rus also o''urs !ithin Othello himself+ The la. refers on a num"er of o''asions to Gealous. as an innate for'e that 'annot "e lante(, "ut instea( gro!s from !ithin an( 'onsumes itself an( its host+ Othello falls re. to the illusion of his o!n strength an( o!er, an( the Gealous. it hi(es, Gust as A. rus gi*es the illusion of ro*i(ing a ha*en from the !orkings of the la!+ Like A. rus, Othello is half @enetian, half Dother,E an( his re(i'ament is the result of for'es that are half 'ome(i' mis'hief an( half (ee )roote(, essential e*il+ 1erha s as a !a. of em"o(.ing these t!o 'lashing !orl(s, the la. 'ontinues to u set the au(ien'e:s relationshi to time+ Iago 'laims, DThis is IOthello:sJ se'on( fit+ He ha( one .ester(a.E 5I@+i+&,8+ We ha*e no "asis on !hi'h to Gu(ge this 'laim, "ut if the la.:s a'tion (oes, in fa't, s an three (a.s, then Othello:s first fit must ha*e taken la'e "efore Iago e*en ro*oke( his Gealous rage+ Similarl., !hen <ian'a enters an( 'hi(es Aassio for gi*ing her a han(ker'hief she "elie*es to "e a lo*e token from some other !oman, she talks as though she ne*er ha( almost the e>a't

same 'on*ersation !ith Aassio in A't III, s'ene i*+ The la.:s unrealisti' la ses, re etitions, e> ansions, an( 'ontra'tions ma. 'ontri"ute to the au(ien'e:s sense that Iago:s o!er is almost like that of a 'harmer in*oking a kin( of magi'+

(,.
(-.

)ct I&1 scenes ii;iii

3#mmar*< )ct I&1 scene ii

Othello interrogates Emilia a"out Ces(emona:s "eha*ior, "ut Emilia insists that Ces(emona has (one nothing sus i'ious+ Othello tells Emilia to summon Ces(emona, im l.ing !hile Emilia is gone that she is a D"a!(,E or female im 5I@+ii+-#8+ When Emilia returns !ith Ces(emona, Othello sen(s Emilia to guar( the (oor+ Alone !ith Ces(emona, Othello !ee s an( ro'laims that he 'oul( ha*e "orne an. affli'tion other than the ollution of the DfountainE from !hi'h his future 'hil(ren are to flo! 5I@+ii+%#8+ When Ces(emona fer*entl. (enies "eing unfaithful, Othello sar'asti'all. re lies that he "egs her ar(onB he took her for the D'unning !hore of @eni'eE !ho marrie( Othello 5I@+ii+/78+ Othello storms out of the room, an( Emilia 'omes in to 'omfort her mistress+ Ces(emona tells Emilia to la. her !e((ing sheets on the "e( for that night+ At Ces(emona:s re2uest, Emilia "rings in Iago, an( Ces(emona tries to fin( out from him !h. Othello has "een treating her like a !hore+ Emilia sa.s to her hus"an( that Othello must ha*e "een (e'ei*e( ". some *illain, the same sort of *illain !ho ma(e Iago sus e't Emilia of slee ing !ith Othello+ Iago assures Ces(emona that Othello is merel. u set ". some offi'ial "usiness, an( a trum et flourish 'alls Emilia an( Ces(emona a!a. to (inner !ith the @enetian emissaries+ Ro(erigo enters, furious that he is still frustrate( in his lo*e, an( rea(. to make himself kno!n in his suit to Ces(emona so that she might return all of the Ge!els that Iago !as su ose( to ha*e gi*en her from him+ Iago tells Ro(erigo that Aassio is "eing assigne( to Othello:s la'e+ Iago also lies, sa.ing that Othello is "eing sent to Mauritania, in Afri'a, although he is reall. "eing sent "a'k to @eni'e+ He tells Ro(erigo that the onl. !a. to re*ent Othello from taking Ces(emona a!a. to Afri'a !ith him !oul( "e to get ri( of Aassio+ He sets a"out ersua(ing Ro(erigo that he is Gust the man for Dkno'king out IAassio:sJ "rainsE 5I@+ii+--/8+ (.. 3#mmar*< )ct I&1 scene iii

