CHAPTER 1 STONES

Syllabus content: Classification, composition, characteristics, uses, method of quarrying and dressing. INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING MATERIALS The general structures are composed of materials. These materials are known as engineering materials or building materials or materials of construction. It is necessary for an engineer to be aware of the properties of the materials. The service condition of buildings demand a wide range of materials and various properties such as water resistance, strength, durability,

temperature resistance, appearance, permeability, etc. are to be properly studied before making final selection of any building material for a particular use. The grouping of building materials is done by considering specific properties of the material such as stones, ceramics, cement concrete, timber, metals, etc. Each group is then suitably sub-divided. When alternative building materials are available, then final choice is made from the considerations of engineering and economics. For example in some earth quake zones timber is used as material as it serves safety when earth quake occurs, but timber cannot be used for the high rise buildings. Thus the materials of construction, for the purpose of convenience, can be broadly classified in to following three groups: 1) Cement materials such as lime, cement, mortar, etc.; 2) Protective materials such as paints, varnishes, plaster, etc.; and 3) Solid materials such as stones, brick, iron, timber, etc. To improve the quantity and quality aspects of industry of the building materials, it becomes necessary to impose standardization in the

manufacturing process of the respective engineering materials. Building

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materials should be manufactured cheap, environmental friendly and energy efficient building materials to tackle the situation. Scarcity of the construction material leads to high costs of construction in project building. INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING STONES In many places, as in hilly regions, stones are more freely available than clay bricks. They occur naturally and need not be manufactured so that stone masonry becomes cheaper than brick work. From early days, even before the bricks were invented by the humans, stones were used to build dwellings. Old roads with heavy traffic were also paved with stones. In addition, man learnt to build beautiful monuments with natural stones. They were used for ornamental work in important structures like temples and places of assembly. Stones are more permanent than most of other natural building materials like wood. Most of the prehistoric monuments that remain even today are made of stones. Stones are preferred before advent of concrete for heavy engineering constructions like bridge piers, harbor walls, and they are still used for facing work, for tall buildings. Submerged brickwork usually break down with time but the stonework remains stable. Today, stones form an important source of aggregates (both coarse and fine) for concrete. Thus, stone is an important building material that all civil engineers should be familiar with. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS All rocks are aggregations of various mineral constituents, more or less firmly held together. The building stones used in construction works are derived from rocks forming the crust of the earths surface. Geological Classification: Natural rocks can be classified according to their geological mode of formation as: 1) Igneous rocks, 2) Sedimentary rocks, and 3) Metamorphic rocks.

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And each group may be further divided into categories having certain petrological characteristics in common. Petrology means Study of Rocks. Petrological Classification or Physical Classification: The building stones may also be classified according to their petrological or physical

characteristics as: 1) Stratified rocks, 2) Unstratified rocks, 3) Foliated or Fragmented rocks. Chemical Classification: Building stones may also be classified according to their chemical composition in to three groups: 1) Crystalline siliceous rocks (or) siliceous rocks Example: Granite Gneisses, Trap, etc. 2) Calcareous rocks Example: Lime stone and marble 3) Argillaceous rocks Example: Sand stone, Slates. Geological Classification: According to this classification, the rocks are of the following three types: 1) Igneous rocks; 2) Sedimentary rocks; and 3) Metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks: The inside portion of the earths surface has high temperature so as to cause fusion by heat at even ordinary pressures. The molten or pasty rocky material is known as the magma and this magma occasionally tries to come out to earths surface through cracks or weak portions. The rocks which are formed by cooling of magma are called as Igneous rocks. The igneous rocks are recognized in the following three classes:

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a) Plutonic rocks : These rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at considerable depth from earths surface. The cooling is slow and the rocks posses coarsely grained crystalline structure. The igneous rocks commonly used in building industry are of plutonic type. The granite is the leading example of this type of rock.