After (inner, Othello ro oses to !alk !ith Lo(o*i'o, an( sen(s Ces(emona to "e(, telling her that he !ill "e !ith her shortl. an( that she shoul( (ismiss Emilia+ Ces(emona seems a!are of her imminent fate as she re ares for "e(+ She sa.s that if she (ies "efore Emilia, Emilia shoul( use one of the !e((ing sheets for her shrou(+ As Emilia hel s her mistress to un(ress, Ces(emona sings a song, 'alle( DWillo!,E a"out a !oman !hose lo*e forsook her+ She sa.s she learne( the song from her mother:s mai(, <ar"ar., !ho (ie( singing the song after she ha( "een (eserte( ". her lo*er+ The song makes Ces(emona think a"out a(ulter., an( she asks Emilia !hether she !oul( 'heat on her hus"an( Dfor all the !orl(E 5I@+iii+%-8+ Emilia sa.s that she !oul( not (e'ei*e her hus"an( for Ge!els or ri'h 'lothes, "ut that the !hole !orl( is a huge ri4e an( !oul( out!eigh the offense+ This lea(s Emilia to s eak a"out the fa't that !omen ha*e a etites for se> an( infi(elit. Gust as men (o, an( that men !ho (e'ei*e their !i*es ha*e onl. themsel*es to "lame if their !i*es 'heat on them+ Ces(emona re lies that she refers to ans!er "a( (ee(s !ith goo( (ee(s rather than !ith more "a( (ee(s+ She rea(ies herself for "e(+ (/. )nal*sis< )ct I&1 scenes ii;iii In A't I@, s'ene ii, Othello interrogates Emilia as if she !ere a !itness to a 'rime+ Her testimon. !oul( "e strong e*i(en'e of Ces(emona:s inno'en'e, e>'e t that Othello (ismisses it all as lies, "e'ause it (oes not a''or( !ith !hat he alrea(. "elie*es+ 9ust as there is no !a. for Othello to ro*e "e.on( an. (ou"t that Ces(emona has "een unfaithful, no amount of e*i(en'e 'oul( no! o*erturn Othello:s "elief in her guilt+ 5In the final s'ene, Othello (oes a"ru tl. (e'i(e that he has "een (e'ei*e( all along ". Iago, "ut not "e'ause he is 'onfronte( ". 'om elling roof+8 Othello e> lains a!a. an. e*i(en'e in Ces(emona:s fa*or, ho!e*er strong, ". imagining Emilia an( Ces(emona to "e su"tle an( so histi'ate( liars+ When Othello has finishe( 2uestioning Emilia, he interrogates Ces(emona+ She is still *er. mu'h the arti'ulate, generous !ife she has "een in earlier s'enes, an( she fer*entl. (enies Othello:s a''usations+ E*en though he has no intention of "elie*ing her, he 'alls on her to s!ear that she is honest, as if all he !ants is to see her (amn herself !ith more lies+ Moreo*er, he e>aggerates her infi(elities out of all ro ortion to realit. or human ossi"ilit., 'om aring her 'o ulation to the "ree(ing of summer flies or foul toa(s+ Ha*ing o ene( the floo(gates of (ou"t, Othello seems to ha*e e> an(e( Ces(emona:s infra'tions to make her the !orst !ife humanl. 'on'ei*a"le+ 1erha s an. infi(elit. is as ainful to him as a

thousan( infi(elities, an( his e>aggerations onl. 'ommuni'ate the im ortan'e to him of her 'hastit.+ It is also ossi"le that Othello:s "elief that Ces(emona has "een unfaithful has ro""e( him of his onl. sta"le oint of referen'e, so that he has no gri on realit. to 'he'k his imagination+ Ha*ing ha( to resi(e o*er a state (inner right after "eing a"use( ". her hus"an( in A't I@, s'ene ii, Ces(emona must "e 'om letel. e>hauste( ". the "eginning of A't I@, s'ene iii+ She su"mits !ithout 'om laint to Othello:s or(er that she go to "e( an( (ismiss Emilia+ Ces ite Othello:s re eate( offenses, Ces(emona 'ontinues to lo*e her hus"an(+ Alone !ith Ces(emona, Emilia refle'ts that it !oul( ha*e "een "etter if Ces(emona ha( ne*er seen Othello, "ut Ces(emona reGe'ts this i(ea, sa.ing that Othello seems no"le an( gra'eful to her, e*en in his re"ukes+ As Emilia un(resses her, Ces(emona su((enl. remarks that Lo(o*i'o, !ho !as onstage at the "eginning of the s'ene, Dis a ro er manE 5I@+iii+7&8+ This remark suggests that Lo(o*i'o is attra'ti*e, all that a man shoul( "e, an( it is some!hat u44ling, 'onsi(ering all that Ces(emona has to think a"out at this moment+ She ma. sim l. "e una"le to think an. further a"out the ine> li'a"le (isaster that has "efallen her marriage+ Or, she ma. "e mulling o*er the im li'ations of Emilia:s i(eaB !hat !oul( her life "e like if she ha(n:t marrie( OthelloL Ha*ing Gust "een *iolentl. re"uke( for infi(elit. ". her hus"an(, Ces(emona no! seems to think for the first time a"out !hat it !oul( mean to "e unfaithful+ As if rea(ing Ces(emona:s thought, Emilia runs !ith the suggestion of Lo(o*i'o:s attra'ti*eness, (e'laring that she kno!s a !oman !ho !oul( D!alk "arefoot to H 1alestine for a tou'h of his nether li E 5I@+iii+7%67?8+ Emilia:s 'omment ser*es as an in*itation for Ces(emona to s eak more o enl. a"out the ossi"ilit. of her infi(elit.+ When Ces(emona tells the stor. "ehin( the DWillo!E song that she sings, she sa.s that the name of her mother:s mai( !as D<ar"ar.E 5I@+iii+-$8, ina(*ertentl. e'hoing Iago:s (es'ri tion of Othello as a D<ar"ar. horseE 5I+i+##78+ The !or( refers to the 'ountries along the north 'oast of Afri'a, an( thus the name suggests an e>oti', Afri'an element in Ces(emona:s "a'kgroun(, although the name D<ar"ar.E !as in use in Eli4a"ethan Englan(, so <ar"ar. herself !asn:t ne'essaril. Afri'an+ The song itself is melan'hol., an( it ortra.s an attitu(e of fatalism regar(ing lo*e, a resigne( a''e tan'e of misfortune that Ces(emona seems to em"ra'e+ DLet no"o(. "lame him, his s'orn I a ro*e,E she sings, "efore reali4ing that she has su lie( the !rong !or(s 5I@+iii+$08+ Ces(emona:s attitu(e to!ar( her 'hastit. re resents !hat Renaissan'e males !ante( an( e> e'te( of !omen, an( it is 'ertainl. !hat Othello !ants from his !ife+ She sees it as an a"solute entit. that is !orth more to her than her life or o!nershi of the entire !hole !orl(+ Emilia, on the other han(, suggests that the i(eal of female 'hastit. is o*er"lo!n an( e>aggerate(+ Throughout the s'ene, Emilia seems to "e tr.ing to gentl. hint that instea( of 2uietl. suffering Othello:s a"use, Ces(emona ought to look for ha iness else!here+ She argues that !omen are "asi'all. the same as men, an( that the t!o se>es are unfaithful for the same reasonsB affe'tion for eo le other than their s ouse, human !eakness, an( sim le (esire for enGo.ment, or Ds ortE 5I@+iii+/$8+ Aontraste( !ith Othello, !ho *eers "et!een seeing Ces(emona as a monumentali4e(, i(eal figure an( as a !hore !ith a thousan( artners, Emilia:s !or(s (o not a(*o'ate infi(elit. so mu'h as a (esire for reasona"le mi((le groun(, a so'ietal a'kno!le(gment that !omen are human "eings !ith nee(s an( (esires rather than *irgins or !hores+

(4.
,5.