Figure 1.1: Picture showing Granite Stone b) Hypabyssal rocks: Such rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at a relatively shallow depth from the earths surface. The cooling is quick and hence these rocks possess finely grained crystalline structure. The dolerite is an example of this type of rock.

c) Volcanic rocks: Such rocks are formed due to pouring of magma at earths surface. The cooling is very rapid as compared to the previous two cases. Hence the rocks are extremely fine grained in structure. They frequently contain some quantity of glass which is a noncrystalline material. The basalt is an example of this type of rock.
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Figure 1.2: Picture showing Basalt stone Sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the pre-existing rocks. All the products of weathering are ultimately carried away from their place of origin by the agents of transport. Such agents are frost, rain, wind, flowing water, etc. Following four types of deposits occur: a) Residual deposits: Some portion of the products of weathering remain at the site of origin. Such a deposit is known as a residual deposit. b) Sedimentary deposits: The insoluble product of weathering are carried away in suspension and when such products are deposited, they give rise to the sedimentary deposits. c) Chemical deposits: Some material that is carried away in solution may be deposited by some physio-chemical processes such as evaporation, precipitation, etc. It gives rise to the chemical deposits. d) Organic deposits: Some portion of the product of weathering gets deposited through the agency of organisms. Such deposits are known as the organic deposits.

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The examples of sedimentary rocks are gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum, lignite, etc. Metamorphic rocks: These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks. The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are subject to great heat and pressure. The process of change is known as the Metamorphism. The mineral composition and texture of a rock represent a system which is in equilibrium with its physio-chemical surroundings. The increase of temperature and pressure upsets this equilibrium and metamorphism results from an effort to re-establish a new equilibrium. In this process, the original constituent minerals which are unstable under the changed conditions are converted in to new ones which are more stable under the changed conditions. These minerals are arranged in a manner which is more suitable to the new environments. It should however be noted that changes produced by weathering and sedimentation are not included in the metamorphism. There are three agents of metamorphism, namely, heat, pressure and chemically acting fluids. The heat may be supplied by the general rise of temperature with depth or by igneous magma. The pressure may be developed due to load of rocks or movement of earth. The chemically acting fluids play a passive role only and they do not take active part in the process of metamorphism. The pressure may be uniform or directed. The uniform pressure may be applied to solids and liquids. The direct pressure or stress can exist only in solids and it is converted in to uniform pressure, if applied to liquids. Following four types of metamorphism occur with various combinations of heat, uniform pressure and directed pressure: a) Thermal metamorphism: The heat is the predominant factor in this type of metamorphism.

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b) Cataclastic metamorphism: At the surface of earth, the temperatures are low and metamorphism is brought about by direct pressure only such metamorphism is known as the cataclastic metamorphism. c) Dynamo-thermal metamorphism: There is a rise in temperature with increase in depth. Hence, the heat in combination with stress, brings about the changes in rock. Such metamorphism is known as the dynamo-thermal metamorphism. d) Plutonic metamorphism: The stress is effective only up to a certain depth. This is due to the fact that rocks become plastic in nature at certain depths. At great depths, a stage is reached when stress cannot exist as it is converted in to uniform pressure because of the plasticity of the rocks. The metamorphic changes at great depths are therefore brought about by uniform pressure and heat. Such metamorphism is known as the plutonic metamorphism. Petrological Classification or Physical Classification: This classification is based on general structure of rocks. According to this classification, the rocks are of the following three types: a) Stratified Rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage and such rocks can easily be split up along these planes. The sedimentary rocks are distinctly stratified rocks.

Figure 1.3: Picture showing the formation of sedimentary rocks.

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b) Unstratified rocks: These rocks are unstratified. The structure may be crystalline granular or compact granular. The igneous rocks of volcanic agency and sedimentary rocks affected by movement of the earth are of this type of rocks.

Figure 1.4: Picture showing granite with crystalline structure. c) Foliated rocks: These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite direction only. The foliated structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.