)ct &1 scenes i;ii

3#mmar*< )ct &1 scene i

Iago an( Ro(erigo !ait outsi(e the "rothel !here Aassio *isits <ian'a+ Iago ositions Ro(erigo !ith a ra ier 5a t. e of s!or(8 in a la'e !here he !ill "e a"le to am"ush Aassio+ Iago then !ith(ra!s himself, although Ro(erigo asks him not to go too far in 'ase he nee(s hel killing Aassio+ Aassio enters, an( Ro(erigo sta"s at him "ut fails to ier'e Aassio:s armor+ Aassio sta"s an( !oun(s Ro(erigo+ Iago (arts out in the 'ommotion, sta"s Aassio in the leg, an( e>its+ Not kno!ing !ho has sta""e( him, Aassio falls+ At this moment, Othello enters+ Hearing Aassio:s 'ries of mur(er, Othello "elie*es that Iago has kille( him+ Ins ire( ". !hat he "elie*es to "e Iago:s su''essful *engean'e, Othello returns to his "e(room to kill Ces(emona+ Lo(o*i'o an( 3ra4iano enter an( hear Aassio:s an( Ro(erigo:s 'ries+ The. 'an see nothing "e'ause of the (arkness, an( the. are !ar. of hel ing the 'r.ing men in 'ase it is a tra + Iago enters 'arr.ing a light+ He first reten(s to (is'o*er Aassio, !ho "egs him for hel , an( then stum"les u on Aassio:s assailant, Ro(erigo, !hom Iago sta"s !ithout hesitation+ 3ra4iano

an( Lo(o*i'o are still una"le to see Iago, an( the. are una!are of !hat he is (oing+ Finall., the three men 'ome fa'e)to) fa'e, an( the. 2uestion Aassio a"out his inGuries+ <ian'a enters an( "egins to 'r. out !hen she sees the !oun(e( Aassio+ Iago 2uestions Aassio a"out his assailant, "ut Aassio 'an ro*i(e no e> lanation for !hat has ha ene(+ Iago suggests that Ro(erigo is to "lame+ Aassio sa.s that he (oes not kno! Ro(erigo+ Atten(ants 'arr. off Aassio an( Ro(erigo:s 'or se+ Emilia enters, an( Iago tells her !hat has ha ene(, a((ing the e> lanation, DThis is the fruits of !horingE 5@+i+##,8+ He an( Emilia 'hastise <ian'a, at !hose house Aassio ha( (ine( that e*ening+ Iago takes <ian'a un(er arrest, an( sen(s Emilia to tell Othello an( Ces(emona !hat has ha ene(+ Iago en(s the s'ene !ith an asi(eB DThis is the night H That either makes me or for(oes Iun(oesJ me 2uiteE 5@+i+#706#7#8+ ,1. 3#mmar*< )ct &1 scene ii

Then must you speak Of one that lo#ed not %isely but too %ell" Of one not easily 4ealous but" being %rought" +erple$ed in the e$treme6 of one %hose hand" Like the base .ndian" thre% a pearl a%ay :icher than all his tribe! ! ! !