Figure 1.5: Picture showing cracking on metamorphic foliated rock having tendency to split along the crack. Chemical Classification: This classification is known as the scientific or engineering classification and according to this classification, the rocks are of the following three types
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a) Silicious rocks: In these rocks, the silica predominates. The rocks are hard and durable. They cannot be affected by weathering agencies. The silica however in combination with weaker minerals may disintegrate easily. It is therefore necessary that these rocks should contain maximum amount of free silica for making them hard and durable. The granites, quartzites, etc. are example of silicious rocks.

b) Argillaceous rocks: In these rocks, the argil or clay predominates. Such rocks may be dense and compact or they may be soft. These stones are hard and durable but brittle. The slates, laterites, etc. are examples of the silicious rocks.

c) Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, the calcium carbonate predominates. The durability of these rocks will depend upon the constituents present in the surrounding atmosphere. The limestones, marbles, etc. are examples of calcareous rocks.

Sources of stones: The stones are obtained from rocks. A rock represent a definite portion of earths surface. It is not homogeneous. It has no definite chemical composition and shape. It is known as the monomineralic rock, if it contains only one mineral and it is known as the polymineralic rock, if it contains several minerals. The quartz sand, chemically pure gypsum, magnesite, etc. are examples of monomineralic rocks and basalt, granite, etc. are examples of the polymineralic rocks. A mineral indicates a substance having definite chemical composition and molecular structure. It is forms by natural inorganic processes. Such minerals, when combine, form rocks of various types as discussed earlier.
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The properties of a rock are then governed by the properties of minerals present in its structure. Rock forming Minerals: The igneous rocks contain many minerals. The various natural minerals having wide range of different distinctive characteristics are available. But only few of them form the bulk of rocks. These minerals are called the rockforming minerals. Following are the commonly found minerals in the igneous rocks: 1) Augite: This mineral resembles hornblende except that it is heavier than hornblende. It forms octagonal crystals. It changes to chlorite by hydration. Its density is 23 to 36 also called Pyroxene. 2) Chlorite: It has green colour. It is mainly derived from the decomposition of augite, biotite and hornblende. and hardness is 5 to 6. It is

Figure 1.6: Picture showing Chlorite Stone. 3) Felspar: It has many varieties, the common being that of orthoclase, microline and one or other member of the plagioclase series. The orthoclase is whitish, grayish or pinkish in colour. It is a straightsplitting mineral. It shows development of tabular crystals. It has usually well defined faces. The presence of decomposed rocks sometimes impart cloudy appearance to this mineral.
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disintegrate easily, if orthoclase is in abundance in their structure. The microline has deep green or flesh-red colour. It is found along with orthoclase.

Figure 1.7: Picture showing Orthoclase stone

Figure 1.8: Picture showing Microline stone. 4) Hornblende: This mineral is heavy, strong and durable, but brittle. Its colour is dark-green or black. It has glassy lusture. It frequently occurs as six-sided crystals having the appearance of elongated hexagons. It changes to chlorite when exposed to weather. Its density is 29 to 30 and hardness is 5 to 6. It is an essential component

of many igneous rocks.

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Figure 1.9: Picture showing Hornblende stone. 5) Mica: It is silicate of aluminium with potassium and occurs in thin transparent laminae or plates. The layers of mica shine with metallic lustre. The hardness varies from 2 to 3. The two forms of mica commonly occurring in igneous rocks are muscovite and biotite. They occur separately or simultaneously. The muscovite is also known as the white mica or potash mica. It has light colour and it may be colourless when available in thin layers. Its density varies from 27.60 to 31 .

The biotite is also known as the black mica. It has dark colour and metallic lustre. It has iron content and hence, when exposed to weather, it changes to chlorite and loses its elasticity. Its density varies from 28 to 32 .

Figure 1.10: Picture showing Muscovite Mica stone.

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Figure 1.11: Picture showing Biotite Mica stone. 6) Olivine: It has black, olive-green or yellow colour. It is colourless when found in thin sections. It frequently changes to the serpentine.

Figure 1.12: Picture showing Olivine stone. 7) Plagioclase: This is a general name given to a series of feldspars which ranges from sodium aluminium silicate known as the albite to calcium aluminium silicate known as the anortite. The characteristic of plagioclase is multiple twinning. It is an oblique-splitting mineral. 8) Quartz: It is the crystalline form of silica. It is usually colourless. But it may be sometimes brownish, pink or yellow in colour due to presence of metallic oxides in small quantities. It is weather-proof and resists the attack of acids with the exception of hydrofluoric acid. Its density is 26.50 and its hardness is 7. It may be noted that

common sand is a variety of quartz. The transparent crystal of quartz

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is known as the rock crystal. The compact translucent mass of quartz is called the hornstone.

Figure 1.13: Picture showing White Quartz Stone. 9) Serpentine: This mineral resembles chlorite. It has pale-green or yellow colour. It presents a massive appearance.

Figure 1.14: Picture showing Serpentine stone. The sedimentary rocks also contain many minerals. Following are the commonly found minerals in the sedimentary rocks: 1) Calcite: This mineral rarely occurs in igneous rocks. But it is the chief constituent of many sedimentary rocks. The calcite is calcium carbonate and it gives out carbon-di-oxide when attacked by

mineral acids. It is generally colourless. But the presence of impurities

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may give it yellow, brown or red colour, It is available in various shades.

Figure 1.15: Picture showing Calcite stone. 2) Magnesite: This mineral occurs rarely in nature and its chemical composition is . It is harder and less soluble than calcite.

Figure 1.16: Picture showing Magnesite stone. 3) Dolomite: It is available in various shades. Its crystals are brittle. It is however stronger and heavier than calcite. It is insoluble in ordinary water. In chemical composition, it is a bicarbonate of magnesium and calcium. . It consists of 46% of and 54% of .

4) Glauconite: This mineral has no definite crystal form. Its colour varies from yellow to green. It is practically insoluble in acids as well as ordinary water.
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5) Limonite: It has an earthly appearance. Its colour varies from yellow to reddish brown. It is insoluble in ordinary water, but it dissolves in acids. 6) Gypsum: It is the hydrated sulphate of calcium with chemical composition as . It is white when in pure state. Due to

presence of impurities, it in tinted into grey, reddish, yellowish or black colours. Its density is 23 and its hardness is 2. It is a

crystalline substance. Its solubility in water is very poor.

Figure 1.17: Picture showing Gypsum stone. 7) Anhydrate: This is an anhydrous variety of gypsum and its chemical composition is . Its colour varies from reddish-white to grey. Its and its hardness varies from 3.00

density varies from 28 to 30

to 3.50. If it remains in contact with water for a long time, it is converted into gypsum with a slight increase in volume.

Figure 1.18: Picture showing Anhydrate stone.

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Fracture of a Rock: The type of surface obtained, when a rock is broken, indicates its fracture. For rocks with cleavage, the breaking should be done in a direction other than that of cleavage. The fracture of a rock helps to determine its texture. The fractured surfaces are mostly irregular. Following are their different types: 1) Conchoidal: Such a fracture presents a set of concentric rings. Example: Quartz, Flint, etc. and it corresponds to glassy texture. 2) Earthly: It resembles earth. Example: Chalk. 3) Even: The fracture surface is more or less plane. Such a fracture denotes crystalline texture. 4) Fibrous: The fracture surface is in the form of fibres as in case of asbestos. 5) Hackly: It indicates rough and broken surface with sharp edges. 6) Uneven: The fracture surface is rough due to minute elevations and depressions. Such a fracture indicates granular texture. Natural Bed of Stones: Definition: The building stones are obtained from rocks. These rocks have a distinct plane of division along which stones can easily be split. This plane is known as the natural bed of stone and it thus indicates the plane or bed on which the sedimentary stone was originally deposited. The natural bed of stone need not necessarily be horizontal. For sedimentary rocks, it is easy to observe and locate the natural bed as it lies along the planes of stratification. For igneous rocks, the natural bed is of little significance or importance and it is also difficult to determine. Importance: In stone masonry, the general rule to be observed is that the direction of natural bed of all sedimentary stones should be perpendicular or nearly so to the direction of pressure. Such an arrangement gives maximum strength to the stonework. The natural beds of stones can be detected by pouring water and examining the direction of layers. The

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magnifying glass may also be used for this purpose. An experienced worker can easily locate the direction of natural bed of stones from the resistance offered to the chisel. The stones break easily along these natural beds. With respect to natural bed, the stone are placed in different situations as follows: 1) Arches: In stone arches, the stones are placed with their natural beds radial as shown in Figure 1. With such an arrangement, the thrust of arch acts normal to the direction of natural beds.