Hol(ing a 'an(le, Othello stan(s o*er the slee ing Ces(emona an( re ares to kill her+ He "en(s (o!n to kiss her on'e "efore he (oes the (ee(, she !akes, an( he tells her to re are to (ie+ 3ro!ing frightene(, Ces(emona asks her hus"an( !h. he means to kill her, an( Othello res on(s that she has "een unfaithful to him !ith Aassio=he has seen the roof in the han(ker'hief+ Othello refuses to "elie*e Ces(emona:s (enial of the 'harge, sa.ing that Aassio has 'onfesse( "ut !ill s eak no more, sin'e he has "een kille( ". Iago+ Ces(emona "egins to !ee for Aassio, !hi'h onl. (ri*es Othello into a greater rage+ Wrestling !ith her as she "egs to "e allo!e( to li*e Gust a little longer, Othello finall. su''ee(s in smothering his !ife+ Emilia 'alls from outsi(e the (oor, an( Othello, a arentl. (elirious, 'onfuses her 'ries !ith his !ife:s an( 'on'lu(es that Ces(emona is not .et (ea(+ Thinking himself to "e mer'iful, an( not !anting to ha*e his !ife linger in ain, he smothers her again+ Othello (ra!s the "e( 'urtains an( lets Emilia in+ Emilia informs Othello that Aassio has kille( Ro(erigo+ Othello asks if Aassio has "een kille( as !ell, an( Emilia informs him that Aassio is ali*e+ As Othello "egins to reali4e that his lans ha*e gone a!r., Ces(emona 'ries out that she has "een mur(ere(+ She sta.s ali*e long enough to re'ant this statement, telling Emilia that she !as not mur(ere( "ut kille( herself+ She (ies+ Othello trium hantl. a(mits to Emilia that he kille( Ces(emona, an( !hen she asks him !h., Othello tells her that Iago o ene( his e.es to Ces(emona:s falsehoo(+ Unfa4e( ". Othello:s threat that she D!ere "estE to remain silent, Emilia 'alls out for hel , "ringing Montano, 3ra4iano, an( Iago to the s'ene 5@+ii+#%,8+ As the truth of Iago:s *illain. "egins to 'ome out through Emilia:s a''usations, Othello falls !ee ing u on the "e( that 'ontains the "o(. of his (ea( !ife+ Almost to himself, 3ra4iano e> resses relief that <ra"an4io is (ea(=the first ne!s the au(ien'e has hear( of this=an( has not li*e( to see his (aughter 'ome to su'h a terri"le en(+ Othello still 'lings to his "elief in Iago:s truth an( Ces(emona:s guilt, mentioning the han(ker'hief an( Aassio:s D'onfession+E When Othello mentions the han(ker'hief, Emilia eru ts, an( Iago, no longer 'ertain that he 'an kee his lots hi((en, attem ts to silen'e her !ith his s!or(+ 3ra4iano sto s him an( Emilia e> lains ho! she foun( the han(ker'hief an( ga*e it to Iago+ Othello runs at Iago "ut is (isarme( ". Montano+ In the 'ommotion, Iago is a"le to sta" his !ife, !ho falls, a arentl. (.ing+ Iago flees an( is ursue( ". Montano an( 3ra4iano+ Left alone onstage !ith the "o(ies of the t!o !omen, Othello sear'hes for another s!or(+ Emilia:s (.ing !or(s ro*i(e eerie "a'kgroun( musi', as she sings a snat'h of the song DWillo!+E She tells Othello that Ces(emona !as 'haste an( lo*e( him+ 3ra4iano returns to fin( Othello arme( an( (efiant, mourning the loss of his !ife+ The. are Goine( shortl. ". Montano, Lo(o*i'o, Aassio, an( Iago, !ho is "eing hel( risoner+ Othello sta"s Iago, !oun(ing him, an( Lo(o*i'o or(ers some sol(iers to (isarm Othello+ Iago sneers that he "lee(s "ut is not kille(+ He refuses to sa. an.thing more a"out !hat he has

(one, "ut Lo(o*i'o ro(u'es a letter foun( in Ro(erigo:s o'ket that re*eals e*er.thing that has ha ene(+ Seeking some kin( of final re'on'iliation, Othello asks Aassio ho! he 'ame ". the han(ker'hief, an( Aassio re lies that he foun( it in his 'ham"er+ Lo(o*i'o tells Othello that he must 'ome !ith them "a'k to @eni'e, an( that he !ill "e stri e( of his o!er an( 'omman( an( ut on trial+ Refusing to "e taken a!a. "efore he has s oken, Othello asks his 'a tors, DWhen .ou shall these unlu'k. (ee(s relate, H S eak of me as I amE 5@+ii+7$067$#8+ He remin(s them of a time in Ale o !hen he ser*e( the @enetian state an( sle! a malignant Turk+ DI took ". the throat the 'ir'um'ise( (og H An( smote him thus,E sa.s Othello, ulling a thir( (agger from hi(ing an( sta""ing himself in (emonstration 5@+ii+7%&67%$8+ 1le(ging to D(ie u on a kiss,E Othello falls onto the "e( !ith his !ife:s "o(. 5@+ii+7%/8+ Lo(o*i'o tells Iago to look at the result of his (e*ious efforts, names 3ra4iano as Othello:s heir, an( uts Montano in 'harge of Iago:s e>e'ution+ Lo(o*i'o re ares to lea*e for @eni'e to "ear the ne!s from A. rus to the (uke an( senate+ ,2. )nal*sis< )ct &1 scenes i;ii