Figure 1.19: Natural bed of stone in Arches. 2) Cornices, String Courses, etc.: The stones are partially unsupported in case of cornices, string courses, etc. Hence they should be placed with direction of natural bed as vertical. This principle will not hold good for corner stones. It would be desirable, in such cases, to adopt stones without natural beds. 3) Walls: The stones should be placed in walls with the direction of their natural beds was horizontal as shown in Figure 1.19.

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Figure 1.20: Picture showing the Cornice stone for ancient building. Uses of Stones: The stones are used in the construction of buildings from the ancient times and most of the ancient temples and forts of our country were built with stones. The Taj Mahal at Agra and Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Parliament House, Central Secretariat and Rashtrapati Bhawan at Delhi and various other prominent structures spread throughout the length and breadth of our country furnish us the splendid examples of contribution of stones as a building material. Even at present, they form a basic material for cement concrete and bricks. Following are the various uses to which stones are employed: 1) Structure: The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp-proof courses, etc. 2) Face work: The stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. The walls are of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as the composite masonry. 3) Paving: The stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as residential, commercial, industrial, etc. They are, also adopted to form paving of roads, footpaths, etc.

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4) Basic material: The stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete, murum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hollow blocks, etc. 5) Miscellaneous: In addition to above uses, the stones are also used as: Ballast for railways. Flux in blast furnaces. Blocks in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams, etc. Qualities of a Good Building Stone: Following are the qualities or characteristics or requirements of a good building stone. 1) Crushing Strength: For a good structural stone, the crushing strength should be greater than 100 . The approximate values

of crushing strength of some of the stones are shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Crushing Strength of Stones Rock Stone Basalt Diorite Igneous Granite Syenite Trap Laterite Sedimentary Limestone Sandstone Shale Metamorphic Gnesis Slate Crushing Strength in 150 to 185 90 to 150 75 to 127 90 to 150 330 to 380 1.80 to 3.10 54 64 0.20 to 0.60 206 to 370 75 to 207

2) Appearance: The stones which are to be used for face work should be decent in appearance and they should be capable of preserving their colour uniformly for a long time. The colour of the stones for face work
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should be chosen by keeping in mind the general get up of the surrounding area. It is desirable to prefer light coloured stones as compared to dark coloured stones because there are chances of the latter variety to be attacked easily by weathering agents. A good building stone should be of uniform colour and free from clay holes, spots of other colour, bands, etc. 3) Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The various factors contributing to durability of a stone are its chemical composition, texture, resistance to atmospheric and other influences, location in structure, etc. Following are the important atmospheric agencies which affect the durability of a stone: Alternate conditions of heat and cold due to differences in temperature; Alternate conditions of wetness and dryness due to rain and sunshine; Chemical agencies such as dissolved gases in rain; Growth of trees and creepers in the joints between stones; Wind with high velocity; etc.

For making stones durable, their natural bed should be carefully noted. The stones should be so arranged in a structure that the natural bed is perpendicular or nearly so to the direction of pressure. 4) Facility of dressing: The stones should be such that they can be easily carved, moulded, cut and dressed. It is an important consideration from the economic point of view. However this property of stone is opposed to its strength, durability and hardness. Hence it is to be properly correlated with respect to the situation in which stone is to be used. 5) Fracture: For a good building stone, its fracture should be sharp, even, bright and clear with grains well cemented together. A dull, chalky and earthly fracture of a stone indicates signs of early future decay.
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6) Hardness: The coefficient of hardness, as worked out in hardness test, should be greater than 17 for a stone to be used in road work. If it is between 14 and 17, the stone is said to be of medium hardness. If it is less than 14, the stone is said to be of poor hardness and such stones should not be used in road work. 7) Percentage wear: In attrition test, if wear is more than 3 percent, the stone is not satisfactory. If it is equal to 3 percent, the stone is just tolerable. For a good building stone, the wear should be equal to or less than 3 percent. 8) Resistance to fire: The minerals composing stones should be such that shape of stone is preserved when a fire occurs. The failure of stones in case of a fire is due to various reasons such as rapid rise in temperature, sudden cooling, different coefficients of linear expansion of minerals, etc. The free quartz suddenly expands at a temperature lower than . The limestone resists fire upto about and it