In the first s'ene of A't @, !e see the utterl. futile en( of Ro(erigo an( his lans+ Ro(erigo !as first ersua(e( that he nee( onl. follo! Othello an( Ces(emona to A. rus in or(er to !in o*er Ces(emona, then that he nee( onl. (isgra'e Aassio, then that he nee( onl. kill Aassio+ No!, Ro(erigo, sta""e( ". the man !ho ga*e him false ho e, (ies em t.)han(e( in e*er. ossi"le !a.+ He has gi*en all his mone. an( Ge!els to Iago, !ho a(mits that the Ge!elr. more than an.thing else moti*ate( his killing of Ro(erigoB DLi*e Ro(erigo, H He 'alls me to a restitution large H Of gol( an( Ge!els that I "o""e( from himE 5@+i+#&6 #%8+ Ro(erigo is 'ertainl. a atheti' 'hara'ter, e*i(en'e( ". the fa't that he (oes not e*en su''ee( in killing Aassio+ Un!ittingl., Ro(erigo 'auses Iago:s lan to "e foile( for the first time in the la.+ <e'ause of this, Iago is for'e( to "loo(. his o!n han(s, also for the first time in the la.+ Cis la.ing a talent for im ro*isation, Iago takes the "ur(en of a'tion into his o!n han(s "e'ause he has no other 'hoi'e+ On'e Iago sees that Ro(erigo has faile( to kill Aassio, Iago is a"le to !oun( Aassio, return !ith a light to Dsa*eE Aassio, kill Ro(erigo, an( 'ast sus i'ion on <ian'a an( her "rothel, all in a *er. short time+ Neither Lo(o*i'o, 3ra4iano, nor Aassio sho!s the slightest sus i'ion that Iago is someho! in*ol*e( in the ma.hem+ Othello is not the onl. one !ho fin(s Iago Dhonest+E Othello:s "rief a earan'e in A't @, s'ene i, is arti'ularl. horrif.ing+ 9o.full. su osing Aassio to "e (ea(, Othello ro'ee(s to his "e('ham"er !ith great fer*or, 'r.ing, DStrum et, I 'ome+ H Forth of m. heart those 'harms, thine e.es, are "lotte(+ H Th. "e(, lust)staine(, shall !ith lust:s "loo( "e s otte(E 5@+i+7$67?8+ When he romises that the "e( shall D!ith lust:s "loo( "e s otte(,E he means that !hen he kills Ces(emona, her guilt. "loo( of DlustE !ill s ot the sheets+ <ut s otte( sheets also suggests !e((ing)night se>+ As Othello re ares to kill Ces(emona at the "eginning of the final s'ene, the i(ea of killing her "e'omes 'uriousl. intert!ine(, in his min(, !ith the i(ea of taking her *irginit.+ In A't @, s'ene ii, he e> resses his sorro! that he has to kill her in terms that suggest his relu'tan'e to take her *irginit.B DWhen I ha*e lu'ke( th. rose H I 'annot gi*e it *ital gro!th again+ H It must nee(s !itherE 5@+ii+#76#$8+ He steels himself to kill her, "ut he refuses to Dshe( her "loo(E or s'ar her !hite skin, !hi'h is as Dsmooth as monumental ala"aster+E His !or(s im l. that the real trage(. is the loss of her *irginit., !hi'h !oul( lea*e her irretrie*a"l. s oile(+ Ironi'all., (es ite "eing 'on*in'e( of her 'orru tion, art of him seems to *ie! her as still inta't, like an ala"aster statue or an un lu'ke( rose+ Furthermore, the rea(er ma. re'all that the all)im ortant han(ker'hief is (.e( !ith the "loo( of dead *irgins+ The han(ker'hief:s im ortan'e to Othello ma. suggest that he thinks it is "etter for a !oman to (ie as a *irgin than li*e as a !ife+ Although it seems lu(i'rous to suggest that Othello has not .et taken Ces(emona:s *irginit., the la. in'lu(es t!o s'enes (uring !hi'h their marriage is su ose( to "e se>uall. 'onsummate(, an( in "oth the 'ou le is interru te( as Othello is 'alle( on to resol*e a 'risis+ This is onl., it seems, the 'ou le:s thir( night together, an( Ces(emona has aske( that her !e((ing sheets "e ut on the "e(+ The !e((ing sheets !oul( ro*e one !a. or another !hether the marriage !as 'onsummate(, (e en(ing on !hether the. !ere staine( !ith "loo(+ Ces(emona:s 'hoi'e of the sheets for a shrou( ma. suggest that the. are unstaine(+ If the. ha#e 'onsummate( their marriage, Othello:s !or(s ma. suggest his un!illingness to a''e t the fa't that he has alrea(. taken Ces(emona:s *irginit., an( his Gealous fantasies a"out Ces(emona:s su ose( (e"au'her. ma. stem from his fear of her ne!l. a!akene( se>ualit., an( from his o!n feeling of res onsi"ilit. for ha*ing a!akene( it+