then splits in to CaO and

. The sandstone with silicates as binding

material can resist a fire in a better way. The argillaceous stones are poor in strength, but they can resist fire quite well. 9) Seasoning: The stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. The stones obtained fresh from a quarry contain some moisture which is known as the quarry sap. The presence of this moisture makes the stone soft. Hence the stones quarried freshly are easy to work. It is therefore desirable to do dressing, carving, etc. When stones contain quarry sap. The stones should be dried or seasoned before they are used in structural work. A period of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning. 10) Specific Gravity: For a good building stone, its specific gravity should be greater than 2.7 or so. The heavy stones are more compact and less porous and they can be used for various engineering applications such as dams, weirs, retaining walls, docks, harbours, etc. On the other hand, if stones are to be used for domes, roof coverings, etc., the lighter varieties of stones are preferred.

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11) Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure free from cavities, cracks or patches of soft or loose material. The stones with such texture are strong and durable. 12) Toughness Index: In impact test, if the value of toughness index comes below 13, the stone is not tough. If it comes between 13 and 19, the stone is said to be moderately tough. If it exceeds 19, the toughness of stone is said to be high. 13) Water absorption: All the stones are more or less porous, but for a good stone, percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours should not exceed 0.60. The porous stones seriously affect the durability of stones. The rain water as it descends through the atmosphere absorbs some acidic gases forming light acids. Such rain water, if absorbed by porous stones, react with the constituents of stones causing them to crumble. Similarly, in cold regions, if porous stones are used, the water remaining in pores will disintegrate stones because of its increase in volume on freezing. Hence the porous stones should not be

recommended for places subjected to frost, rain or moisture. 14) Weathering: A good building stone should possess better weathering qualities. It should be capable of withstanding adverse effects of various atmospheric and external agencies such as rain, frost, wind, etc. The best way to know the resisting power of a stone to the action of weather is to study the performance of buildings constructed with the similar stones in the locality or at a place having more or less similar atmospheric conditions. The stones having excellent weathering qualities should only be used in the construction of important buildings. It should however be remembered that one kind of stone is not suitable in all types of construction. For instance, the soft stones are required for carving, the light stones are required for arches and the hard stones are necessary to stand high pressures. It is therefore necessary to study carefully the situation in which stones are to be used before any recommendation is made. Other factors which affect the selection of

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stone are easy availability, nearness of quarry, facility of transport, reasonable price, climatic conditions of the construction site, etc. Quarrying of Stones Quarrying may be defined as an art of extracting from the rock beds, the stones of different varieties as used for general building work and broken stones for roads and concrete work, etc. The place from which the stone is obtained (by digging or blasting) is known as Quarry. The term Quarry refers to the places exposed to air like a stone outcrop from which we extract the building stones. On the other hand, the term mine refers to the places where we extract mineral resources like coal, precious stones, etc. Quarrying Methods The method used for quarrying of stones depends on the type of stone, its intended use and the type of its geological formation. For example, when the rock formation consists of horizontal layers at shallow depth, we may be able to easily quarry them in layers. On the other hand, if the stone is one whole crystalline mass, we may have to blast them with explosives. Similarly, the method to be used for regular building blocks will be different from the used to produce stone ballast. We can classify methods of quarrying into the following three groups. 1) Quarrying with hand tools. 2) Quarrying by use of channeling machines and 3) Quarrying by blasting with explosives. We will deal with each of them briefly. 1) Quarrying with hand tools: These are the old method and are still used for soft stones occurring in large or small blocks. They give well-shaped blocks for construction of masonry. The following are the methods used: a) Digging or excavating: This is applicable for soft stones occurring in small blocks. Primitive instruments like pick axes, shovels,

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chisels are used in this method. Laterite is mined easily by this method.

Figure 1.21: Figure showing Steel wedge.