After Ces(emona !akes, the s'ene rogresses in a series of !a*elike rushes that lea*e the au(ien'e as stunne( an( (isoriente( as the 'hara'ters onstage+ For starters, Ces(emona seems to (ie t!i'e=Othello smothers her on'e, then smothers her again after mistaking Emilia:s s'reams from outsi(e for his !ife:s+ Astonishingl., Ces(emona fin(s "reath again to s eak four final lines after Emilia enters the "e(room+ Similarl., Emilia:s (eath a ears 'ertain after Iago sta"s her an( 3ra4iano sa.s, DITJhe !oman falls+ Sure he hath kille( his !ife,E an( then, DHe:s gone, "ut his !ife:s kille(E 5@+ii+-&7, -&$8+ Ket, eight lines later, Emilia s eaks again, 'alling, DWhat (i( th. song "o(e, la(.LE 5@+ii+-$78+ She s eaks another fi*e lines "efore (.ing for goo(+ <efore he kills himself, Othello in*okes his rior ser*i'es to the state, asking Lo(o*i'o an( the other @enetians to listen to him for a moment+ At this oint, he is resol*e( to (ie, an( his 'on'ern is !ith ho! he !ill "e remem"ere(+ When he a eals to his listeners to (es'ri"e him as he a'tuall. is, neither "etter or !orse, the au(ien'e ma. or ma. not agree !ith his 'hara'teri4ation of himself as one not easil. ma(e Gealous, or as one !ho lo*e( Dnot !isel. "ut too !ellE 5@+ii+7$78+ As he 'ontinues, though, he a((resses an im ortant ro"lemB !ill his 'rime "e remem"ere( as the fall from gra'e of a @enetian Ahristian, or an assault on @eni'e ". an ethni' an( 'ultural outsi(erL He stresses his outsi(er status in a !a. that he (oes not (o earlier in the la., 'om aring himself to a D"ase In(ianE !ho 'ast a!a. a earl !orth more than all of his tri"e 5@+ii+7$%67$?8+ Finall., he re'alls a time in !hi'h he (efen(e( @eni'e ". smiting an enem. Turk, an( then sta"s himself in a reena'tment of his earlier a't, there". 'asting himself as "oth insi(er an( outsi(er, enem. of the state an( (efen(er of the state+ Throughout the la., Shakes eare 'ulti*ates Othello:s am"i*alent status as insi(er an( outsi(er+ Othello i(entifies himself firml. !ith Ahristian 'ulture, .et his "elief in fate an( the 'harme( han(ker'hief suggest ties to a agan heritage+ Ces ite the fa't that his Ahristianit. seems slightl. am"iguous, ho!e*er, Shakes eare re eate(l. 'asts Othello as Ahrist an( Iago as 9u(as 5or, ironi'all., as 1eter8+ 5See anal.sis of A't I, s'ene ii, an( A't III, s'ene iii+8 These e'hoes of the 3os el suggest that Othello an( his trage(. are someho! 'entral to the Ahristian !orl( of @eni'e+ Moreo*er, !hile most mo(ern e(itions of the la. in'lu(e the !or(s D"ase In(ianE 5@+ii+7$%8, the First Folio e(ition a'tuall. sa.s D"ase Iu(eanE 5i+e+, 9u(ean8, ossi"l. im l.ing that Othello 'om ares himself to 9u(as+ The la.:s ri'h "i"li'al referen'es suggest that Othello is "oth Ahrist an( 9u(as, a man !ho sa'rifi'es himself to e> iate the @enetians: guilt as !ell as his o!n+ What larger 'rime Othello:s sui'i(e atones for, ho!e*er, the au(ien'e 'an onl. 'onGe'ture+