Figure 1.22: Figure showing Steel point. b) Heating: In this method, the top surface of rock is heated. This is usually done by placing pieces of wood or by piling a heap of fuel over the surface and setting a steady fire to them for some hours. Due to unequal expansion, the upper layer of rock separates out. It is indicated by a dull bursting noise. The detached portion of rock is then removed by suitable instruments such as pick-axes, crowbars, etc. This method is useful when small blocks of more or less regular shape are to be taken out from quarry. It is suitable when the rock formation consists of horizontal layers of shallow depth. It is
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possible to obtain by this method fairly rectangular blocks required for coursed rubble masonry. c) Wedging: If the rocks contain cracks and fissures, steel wedges are driven through the cracks and the pieces are separated. If natural cracks are absent, holes of about 10 cm diameter and manageable depths (20 to 25 cm) are first made along a line at 10 to 15 cm distance either by hand tools or pneumatic drills. Flat steel wedges, with its upper end curved outwards known as feathers, are inserted in to the holes on either side. Between these feathers, conical steel plugs are driven. When these plugs are driven in the rocks drilled along a line, cracks are formed along these lines in the rock and at the depth of the holes. These blocks thus sepated are lifted up. (Instead of wedging, we can use controlled small explosives to separate the blocks from the mass). Wedging works very well in soft rocks like marble, limestone, sandstone, etc.

Figure 1.23: Picture showing the tools Plug and Feathers.

Figure 1.24: Diagram showing the use of Plug and Feathers in Quarrying.

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2) Quarrying by use of Channelling machine For using quarrying, one of the faces of the solid rock to be quarried should have an exposed face. In this process, we use a channelling machine driven by steam, compressed air or electricity. This machine can cut 50 to 75 mm width channels up to 24 m in length and 240 to 370 cm in depth. The process consists of the following steps: a) We first cut channels of sufficient depth with the channel machine along the three sides which form the plan of the block to be removed. b) Horizontal holes are then driven beneath the block from the exposed face. c) Wedges are then driven into the horizontal holes when the block will break loose. d) The block is lifted from its bed to be cut into the slabs of required sizes. Blocks of granite and other rocks for cutting into slabs and polishing for floor slabs or facing works as well as large blocks of stones that are exported for the above purposes are mined by this method.

Figure 1.25: Diagram showing use of Channelling Machine in Quarrying. 3) Quarrying by Blasting: This method is most commonly used for manufacturing of stone aggregates or ballast for railways. This method is usually breaks up the block into irregular blocks and pieces which can be later crushed
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to give coarse or fine aggregates. The method does not produce regular sized stones for masonry, but the product can be used for irregular work like random rubble masonry. The main purpose of quarrying stones by blasting is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blow up the whole mass so as to convert it into very small pieces of practically no use. This method is adopted for quarrying hard stones, having no fissures or cracks. The process of blasting is important with respect to the stone quarrying.

Figure 1.26: Picture showing Quarrying by Blasting. Tools for Blasting: Following tools are required in the process of blasting: 1) Dipper: Dipper is used to drill a hole to the required depth. 2) Jumper: Jumper is used to make blast holes. It is more effective in boring a nearly vertical hole. 3) Priming needle: Priming needle is used to maintain the hole when tamping is being done. It is in the form of a thin copper rod pointed at one end and provided with a loop at the other end for handling. After filling the hole with explosive, the hole is filled with tamped earth and this needle is kept in the centre so that its removal or withdrawal will develop a passage for the insertion of fuse to cause explosion.
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4) Scraping spoon: Scraping spoon is used to scrap or remove dust of crushed stone from blast holes. It is in the form of an iron rod with a circular plate attached to one end and provided with a loop at the other end so as to facilitate its handling. 5) Tamping bar: Tamping bar is used to ram or tamp the material while refilling blast holes. It is in the form of a heavy brass rod of 10 mm to 15 mm in diameter and it tapers a little at the ends.