,3.

=e* >acts

>?LL 0I0LE Q The Tragedy of Othello" the Moor of ;enice )?07OR Q William Shakes eare 0@PE O> 9OR= Q 1la. 'EARE Q Trage(. L)A'?)'E Q English 0IME )AD PL)CE 9RI00EA Q <et!een #%0# an( #%0&, Englan( D)0E O> >IR30 P? LIC)0IOA Q P? LI37ER Q Thomas Walkle. 0OAE Q Shakes eare 'learl. *ie!s the e*ents of the la. as tragi'+ He seems to *ie! the marriage "et!een Ces(emona an(

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Othello as no"le an( heroi', for the most art+ 3E00IA' B0IMEC Q Late si>teenth 'entur., (uring the !ars "et!een @eni'e an( Turke. 3E00IA' BPL)CEC Q @eni'e in A't IF the islan( of A. rus thereafter PRO0)'OAI30 Q Othello M)DOR COA>LIC0 Q Othello an( Ces(emona marr. an( attem t to "uil( a life together, (es ite their (ifferen'es in age, ra'e, an( e> erien'e+ Their marriage is sa"otage( ". the en*ious Iago, !ho 'on*in'es Othello that Ces(emona is unfaithful+ RI3IA' )C0IOA Q Iago tells the au(ien'e of his s'heme, arranges for Aassio to lose his osition as lieutenant, an( gra(uall. insinuates to Othello that Ces(emona is unfaithful+ CLIM)E Q The 'lima> o''urs at the en( of A't III, s'ene iii, !hen Othello kneels !ith Iago an( *o!s not to 'hange 'ourse until he has a'hie*e( "loo(. re*enge+ >)LLIA' )C0IOA Q Iago lants the han(ker'hief in Aassio:s room an( later arranges a 'on*ersation !ith Aassio, !hi'h Othello !at'hes an( sees as D roofE that Aassio an( Ces(emona ha*e sle t together+ Iago unsu''essfull. attem ts to kill

Aassio, an( Othello smothers Ces(emona !ith a illo!+ Emilia e> oses Iago:s (e'e tions, Othello kills himself, an( Iago is taken a!a. to "e torture(+ 07EME3 Q The in'om ati"ilit. of militar. heroism an( lo*eF the (anger of isolation MO0I>3 Q Sight an( "lin(nessF lantsF animalsF hell, (emons, an( monsters 3@M OL3 Q The han(ker'hiefF the song DWillo!E >ORE37)DO9IA' Q Othello an( Ces(emona:s s ee'hes a"out lo*e foresha(o! the (isaster to 'omeF Othello:s (es'ri tion of his ast an( of his !ooing of Ces(emona foresha(o! his sui'i(e s ee'hF Ces(emona:s DWillo!E song an( remarks to Emilia in A't I@, s'ene iii, foresha(o! her (eath+