Figure 1.27: Diagram showing different tools for blasting. Materials for Blasting: Following materials are required in the process of blasting: 1) Detonators: A detonator is a contrivance whose explosion initiates that of another. It is in the form of a copper cylinder having diameter
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and length as 6 mm and 25 mm respectively. It is closed at one end with projecting fuse at other end. It is partly filled with 6 to 9 grains of fulminate of mercury. It is used when dynamite is adopted as explosive. The detonators are fired either by fuse or electric spark. 2) Explosives: The blasting powder and dynamite are commonly used as the explosives. The blasting power is also known as the gun powder and it is a mechanical mixture of charcoal, saltpeter ( sulphur. The proportions of charcoal, saltpeter and sulphur by weight are 15, 75 and 10 respectively. Sometimes the saltpeter is substituted by chile saltpeter ( in the composition of blasting powder. But and

as saltpetre absorbs moisture, it is difficult to keep such powder for a long time. The dynamite consists of 25% of sandy earth saturated with 75% of nitro-glycerine and this percentage composition varies with the nature of work. It is in the form of thick paste and it is ordinarily sold in catridges. It is very poisonous in nature and develops violent headaches through touch with the skin. 3) Fuses: These are required to ignite the explosives. They are in the form of a small rope of cotton coated with tar and with a core of continuous thread of fine gun powder. The rate of burning of a good fuse is about 10 mm per second and it is also sometimes referred to as slow-match fuse because the rate of its burning enables the person firing it to move away to a safe place before the explosion takes place. For electric firing, the patented electrical fuses are used. Examples: Blasting gelatine, Cordite, Gelignite, Gun cotton, Liquid oxygen, Rocka-rock. Process of Blasting: 1) The blast holes of required depths and diameters are made with jumpers, dippers and scraping spoons. The small quantity of water is added at intervals to make the rock soft and to convert dust in to paste. Such paste is easily removed by scrapping spoons.

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2) The blast holes are cleaned. They are made dry by rotating a small iron rod with a rag or a piece of dry cloth tied at its end. After a few rotations, the rod is taken out. 3) The charge of the gun powder or dynamite is placed at the bottom of hole. A priming needle which is a thin copper rod is placed in position. It is to be coated with grease so as to make its withdrawal easy. 4) The remaining portion of blast hole is filled in layers with dry sandy clay, moorum or ant-hill earth. Each layer is to be rammed or tamped hard. The ramming is done by a brass tamping bar. When tamping is being done, the priming needle is frequently turned so that it can be easily removed when the hole is completely filled up.

Figure 1.28: Tamped and Charged Blast hole. 5) When the tamping operation is finished, the priming needle is taken out slowly by frequent turning, leaving a long narrow hole and it is filled with gun powder or dynamite as shown in Figure 1.28. 6) A fuse is inserted in the hole and it is kept projecting outside the hole to a length of about 600 mm to 900 mm. Thus a link is formed between the fuse at top and charge of explosive at the bottom.

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Figure 1.29: Diagram showing Electric Detonator. The detonators are used when explosive is dynamite. For this purpose, the required length of the safety fuse is cut straight from the safety fuse coils with the help of a sharp knife or fuse cutter. Then the freshly cut end of the fuse is gently inserted in to the detonator till it touches the charge in the detonator tube. The open end of the cap of the detonator is then gently compressed with nippers to grip the fuse securely in position. The dynamite cartridge is opened at one end and a hole is made in the charge with the help of a brass needle. The detonator is inserted into the hole in dynamite cartridge. The paper of the cartridge is closed up and it is secured firmly round the fuse immediately above the detonator with the help of wire or twine i.e. strong string or cord formed from two or more threads of hemp, cotton or the like twisted together. This is known as the primer cartridge and it is gently inserted in the blast hole so that the free end of the fuse is outside the hole.

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7) The free end of the fuse is fired. This can be done either with a match or with electricity. The firing by electricity has the following advantages: It ensures safety because the firing operation can be done from a great distance from the site. It results in saving of time and labour. The firing is simultaneous and hence, the efficiency of explosives is greatly increased, thereby making the operation economical. It is useful for firing fuse under water or in wet places. It is possible to arrange for proper signaling so as to avoid the occurrence of accidents. There is no danger of misfire. The explosion takes place and rock is disintegrated into small blocks. A good blast produces a dull sound. Such blocks are collected and taken for further treatment.

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